View source for Ailanthus altissima

{{Short description|Deciduous tree in the family Simaroubaceae}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Speciesbox
 | name = Tree of heaven
 | image = Götterbaum (Ailanthus altissima).jpg
 | image_caption = Large specimen growing in a park in Germany
 | status = LC
 | status_system = IUCN3.1
 | status_ref = {{sfn|Oldfield|2024}}
 | genus = Ailanthus
 | species = altissima
 | authority = ([[Philip Miller|Mill.]]) [[Walter Tennyson Swingle|Swingle]]
| synonyms_ref = {{sfn|POWO 2025a}}{{sfn|POWO 2025b}}{{sfn|POWO 2025c}}
| synonyms = {{Collapsible list | {{Species list
 | Ailanthus cacodendron | 
 | Ailanthus erythrocarpa | 
 | Ailanthus esquirolii | 
 | Ailanthus giraldii | 
 | Ailanthus glandulosa | 
 | Ailanthus japonica | 
 | Ailanthus japonica | 
 | Ailanthus peregrina | 
 | Ailanthus pongelion | 
 | Ailanthus procera | 
 | Ailanthus rhodoptera | 
 | Ailanthus rubra | 
 | Ailanthus sinensis | 
 | Ailanthus sutchuenensis | 
 | Ailanthus vilmoriniana | 
 | Choerospondias auriculata | 
 | Pongelion cacodendron | 
 | Pongelion glandulosum | 
 | Pongelion vilmorinianum | 
 | Rhus cacodendron | 
 | Rhus sinensis | 
 | Toxicodendron altissimum | 
}}
}}
}}

'''''Ailanthus altissima''''' ({{IPAc-en|eɪ|ˈ|l|æ|n|θ|ə|s|_|æ|l|ˈ|t|ɪ|s|ᵻ|m|ə}} {{respell|ay|LAN|thəss|_|al|TIH|sim|ə}}),{{sfn|OED 2025a}} commonly known as '''tree of heaven''' or '''ailanthus tree''', is a [[deciduous]] tree in the [[quassia family]]. It is native to northeast and central China, and [[Taiwan]]. Unlike other members of the genus ''[[Ailanthus]]'', it is found in temperate climates rather than the tropics.

The tree grows rapidly, and is capable of reaching heights of {{convert|15|m|sigfig=1}} in 25&nbsp;years. While the species rarely lives more than 50&nbsp;years, some specimens exceed 100 years of age. It is considered a [[noxious weed]] and vigorous [[invasive species]],{{sfn|Nava|2014}} and one of the worst invasive plant species in Europe and North America.{{sfn|Sladonja|Sušek|Guillermic|2015|p=1009}} In 21st-century North America, the invasiveness of the species has been compounded by its role in the life cycle of the also destructive and invasive [[spotted lanternfly]].

==Description==
[[File:Ailanthus altissima drawing.png|thumb|200px|right|Botanical drawing of the leaves, flowers, and samaras from [[Nathaniel Lord Britton|Britton]] and [[Addison Brown|Brown]]'s 1913 ''Illustrated flora of the northern states and Canada'']]

''Ailanthus altissima'' is a medium-sized tree that reaches heights between {{convert|17|and|27|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}} with a [[diameter at breast height]] of about {{convert|1|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Miller|1990}} The [[bark (botany)|bark]] is smooth and light grey, often becoming somewhat rougher with light tan fissures as the tree ages. The twigs are stout, smooth to lightly pubescent, and reddish or chestnut in color. They have [[lenticel]]s and heart-shaped leaf scars (i.e., a scar left on the twig after a leaf falls) with many bundle scars (i.e., small marks where the veins of the leaf once connected to the tree) around the edges. The [[bud]]s are finely pubescent, dome-shaped, and partially hidden behind the [[petiole (botany)|petiole]], though they are completely visible in the dormant season at the sinuses of the leaf scars.{{sfn|Hu|1979|p=30}} The branches are light to dark gray in color, smooth, lustrous, and contain raised lenticels that become fissures with age. The ends of the branches become pendulous. All parts of the plant have a distinguishing strong odor that is often likened to peanuts, cashews,{{sfn|Miller|2006|p=3}} or rotting cashews.{{sfn|Davies|2006}}

The [[leaves]] are large, odd- or even-[[pinnate]]ly compound on the stem. They range in size from {{convert|30|to|90|cm|ft|0}} in length and contain 10–41 leaflets organised in pairs, with the largest leaves found on vigorous young sprouts. When they emerge in the spring, the leaves are bronze, then quickly turn from medium to dark green as they grow.{{sfn|Dirr|1998|p=80}} The [[rachis]] is light to reddish-green with a swollen base. The [[leaflet (botany)|leaflets]] are [[leaf shape|ovate-lanceolate]] with entire margins, somewhat asymmetric and occasionally not directly opposite to each other. Each leaflet is {{convert|5|-|18|cm|abbr=on|0}} long and {{convert|2.5|-|5|cm|abbr=on|0}} wide. They have a long, tapering end, while the bases have two to four teeth, each containing one or more glands at the tip.{{sfn|Hu|1979|p=30}} The leaflets' upper sides are dark green in color with light green veins, while the undersides are a more whitish green. The petioles are {{convert|5|-|12|mm|1}} long.{{sfn|Miller|2006|p=3}} The lobed bases and glands distinguish it from similar [[rhus|sumac]] species.

{{multiple image
| align = right
| image1 = Ailanthus altissima5.jpg
| width1 = 96
| alt1 = 
| caption1 = 
| image2 = AilanthusAltissimaFlower2.jpg
| width2 = 170
| alt2 = 
| caption2 = 
| footer = Bark and flowers of ''A. altissima''
}}
[[File:Ailanthus altissima1.jpg|thumb|right|150px|Immature seeds on a female tree]]
[[File:Tree of Heaven Re-sprouting.jpg|thumb|Resprouting after herbicide use]]

The [[flower]]s are small and appear in large [[panicle]]s up to {{convert|50|cm|in|abbr=on}} in length at the end of new shoots. The individual flowers are yellowish green to reddish in color, each with five [[petal]]s and [[sepal]]s.{{sfn|Miller|1990}}{{sfn|Miller|2006|p=3}} The sepals are cup-shaped, lobed and united while the petals are valvate (i.e., they meet at the edges without overlapping), white and hairy towards the inside.{{sfn|Hu|1979|p=30}} They appear from mid-April in the south of its range to July in the north. ''A. altissima'' is [[Dioecy|dioecious]], with male and female flowers being borne on different individuals. Male trees produce three to four times as many flowers as the females, making the male flowers more conspicuous. Furthermore, the male plants emit a foul-smelling odor while flowering to attract pollinating insects. Female flowers contain 10 (or rarely five through abortion) sterile [[stamen]]s (stamenoids) with heart-shaped [[anther]]s. The [[pistil]] is made up of five free [[carpel]]s (i.e., they are not fused), each containing a single [[ovule]]. Their [[style (botany)|styles]] are united and slender with star-shaped [[Gynoecium|stigma]]ta.{{sfn|Hu|1979|pp=30–31}}{{sfn|Felter|Lloyd|King|1905|p=130}} The male flowers are similar in appearance, but they lack a pistil and the stamens do function, each being topped with a globular [[anther]] and a glandular green disc.{{sfn|Hu|1979|p=30}} The fruits grow in clusters; similar to the [[ash tree]] (''Fraxinus excelsior),'' the fruits ripen to a bright reddish-brown color in September.{{sfn|Fitter|1999|p=190}} A fruit cluster may contain hundreds of seeds.{{sfn|Sladonja|Sušek|Guillermic|2015|p=2015}} The [[seed]]s borne on the female trees are {{convert|5|mm|abbr=on|1}} in diameter and each is encapsulated in a [[Samara (fruit)|samara]] that is {{convert|2.5|cm|in|abbr=on|0}} long and {{convert|1|cm|in|abbr=on|1}} broad, appearing July through August, but can persist on the tree until the next spring.{{sfn|Miller|2006|p=3}} The samara is large and twisted at the tips, making it spin as it falls, assisting wind dispersal,{{sfn|Miller|1990}} and aiding [[buoyancy]] for long-distance dispersal through [[hydrochory]].{{sfn|Kaproth|McGraw|2008|p=495}} Primary wind dispersal and secondary water dispersal are usually positively correlated in ''A.&nbsp;altissima'', since most morphological characteristics of samaras affect both dispersal modes in the same way – except for the width of the samaras, which in contrast affects both types of dispersal in opposing ways, allowing differentiation in the dispersal strategies of this tree.{{sfn|Planchuelo|Catalán|Delgado|2016|pp=34–35}} The females can produce huge numbers of seeds, normally around 30,000 per kg,{{sfn|Miller|1990}} and their number can be estimated by measurement of the tree's diameter at chest height.{{sfn|Kaproth|McGraw|2008|p=492}}

==History==
In China, the tree of heaven has a long and rich history. It was mentioned in the oldest extant Chinese dictionary and listed in many Chinese medical texts for its purported curative ability. The roots, leaves, and bark are used in [[traditional Chinese medicine]], primarily as an [[astringent]]. The tree has been grown extensively both in China and abroad as a host plant for the [[ailanthus silkmoth]], a moth involved in silk production.{{sfn|Nava|2014}} ''Ailanthus'' has become a part of Western culture, as well, with the tree serving as the central metaphor and subject matter of the best-selling American novel ''[[A Tree Grows in Brooklyn (novel)|A Tree Grows in Brooklyn]]'' by [[Betty Smith]].

The tree was first brought from China to Europe in the 1740s, and to the United States in 1784. It was one of the first trees brought to the West during a time when ''[[chinoiserie]]'' was dominating European arts, and was initially hailed as a beautiful garden specimen. However, enthusiasm soon waned after gardeners became familiar with its [[Basal shoot|suckering]] habits and its foul odor. Despite this, it was used extensively as a street tree during much of the 19th century. 

