View source for Ai-Khanoum

{{Short description|Ruined Hellenistic city in Afghanistan}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=October 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox ancient site
  |name = Ai-Khanoum
  |image = Ai Khanoum landscape photograph.jpeg
  |image_size =300
  |alt = Landscape photograph of ruined structures on a grassy plain.
  |caption = The primary sanctuary of Ai-Khanoum, as viewed from the acropolis in the late 1970s.{{sfn|Francfort|Grenet|Lecuyot|Martinez-Sève|2014|p=20}}
  |map_type = West Asia#Afghanistan#Bactria
  |map_alt = Alexandria-Oxus lies in the north of Afghanistan, close to the border with Tajikistan, in the region known as Bactria in antiquity.
  |map_size =300
  |relief=yes
  |coordinates = {{coord|37|09|53|N|69|24|31|E|display=inline,title}}
  |location = [[Takhar Province]], Afghanistan
  |region = [[Bactria]]
  |built = 3rd century BC
  |abandoned = 145&nbsp;BC – 2nd century&nbsp;BC
  |epochs = [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]]
  |excavations =  Between 1964 and 1978
  |archaeologists = [[Paul Bernard (archaeologist)|Paul Bernard]]
  |condition = Ruined since antiquity; also plundered by modern looters.
}}

'''Ai-Khanoum''' ({{IPAc-en|aɪ|_|ˈ|h|ɑː|nj|uː|m}}, meaning 'Lady Moon';{{sfn|Lecuyot|2020|p=540}} {{langx|uz|Oyxonim}}) is the [[archaeology|archaeological]] site of a [[Hellenistic]] city in [[Takhar Province]], Afghanistan. The city, whose original name is unknown,{{efn|Some scholars have suggested that the site's original name was '''*Oskobara''', an indigenous [[toponym]] with the meaning of "high bank". [[Ptolemy]] mentions a similar name, transcribed variously as Ostobara or Estobara, in his ''[[Geography (Ptolemy)|Geographia]]''.{{sfnm|Rapin|2007|1p=41|Ptolemy|c. 150|2loc=6.11.9}}}} was likely founded by an early ruler of the [[Seleucid Empire]] and served as a military and economic centre for the rulers of the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]] until its destruction {{circa|145}}&nbsp;BC. Rediscovered in 1961, the ruins of the city were excavated by [[French Archaeological Delegation in Afghanistan|a French team of archaeologists]] until [[Saur Revolution|the outbreak of conflict]] in Afghanistan in the late 1970s.

The city was probably founded between 300 and 285&nbsp;BC by an official acting on the orders of [[Seleucus&nbsp;I Nicator]] or his son [[Antiochus&nbsp;I Soter]], the first two rulers of the [[Seleucid dynasty]]. There is a possibility that the site was known to the earlier [[Achaemenid Empire]], who established a small fort nearby. Ai-Khanoum was originally thought to have been [[List of cities founded by Alexander the Great|a foundation]] of [[Alexander the Great]], perhaps as [[Alexandria Oxiana]], but this theory is now considered unlikely. Located at the confluence of the [[Amu Darya]] ({{aka}} Oxus) and [[Kokcha River|Kokcha]] rivers, surrounded by [[irrigation|well-irrigated]] farmland, the city itself was divided between a lower town and a {{convert|60|m|ft|adj=mid|-high}} [[acropolis]]. Although not situated on a major trade route, Ai-Khanoum controlled access to both mining in the [[Hindu Kush]] and strategically important choke points. Extensive fortifications, which were continually maintained and improved, surrounded the city.

Ai-Khanoum, which may have initially grown in population because of royal patronage and the presence of a [[mint (facility)|mint]] in the city, lost some importance through the secession of the Greco-Bactrians under [[Diodotus&nbsp;I]] ({{circa|250}}&nbsp;BC). Seleucid construction programmes were halted and the city probably became primarily military in function; it may have been a conflict zone during [[Antiochus III the Great#Bactrian campaign and Indian expedition|the invasion of Antiochus&nbsp;III]] ({{circa|209|205}}&nbsp;BC). Ai-Khanoum began to grow once more under [[Euthydemus&nbsp;I]] and his successor [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius&nbsp;I]], who began to assert control over the northwest [[Indian subcontinent]]. Many of the present ruins date from the time of [[Eucratides I]], who substantially redeveloped the city and who may have renamed it [[Eucratideia]], after himself. Soon after his death {{circa|145}}&nbsp;BC, the Greco-Bactrian kingdom collapsed—Ai-Khanoum was captured by [[Saka]] invaders and was generally abandoned, although parts of the city were sporadically occupied until the 2nd century AD. Hellenistic culture in the region would persist longer only in the [[Indo-Greek kingdoms]].

While on a hunting trip in 1961, the [[Kingdom of Afghanistan|King of Afghanistan]], [[Mohammed Zahir Shah]], rediscovered the city. An archaeological delegation, led by [[Paul Bernard (archaeologist)|Paul Bernard]], unearthed the remains of a huge palace in the lower town, along with a large [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]], a [[Theatre of ancient Greece#Architecture|theatre]] capable of holding 6,000 spectators, an arsenal, and two [[sanctuary|sanctuaries]]. Several inscriptions were found, along with [[Ancient Greek coinage#Hellenistic period (323–31 BC)|coins]], artefacts, and ceramics. The onset of the [[Soviet-Afghan War]] in the late 1970s halted scholarly progress and during [[Afghanistan conflict (1978–present)|the following conflicts in Afghanistan]], the site was extensively looted.
{{TOC limit|3}}

== History ==

=== Ancient ===
The precise date of Ai-Khanoum's founding is unknown. The northernmost outpost of the [[Indus Valley Civilization]] had been established at [[Shortugai]], around {{convert|20|km|mi}} north of Ai-Khanoum, during the late third millennium&nbsp;BC. Shortugai, which existed for several centuries, traded with its southern neighbours and constructed the first irrigation systems in the area.{{sfn|Martinez-Sève|2015|p=21}} A thousand years later, the area fell under the control of the Persian [[Achaemenids]], who established a [[satrapy]] (administrative province) centred on [[Bactra]] (present-day [[Balkh]]) and expanded eastwards [[Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley|by conquering the Indus Valley]]. To assert control over the local region, they founded a fort named Kohna Qala on a ford of the [[Oxus]], around {{convert|1.5|km|mi}} north of the later city.{{sfn|Mairs|2014|p=33}} Although scholars have speculated that a small Achaemenid garrison may have been placed at the location, there is no consensus that a settlement was established at Ai-Khanoum prior to the arrival of the Greco-Macedonians under [[Alexander the Great]] {{circa|328}}&nbsp;BC.{{sfnm|Martinez-Sève|2015|1pp=22–23|Mairs|2015|2p=109}}