Outside Europe and the United States, the plant has been spread to many other areas beyond its native range, and is regarded internationally as a [[noxious weed]].{{sfn|Nava|2014}} In many countries, it is an [[invasive species]] due to its ability both to colonise disturbed areas quickly and to suppress competition with [[allelopathy|allelopathic]] chemicals.{{sfn|Nava|2014}} The tree also [[Basal shoot|resprouts]] vigorously when cut, making its eradication difficult and time-consuming.{{sfn|Wallace|Siegel-Miles|Sowizral|2022}} This has led to its being called "tree of hell" among gardeners and conservationists.{{sfn|Farah|2021}}

==Taxonomy==
The first Western scientific descriptions of the tree of heaven were made shortly after it was introduced to Europe by [[Pierre Nicolas d'Incarville]], a French [[Jesuit]], who had sent seeds from [[Peking]] via [[Siberia]] to his botanist friend [[Bernard de Jussieu]] in the 1740s.{{sfn|Hu|1979|p=32}} The seeds sent by d'Incarville were thought to be from the economically important and similar-looking [[Toxicodendron vernicifluum|Chinese varnish tree]] (''Toxicodendron vernicifluum''), which he had observed in the lower [[Yangtze]] region, rather than the tree of heaven. D'Incarville attached a note indicating this, which caused much taxonomic confusion over the next few decades. In 1751, Jussieu planted a few seeds in France and sent others on to [[Philip Miller]], the superintendent at the [[Chelsea Physic Garden]], and to Philip C. Webb, the owner of an exotic plant garden in [[Busbridge]], England.{{sfn|Hu|1979|p=33}}

Confusion in naming began when the tree was described by all three men with three different names. In Paris, [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] gave the plant the name ''Rhus succedanea'', while it was known commonly as ''grand vernis du Japon''. In London, the specimens were named by Miller as ''Toxicodendron altissima'', and in Busbridge, it was dubbed in the old classification system as ''Rhus Sinese foliis alatis''. Records exist from the 1750s of disputes over the proper name between Philip Miller and John Ellis, curator of Webb's garden in Busbridge. Rather than the issue being resolved, more names soon appeared for the plant: [[Jakob Friedrich Ehrhart]] observed a specimen in [[Utrecht (province)|Utrecht]] in 1782 and named it ''Rhus cacodendron''.{{sfn|Hu|1979|p=33}}

Light was shed on the taxonomic status of ''Ailanthus'' in 1788 when [[René Louiche Desfontaines]] observed the samaras of the Paris specimens, which were still labelled ''Rhus succedanea'', and came to the conclusion that the plant was not a [[sumac]]. He published an article with an illustrated description and gave it the name ''Ailanthus glandulosa'', placing it in the same genus as the tropical species then known as ''A. integrifolia'' (white siris, ''[[Ailanthus triphysa|A. triphysa]]'').{{sfn|Hu|1979|p=33}}{{sfn|Shah|1997|p=21}} The specific ''glandulosa'', referring to the glands on the leaves, persisted until as late as 1957, but it was ultimately made invalid as a later homonym at the species level.{{sfn|Hu|1979|pp=33–34}} The current species name comes from [[Walter T. Swingle]], who was employed by the United States Department of Plant Industry. He decided to transfer Miller's older specific name into the genus of Desfontaines, resulting in the accepted name ''Ailanthus altissima''.{{sfn|Swingle|1916|pp=493–495}}

''Ailanthus altissima'' is classified in ''[[Ailanthus]]'' alongside five other east Asian and Australian species in the family [[Simaroubaceae]].{{sfn|WFO 2025}}

===Varieties===
The three [[variety (biology)|varieties]] of ''A. altissima'' are:{{sfn|POWO 2025a}}

====''Ailanthus altissima'' var. ''altissima''====
The [[Autonym (botany)|autonymic]] variety which is native to [[mainland China]].{{sfn|POWO 2025b}}

====''Ailanthus altissima'' var. ''sutchuenensis''====
This variety is native to southeast and south central China.{{sfn|POWO 2025c}} It differs from the other varieties in having red branchlets.{{sfn|Zheng et al. 2006|p=10}}

====''Ailanthus altissima'' var. ''tanakae''====
Variety ''tanakae'' is [[endemic]] to northern [[Taiwan]].{{sfn|POWO 2025d}} It differs from the type in having yellowish bark, odd-pinnate leaves that are also shorter on average at {{convert|45|to|60|cm|in|abbr=on}} long with only 13–25 scythe-like leaflets.{{sfn|Zheng et al. 2006|p=10}}{{sfn|Li|1993|p=545}} It is listed as endangered in the [[IUCN Red List]] of threatened species due to loss of habitat for building and industrial plantations.{{sfn|Pan|1998}}

===Synonyms===
''Ailanthus altissima'' has {{table row counter|id=Synonyms}} [[Synonym (botany)|synonyms]] of the species or one of its varieties.{{sfn|POWO 2025a}}{{sfn|POWO 2025b}}{{sfn|POWO 2025c}}{{sfn|POWO 2025d}}

{|class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" id="Synonyms"
|+ class="nowrap" | Table of Synonyms
! Name
! Year
! Rank
! Synonym of:
! Notes
|-
| ''Ailanthus altissima'' f. ''erythrocarpa'' {{small|(Carrière) Rehder}}
| 1949
|data-sort-value=E | form
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus altissima'' var. ''erythrocarpa'' {{small|(Carrière) Rehder}}
| 1927
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus altissima'' var. ''leucoxyla'' {{small|B.C.Ding & T.B.Chao}}
| 1980
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus altissima'' var. ''microphylla'' {{small|B.C.Ding & T.B.Chao}}
| 1980
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus altissima'' var. ''pendulifolia'' {{small|(Dippel) Rehder}}
| 1927
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus altissima'' f. ''pendulifolia'' {{small|(Dippel) Rehder}}
| 1949
|data-sort-value=E | form
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus altissima'' var. ''ramosissima'' {{small|B.C.Ding & T.B.Chao}}
| 1980
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus altissima'' f. ''rubra'' {{small|(H.Jaeger) Geerinck}}
| 2002
|data-sort-value=E | form
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus cacodendron'' {{small|(Ehrh.) Schinz & Thell.}}
| 1912
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus cacodendron'' var. ''sutchuenensis'' {{small|(Dode) Rehder & E.H.Wilson}}
| 1914
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| var. ''sutchuenensis''
|data-sort-value=A | ≡ hom.
|-
| ''Ailanthus erythrocarpa'' {{small|Carrière}}
| 1867
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus esquirolii'' {{small|H.Lév.}}
| 1915
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus giraldii'' {{small|Dode}}
| 1907
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus giraldii'' var. ''duclouxii'' {{small|Dode}}
| 1907
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus glandulosa'' {{small|Desf.}}
| 1788
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus glandulosa'' f. ''erythocarpa'' {{small|(Carrière) C.K.Schneid.}}
| 1907
|data-sort-value=E | form
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus glandulosa'' var. ''erythocarpa'' {{small|(Carrière) Mouill.}}
| 1891
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus glandulosa foliis-variegatis'' {{small|Oudem.}}
| 1866
|data-sort-value=J | 
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus glandulosa'' var. ''pendula'' {{small|G.Nicholson}}
| 1902
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het., [[nom. nud.]]
|-
| ''Ailanthus glandulosa'' var. ''pendulifolia'' {{small|(Dippel) Carrière ex Rehder}}
| 1900
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus glandulosa'' f. ''pendulifolia'' {{small|Dippel}}
| 1892
|data-sort-value=E | form
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus glandulosa'' f. ''rubra'' {{small|(H.Jaeger) Dippel}}
| 1892
|data-sort-value=E | form
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus glandulosa'' var. ''spinosa'' {{small|M.Vilm. & Bois}}
| 1904
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus glandulosa'' var. ''sutchuenensis'' {{small|(Dode) Rehder}}
| 1912
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| var. ''sutchuenensis''
|data-sort-value=A | ≡ hom.
|-
| ''Ailanthus glandulosa'' var. ''tanakae'' {{small|Hayata}}
| 1914
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| var. ''tanakae''
|data-sort-value=A | ≡ hom.
|-
| ''Ailanthus japonica'' {{small|K.Koch}}
| 1869
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het., [[not validly publ.]]
|-
| ''Ailanthus japonica'' {{small|Dippel}}
| 1892
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus peregrina'' {{small|F.A.Barkley}}
| 1937
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus pongelion'' {{small|J.F.Gmel.}}
| 1791
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus procera'' {{small|Salisb.}}
| 1796
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus rhodoptera'' {{small|F.Muell.}}
| 1862
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus rubra'' {{small|H.Jaeger}}
| 1884
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus sinensis'' {{small|Dum.Cours.}}
| 1811
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het., [[nom. superfl.]]
|-
| ''Ailanthus sutchuenensis'' {{small|Dode}}
| 1907
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''sutchuenensis''
|data-sort-value=A | ≡ hom.
|-
| ''Ailanthus vilmoriniana'' {{small|Dode}}
| 1904
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Ailanthus vilmoriniana'' var. ''henanensis'' {{small|Jian Y.Chen & L.Y.Jin}}
| 1990
|data-sort-value=D | variety
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Choerospondias auriculata'' {{small|D.Chandra}}
| 1978
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Pongelion cacodendron'' {{small|(Ehrh.) Farw.}}
| 1930
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Pongelion glandulosum'' {{small|(Desf.) Pierre}}
| 1894
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Pongelion vilmorinianum'' {{small|(Dode) Tiegh.}}
| 1906
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het., [[nom. provis.]]
|-
| ''Rhus cacodendron'' {{small|Ehrh.}}
| 1783
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het.
|-
| ''Rhus sinensis'' {{small|Houtt.}}
| 1774
|data-sort-value=A | species
| var. ''altissima''
|data-sort-value=B | = het., [[pro syn.]]
|-
| ''Toxicodendron altissimum'' {{small|Mill.}}
| 1768
|data-sort-value=A | species
| ''A.&nbsp;altissima''
|data-sort-value=A | ≡ hom.
|-
!colspan=5 style="text-align: left;" | Notes: ≡ [[homotypic synonym]] ; = [[heterotypic synonym]]
|}

===Names===
The genus name ''Ailanthus'' is derived from the [[Ambonese Malay|Ambonese]] word ''ailanto'', meaning "heaven-tree" or "tree reaching for the sky". They use this name for the evergreen tree ''[[Ailanthus integrifolia]]''.{{sfn|Hu|1979|p=33}} ''Altissima'' is botanical [[Latin language|Latin]] for "tallest" or "very tall".{{sfn|Harrison|2012|p=22}} Though the name ailanthus is used for the genus as a whole it is also used to mean this species as an English [[common name]] or in the form ''ailanthus tree''.{{sfn|OED 2025a}} The species is also commonly called ''tree of heaven'', a name in use since 1845.{{sfn|OED 2025b}}

It is sometimes called ''Chinese sumac'',{{sfn|Dame|Brooks|1901|p=133}} however this name is also frequently applied to the sumac species ''[[Rhus chinensis]]''.{{sfn|Simeone|2007|p=82}} Similarly, ''varnish tree'' is rarely listed as one of its alternate names,{{sfn|Woodward|Quinn|2011|p=585}} but this name is more often applied to other species such as ''[[Toxicodendron vernicifluum]]'' and ''[[Aleurites moluccana]]''.{{sfn|Johnson|2010|p=392}}{{sfn|Quattrocchi|2012|pp=161–162}} This is also the case with ''copal tree'',{{sfn|Nava|2014}} which is used as a common name for the new world ''[[Hymenaea courbaril]]'' and ''[[Vateria indica]]'' from India.{{sfn|Prance|1998|p=192}}{{sfn|Quattrocchi|2012|p=3877}} The strong odor of the tree is a likely inspiration for the name ''stinking sumac'',{{sfn|Loewer|2001|p=76}} though again a true sumac, ''[[Rhus aromatica]]'', is also known by this name.{{sfn|Foster|Duke|2000|p=280}} Lastly the alternate name ''paradise tree'' is used for it and also for ''[[Simarouba glauca]]''.{{sfn|Miller|2006|p=3}}{{sfn|Lee|West|2011|p=230}}

It is derisively called the ''ghetto palm'' due to its frequency in economically impoverished areas. Other disparaging names include ''tree of hell'' for its invasive and unruly qualities and ''cum tree'' for the distinctive smell of the pollen producing flowers.{{sfn|Patrick|2015|p=191}}

In Chinese it is known as ''chou chun'' ({{zh|c={{linktext|臭椿}}|p=chòuchūn}}).{{sfn|Hua|Thomas|2008}}

==Distribution and habitat==
''Ailanthus altissima'' is native to northern and central China,{{sfn|Nava|2014}} [[Taiwan]],{{sfn|Hoshovsky|1988|p=2}} and northern [[Korea]].{{sfn|Kowarik|2003}} It was historically widely distributed, and the fossil record indicates clearly that it was present in North America as recently as the middle [[Miocene]].<ref name="Corbett">{{cite journal | last1=Corbett | first1=Sarah L. | last2=Manchester | first2=Steven R. | title=Phytogeography and fossil history of Ailanthus (Simaroubaceae) | journal=International Journal of Plant Sciences | volume=165 | issue=4 | year=2004 | issn=1058-5893 | doi=10.1086/386378 | pages=671–690| bibcode=2004IJPlS.165..671C | s2cid=85383552 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228472909}}</ref> In Taiwan it is present as var. ''takanai''.{{sfn|Pan|1998}} In China it is native to every [[Province (China)|province]] except [[Hainan]], [[Heilongjiang]], [[Jilin]], [[Ningxia]], and [[Qinghai]].{{sfn|Hua|Thomas|2008}} It has been introduced in many regions across the world, and is found on every continent except Antarctica.{{sfn|Nava|2014}}{{sfn|Farah|2021}}

The tree prefers moist and loamy soils but is adaptable to a very wide range of soil conditions and [[pH]] values. It is drought-hardy, but not tolerant of flooding. It also does not tolerate deep shade.{{sfn|Miller|1990}} In China, it is often found in [[limestone]]-rich areas.{{sfn|Zheng et al. 2006|p=10}} The tree of heaven is found within a wide range of climatic conditions.{{sfn|Miller|1990}} In its native range, it is found at high altitudes in Taiwan.{{sfn|Pan|1998}} It is present virtually everywhere in the U.S., but especially in arid regions bordering the [[Great Plains]], very wet regions in the southern [[Appalachians]], cold areas of the lower [[Rocky Mountains]], and throughout much of the California Central Valley, forming dense thickets that displace native plants.{{sfn|Nava|2014}} Prolonged cold and snow cover cause [[forest dieback|dieback]], although the trees resprout from the roots.{{sfn|Miller|1990}}

===As an exotic plant===
[[File:Cracker_Castle,_residence_of_Jonathon_O._Pierce.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Ailanthus altissima'' (at left and far right) on Chouteau Avenue in St. Louis, Missouri in 1866]]

The earliest introductions of ''A. altissima'' to countries outside of its native range were to the southern areas of [[Korea]] and to [[Japan]]. The tree may be native to these areas, but the tree is generally agreed to be a very early introduction.<ref name="little"/> Within China, it has also been naturalized beyond its native range in areas such as [[Qinghai]], Ningxia, and [[Xinjiang]].{{sfn|Zheng et al. 2006|p=10}}

In 1784, not long after Jussieu had sent seeds to England, some were forwarded to the United States by [[William Hamilton (gardener)|William Hamilton]], a gardener in [[Philadelphia]]. In both Europe and America, it quickly became a favored ornamental, especially as a street tree, and by 1840, it was available in most nurseries.{{sfn|Hu|1979|p=35}}{{sfn|Shah|1997|p=23}} The Tree of Heaven was brought to California by Chinese immigrants who came during the [[California Gold Rush]] of the 1850s.

[[File:Ailanthus-altissima-growing-as-weed-in-Australia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Ailanthus altissima'' growing in Australia.]]

''Ailanthus'' has [[escaped plant|escaped cultivation]] in all areas where it was introduced, most extensively in the United States.{{sfn|Hoshovsky|1988|pp=2–3}} It has naturalised across much of Europe, including Germany,<ref name=schmeil/> [[Austria]], [[Switzerland]], the [[Czech Republic]], the [[Pannonian Basin|Pannonian]] region (i.e. southeastern Central Europe around the [[Danube]] River basin from Austria, [[Slovakia]], and [[Hungary]] south to the Balkan ranges) and most countries of the [[Mediterranean Basin]].{{sfn|Kowarik|2003}} In [[Montenegro]]<ref name="Montenegro">{{cite journal |first1=Danijela |last1=Stešević |first2=Danka |last2=Petrović |url=http://tesla.pmf.ni.ac.rs/desavanja/aktuelna/8SimpozijumFlore/Biologica%20Nyssana/1-(1-2)-December-2010/BN01-01-05-Stesevic-Petrovic.pdf|title=Preliminary list of plant invaders in Montenegro |date=December 2010|journal=Biologica Nyssana |volume=1|pages=35–42 (p.38)|department=10th SFSES 17–20 June 2010, Vlasina lake |access-date=4 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160809050114/http://tesla.pmf.ni.ac.rs/desavanja/aktuelna/8SimpozijumFlore/Biologica%20Nyssana/1-(1-2)-December-2010/BN01-01-05-Stesevic-Petrovic.pdf|archive-date=9 August 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Albania]]<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.pgrforum.org/cwris/cwris.asp?action=show&fact=543720 |title=PGR Forum Crop Wild Relative Catalogue for Europe and the Mediterranean |work=PGRforum.org |year=2005| publisher=[[University of Birmingham]] |access-date=6 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Jani |first=Vasil |title=Arkitektura e peisazheve  |url= http://www.bksh.al/adlib/scripts/wwwopac.exe?DATABASE=books&OPAC_URL=/adlib/beginner/index_al.html&LANGUAGE=1&%250=49211&LIMIT=50 |publisher=U.F.O. Press, Tirana |year=2009|isbn=978-99956-19-37-4|language=sq}}</ref> ''A. altissima'' is widespread in both rural and urban areas, and while in the first it was introduced as an ornamental plant, it very soon invaded native [[ecosystem]]s with disastrous results and became an invasive species.<ref name="Montenegro"/> ''Ailanthus'' has also been introduced to [[Argentina]],{{sfn|Hoshovsky|1988|p=3}} Australia (where it is a declared weed in New South Wales and Victoria),<ref name="weeds-strategy"/> New Zealand (where it is listed under the [[National Pest Plant Accord]] and is classed an "unwanted organism"),<ref name="new_zealand"/> the Middle East, and in some countries in South Asia such as [[Pakistan]].<ref name="shafiq"/> In South Africa, it is listed as an invasive species that must be controlled, or removed and destroyed.<ref>{{cite web
 |url         = http://www.capetown.gov.za/en/Pages/Reportinvasivetreeofheaven.aspx
 |title       = City urges residents to report invasive Tree of heaven
 |date        = 15 February 2016
 |publisher   = City of Cape Town
 |access-date  = 19 February 2016
 |url-status     = dead
 |archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20160222023606/http://www.capetown.gov.za/en/Pages/Reportinvasivetreeofheaven.aspx
 |archive-date = 22 February 2016
}}</ref>

In North America, ''A. altissima'' is present from [[Massachusetts]] in the east, west to southern [[Ontario]], southwest to [[Iowa]], south to [[Texas]], and east to the north of Florida. In the west, it is found from [[New Mexico]] west to California and north to [[Washington (state)|Washington]].{{sfn|Miller|1990}}{{sfn|Hoshovsky|1988|p=3}} In the east of its range, it grows most extensively in disturbed areas of cities, where it was long ago present as a planted street tree.{{sfn|Hu|1979|p=49}} It also grows along roads and railways. For example, a 2003 study in [[North Carolina]] found the tree of heaven was present on 1.7% of all highway and railroad edges in the state, and had been expanding its range at the rate of 4.76% counties per year.<ref name="merriam"/> Similarly, another study conducted in southwestern Virginia determined that the tree of heaven is thriving along roughly 30% of the state's interstate highway system length or mileage.<ref name="Stipes 1995"/> It sometimes enters undisturbed areas as well, and competes with native plants.{{sfn|Hoshovsky|1988|p=2}} In western North America, it is most common in mountainous areas around old dwellings and abandoned mining operations.<ref name="Munz"/><ref name="jepson"/> It is classified as a noxious or invasive plant on National Forest System lands and in many states<ref name="howard-feis" /> because its prolific seed production, high germination rate, and capacity to regrow from roots and root fragments enable ''A. altissima''<ref>'Tree-of-heaven's prolific seed production adds to its invasive potential', 2 August 2017, Penn State News [https://news.psu.edu/story/475789/2017/08/02/research/tree-heavens-prolific-seed-production-adds-its-invasive-potential]</ref> to out-compete native species. For this reason, control measures on public lands<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180625021525/https://www.fs.usda.gov/naspf/sites/default/files/naspf/pdf/tree_of_heaven.pdf 'Tree-of-Heaven', USDA (PDF)]</ref> and private property<ref>[https://www.ecolandscaping.org/05/invasive-plants/tree-of-heaven-an-exotic-invasive-plant-fact-sheet/ 'Tree-of-Heaven an Exotic Invasive Plant Fact Sheet', May 15, 2014, Ecological Landscape Alliance]</ref> are advised where ''A. altissima'' has [[Naturalisation (biology)|naturalised]].