Historians have disputed who ordered the transformation of this small settlement into the major city it became. Initially, Ai-Khanoum was identified as Alexandria Oxiana, [[List of cities founded by Alexander the Great|one of the cities founded]] by Alexander. There are considerable difficulties with identifying these cities, as the sources disagree; and the authors may have inadvertently referred to the same Alexandria as being at two different cities. As well as Ai-Khanoum, Alexandria Oxiana has been variously interpreted as being Alexandria in Sogdiana, Alexandria near Bactra, or as [[Termez]].{{efn|In 2019, having excavated a gate complex at [[Kampir Tepe]] in [[Uzbekistan]], which was identical to one earlier conquered by Alexander at [[Sillyon]], in [[Pamphylia]], the archaeologist [[Edvard Rtveladze]] announced yet another Alexandria Oxiana candidate.{{sfn|Ibbotson|2019}}}}{{sfn|Cohen|2013|pp=35–38}} As there is a lack of distinct identifying features (such as artwork, sculpture, or inscriptions) associating Alexander with the city, it remains unlikely that he did more than replace an Achaemenid garrison on the site, if it existed, with a Greek one.{{sfn|Mairs|2015|pp=109–111}}

{{Continental Asia in 200 BCE|left|Ai-Khanoum ([[File:Basic red dot.png|4px]]) and main polities in Asia, {{circa|200}} BC.{{sfn|O'Brien|2002|p=51}}|{{location map~ |Continental Asia |lat=37.164722|N |long=69.408611|E |label=|position=|label_size=|mark=Basic red dot.png|marksize=4}}}}
[[File:Ai-Khanoum-gold stater of Antiochos1.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.35|alt=A composite photograph of both sides of a golden coin: one side displays a head, while the other shows a seated figure.|Golden coin of the [[Seleucid Empire]] ruler [[Antiochos I]], with Ai-Khanoum mint mark on the reverse: [[File:AiKhanoumSymbol.jpg|15px]]]]

Based on ceramic data gathered at the site, it is likely that Ai-Khanoum was expanded in stages.{{sfn|Lerner|2003a|pp=378–380}} The first stage would have begun under one of the first rulers of the [[Seleucid Empire]]—either the empire's founder [[Seleucus&nbsp;I Nicator]] or his son and successor [[Antiochus&nbsp;I Soter]]. Seleucus established a cohesive Central Asian policy, which "went beyond the limited, ad hoc military and political aims of Alexander", according to historian [[Frank L. Holt|Frank Holt]].{{sfn|Holt|1999|p=28}} After the [[Seleucid–Mauryan war]], Seleucus ceded the [[Indus Valley]] to [[Chandragupta Maurya]], in return for a pact of friendship and 500 [[war elephants]]; he thus sought the sustained economic and military development of Bactria, which was now the headquarters of the Seleucids in the East.{{sfnm|Holt|1999|1pp=28–29|Cohen|2013|2p=39}}

Antiochus, who had a personal connection to the region through his mother, [[Apama]], the daughter of the [[Sogdia]]n warlord [[Spitamenes]], continued the policies of his father. Several of Ai-Khanoum's key buildings, including the [[#Heroön of Kineas|heroön]] (hero's shrine), the [[#Walls|northern fortifications]], and a shrine, were constructed under his reign.{{sfn|Martinez-Sève|2015|pp=27–28}} It is likely that a [[Mint (facility)|mint]] was opened in Ai-Khanoum in around 285&nbsp;BC, both because of the [[#Location and layout|metal deposits]] near the city and a growing Seleucid interest in eastern Bactria, which suggests that this mint spurred the growth of the city as a royal foundation.{{sfnm|Kritt|1996|1pp=31–34|Holt|1999|2p=114}} Around one-third of the bronze coins found in the city were issued in the period following Antiochus' accession in 281&nbsp;BC, an indication that he continued to spend money on the city.{{sfn|Martinez-Sève|2015|p=31}} Under his successor [[Antiochus II Theos|Antiochus&nbsp;II]], who came to the throne in 261&nbsp;BC, the mint continued to strike valuable coins and the ramparts were bolstered with a buttress and brick linings.{{sfnm|Kritt|1996|1p=26|Leriche|1986|2pp=44–54}}

The city's development was greatly slowed when [[Diodotus&nbsp;I]], governor of the eastern provinces, seceded from the Seleucids and founded the [[Greco-Bactrian Kingdom]]. Although Ai-Khanoum's temple and sanctuary were reconstructed under Diodotus, possibly to enhance religious legitimacy, most Seleucid construction programmes were not continued.{{sfn|Martinez-Sève|2015|p=35}} Bertille Lyonnet theorises that during this time Ai-Khanoum was merely "a military stronghold with administrative functions".{{sfn|Lyonnet|2012|p=158}} The [[Seleucid dynasty|Seleucid]] emperor [[Antiochus III the Great|Antiochus&nbsp;III]] invaded the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom in 209&nbsp;BC, defeating its ruler [[Euthydemus&nbsp;I]] at the [[Battle of the Arius]] and [[Siege of Bactra|unsuccessfully besieging Bactra]], Euthydemus' capital.{{sfn|Polybius|loc=10.48–49, 11.34}} Although there is no evidence that Ai-Khanoum was itself attacked by the invaders, Antiochus may have conducted operations near the city, or even minted his currency there.{{sfnm|Holt|1999|1p=125|Martinez-Sève|2015|2p=36}} He may have also brought new settlers to the region. The [[Indo-Greek Kingdom#Expansion of Demetrius into India|later conquests]] of Euthydemus and his successor [[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius&nbsp;I]] were also beneficial for the city, as the population increased and many public buildings were reconstructed.{{sfnm|Martinez-Sève|2014|1p=271|Martinez-Sève|2015|2pp=36–37}} The improvement in the city's fortunes can be seen through innovations in the manufacturing and sophistication of [[pottery]]—Achaemenid styles were replaced with more varied shapes, some of which were reminiscent of [[Megara|Megarian]] bowls.{{sfn|Martinez-Sève|2020|p=224}}