==Ecology==
[[File:Ailanthus-altissima.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A female bearing a heavy load of seeds in [[Valladolid]], Spain]]
The tree of heaven is an opportunistic plant that thrives in full sun and disturbed areas. It spreads aggressively both by seeds and vegetatively by [[root sprout]]s, re-sprouting rapidly after being cut.{{sfn|Nava|2014}}{{sfn|Miller|1990}} It is considered a shade-intolerant tree and cannot compete in low-light situations,<ref name="grime"/> though it is sometimes found competing with hardwoods. Such competition indicates it was present at the time the stand was established.{{sfn|Miller|1990}} On the other hand, a study in an old-growth [[Tsuga|hemlock]]–hardwood forest in New York found that ''Ailanthus'' was capable of competing successfully with native trees in canopy gaps where only 2-15% of full sun was available. The same study characterised the tree as using a "gap-obligate" strategy to reach the [[canopy (biology)|forest canopy]], meaning it grows rapidly during a very short period rather than growing slowly over a long period.<ref name=bard/> It is a short-lived tree in any location with trees usually living 30 to 50 years,{{sfn|Miller|1990}} but exceptional individuals older than 100 years that are healthy and producing seed are known from studies.{{sfn|Wickert et al. 2017|p=227}} Among tree species, ''Ailanthus'' is among the most tolerant of pollution, including [[sulfur dioxide]], which it absorbs in its leaves. It can withstand cement dust and fumes from coal tar operations, as well as resist [[ozone]] exposure relatively well. Furthermore, high concentrations of [[mercury (element)|mercury]] have been found built up in tissues of the plant.{{sfn|Hoshovsky|1988|p=3}}

''Ailanthus'' has been used to re-vegetate areas where [[acid mine drainage]] has occurred and it has been shown to tolerate pH levels as low as 4.1 (approximately that of tomato juice). It can withstand very low [[phosphorus]] levels and high salinity levels. The drought tolerance of the tree is strong due to its root system's effective water storage.{{sfn|Hoshovsky|1988|p=3}} It is frequently found in areas where few trees can survive. The roots are also aggressive enough to damage subterranean sewers and pipes.{{sfn|Hu|1979|p=29}} Along highways, it often forms dense thickets in which few other tree species are present, largely due to the toxins it produces to prevent competition.{{sfn|Hoshovsky|1988|p=3}} The roots are poisonous to people.<ref>{{cite book |last=Little |first=Elbert L. |title=The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Trees: Eastern Region |publisher=Knopf |location=New York |year=1980 |isbn=0-394-50760-6| page=540}}</ref>

[[File:Ailanthus altissima (female).jpg|thumb|Female tree growing in Chicago, Illinois]]

''Ailanthus'' produces an [[allelopathy|allelopathic chemical]] called [[ailanthone]], which inhibits the growth of other plants.<ref name="heisy96"/> The inhibitors are strongest in the bark and roots, but are also present in the leaves, wood and seeds of the plant. One study showed that a crude extract of the root bark inhibited 50% of a sample of garden cress (''[[Lepidium sativum]]'') seeds from [[germinating]]. The same study tested the extract as an herbicide on garden cress, redroot pigweed (''[[Amaranthus retroflexus]]''), velvetleaf (''[[Abutilon theophrasti]]''), yellow bristlegrass (''[[Setaria pumila]]''), barnyard grass (''[[Echinochloa crusgalli]]''), [[pea]] (''Pisum sativum'' [[cultivar|cv.]] Sugar Snap), and maize (''[[Zea mays]]'' [[cultivar|cv.]] Silver Queen). It proved able to kill nearly 100% of seedlings with the exception of velvetleaf, which showed some resistance.<ref name="heisy90"/> Another experiment showed that a water extract of the chemical was either lethal or highly damaging to 11 North American [[hardwood]]s and 34 [[conifers]], with the white ash (''[[Fraxinus americana]]'') being the only plant not adversely affected.<ref name="mergen"/> The chemical does not, however, affect the tree of heaven's own seedlings, indicating that ''A. altissima'' has a defence mechanism to prevent [[autotoxicity]].<ref name="heisy96"/> Resistance in various plant species has been shown to increase with exposure. Populations without prior exposure to the chemicals are most susceptible to them. Seeds produced from exposed plants have also been shown to be more resistant than their unexposed counterparts.<ref name="lawrence"/>

[[File:2014-11-02 13 11 36 Tree of Heaven foliage during autumn along Lower Ferry Road in Ewing, New Jersey.JPG|thumb|left|Leaves in autumn]]

The tree of heaven is a very rapidly growing tree, possibly the fastest-growing tree in North America.<ref name="howard-feis"/> Growth of {{convert|1|to|2|m|ft|sigfig=1}} per year for the first four years is considered normal. Shade considerably hampers growth rates. Older trees, while growing much slower, still do so faster than other trees. Studies found that Californian trees grew faster than their [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] counterparts, and American trees in general grew faster than Chinese ones.<ref name="howard-feis"/>

In northern Europe the tree of heaven was not considered naturalised in cities until after the [[Second World War]]. This has been attributed to the tree's ability to colonise areas of rubble of destroyed buildings where most other plants would not grow.{{sfn|Kowarik|2003}} In addition, the warmer [[microclimate]] in cities offers a more suitable habitat than the surrounding rural areas; it is thought that the tree requires a mean annual temperature of {{convert|8|C}} to grow well, which limits its spread in more northern and higher-altitude areas. For example, one study in Germany found the tree of heaven growing in 92% of densely populated areas of [[Berlin]], 25% of its suburbs and only 3% of areas outside the city altogether.{{sfn|Kowarik|2003}} In other areas of Europe this is not the case as climates are mild enough for the tree to flourish. It has colonised natural areas in [[Hungary]], for example, and is considered a threat to biodiversity at that country's [[Aggtelek National Park]].{{sfn|Kowarik|2003}}

Several species of [[Lepidoptera]] use the leaves of ''Ailanthus'' as food, including the Indian moon moth (''[[Actias selene]]'') and the [[Eurema hecabe|common grass yellow]] (''Eurema hecabe''). In North America the tree is the host plant for the [[ailanthus webworm]] (''Atteva aurea''), though this [[ermine moth]] is native to [[Central America|Central]] and [[South America]] and originally used other members of the mostly tropical [[Simaroubaceae]] as its hosts.<ref name="barnes"/> In the US, it has been found to host the [[brown marmorated stink bug]] and the [[Asiatic shot-hole borer]] (''Euwallacea validus'').{{sfn|Farah|2021}} The [[spotted lanternfly]] (''L.&nbsp;delicatula),'' relies on the metabolites of ''A.&nbsp;altissima'' for the completion of its life cycle and the pervasiveness of ''A. altissima'' is seen as a driving factor in ''L.&nbsp;delicatula's'' invasive spread outside of China.<ref name="EPPO-PRA">{{cite web |date=30 September 2016 |title=EPPO PRA |url=http://pra.eppo.int/organism/LYCMDE |access-date=26 January 2022 |website=[[European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization|EPPO]] PRA}}</ref>''<ref name="WFP">{{cite web |author=Western Farm Press |date=10 November 2014 |title=Spotted lanternfly – a new threat to grapes, stone fruit? |url=http://westernfarmpress.com/grapes/spotted-lanternfly-new-threat-grapes-stone-fruit |work=Western Farm Press |publisher=Penton Agriculture Market}}</ref>'' It an invasive species of insect first seen in the United States in 2014. They have spread from southeastern Pennsylvania to 17 eastern states causing significant damage to orchards, vineyards, and forests. Ailanthus trees are a preferred host for the spotted lanternfly and removing the tree is an important management avenue for reducing populations of the insect in an area. Because of their attraction to the trees, they are also used to detect populations of the lanternfly in new areas.{{sfn|Harrison|Crick|McCullough|2023}} The ailanthus tree is also used in [[Integrated Pest Management]] by treating trap trees with insecticides to reduce their population and minimizing the effects on other species.{{sfn|Roy|Frentzel|Charkes|2018}} In its native range ''A. altissima'' is associated with at least 32 species of [[arthropods]] and 13 species of fungi.{{sfn|Zheng et al. 2006|p=10}}

In North America, the leaves of ''Ailanthus'' are sometimes attacked by ''[[Aculops ailanthii]]'', a [[mite]] in the family [[Eriophyidae]]. Leaves infested by the mite begin to curl and become glossy, reducing their ability to function. Therefore, this species has been proposed as a possible biocontrol for ''Ailanthus'' in the Americas.<ref>{{Cite thesis | url=https://drum.lib.umd.edu/handle/1903/8526?show=full | title=Native and Indigenous Biocontrols for Ailanthus altissima| date=11 July 2008| type=Thesis}}</ref> Research from September 2020 indicates a verticillium wilt, caused by ''[[Verticillium nonalfalfae]]'', may function as a [[Biological pest control|biological control]] for ''A. altissima'',<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brooks |first1=Rachel K. |last2=Wickert |first2=Kristen L. |last3=Baudoin |first3=Anton |last4=Kasson |first4=Matt T. |last5=Salom |first5=Scott |date=1 September 2020 |title=Field-inoculated Ailanthus altissima stands reveal the biological control potential of Verticillium nonalfalfae in the mid-Atlantic region of the United States |journal=Biological Control |language=en |volume=148 |pages=104–298 |doi=10.1016/j.biocontrol.2020.104298 |issn=1049-9644 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2020BiolC.14804298B }}</ref> with the weevil ''[[Eucryptorrhynchus brandti]]'' serving as a vector.<ref name="snyder">{{cite journal |last1=Snyder |first1=A. L. |last2=Salom|first2=S. M.|last3=Kok|first3=L. T.|last4=Griffin|first4=G. J.| last5=Davis|first5=D. D. |title=Assessing Eucryptorrhynchus brandti (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) as a potential carrier for Verticillium nonalfalfae (Phyllachorales) from infected Ailanthus altissima |journal=Biocontrol Science and Technology |date=9 August 2012 |volume=22 |issue=9 |pages=1005–1019 |doi=10.1080/09583157.2012.707639 |bibcode=2012BioST..22.1005S |s2cid=85601294 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09583157.2012.707639 |access-date=7 June 2021|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Due to the tree of heaven's weedy habit, landowners and other organisations often resort to various methods of control to keep its populations in check. For example, the city of [[Basel]] in Switzerland has an eradication program for the tree.{{sfn|Kowarik|2003}} It can be very difficult to eradicate, however. Means of eradication can be physical, thermal, managerial, biological or chemical. A combination of several of these can be most effective, though they must of course be compatible. All have some positive and negative aspects, but the most effective regimen is generally a mixture of chemical and physical control. It involves the application of foliar or basal [[herbicides]] to kill existing trees, while either hand pulling or mowing seedlings to prevent new growth.<ref name="swearingen"/><ref group="note">For a more thorough discussion, see the entry for ''Ailanthus altissima'' in the [[b:A Wikimanual of Gardening/Ailanthus altissima|Wikimanual of Gardening]] at [[Wikibooks]].</ref>

==Uses==
[[File:Samia cynthia adult male sjh.JPG|thumb|right|200px|A male [[Samia cynthia|ailanthus silkmoth]] from the [[Texas A&M University]] insect collection]]

In addition to its use as an ornamental plant, the tree of heaven is also used for its wood and as a host plant to feed [[silkworm]]s of the moth ''[[Samia cynthia]]'', which produces silk that is stronger and cheaper than [[mulberry]] silk, although with inferior gloss and texture.{{cn|date=January 2024}} It is also unable to take dye. This type of silk is known under various names: "[[pongee]]", "[[eri silk]]", and "[[Shantung (fabric)|Shantung silk]]", the last name being derived from [[Shandong]] in China where this silk is often produced. Its production is particularly well known in the [[Yantai]] region of that province. The moth has also been introduced in the United States.{{sfn|Hu|1979|pp=42–43}}

The pale yellow, close-grained, and satiny wood of ''Ailanthus'' has been used in cabinet work.{{sfn|Nava|2014}}<ref name=Keeler/> It is flexible and well-suited to the manufacture of kitchen [[steaming|steamers]], which are important in [[Chinese cuisine]] for cooking [[mantou]], pastries, and [[rice]]. [[Zhejiang]] in eastern China is most famous for producing these steamers.{{sfn|Hu|1979|p=42}} The plant is also considered a good source of firewood across much of its range, as it is moderately hard and heavy, yet readily available.<ref name=duke/> The wood is also used to make charcoal for culinary purposes.<ref>{{cite web |last=Barclay |first=Eliza |title=The Great Charcoal Debate: Briquettes Or Lumps? |website=NPR |date=24 May 2013 |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/thesalt/2013/05/24/186434261/the-great-charcoal-debate-briquettes-vs-lumps |access-date=25 May 2013}}</ref> However, there are problems with using the wood as lumber; because the trees exhibit rapid growth for the first few years, the trunk has uneven texture between the inner and outer wood, which can cause the wood to twist or crack during drying. Techniques have been developed for drying the wood so as to prevent this cracking, allowing it to be commercially harvested. Although the live tree tends to have very flexible wood, the wood is quite hard once properly dried.<ref name="gill"/>

===Cultivation===
Tree of heaven is a popular [[ornamental tree]] in China and valued for its tolerance of difficult growing conditions.{{sfn|Zheng et al. 2006|p=10}} It was once very popular in cultivation in both Europe and North America, but this popularity dropped, especially in the United States, due to the disagreeable odor of its blossoms and the weediness of its habit. The problem of odor was previously avoided by only selling pistillate plants since only males produce the smell, but a higher seed production also results.{{sfn|Shah|1997|p=21}} [[Michael Dirr]], a noted American horticulturalist and professor at the University of Georgia, reported meeting, in 1982, a grower who could not find any buyers. He further writes (his emphasis):

{{blockquote|For most landscaping conditions, it has ''no'' value as there are too many trees of superior quality; for impossible conditions this tree has a place; selection could be made for good habit, strong wood and better foliage which would make the tree more satisfactory; I once talked with an architect who tried to buy ''Ailanthus'' for use along polluted highways but could not find an adequate supply &#91;...&#93;|Michael A. Dirr| ''Manual of Woody Landscape Plants''{{sfn|Dirr|1998|p=80}}}}

In Europe, however, the tree is still used in the garden to some degree as its habit is generally not as invasive as it is in America. In the United Kingdom it is especially common in London squares, streets, and parks, though it is also frequently found in gardens of southern England and [[East Anglia]]. It becomes rare in the north, occurring only infrequently in southern [[Scotland]]. It is also rare in Ireland.<ref name="Mitchell"/> In Germany the tree is commonly planted in gardens.<ref name=schmeil/> The tree has furthermore become unpopular in cultivation in the west because it is short-lived and the trunk soon becomes hollow, making trees more than {{convert|2|ft|cm|-1|spell=in}} in diameter unstable in high winds.<ref name=Keeler/>

A few [[cultivar]]s exist, but they are not often sold outside of China and probably not at all in North America:{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

* ''''Hongye'''{{'}} – The name is Chinese and means "red leaves". As the name implies it has attractive vivid red foliage{{sfn|Zhang|Dirr|2004|p=608}}
* ''''Thousand Leaders'''{{'}}{{sfn|Zhang|Dirr|2004|p=608}}
* ''''Metro'''{{'}} – A male cultivar with a tighter crown than usual and a less weedy habit<ref name="kuhns"/>
* ''''Erythrocarpa'''{{'}} – The fruits are a striking red<ref name="kuhns"/>
* ''''Pendulifolia'''{{'}} – Leaves are much longer and hang elegantly<ref name="kuhns"/>

===Traditional medicine===
Nearly every part of ''A. altissima'' has had various uses in [[Chinese traditional medicine]],{{sfn|Hu|1979|p=42–44}} although there is no [[evidence-based medicine|high-quality clinical evidence]] that it has an effect on any disease.

A [[tincture]] of the root bark was thought useful by American herbalists in the 19th century.{{sfn|Felter|Lloyd|King|1905|p=131}} It contains [[phytochemical]]s, such as [[quassin]] and [[saponin]], and [[ailanthone]].<ref name="burows"/> The noxious odours have been associated with nausea and headaches, and with [[contact dermatitis]] reported in both humans and sheep, which developed weakness and paralysis. It contains a [[quinone]] irritant, 2,6-dimethoxybenzoquinone, as well as [[quassin]]oids.<ref name="burows"/>

==Culture==
===China===
In addition to the tree of heaven's various uses, it has also been a part of [[Chinese culture]] for many centuries and has more recently attained a similar status in the west. Within the oldest extant [[Chinese dictionary]], the [[Erya]], written in the 3rd century BCE, the tree of heaven is mentioned second among a list of trees. It was mentioned again in a [[materia medica]] compiled during the [[Tang dynasty]] in 656 CE. Each work favoured a different character, however, and there is still some debate in the Chinese botanical community as to which character should be used. The current name, ''chouchun'' ({{zh|c=臭椿|p=chòuchūn}}), means "stinking tree", and is a relatively new appellation. People living near the lower [[Yellow River]] know it by the name ''chunshu'' ({{zh|s=椿树|t=椿樹|p=chūnshù}}), meaning "spring tree". The name stems from the fact that ''A. altissima'' is one of the last trees to come out of dormancy, and as such its leaves coming out would indicate that winter was truly over.{{sfn|Hu|1979|p=40}}

In [[Chinese literature]], ''Ailanthus'' is often used for two rather extreme metaphors, with a mature tree representing a father and a stump being a spoiled child. This manifests itself occasionally when expressing best wishes to a friend's father and mother in a letter, where one can write "wishing your ''Ailanthus'' and [[daylily]] are strong and happy", with ailanthus metaphorically referring to the father and daylily to the mother. Furthermore, one can scold a child by calling him a "good-for-nothing ''Ailanthus'' stump sprout", meaning the child is irresponsible. This derives from the literature of [[Zhuang Zhou|Zhuangzi]], a [[Taoist]] philosopher, who referred to a tree that had developed from a sprout at the stump and was thus unsuitable for carpentry due to its irregular shape. Later scholars associated this tree with ''Ailanthus'' and applied the metaphor to children who, like stump sprouts of the tree, will not develop into a worthwhile human being if they don't follow rules or traditions.{{sfn|Hu|1979|p=41}}

===United States===
As early as 1886, the City of Atlanta, Georgia adopted an ordinance against the Ailantus tree.  The first Ordinance listed in The Code of the City of Atlanta Part II - Ordinance is titled Chapter 1, Ailantus Tree Section 252, "Requires removal of Ailantus tree".  In it, the tree is declared a public nuisance and allows for a fine of $50 for any person owning or occupying any lot with the Tree of Heaven.  It also authorizes the Street Committee to destroy all such trees growing on City property. 

In [[William Faulkner]]'s 1931 novel, [[Sanctuary (Faulkner novel)|''Sanctuary'']], a "heaven-tree" stands outside the Jefferson jail, where Lee Goodwin and a "negro murderer" are incarcerated. The tree is associated with the black prisoner's despair in the face of his impending execution and the [[Spiritual (music)|spirituals]] that he sings in chorus with other black people who keep a sort of vigil in the street below:

<blockquote>...they sang spirituals while white people slowed and stopped in the leafed darkness that was almost summer, to listen to those who were sure to die and him who was already dead singing about heaven and being tired; or perhaps in the interval between songs a rich, sourceless voice coming out of the high darkness where the ragged shadow of the heaven-tree which snooded the street lamp at the corner fretted and mourned: "Fo days mo! Den dey ghy stroy de bes ba'yton singer in nawth Mississippi!"<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sanctuary|last=Faulkner|first=William|publisher=The Modern Library (Random House)|year=1932|series=Modern Library of the World's Best Books|location=New York|pages=135–6|oclc=557539727}}</ref> Upon the barred and slitted wall the splotched shadow of the heaven-tree shuddered and pulsed monstrously in scarce any wind; rich and sad, the singing fell behind.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sanctuary|last=Faulkner|first=William|publisher=Modern Library (Random House)|year=1932|series=Modern Library of the World's Best Books|location=New York|pages=148|oclc=557539727}}</ref></blockquote>

The 1943 novel ''[[A Tree Grows in Brooklyn (novel)|A Tree Grows in Brooklyn]]'' by [[Betty Smith]] uses the tree of heaven as its central metaphor, using it as an analogy for the ability to thrive in a difficult environment. Then and since, ''Ailanthus'' has thrived in neglected urban areas.{{sfn|Shah|1997|p=26}}<ref name=penn/> She writes:

{{blockquote|There's a tree that grows in Brooklyn. Some people call it the Tree of Heaven. No matter where its seed falls, it makes a tree which struggles to reach the sky. It grows in boarded up lots and out of neglected rubbish heaps. It grows up out of cellar gratings. It is the only tree that grows out of cement. It grows lushly...survives without sun, water, and seemingly earth. It would be considered beautiful except that there are too many of it.|''A Tree Grows in Brooklyn''|Introduction}}

In the 2013 book ''Teardown: Memoir of a Vanishing City'' by [[Gordon Young (journalist)|Gordon Young]], the tree is referenced in a description of the Carriage Town neighborhood in Flint, Michigan.