The city's zenith came during the rule of [[Eucratides&nbsp;I]] in the mid-second century&nbsp;BC, who probably made it his capital, naming it [[Eucratideia]]. During his reign, the [[#Palace complex|palace]] and gymnasium were constructed, the [[#Religious structures|main sanctuary]] and [[#Heroön of Kineas|heroön]] were rebuilt, and the [[#Other buildings|theatre]] was certainly active.{{sfn|Martinez-Sève|2014|p=271}} He probably sponsored Mediterranean artists to place himself on a par with other major Hellenistic kings, the status of his capital city thus being comparable to that of [[Alexandria]], [[Antioch]], or [[Pergamum]]. The [[#Treasury|treasury]] was found to house substantial quantities of the loot from his campaigns in India against the [[Indo-Greek]] [[Menander I|King Menander]].{{sfn|Martinez-Sève|2015|pp=39–40}} It is likely that Ai-Khanoum was already under attack by nomadic tribes when Eucratides was assassinated in around 144&nbsp;BC.{{sfnm|Justin|1853|1loc=41.6.5|Martinez-Sève|2015|2p=41}} This invasion was probably carried out by [[Saka]] tribes driven south by the [[Yuezhi]] peoples, who in turn formed a second wave of invaders, in around 130&nbsp;BC. The treasury complex shows signs of having been plundered in two assaults, fifteen years apart.{{sfn|Francfort|Grenet|Lecuyot|Martinez-Sève|2014|p=49}}

[[File:Yuezhi migrations.jpg|thumb|alt=A map showing the path taken by a tribe, from Central Asia in 176 BC to India in 30 CE. |Migrations of the [[Yuezhi]] tribes in the last two centuries BC]]

Although the first assault led to the end of Hellenistic rule in the city, Ai-Khanoum continued to be inhabited; it remains unknown whether this reoccupation was effected by Greco-Bactrian survivors or nomadic invaders.{{sfn|Mairs|2014|pp=172–173}} During this time, public buildings such as the palace and sanctuary were repurposed as residential dwellings and the city maintained some semblance of normality: some sort of authority, possibly cultish in origin, encouraged the inhabitants to reuse the raw building materials now freely available in the city for their own ends, whether for construction or trade.{{sfn|Martinez-Sève|2018|pp=409–410}} A silver ingot engraved with [[Xiongnu#Rock art and writing|runic]] letters and buried in a treasury room provides support for the theory that the Saka occupied the city, with tombs containing typical nomadic [[grave goods]] also being dug into the acropolis and the gymnasium. The reoccupation of the city was soon terminated by a huge fire.{{sfnm|Martinez-Sève|2018|1pp=406–407|Mairs|2014|2pp=171–172}} It is unknown when the final occupants of Ai-Khanoum abandoned the city. The final signs of any habitation date from the 2nd century AD; by this time, more than {{convert|2.5|m|ft}} of earth had accumulated in the palace.{{sfn|Martinez-Sève|2018|pp=413–414}}

=== Modern ===
On 18 March 1838, a British soldier-explorer named [[John Wood (explorer)|John Wood]] was travelling in [[Badakshan]] as a representative of the [[East India Company]]. He was informed by his guides of the existence of an ancient city in the area, which the natives called ''Babarrah''.{{sfnm|Wood|1841|1pp=394–395|Bernard|2001|2p=977}} All his inquiries were rebuffed by the local inhabitants and the chance of rediscovery was lost, as Wood wrote in an account:{{sfn|Holt|1994|p=9}}

{{blockquote
|text=The appearance of the place, however, does indicate the truth of [Tajik] tradition, that an ancient city once stood here. On the site of the town was an Uzbek encampment; but from its inmates, we could glean no information, and to all our inquiries about coins and relics, they only vouchsafed a vacant stare or an idiotic laugh.
|source=
}}

[[File:President John F. Kennedy Greets King of Afghanistan, Mohammad Ẓāhir Shāh (02).jpg|thumb|alt=A black and white photograph from 1963 showing Mohammed Zahir Shah, King of Afghanistan, and John F. Kennedy, President of the United States.|[[Kingdom of Afghanistan|King]] [[Mohammed Zahir Shah]] (right) in 1963, two years after his rediscovery of Ai-Khanoum, in the company of [[President of the United States|US President]] [[John F. Kennedy]]]]

In 1961, the [[King of Afghanistan]], [[Mohammed Zahir Shah]], was on a hunting expedition when he noticed the still-visible outline of the city from a hillside. He called in the [[French Archaeological Delegation in Afghanistan]] (DAFA), who had been excavating sites in the country since 1923.{{sfn|Bernard|2001|pp=971–972}} The excavation was led first by [[Daniel Schlumberger]] and then by [[Paul Bernard (archaeologist)|Paul Bernard]]. As the city had never been resettled after its abandonment, the ruins lay close to the surface and were easy to excavate.{{sfn|Bernard|1996|pp=101–102}} At other sites in the region, successive generations built upon the foundations of their predecessors, leaving the Hellenistic construction layer as much as {{convert|15|m|ft}} below the ground.{{sfn|Martinez-Sève|2014|p=269}}

Nevertheless, the excavation of Ai-Khanoum proved problematic and complex. The city's immense size meant that DAFA's small team had to focus their attention on key areas, especially when the French [[Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs (France)|Ministry for Europe and Foreign Affairs]] decreased its funding in the mid-1970s.{{sfn|Mairs|2014|p=62}} The inaccessibility of the city's [[acropolis]] and the roughness of its terrain meant that any excavation there was much more difficult than on the lower level, leading to it being studied much less than the lower city.{{sfnm|Leriche|1986|1loc=preface, i|Mairs|2014|2p=62}} Despite these and other constraints, DAFA did not compromise on scientific rigour or procedure.{{sfn|Martinez-Sève|2014|p=269}} In 1974, the remit of the mission was expanded to include paleogeographical and archaeological surveys of the surrounding areas; building upon these successful surveys, further fieldwork was also planned.{{sfn|Martinez-Sève|2020|p=220}}

All archaeological work was stopped in 1978, when the [[Saur Revolution]] sparked the [[Soviet-Afghan War]] and triggered the [[Afghanistan conflict (1978–present)|still-ongoing political instability]] in [[Afghanistan]].{{sfn|Martinez-Sève|2020|p=220}} During the warfare, the site was comprehensively looted and several important artefacts were sold on the antiquities market to private collectors.{{sfnm|Martinez-Sève|2014|1p=269|Mairs|2014|2p=26}}{{efn|The artefacts excavated by the DAFA archaeologists had been accepted by the [[National Museum of Afghanistan]], which would later exhibit them in [[Paris]].{{sfnm|Mairs|2014|1p=26|2a1=Jarrige|2a2=Cambon|2y=2007|2pp=146–147}}}} The systematic [[looting]] of the northern part of the lower city appears to have been carried out through the digging of hundreds of holes. Although this suggests that the looters expected to find artefacts in an area DAFA had not excavated, the archaeological integrity of the site has been compromised.{{sfn|Lecuyot|2007|p=160}} Although similar holes were found in the gymnasium complex, the palace complex perhaps suffered the greatest damage: the walls were used as a quarry for building materials (in some places even the deepest foundations were gutted), while the small quantities of limestone at the site, primarily found as decoration or [[Capital (architecture)|capitals]], were consumed in [[lime kiln]]s.{{sfn|Bernard|2001|pp=991–993}} The [[Northern Alliance]] built a gun battery atop the acropolis, further destabilizing the site.{{sfn|Mairs|2013|p=90}}