<blockquote>Festive Victorian-era homes in various stages of restoration battled for supremacy with boarded-up firetraps and overgrown lots landscaped with weeds, garbage, and "ghetto palms," a particularly hardy invasive species known more formally as ''Ailanthus altissima'', or the tree of heaven, perhaps because only God can kill the things. Around the corner, business was brisk at a drug house where residents and customers alike weren't above casually taking a piss in the driveway.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Teardown: Memoir of a Vanishing City|last=Young|first=Gordon|publisher=University of California Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0520270527|location=Berkeley, California|pages=1}}</ref></blockquote>

Until 26 March 2008, a {{Convert|60|ft|m|adj=mid|-tall}} member of the species was a prominent "centerpiece" of the sculpture garden at the [[Noguchi Museum]] in the Astoria section in the borough of [[Queens]] in New York City. The tree had been spared by the sculptor [[Isamu Noguchi]] when in 1975 he bought the building which would become the museum and cleaned up its back lot. The tree was the only one he left in the yard, and the staff would eat lunch with Noguchi under it. "[I]n a sense, the sculpture garden was designed around the tree", said a former aide to Noguchi, [[Bonnie Rychlak]], who later became the museum curator. By 2008, the old tree was found to be dying and in danger of crashing into the building, which was about to undergo a major renovation. The museum hired the Detroit Tree of Heaven Woodshop, an artists' collective, to use the wood to create benches, sculptures and other amenities in and around the building. The tree's rings were counted, revealing its age to be 75, and museum officials hoped it would regenerate from a [[Basal shoot|sucker]].<ref name="collins2008"/>

===Europe===
Ingo Vetter, a German artist and professor of fine arts at [[Umeå University]] in Sweden, was influenced by the idea of the "ghetto palm" and installed a living ''Ailanthus'' tree taken from Detroit for an international art show called ''Shrinking Cities'' at the [[Kunst-Werke Institute for Contemporary Art]] in Berlin in 2004.<ref name="collins03"/><ref name="Wasacz"/>

== Explanatory notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name=schmeil>{{cite book| last =Schmeil| first =Otto|author2=Fitschen, Jost|author3= Seybold, Siegmund| title =Flora von Deutschland, 93. Auflage| publisher =Quelle & Meyer Verlag| year =2006| location =Wiebelsheim| isbn =978-3-494-01413-5| page =42 |language=de}}</ref>

<ref name="little">{{cite book| last =Little Jr.| first =Elbert L.| title =Checklist of United States Trees (Native and Naturalized) |series= Agriculture Handbooks '''541'''| publisher =USDA Forest Service| year =1979| location =Washington, DC| oclc=6553978| page =375 }} AH541</ref>

<ref name="weeds-strategy">{{cite web| author=Australian Weeds Committee| title=Weed Identification – Tree-of-heaven| work=Weed Identification & Information| publisher=National Weeds Strategy| url=http://www.weeds.org.au/cgi-bin/weedident.cgi?tpl=plant.tpl&state=&s=1&ibra=all&card=T07| access-date=7 February 2010| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090706104056/http://www.weeds.org.au/cgi-bin/weedident.cgi?tpl=plant.tpl&state=&s=1&ibra=all&card=T07| archive-date=6 July 2009}}</ref>

<ref name="new_zealand">{{cite web |url=http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/pests/tree-of-heaven |title=Tree of heaven |work=Pests & Diseases |publisher=Biosecurity New Zealand |access-date=7 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100521141623/http://www.biosecurity.govt.nz/pests/tree-of-heaven |archive-date=21 May 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="shafiq">{{cite journal| last =Shafiq| first =Muhammad|author2=Nizami, M. I.| title =Growth behaviour of different plants under gullied area of Pothwar Plateau| journal = Pakistan Journal of Forestry| volume =36| issue =1| pages =9–15| year =1986}}</ref>

<ref name="merriam">{{cite journal| doi =10.2307/3557546| last =Merriam| first =Robert W.| title = The Abundance, Distribution and Edge Associations of Six Non-Indigenous, Harmful Plants across North Carolina | jstor = 3557546| journal =Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society| volume =130| issue =4| pages =283–291| date =October–December 2003}}</ref>

<ref name="Stipes 1995">{{cite journal |last=Stipes |first=R.J. |year=1995 |title=A tree grows in Virginia [abstract] |journal=Virginia Journal of Science |url=http://www.vacadsci.org/vjsArchives/v46/46-2/P75.pdf |volume=46 |issue=2 |page=105 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110716062423/http://www.vacadsci.org/vjsArchives/v46/46-2/P75.pdf |archive-date=16 July 2011 }}</ref>

<ref name="Munz">{{cite book| last =Munz| first =Philip Alexander| author2 =David D. Keck| title =A California Flora and Supplement| publisher =University of California Press| year =1973| orig-year =1959–1968| page =[https://archive.org/details/californiafloras00phil/page/993 993]| location =Berkeley| isbn =978-0-520-02405-2| url-access =registration| url =https://archive.org/details/californiafloras00phil/page/993}}</ref>

<ref name="jepson">{{cite web| last=McClintock| first=Elizabeth| title=Ailanthus altissima |work=The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California| publisher =University of California Press| url= http://ucjeps.berkeley.edu/cgi-bin/get_JM_treatment.pl?7617,7618,7619| access-date =7 February 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="grime">{{cite journal| last=Grime| first=J. P.| s2cid=43191167| title=Shade Tolerance in Flowering Plants| journal=Nature| date=9 October 1965| volume=208| pages=161–163| doi=10.1038/208161a0| issue=5006| bibcode=1965Natur.208..161G}}</ref>

<ref name=bard>{{cite journal| doi=10.2307/3088649| last=Knapp| first=Liza B.|author2= Canham, Charles D.| title=Invasion of an old-growth forest in New York by ''Ailanthus altissima'': sapling growth and recruitment in canopy gaps |jstor=3088649| journal=Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society| volume=127| issue=4| date=October–December 2000| pages=307–315}}</ref>

<ref name="heisy96">{{cite journal| doi =10.2307/2445938| last =Heisy| first =Rod M.| title = Identification of an allelopathic compound from ''Ailanthus altissima'' (Simaroubaceae) and characterization of its herbicidal activity | jstor = 2445938| journal =American Journal of Botany| volume =83| issue =2| pages =192–200|date=February 1996}}</ref>

<ref name="heisy90">{{cite journal| doi =10.2307/2444812| last =Heisy| first =Rod M.| title = Allelopathic and Herbicidal Effects of Extracts from Tree of Heaven | jstor = 2444812| journal =American Journal of Botany| volume =77| issue =5| pages =662–670|date=May 1990}}</ref>

<ref name="mergen">{{cite journal| last=Mergen| first=Francois| title=A toxic principle in the leaves of ''Ailanthus''| journal=Botanical Gazette | volume=121| issue=1| pages=32–36| doi=10.1086/336038|date=September 1959 | jstor = 2473114| s2cid=84989561}}</ref>

<ref name="lawrence">{{cite journal| doi =10.2307/2445173| last =Lawrence| first =Jeffrey G.|author2=Alison Colwell|author3=Owen Sexton| title = The ecological impact of allelopathy in ''Ailanthus altissima'' (Simaroubaceae) | jstor = 2445173| journal =American Journal of Botany| volume =78| issue =7| pages =948–958|date=July 1991}}</ref>

<ref name="howard-feis">{{FEIS |last=Howard| first=Janet L.| genus=Ailanthus | species=altissima | type=tree | year=2010| access-date=24 June 2018}}</ref>

<ref name="barnes">{{cite web| last = Barnes| first = Jeffrey K.| title = Ailanthus webworm moth| work = University of Arkansas Arthropod Museum Notes| publisher = University of Arkansas| date = 2 June 2005| url = http://www.uark.edu/ua/arthmuse/ailamoth.html| access-date = 7 February 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618225525/http://www.uark.edu/ua/arthmuse/ailamoth.html |archive-date=18 June 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="swearingen">{{cite web| last=Swearingen| first=Jil M.|author2= Phillip D. Pannill| title=Fact Sheet: Tree-of-heaven| publisher=Plant Conservation Alliance's Alien Plant Working Group| year=2009| url=http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/pdf/aial1.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928232116/http://www.nps.gov/plants/alien/fact/pdf/aial1.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-date=28 September 2006 | access-date = 7 February 2010}}</ref>

<ref name=duke>{{cite web| last=Duke| first=James A.| title=Ailanthus altissima| work=Handbook of Energy Crops| year=1983| publisher=Purdue University Center for New Crops & Plant Products| url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Ailanthus_altissima.html| access-date = 7 February 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="gill">{{cite web| last=Gill| first=Barbara| title=Ailanthus| publisher=Woodworker's Website Association |work=WoodSampler| year=2004| url =http://www.woodworking.org/WC/Woods/004.html| access-date=7 February 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="Mitchell">{{cite book| last =Mitchell| first =Alan| author-link =Alan Mitchell (botanist)| title =Trees of Britain & Northern Europe| publisher =Harper Collins| year =1974| location =London| pages =310–311| isbn= 978-0-00-219213-2 }}</ref>

<ref name=Keeler>{{cite book| last =Keeler| first =Harriet L.|chapter=Simaroubàceae—Ailanthus family |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=93Zw4qMOsaUC&pg=PA36 | title =Our Native Trees and How to Identify Them| publisher =Charles Scribner's Sons| year =1900| location =New York| pages =36–40| isbn =978-0-87338-838-2}}</ref>

<ref name="kuhns">{{cite web | last =Kuhns | first =Mike |author2=Larry Rupp| title =Selecting and Planting Landscape Trees | publisher =Utah State University Cooperative Extension | date =July 2001 | page =19 | url =http://extension.usu.edu/files/publications/publication/NR-460.pdf | access-date=7 February 2010}}</ref>

<ref name="burows">{{cite book| last=Burrows| first=George Edward|author2=Ronald J. Tyrl| title=Toxic Plants of North America| year=2001| location=Ames| publisher=Iowa State University Press| isbn=978-0-8138-2266-2| page= 1242}}</ref>