== Site ==
{{multiple image
 | align = left
 | direction = vertical
 | width = 350
 | image1 = Plan AI Khanoum-fr.svg
 | alt1 = A plan of the layout of Ai-Khanoum.
 | image2 = Greco-BactrianKingdomMap.jpg
 | alt2 = A map of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom and surrounding polities, displaying key cities, regions, and topography.
 | footer = Ai-Khanoum, situated on a triangular peninsula at the junction of two rivers, was a major centre of the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom.
 }}

=== Location and layout ===
The city of Ai-Khanoum was founded at the southwest corner of a plain in the region of [[Bactria]], at the [[confluence]] of the Oxus (modern [[Amu Darya]]) and [[Kokcha River|Kokcha]] rivers. The plain, which covered an area of around {{convert|300|km2|acre}}, was triangular, being bounded by the rivers on two sides and the mountains of the eastern [[Hindu Kush]] on the third.{{sfn|Martinez-Sève|2015|p=20}} The [[loess]] soil of the plain was naturally suitable for agriculture; the proximity to the rivers allowed for the construction of irrigation canals; and the nearby highlands provided herders with large areas of summer pasturage.{{sfn|Bernard|1982|p=148}} The area was also rich in minerals: mines on the upper Kokcha in Badakshan were the only sources of [[lapis lazuli]] in the world, also producing copper, iron, lead, and rubies.{{efn|Gemstone mining on the Kokcha has remained productive into the 21st century, despite 6,500 years of near-continuous extraction.{{sfn|Renaud|2014|pp=4–5}}}}{{sfnm|Mairs|2014|1p=29|Holt|2012|2p=101}} The city was {{convert|10|km|mi}} downstream from the confluence of the Oxus and [[Qizilsu]], a tributary whose valley provided access to the mineral-rich [[Pamir Mountains|Western Pamirs]] and [[Chinese Turkestan]], but which also formed a natural corridor for any potential northern invaders.{{efn|The Qizilsu valley served as a strategically important corridor as recently as the [[Afghan Civil War (1992–1996)|Afghan Civil War]] when international humanitarian aid for the forces of [[Ahmad Shah Massoud]] was routed through it.{{sfn|Bernard|2001|pp=976, 994}}}} Ai-Khanoum therefore served as a strategically important bulwark, despite not controlling a major crossing of the Oxus or any other large trade route.{{sfnm|Martinez-Sève|2015|1p=20|Cohen|2013|2p=225}}

Reflecting the city's strategic importance, its founders built Ai-Khanoum to a high defensive standard. To the south and west lay the Kokcha and Oxus, respectively—both riverbanks were steep cliffs more than {{convert|20|m|ft}} high, which presented a challenge to any amphibious assault.{{sfn|Leriche|2007|pp=140–141}} Meanwhile, any eastward approach was protected by a natural acropolis, around {{convert|60|m|ft}} in height, which stretched about {{convert|2|km|mi}} north from the Kokcha.{{sfn|Bernard|1982|p=148}} This plateau also included a small citadel at its southeast corner—protected by the {{convert|80|m|ft|adj=on}}-high cliffs on two sides and a small moat on the third, this {{convert|150|by|100|m|ft}} fort served as the defensive headquarters of Ai-Khanoum.{{sfnm|Bernard|1982|1p=148|Leriche|2007|2p=141}}

{{anchor|Walls}}
These natural defences were reinforced by walls that completely enclosed Ai-Khanoum's city and acropolis. The northern ramparts, which were not assisted by any natural features, were built to be particularly strong:{{sfn|Bernard|1996|p=106}} the {{convert|10|m|ft|adj=on}}-high and {{convert|6|m|ft|adj=on}}-thick walls were built out of solid [[mud brick]]s and protected by large towers and a steep ditch.{{sfn|Bernard|1982|p=148}} The size of these ramparts allowed a few defending soldiers to nullify siege engines and engage an attacking force with minimal casualties; the large scale also reflects the low confidence of the Greek architects in the strength of mud-brick walls.{{sfn|Leriche|2007|p=142}} The main gate of the city was set in the northern rampart, which also guarded the canal that supplied water to the city's centre.{{sfn|Francfort|Grenet|Lecuyot|Martinez-Sève|2014|p=27}}

From the main gate, a street ran southwards in a straight line along the base of the acropolis and continued through the lower city to the southern riverbank—a distance of about {{convert|1.5|km|mi}}.{{sfn|Lecuyot|2007|p=156}} Apart from the southern zone, which housed large dwellings organised in three blocks, the lower town was unplanned; this distinguishes Ai-Khanoum from other Hellenistic foundations of the Near East, such as [[Seleucia on the Tigris]], which tended to be built according to the [[Hippodamus of Miletus|Hippodamian grid plan]].{{sfnm|Cohen|2013|1p=225|Leriche|2007|2p=141}} It was also the subject of a major redevelopment during the early second century&nbsp;BC, which resulted in slight disunity in the orientations of some major buildings (the palace, for example, is at an angle to the older main street).{{sfn|Mairs|2014|p=63}} Ai-Khanoum was built predominantly using unbaked bricks, with baked bricks and stone used much less often.{{sfn|Mairs|2014|p=63}}

=== Palace complex ===
{{multiple image|perrow = 3|total_width= 400 |align=right
| image1 = Ai Khanoum Portrait of a man, found in the administrative palace.jpg
| alt1   = A stucco mask with a high level of detail, but with missing sections and numerous cracks
| image2 = CapitalSharp.jpg
| alt2   = The capital of a Corinthian column, showing detail of leaf carvings
| image3 = Ai-Khanoum high-relief.jpg
| alt3   = A marble relief of a man wearing a toga; the head is missing, along with parts of all four limbs
| image4 = Ai Khanum Antefix from the administrative palace.jpg
| alt4   = A sculpture known as a "palmette antefix" displaying large leaf fronds
| image5 = Ai-Khanoum mosaic.jpg
| alt5   = A red-orange mosaic displaying patterns and a central motif of a star-like symbol
| footer= Decorations of the Ai-Khanoum palace, clockwise from upper left: a [[stucco]] mask, a [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] column capital, a relief of a [[chlamys]]-garbed man in [[contrapposto]] style, a mosaic reminiscent of contemporary Hellenistic art, and a [[palmette]] [[antefix]]
}}
The palace complex was large, measuring about {{convert|350|by|250|m|ft}} and occupying around a third of the lower town.{{sfnm|Cohen|2013|1p=226|Martinez-Sève|2015|2p=39}} The size and intricacy of the complex, which was built on the order of Eucratides I, would have served as a demonstration of the ruler's power and wealth;{{sfn|Martinez-Sève|2015|p=39}} Bernard commented that it "simultaneously served three functions: it was a state structure, a residence, and a treasury".{{sfn|Bernard|1982|p=151}} A huge plaza, {{convert|27000|m2|acre}} in area, lay to the south of the palace and may have been used for military parades, drills, or simply as garrison quarters.{{sfn|Francfort|Grenet|Lecuyot|Martinez-Sève|2014|p=38}} The palace itself was accessed through a gateway known as the Main [[Propylaea]], which opened on the west side of the main street; the propylaea itself had been built by an earlier ruler and was reconstructed under Eucratides.{{sfn|Martinez-Sève|2014|pp=270–271}} Encompassing a wide portico in between two adjoining porches, the roof of the structure was noted for its [[palmette]] [[antefix]]es. It allowed access to a curved road that ran towards the palace's courtyard.{{sfn|Francfort|Grenet|Lecuyot|Martinez-Sève|2014|p=34}}