<ref name=penn>{{cite press release | title = Penn State Scientists: Tree of Heaven Really Isn't | publisher = Penn State College of Agricultural Sciences | date = 14 June 1999 | url = http://live.psu.edu/story/32607 | access-date = 7 February 2010 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120222065129/http://live.psu.edu/story/32607 | archive-date = 22 February 2012 }}</ref>

<!--
<ref name="fergus">{{cite book| last=Fergus| first=Charles| title=Trees of New England: a Natural History| year=2005| location=Guildford| publisher=Falcon| isbn=978-0-7627-3795-6| page=289}}</ref>
-->

<ref name="collins03">{{Cite news| last =Collins| first =Lisa M.| title =Ghetto Palm| newspaper =Metro Times Detroit| date =10 December 2003| url =http://www.metrotimes.com/editorial/story.asp?id=5723| access-date=7 February 2010 }}</ref>

<ref name="collins2008">{{cite news|last=Collins |first=Glen |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/03/27/nyregion/27tree.html |title=A Tree That Survived a Sculptor's Chisel Is Chopped Down |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=27 March 2008| access-date= 6 March 2012}}</ref>

<ref name="Wasacz">{{Cite news| last =Wasacz| first =Walter| title =Big Ideas for Shrinking Cities| newspaper =Model D| date =30 January 2007| url =http://www.modeldmedia.com/features/shrinking79.aspx| access-date=7 February 2010| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100103224514/http://modeldmedia.com/features/shrinking79.aspx| archive-date= 3 January 2010 | url-status= live}}</ref>
}}

==Sources==
=== Books ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Dame |first1=Lorin Low |last2=Brooks |first2=Henry |date=1901 |title=Handbook of the Trees of New England : With Ranges Throughout the United States and Canada |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookoftreeso00dame_0/page/133 |language=en |edition=First |location=Boston, Massachusetts |publisher=Ginn & Company, Publishers |oclc=1484602859 |access-date=28 January 2025}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Dirr |first1=Michael |author-link1=Michael Dirr |date=1998 |orig-date=1975 |title=Manual of Woody Landscape Plants : Their Identification, Ornamental Characteristics, Culture, Propagation and Uses |url=https://archive.org/details/manualofwoodylan0000dirr_g6e2/page/80 |url-access=registration |language=en |edition=Fifth |location=Champaign, Illinois |publisher=Stipes Publishing L.L.C. |isbn=978-0-87563-800-3 |oclc=39852725 |access-date=28 February 2025}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Fitter |first1=Alastair |author-link1=Alastair Fitter |date=1999 |orig-date=1980 |title=Collins Gem Trees |url=https://archive.org/details/collinsgemtrees0000fitt |url-access=registration |language=en |others=Illustrated by [[David More]] |location=Glasgow, Scotland |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers |isbn=978-0-00-472268-9 |oclc=41582617 |access-date=10 April 2025}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Foster |first1=Steven |last2=Duke |first2=James A. |date=2000 |title=A Field Guide to Medicinal Plants and Herbs of Eastern and Central North America |url=https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetomedi00fo/page/280 |url-access=registration |series=Peterson field guide series |language=en |edition=Second |location=Boston, Massachusetts |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Co. |isbn=978-0-395-98815-2 |oclc=41387633 |access-date=30 January 2025}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Hugh |date=2010 |orig-date=1973 |title=The World of Trees |url=https://archive.org/details/worldoftrees0000john/page/392 |url-access=registration |language=en |edition=Completely Revised |location=Berkeley, California |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24756-7 |oclc=606760496 |access-date=29 January 2025}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Felter |first1=Harvey Wickes |author-link1=Harvey Wickes Felter |last2=Lloyd |first2=John Uri |author-link2=John Uri Lloyd |last3=King |first3=John |date=1905 |title=King's American Dispensatory |url=https://archive.org/details/kingsamericandis01kinguoft/page/130 |language=en |volume=1 |edition=18th, 3rd Revision |location=Cincinnati, Ohio |publisher=Ohio Valley Company |oclc=3799356 |access-date=1 March 2025}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Lorraine |date=2012 |title=RHS Latin for Gardeners : Over 3000 Plant Names Explained and Explored |language=en |edition=First |location=London |publisher=Mitchell Beazley |isbn=978-1-84533-731-5 |oclc=797981038}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Kowarik |first1=Ingo |date=2003 |title=Biologische Invasionen – Neophyten und Neozoen in Mitteleuropa |trans-title=Biological invasions - Neophytes and Neozoa in Central Europe |language=de |location=Stuttgart, Germany |publisher=Verlag Eugen Ulmer |isbn=978-3-8001-3924-8 |oclc=704051798 <!--Could use a page citation. Content likely is around p.127. Could not find access on Wiley, JSTOR, ProQuest, or Mohr Siebeck-->}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Lee |first1=David |last2=West |first2=Stacy |date=2011 |title=Wayside Trees of Tropical Florida : A Guide to the Native and Exotic Trees and Palms of Miami and Tropical South Florida |url=https://archive.org/details/waysidetreesoftr0000leed/page/230 |url-access=registration |language=en |edition=First |location=Mebane, North Carolina |publisher=Tellus Books |isbn=978-0-9822715-4-4 |oclc=778385448 |access-date=30 January 2025}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Li |first1=Hui-lin |date=1993 |chapter=Simaroubaceae |script-chapter=zh:苦木科 |chapter-url=http://tai2.ntu.edu.tw/udth/bin/fot1.exe/browse?bid=3&page=545 |editor-last1=Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan |title=Flora of Taiwan |script-title=zh:臺灣植物誌 |trans-title= |language=en |volume=3, Angiosperms, dicotyledons. [Hamamelidaceae - Umbelliferae] |edition=Second |location=Taipei |publisher=Editorial Committee of the Flora of Taiwan |isbn=978-957-9019-41-5 |oclc=813854047 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070213144532/http://tai2.ntu.edu.tw/fotdv/v3index.htm |archive-date=13 February 2007 |access-date=20 July 2006}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Loewer |first1=H. Peter |date=2001 |title=Solving Weed Problems |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781585742745/page/76 |url-access=registration |language=en |location=Guilford, Connenticut |publisher=Lyons Press |isbn=978-1-58574-274-5 |oclc=47045051 |access-date=30 January 2025}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Miller |first1=James Howard |date=2006 |orig-date=2003 |title=Nonnative Invasive Plants of Southern Forests : A Field Guide for Identification and Contro |url=https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/gtr/gtr_srs062/gtr_srs062.pdf |series=General technical report SRS, 62 |language=en |edition=Third Revised |location=Asheville, North Carolina |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station |oclc=253402686 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241007022301/https://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/gtr/gtr_srs062/gtr_srs062.pdf |archive-date=7 October 2024 |access-date=30 January 2025}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Patrick |first1=Darren |date=2015 |chapter=13. Queering the Urban Forest: Invasions, Mutualisms, and Eco-Political Creativity with the Tree of Heaven |editor-last1=Sandberg |editor-first1=L. Anders |editor-last2=Bardekjian |editor-first2=Adrina |editor-last3=Butt |editor-first3=Sadia |title=Urban Forests, Trees, and Greenspace : A Political Ecology Perspective |language=en |location=London |publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group |isbn=978-0-415-71410-5 |oclc=868199760}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Prance |first1=Ghillean T. |date=1998 |title=Rainforests of the World : Water, Fire, Earth & Air |url=https://archive.org/details/rainforestsofwor0000wolf/page/192 |url-access=registration |language=en |edition=First |location=New York |publisher=Crown |isbn=978-0-609-60364-2 |oclc=36252866 |access-date=30 January 2025}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Quattrocchi |first1=Umberto |date=2012 |title=CRC World Dictionary of Medicinal and Poisonous Plants : Common Names, Scientific Names, Eponyms, Synonyms, and Etymology |language=en |location=Boca Raton, Florida |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4822-5064-0 |oclc=874163087}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Simeone |first1=Vincent A. |date=2007 |title=Great flowering Landscape Trees |url=https://archive.org/details/greatfloweringla0000sime_q2r7/page/82 |url-access=registration |language=en |location=Batavia, Illinois |publisher=Ball Publishing |isbn=978-1-883052-53-9 |oclc=78063240 |access-date=28 January 2025}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Zheng |first1=Hao |last2=Wu |first2=Yun |last3=Ding |first3=Jianqing |last4=Binion |first4=Denise |last5=Fu |first5=Weidong |last6=Reardon |first6=Richard |date=2006 |title=Invasive Plants of Asian Origin Established in the United States and Their Natural Enemies |url=https://www.invasive.org/weeds/asianv1.pdf |series=FHTET |language=en |volume=1 |edition=Second |location=Morgantown, West Virginia |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team |oclc=173621745 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240508133934/https://www.invasive.org/weeds/asianv1.pdf |archive-date=8 May 2024 |access-date=28 January 2025 |ref={{sfnref|Zheng et al. 2006}}}}
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{{Refend}}