This rectangular courtyard, which measured {{convert|137|by|108|m|ft}} and served as the main entrance to the palace, was entered from the curved road through another propylaeum. The courtyard was bordered by 118 [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] columns.{{sfn|Rapin|1990|p=333}} The columns of the north, east, and west colonnades were {{convert|5.7|m|ft}} high, while those of the south colonnade were almost {{convert|10|m|ft}} tall, forming a Rhodian [[peristyle]]. The palace was entered through a [[hypostyle]] behind the southern portico; this vestibule, similar in style to a Persian ''[[iwan]]'', was supported by eighteen columns, ornamented slightly differently from those in the courtyard.{{sfnm|Mairs|2014|1p=69|2a1=Francfort|2a2=Grenet|2a3=Lecuyot|2a4=Martinez-Sève|2y=2014|2p=39}} On the southern side of the hypostyle, a door opened onto a large reception room ornamented with decorations including wooden sconces, painted [[protome]]s of lions, and geometrical art; this room was probably enclosed, as it had no drainage system, and it allowed access to the other areas of the palace through doors on every side.{{sfnm|Mairs|2014|1pp=69–70|2a1=Francfort|2a2=Grenet|2a3=Lecuyot|2a4=Martinez-Sève|2y=2014|2p=41}}

The palace was divided into three zones, each serving different functions and linked by a network of courtyards and long corridors, which were carefully placed, allowing both seclusion and easy access for royalty and highly ranked officials.{{sfnm|Rapin|1990|1p=333|Mairs|2014|2p=66}} South of the reception area lay a suite of rooms that would have served as the administrative quarters, consisting of a [[quadrangle (architecture)|quadrangular]] block of two pairs of units separated from each other by corridors meeting at right angles; the eastern pair were used as audience halls, while the western pair possibly functioned as [[Chancery (medieval office)|chancelleries]].{{sfnm|Rapin|1990|1p=333|Mairs|2014|2pp=70–71}} The entrances to the chambers from the encircling corridors were offset, meaning that, in theory, two separate groups could have entered the complex, been allowed an audience, received a decision, and left, without seeing each other.{{sfn|Mairs|2014|p=71}}

West of the administrative quarter, on the southwestern side of the palace, lay two units that were identified, by the presence of [[bathroom#Greek and Roman bathing|bathrooms]], as residential in purpose.{{sfn|Francfort|Grenet|Lecuyot|Martinez-Sève|2014|p=43}} In layout, the structures were similar to other residences excavated in the city, with a small courtyard to the north and living quarters to the south.{{sfn|Rapin|1990|p=334}} The larger of the units, which contained other features such as a small ''iwan'' behind the courtyard, lay to the west and was separated from its smaller neighbour by an isolating corridor.{{sfn|Mairs|2014|p=72}} The three-room bathrooms lay to the rear of the units and were tiled with limestone slabs and pebble mosaics of palmettes and marine animals, continuing [[Hellenistic art#Mosaics|an existing tradition of Hellenistic art]].{{sfn|Rapin|1990|p=334}} Based on the more private nature of the western unit, scholars have speculated that it was intended for the sovereign's family, as contrasted with the eastern unit, which was probably intended for the monarch himself and his intimate companions.{{sfn|Francfort|Grenet|Lecuyot|Martinez-Sève|2014|pp=43–44}} North of the residential units lay a small courtyard, which was connected to a small library in the treasury.{{sfn|Rapin|1990|p=334}}

==== Treasury ====
The treasury building, on the western side of the palace courtyard, from which it could be entered, constituted the third zone. This building was of late construction, as the treasury itself was likely previously located in buildings east of the courtyard.{{sfn|Mairs|2014|p=72}} In its latest form, the treasury building was composed of twenty-one rooms grouped around a square courtyard of approximately {{convert|30|m|ft}} on a side. The thirteen rooms on the southern, eastern, and western sides opened directly onto this courtyard, while the eight storage rooms to the north were accessed from doors on an east–west corridor.{{sfn|Francfort|Grenet|Lecuyot|Martinez-Sève|2014|p=47}} The complex housed the inventory of the palace in vases labelled in Greek, including gemstones and lapis lazuli from the Badakshan mines, ivory, olive oil, incense, a [[cash reserve]], and other valuables.{{sfn|Rapin|1990|p=334}}

{{multiple image|perrow = 2
 | align = right
 | total_width=400
 | direction = horizontal
 | image1 = Ai Khanoum Ostraca from the treasury.jpg
 | alt1 = Broken ostracon from the Ai-Khanoum treasury, displaying inscription
 | image2 = Philosophical papyrus Ai Khanoum.jpg
 | alt2 = Image of a philosophical dialogue retrieved at Ai-Khanoum
 | image3 = Sakuntala plate reconstitution.jpg
 | alt3 = A disc made out of mother-of-pearl, with partial ornamentation still visible, alongside a possible reconstruction of the original decoration
 | footer=Artefacts of the palace treasury, clockwise from top left: broken ostracon from the Ai-Khanoum treasury, displaying inscription; papyrus with philosophical text, Ai Khanoum treasury, 2nd century BC;  Indian disc that probably depicts the myth of [[Sakuntala]], with partial reconstruction (right)}}
Many of the vase labels, which were either written with ink or inscribed post-firing, describe monetary transactions: for example, one attests that an official named Zenon had transferred 500 [[Ancient drachma|drachma]]s to two employees named Oxèboakès and Oxybazos, who were responsible for depositing the sum in the vase and sealing it.{{sfnm|Mairs|2014|1pp=47–49|2a1=Francfort|2a2=Grenet|2a3=Lecuyot|2a4=Martinez-Sève|2y=2014|2p=50}} Most of the names inscribed on the labels are of Greek origin, but some, like Oxèboakès and Oxybazos, are not; these Bactrian-Iranian names were never inscribed in the "senior" position. Scholars have disputed whether a meaningful conclusion can be drawn.{{sfnm|Mairs|2014|1pp=47–52|Rapin|1992|2p=339|3a1=Francfort|3a2=Grenet|3a3=Lecuyot|3a4=Martinez-Sève|3y=2014|3pp=50–51}}

Some of the other vases indicate transportation of luxury goods, such as incense from the Middle East or olive oil from the Mediterranean. Because of the perishable nature of the oil inside it, one of these vases is inscribed with the regnal year of the monarch (Year 24). Combined with other inscriptions in the treasury and the identification of the ruling monarch as Eucratides I, the date of Ai-Khanoum's fall has been dated with fair certainty to around 145&nbsp;BC. Several items in the treasury are likely to have been loot brought back by Eucratides from his Indian conquests: these include Indian [[agate]]s and jewellery, offerings from Buddhist [[stupa]]s, and a disc of [[mother-of-pearl]] plates depicting a scene from Hindu mythology.{{sfnm|Rapin|1990|1pp=334–336|2a1=Francfort|2a2=Grenet|2a3=Lecuyot|2a4=Martinez-Sève|2y=2014|2pp=51–54}} This disc, which was decorated with [[polychrome]] glass paste and gold thread, most probably represents the meeting of [[Dushyanta]] and [[Shakuntala]].{{sfnm|Rapin|1992|1pp=191–192|2a1=Jarrige|2a2=Cambon|2y=2007|2p=150|3a1=Francfort|3a2=Grenet|3a3=Lecuyot|3a4=Martinez-Sève|3y=2014|3p=54}}

The library was located at the south of the treasury near the residential quarters. Its function was identified through the discovery of two literary fragments, one on papyrus and the other on parchment; the organic writing material had decomposed, but through a process similar to [[decalcomania]], the letters had been engraved on fine earth formed from mudbrick decomposition.{{sfnm|Hollis|2011|1p=107|2a1=Francfort|2a2=Grenet|2a3=Lecuyot|2a4=Martinez-Sève|2y=2014|2p=49}} The parchment constituted an unknown [[Theatre of ancient Greece|theatrical work]], most probably a [[trimetrical]] [[Greek tragedy|tragedy]], possibly involving [[Dionysus]], a figure known for travelling to India and the East.{{sfn|Hollis|2011|pp=108–109}} On the other hand, the papyrus was a [[Socratic dialogue|philosophical dialogue]] discussing the [[theory of forms]] of [[Plato]], which some have considered a lost work by [[Aristotle]].{{sfnm|Hollis|2011|1p=107|Auffret|2019|2p=25}} It is also possible, conversely, that the text was written by a Greco-Bactrian philosopher in Ai-Khanoum.{{sfn|Lerner|2003b|p=50}}

=== Private housing ===
A residential zone was situated in the area south of the palatial complex. This consisted of rows of blocks of large aristocratic houses, separated by streets at right angles to the main north–south road.{{sfn|Leriche|2007|p=141}} The DAFA archaeologists chose to excavate a house near the end of the fourth row from the palace, close to the confluence of the two rivers. This house, {{convert|66|by|35|m|ft}} in area, showed evidence of three older architectural stages dating back half a century to {{circa|200}} BC; it consisted of a large courtyard to the north and the main building to the south, separated by a large porch with two columns. The main building comprised a central reception room, encircled by a corridor which provided access to the bath complex, kitchen, and other rooms.{{sfnm|Lecuyot|2020|1p=543|2a1=Francfort|2a2=Grenet|2a3=Lecuyot|2a4=Martinez-Sève|2y=2014|2pp=69–71}}

{{anchor|Extramural house}}
Another house, located {{convert|150|m|ft}} outside the northern rampart, was partially excavated in 1973; the archaeologists were only able to study the central part of the main building and part of the western side in detail. This extramural dwelling was much larger than the one inside the city, covering an area of {{convert|108|by|72|m|ft}}. With a large courtyard to the north and buildings to the south, it had a similar layout to the urban house, although its main building was divided by an east–west corridor into two halves—the northern section formed the living quarters, with a central reception room, while the southern section included the service quarters and bath complex. Fragments of columns found at the site indicate a height of nearly {{convert|8|m|ft}}.{{sfnm|Lecuyot|2020|1p=543|2a1=Francfort|2a2=Grenet|2a3=Lecuyot|2a4=Martinez-Sève|2y=2014|2pp=72–73}}

As the large dwellings at Ai-Khanoum, including those in the palace, have little in common with the traditional Greek ''[[oikos]]'', scholars have theorised as to their origin. The prevailing hypothesis suggests an [[Iranian architecture|Iranian origin]], similar styles being visible at [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] [[Nisa, Turkmenistan|Nisa]] and [[Dilberjin Tepe]] under the [[Kushan Empire]].{{sfnm|Lecuyot|2020|1pp=549–550|2a1=Francfort|2a2=Grenet|2a3=Lecuyot|2a4=Martinez-Sève|2y=2014|2p=71}} The city also contained other types of housing, including smaller houses for people of lower status.{{sfn|Lecuyot|2020|p=548}}

=== Religious structures ===
The excavators discovered three temples at Ai-Khanoum—a large [[sanctuary]] on the main street near the palace, a smaller temple in a similar style outside the northern wall, and an open-air podium on the acropolis.{{sfn|Bernard|1982|pp=158–159}} The large sanctuary, often called the Temple with Indented Niches,{{efn|French: "temple à niches indentées"; alternatively called the Stepped Temple ("temple à redans").{{sfn|Mairs|2013|loc=p. 92, note 29}}}} was located prominently in the lower city, between the main street and the palace, and it consisted of a square edifice upon a {{convert|1.5|m|ft|adj=on}}-high podium, surrounded by an open area.{{sfn|Bernard|1982|p=159}} It was constructed by the early [[Diodotid dynasty|Diodotids]] on the site of a very early Seleucid structure, which had been established shortly after the city's foundation.{{sfnm|Mairs|2013|1p=93|2a1=Francfort|2a2=Grenet|2a3=Lecuyot|2a4=Martinez-Sève|2y=2014|2p=57}} The eponymous indented niches were situated on the {{convert|6|m|ft|adj=on}}-high temple walls—one was on each side of the front entrance, while each of the other sides was sculpted with four more.{{sfn|Francfort|Grenet|Lecuyot|Martinez-Sève|2014|p=56}} The courtyard was enclosed on three sides by buildings. To the southwest, there was a wooden [[colonnade]] with Oriental pedestals; to the southeast was a series of small rooms and porticoes adjoining a porch with columns of the [[distyle in antis]] style, which formed the entrance from the main street; and an altar was situated in the northeast wall.{{sfn|Francfort|Grenet|Lecuyot|Martinez-Sève|2014|p=56}}