=== Journals ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Shiu Ying |author-link1=Shiu-Ying Hu |date=March 1979 |title=Ailanthus |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/53264042 |journal=Arnoldia |language=en |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=29–50 |doi=10.5962/p.250166 |issn=0004-2633 |jstor=42954660 |pmc= |pmid= |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719204428/http://arnoldia.arboretum.harvard.edu/pdf/articles/1072.pdf |archive-date=19 July 2011 |access-date=12 January 2025}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kaproth |first1=Matthew A. |last2=McGraw |first2=James B. |date=1 October 2008 |title=Seed Viability and Dispersal of the Wind-Dispersed Invasive ''Ailanthus altissima'' in Aqueous Environments |url=https://cset.mnsu.edu/globalassets/college-of-science-engineering-and-technology/biological-sciences/photos/herbarium/kaproth_and_mcgraw_2008_-_seed_viability_and_dispersal_of_ailanthus_in_aqueous_environments.pdf |journal=Forest Science |language=en |volume=54 |issue=5 |pages=490–496 |doi=10.1093/forestscience/54.5.490 |issn=0015-749X |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240605002500/https://cset.mnsu.edu/globalassets/college-of-science-engineering-and-technology/biological-sciences/photos/herbarium/kaproth_and_mcgraw_2008_-_seed_viability_and_dispersal_of_ailanthus_in_aqueous_environments.pdf |archive-date=5 June 2024 |access-date=10 April 2025}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Planchuelo |first1=Greg |last2=Catalán |first2=Pablo |last3=Delgado |first3=Juan Antonio |date=May 2016 |title=Gone with the wind and the stream: Dispersal in the invasive species ''Ailanthus altissima'' |url=https://pablocatalan.github.io/papers/planchuelo2016_gone_with_the_wind.pdf |journal=Acta Oecologica |language=en |volume=73 |pages=31–37 |bibcode=2016AcO....73...31P |doi=10.1016/j.actao.2016.02.006 |hdl=10016/30463 |hdl-access=free |issn=1873-6238 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113111239/https://pablocatalan.github.io/papers/planchuelo2016_gone_with_the_wind.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2020 |access-date=10 April 2025}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Shah |first1=Behula |date=1997 |title=The Checkered Career of ''Ailanthus altissima'' |journal=Arnoldia |language=en |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=20–27 |doi=10.5962/p.251182 |doi-access=free |issn=0004-2633 |jstor=42954525 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Sladonja |first1=Barbara |last2=Sušek |first2=Marta |last3=Guillermic |first3=Julia |date=October 2015 |title=Review on Invasive Tree of Heaven (''Ailanthus altissima'' (Mill.) Swingle) Conflicting Values: Assessment of Its Ecosystem Services and Potential Biological Threat |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/278332104 |journal=Environmental Management |language=en |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=1009–1034 |bibcode=2015EnMan..56.1009S |doi=10.1007/s00267-015-0546-5 |pmid= 26071766 |access-date=28 February 2025}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Swingle |first1=Walter T. |author-link1=Walter Tennyson Swingle |date=1916 |title=The early European history and the botanical name of the Tree of Heaven, ''Ailanthus altissima'' |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/2006086 |journal=Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences  |language=en |volume=6 |issue=14 |pages=490–498 |issn=0043-0439 |jstor=24521283 |jstor-access=free |access-date=13 January 2025}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Wickert |first1=Kristen L. |last2=O'Neal |first2=Eric S. |last3=Davis |first3=Donald D. |last4=Kasson |first4=Matthew T. |date=27 June 2017 |title=Seed Production, Viability, and Reproductive Limits of the Invasive ''Ailanthus altissima'' (Tree-of-Heaven) within Invaded Environments |journal=Forests |language=en |volume=8 |issue=7 |pages=226–238 |doi=10.3390/f8070226 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017Fore....8..226W |ref={{sfnref|Wickert et al. 2017}}}}
{{Refend}}

=== News sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite news |last=Davies |first=Rob |date=16 September 2006 |title=The toxic Tree of Heaven threatens England's green and pleasant land |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/sep/17/ruralaffairs.theobserver |work=The Observer |publisher=The Guardian |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002143154/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/sep/17/ruralaffairs.theobserver |archive-date=2 October 2013 |access-date=21 August 2010}}
{{Refend}}

=== Papers and reports ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite conference |last1=Zhang |first1=Donglin |last2=Dirr |first2=Michael A. |author-link2=Michael Dirr |date=2004 |location= |title=Potential New Ornamental Plants from China |url=http://www.umaine.edu/maineplants/MyPub/SNA04China.pdf |conference=49th Annual Southern Nursery Association Research Conference |work=SNA Research Conference Proceedings |language=en |volume=49 |pages=607–609 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625022055/http://www.umaine.edu/maineplants/MyPub/SNA04China.pdf |archive-date=25 June 2010 |access-date=7 February 2010}}
{{Refend}}

=== Web sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite web |last1=Farah |first1=Troy |date=3 March 2021 |title=Tree of heaven is a hellish invasive species. Could a fungus save the day? |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/environment/article/tree-of-heaven-invasive-species-could-fungus-save-the-day |website=[[National Geographic]] |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303193330/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/environment/article/tree-of-heaven-invasive-species-could-fungus-save-the-day |archive-date=3 March 2021 |access-date=8 March 2021}}
* {{cite web |last1=Harrison |first1=Tim |last2=Crick |first2=Julie |last3=McCullough |first3=Deborah |date=2 October 2023 |title=A Tale of Two Invaders: Tree of Heaven and Spotted Lanternfly |url=https://www.canr.msu.edu/resources/a-tale-of-two-invaders-tree-of-heaven-and-spotted-lanternfly |website=MSU Extension, Integrated Pest Management |language=en-us |location= |publisher=Michigan State University |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241209072138/https://www.canr.msu.edu/resources/a-tale-of-two-invaders-tree-of-heaven-and-spotted-lanternfly |archive-date=9 December 2024 |access-date=28 February 2025}}
* {{cite web |last1=Hoshovsky |first1=Marc C. |date=30 November 1988 |title=Element Stewardship Abstract for ''Ailanthus altissima'' |url=https://www.invasive.org/gist/esadocs/documnts/ailaalt.pdf |website=Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health |language=en |location=Arlington, Virginia |publisher=The Nature Conservancy |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308132129/https://www.invasive.org/gist/esadocs/documnts/ailaalt.pdf |archive-date=8 March 2022 |access-date=7 February 2010}}
* {{cite web |last1=Hua |first1=Peng (彭华) |last2=Thomas |first2=William Wayt |date=2008 |editor-last1=Turland |editor-first1=Nicholas J. |title=''Ailanthus altissimus'' |url=http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200012488 |website=Flora of China |language=en |publisher=eFloras |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241101222437/http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200012488 |archive-date=1 November 2024 |access-date=28 January 2025}}
* {{Silvics |last1=Miller |first1=James H. |genus=Ailanthus |species=altissima |volume=2 |access-date=7 February 2002}}{{sfn whitelist|CITEREFMiller1990}}
* {{cite web |last1=Nava |first1=S.C. |date=29 April 2014 |title=''Ailanthus altissima'' (tree-of-heaven) |language=en |location= |publisher=CABI |doi=10.1079/cabicompendium.3889 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite IUCN |last1=Oldfield |first1=S. |year=2024 |title=''Ailanthus altissima'' |volume=2024 |page=e.T62993A67810745 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2024-1.RLTS.T62993A67810745.en |access-date=27 January 2025}}
* {{Cite IUCN |last1=Pan |first1=F.J. |year=1998 |title=''Ailanthus altissima'' var. ''tanakai'' |volume=1998 |page=e.T31349A9628316 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.1998.RLTS.T31349A9628316.en |access-date=27 January 2025}}
* {{cite POWO |last1=POWO |date=2025 |id=813521-1 |title=''Ailanthus altissima'' (Mill.) Swingle |access-date=27 January 2025 |ref={{sfnref|POWO 2025a}}}}
* {{cite POWO |last1=POWO |date=2025 |id=77227884-1 |title=''Ailanthus altissima'' var. ''altissima'' |access-date=27 January 2025 |ref={{sfnref|POWO 2025b}}}}
* {{cite POWO |last1=POWO |date=2025 |id=77252077-1 |title=''Ailanthus altissima'' var. ''sutchuenensis'' (Dode) Rehder & E.H.Wilson |access-date=27 January 2025 |ref={{sfnref|POWO 2025c}}}}
* {{cite POWO |last1=POWO |date=2025 |id=77251598-1 |title=''Ailanthus altissima'' var. ''tanakae'' (Hayata) Kaneh. & Sasaki |access-date=27 January 2025 |ref={{sfnref|POWO 2025d}}}}
* {{cite web |last1=Roy |first1= Pamela |last2=Frentzel |first2=Kristen |last3=Charkes |first3=Susan |date=13 June 2018 |title=Invasive Species Spotlight: Tree-of-Heaven (''Ailanthus altissima'') and Spotted Lanternfly (''Lycorma delicatula'') |url=https://www.brandywine.org/conservancy/blog/invasive-species-spotlight-tree-heaven-ailanthus-altissima-and-spotted-lanternfly |website=Conservancy Blog |language=en |location=Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania |publisher=Brandywine Conservancy & Museum of Art |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240907134416/https://www.brandywine.org/conservancy/blog/invasive-species-spotlight-tree-heaven-ailanthus-altissima-and-spotted-lanternfly |archive-date=7 September 2024 |access-date=28 February 2025}}
* {{Cite WFO |last1= WFO |title=''Ailanthus'' Desf. |id=4000001024 |access-date=12 January 2025 |ref={{sfnref|WFO 2025}}}}
*{{cite web |last1=Wallace |first1=Victoria |last2=Siegel-Miles |first2=Alyssa |last3=Sowizral |first3=Klaudia |date=January 2022 |title=Invasive Plant Factsheet: Tree-of-heaven |url=https://ipm.cahnr.uconn.edu/invasive-species/invasive_plants_tree-of-heaven/ |website=Integrated Pest Management |language=en-US |publisher=[[University of Connecticut]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240804202150/https://ipm.cahnr.uconn.edu/invasive-species/invasive_plants_tree-of-heaven/ |archive-date=4 August 2024 |access-date=3 October 2024}}
* {{Cite OED|ailanthus, N.|9251052611 |ref={{sfnref|OED 2025a}}}}
* {{Cite OED|tree of heaven, N.|5073073801 |ref={{sfnref|OED 2025b}}}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikispecies}}
* [http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/plants/tree/ailalt/all.html U.S. Forest Service Fire Effects Information System: ''Ailanthus altissima'']
* [https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/profile/tree-heaven National Invasive Species Information Center: species profile of ''Ailanthus altissima'' (Tree of Heaven)], [[United States National Agricultural Library]]
* [https://www.invasive.org/alien/fact/aial1.htm National Park Service, Plant Conservation Alliance, Alien Plant Working Group: Tree of Heaven (''Ailanthus altissima'') report] 
* [https://www.calflora.org/cgi-bin/species_query.cgi?where-calrecnum=161 Calflora Database: ''Ailanthus altissima'' (Tree of Heaven, Ailanthus)]—introduced invasive species.
* [https://www.cal-ipc.org/resources/library/publications/ipcw/report3/ Cal-IPC/California Invasive Plant Council: plant profile of ''Ailanthus altissima'']
* {{CalPhotos|Ailanthus|altissima}}

{{Taxonbar|from=Q159570}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ailanthus|altissima]]
[[Category:Trees of China]]
[[Category:Trees of Korea]]
[[Category:Trees of Taiwan]]
[[Category:Trees of Asia]]
[[Category:Dioecious plants]]
[[Category:Flora of Guangxi]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Ornamental trees]]
[[Category:Introduced plants of South America]]
[[Category:Naturalized trees of Alabama]]
[[Category:Flora invasive in North America]]