{{multiple image
 | align = left
 | perrow = 2
 | total_width = 480
 | image1 = AyKhanoumWoman.png
 | alt1 = Black and white image of the face and upper torso of a sculpted woman
 | caption1 = Clay mould of a bust of a veiled woman; the bust decorated a bowl in the sanctuary.{{sfn|Tissot|2006|p=31}}
 | image2 = AiKhanoumPlateSharp.jpg
 | alt2 = Black plate with golden decoration, depicting two figures seated in a chariot pulled by two lions facing an altar, underneath the sun, moon, and another figure.
 | caption2 = A [[Ai-Khanoum plaque|disc]] depicting a chariot being pulled by two lions through a mountainous landscape towards an altar.
 }}
From the beginning of the excavation, the [[Persian architecture|Persian]] and [[Achaemenid architecture|Achaemenid]] elements of the temple's architecture were remarked upon.{{sfn|Bernard|1982|p=159}} The identifying "indented niches", along with the building's three-stepped platform, were common features of [[Architecture of Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian architecture]] and successor styles.{{sfn|Mairs|2013|pp=97–98}} Many artefacts were found at the temple, including [[libation]] vessels (common to both [[Ancient Greek religion|Greek]] and Central Asian religious practices), ivory furniture and [[figurine]]s, [[Terracotta#In art history|terracottas]], and a singular medallion (''pictured'').{{sfn|Mairs|2013|pp=94–95}} This [[Ai-Khanoum plaque|disc]], which depicts the Greek goddess [[Cybele]] accompanied by [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]] in a chariot drawn by lions, was described as "remarkable" by the [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] on account of its "hybrid Greek and Oriental imagery". Made of silver, the disk combines components of Greek culture, such as the [[chlamys]] all the deities wear, with Oriental design motifs such as the fixed pose of the figures and the crescent moon.{{sfnm|Bernard|1970|1pp=339–247|Metropolitan Museum of Art 2019}}

The small fragments that remain of the [[cult statue]], which would have stood at the centre of the temple, show that it was sculpted according to the [[Ancient Greek sculpture|Greek tradition]]; a small portion of the left foot has survived and displays a thunderbolt, a common motif of [[Zeus]]. Based on the apparent dissonance between the Greek statue and the Oriental temple it was located in, scholars have posited the [[religious syncretism|syncretism]] of Zeus and a Bactrian deity such as [[Ahura Mazda]], [[Mithra]], or a deity representing the Oxus.{{sfnm|Mairs|2013|1p=94|2a1=Francfort|2a2=Grenet|2a3=Lecuyot|2a4=Martinez-Sève|2y=2014|2p=57}} The thunderbolt has also been used as an attribute for the goddesses [[Artemis]], [[Athena]], or even Cybele; it could even be purely symbolic.{{sfn|Francfort|2012|p=122}}

The DAFA archaeologists were only able to perform superficial studies of the other two religious structures. The temple outside the northern wall, which had succeeded a simpler and smaller structure on the site, somewhat resembled the grand central sanctuary in architecture with [[Niche (architecture)|niches]] in the walls, but featured, instead of a cult image, three chapels for worship.{{sfnm|Mairs|2013|1p=92|2a1=Francfort|2a2=Grenet|2a3=Lecuyot|2a4=Martinez-Sève|2y=2014|2p=60}} The podium on the acropolis was oriented towards the east, provoking suggestions that it was used as a sacrificial platform for [[Solar deity|worship of the rising sun]], as similar platforms have been found in the region.{{efn|Additionally, the Greek historians [[Herodotus]] and [[Strabo]] described Persian practices of open-air religious worship.{{sfn|Cohen|2013|p=227}}}}{{sfn|Mairs|2013|pp=92–93}} As the acropolis was primarily military, with only a few small residences, scholars have suggested that it was used as a [[ghetto|ghetto quarter]] for native Bactrian soldiers; the validity of this segregationary hypothesis continues to be debated.{{sfnm|Holt|1999|1p=45|Mairs|2013|2p=110}}

==== Heroön of Kineas ====
One of the most-studied monuments in the city is a small [[heroön]], located just north of the palace in the lower town. This shrine, which was constructed on a three-stepped platform, consisted of a distyle in antis [[pronaos]] and a narrow [[cella]].{{sfnm|Wallace|2016|1p=216|Martinez-Sève|2014|2p=274}} Four coffins—two wooden and two stone—were found underneath the platform. Burials were generally not allowed within the walls of Greek cities—hence Ai-Khanoum's necropolis being located outside the northern ramparts—but special exemptions were made for prominent citizens, especially city founders.{{sfn|Martinez-Sève|2014|p=274}} Since the shrine predated every other structure in the lower city, it reasonably may be supposed that the person the heroön was built to honour was either the city's founder or an extremely notable early citizen.{{sfn|Mairs|2015|pp=112–114}} The most prominent of the coffins, which was also the earliest, was linked to the upper temple by an opening and conduit down which offerings could be poured.{{sfn|Wallace|2016|p=216}} As the builders had not endowed any of the other [[sarcophagi]] with such a feature, this coffin would likely have housed the remains of that eminent citizen, while the others were reserved for family members.{{sfn|Mairs|2015|p=112}} The general scholarly consensus is thus that this man, known from an inscription to have been named Kineas, was the Seleucid ''[[epistates]]'' or ''[[oikistes]]'' who governed the first settlers of Ai-Khanoum.{{sfnm|Cohen|2013|1p=225|Martinez-Sève|2015|2pp=30–31|3a1=Francfort|3a2=Grenet|3a3=Lecuyot|3a4=Martinez-Sève|3y=2014|3p=37}}

[[File:KineasInscriptionSharp.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|alt=A large white cuboid block, with engraved Greek script visible along one side.|The stele found in the heroön of Kineas, inscribed with [[Delphic maxims]] and a dedicatory epigram]]

The archaeologists unearthed the base of a [[stele]] placed in a prominent position in the pronaos. Engraved upon it were the last five lines of [[Delphic maxims|a series of maxims]], originally displayed at the [[Temple of Apollo (Delphi)|Temple of Apollo]] in [[Delphi]]—only small and barely legible fragments of the upright portion of the stele, which would have been inscribed with the first 145 maxims, survive.{{sfnm|Bernard|1982|1p=157|Mairs|2014|2p=73}} An [[epigram#Ancient Greek|epigram]] was inscribed adjacent to the maxims, commemorating a man named Klearchos, who had copied the maxims from the Delphic sanctuary:

{{Verse translation
 | lang       = grc
 |italicsoff = yes
 |ἀνδρῶν τοι σοφὰ ταῦτα παλαιοτέρων ἀνάκει[τα]ι
ῥήματα ἀριγνώτων Πυθοὶ ἐν ἠγαθέαι
ἔνθεν ταῦτ[α] Κλέαρχος ἐπιφραδέως ἀναγράψας
εἵσατο τηλαυγῆ Κινέου ἐν τεμένει.<br />
παῖς ὢν κόσμιος γίνου
ἡβῶν ἐγκρατής
μέσος δίκαιος
πρεσβύτης εὔβουλος
τελευτῶν ἄλυπος
 |These wise sayings of men of old,
The words of famous men, are consecrated
At holy Delphi, where Klearchos copied them from carefully
To set them up, shining from afar, in the sanctuary of Kineas.<br />
As a child, be well behaved;
As a young man, self-controlled;
In middle age, be just;
As an elder, be of good counsel;
And when you come to the end, be without grief.
 | attr1      =
 | attr2      = trans. Shane Wallace and Rachel Mairs.{{efn|The first four lines (the dedication) were translated by Wallace and the remainder (the maxims) by Mairs.{{sfnm|Wallace|2016|1p=215|Mairs|2014|2p=73}}}}
}}

In 1968, [[Louis Robert (historian)|Louis Robert]], a French historian, proposed that the Klearchos named in the inscription was the philosopher [[Clearchus of Soli]]. This identification was founded on the fact that the philosopher Clearchus had written extensively on the morals and cultures of barbarian and Oriental cultures. Robert proposed that on a journey to research his literary subjects in more detail, Clearchus had stopped at Ai-Khanoum and set up his stele there.{{sfnm|Robert|1968|1pp=443–454|Lerner|2003a|2p=393}} This theory was [[scientific consensus|accepted as fact]], and was often cited as an example of the purely Greek nature of Ai-Khanoum and of the interconnected nature of the Hellenistic world.{{sfn|Wallace|2016|p=217}} Later historians have dismissed Robert's hypothesis: Jeffrey Lerner noted that there is no evidence to support the assumption that Clearchus travelled to the eastern regions for research, as opposed to simply using a reference source;{{sfn|Lerner|2003a|pp=393–394}} following Lerner, Rachel Mairs observed, knowing the philosopher's approximate date of death, that the placement of the stele in the sanctuary would have been a generation after the presumed journey;{{sfn|Mairs|2015|pp=115–116}} Shane Wallace, meanwhile, has noted that Klearchus was not an uncommon name and thus Robert's identification was improbable at best.{{sfn|Wallace|2016|p=217}} All three propose instead that this Klearchus was a resident of Ai-Khanoum.{{sfn|Wallace|2016|pp=217–218}}

Despite the refutation of Robert's theory, the stele still maintains its importance in modern analyses. The text of the epigram is poetic in its composition and vocabulary, echoing well-known Greek works such as [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]'', [[Pindar]]'s odes, and possibly even [[Apollonius of Rhodes|Apollonius]]' ''[[Argonautica]]''.{{sfn|Hollis|2011|p=109}} Mairs and Wallace have attributed the inscription and placing of the stele to "the first Bactrian-born generation" in the middle or late second century BC; they propose that this generation sought to define themselves as part of the wider Greek world by giving Ai-Khanoum legitimacy in the eyes of Delphi, itself a symbol of Hellenic unity.{{sfnm|Mairs|2015|1pp=120–122|Wallace|2016|2pp=216–219}} The poem also shares thematic elements with the Buddhist [[Edicts of Ashoka]] (inscribed in 260–232 BC); and Valeri Yailenko has proposed that it may have inspired them, suggesting a contribution of Hellenistic philosophy to the development of Buddhist moral precepts.{{sfn|Yailenko|1990|p=256}}

=== Other buildings ===
[[File:PhilosopherBust.jpg|thumb|upright=0.78|alt=Head and upper body of a statue depicting an old man with a large beard. Minimal damage includes a missing nose.|Head of a statue found in the gymnasium]]
A [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]] was located along the western ramparts. In its final architectural phase, it covered an area of {{convert|390|by|100|m|ft}}, divided between a southern courtyard and a northern complex, and was accessible from both the palace district and a street running behind the riverside fortifications.{{sfnm|Mairs|2014|1p=67|2a1=Francfort|2a2=Grenet|2a3=Lecuyot|2a4=Martinez-Sève|2y=2014|2p=63}} There were three doors allowing entrance from the courtyard to a corridor which encircled the main complex. This comprised long rectangular rooms surrounding a square central courtyard, entered through four [[exedra]]e, one on each side; the exedra on the northern side contained a small plinth bearing an inscribed dedication and a statue.{{sfn|Francfort|Grenet|Lecuyot|Martinez-Sève|2014|p=63}} The inscription was addressed to [[Hermes]] and [[Heracles]], the two [[Tutelary deity|patron deities]] of the Greek gymnasium, by two brothers named Triballos and Straton, on behalf of their father, also named Straton; it is probable that the elder Straton was represented by the {{convert|77|cm|in}} statue.{{sfnm|Lerner|2003a|1pp=390–391|2a1=Francfort|2a2=Grenet|2a3=Lecuyot|2a4=Martinez-Sève|2y=2014|2p=63}}

The [[arsenal]], which was not fully excavated, was on the eastern side of the southern main street, against the base of the acropolis. Substantial quantities of [[slag]] found in the building's courtyard suggest that the building housed the workshops of blacksmiths.{{sfn|Mairs|2015|p=89}} Although the recovered weapons were diverse, they were few in number, leading to speculation that the main army was in the field when the city was taken; this theory was supported by brick blockages in the arsenal's passages, suggesting a limited number of defenders. Of the pieces found, which included arrowheads, spears, javelins, a [[caltrop]] intended to stop mounted animals, and uniform ornaments, the most interest was paid to iron [[cataphract]] armour—the earliest example yet found.{{sfn|Francfort|Grenet|Lecuyot|Martinez-Sève|2014|p=67}}

[[File:Reconstruction of the ancient city of Ai-Khanoum.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A computer-generated reconstruction of the view from a high seat in the city's theatre, showing the city behind.|The theatre is in the forefront of this reconstruction of Ai-Khanoum, with the palatial complex behind.{{sfn|Lecuyot|Nishizawa|2005|p=123}}]]
The [[Theater (structure)#Open-air theaters|theatre]] was also built into the side of the acropolis, on the northern part of the main street. Seating between five and six thousand spectators—considerably more than would have lived in the city—it was {{convert|85|m|ft}} in diameter and contained three [[loggia]], just below the [[diazoma]], which were probably used for dignitaries.{{sfnm|Mairs|2015|1p=92|Martinez-Sève|2014|2pp=276–279}} It is clear that the audience was expected to come from the surrounding districts as well as the city, possibly for religious festivals.{{sfnm|Mairs|2015|1p=92|2a1=Francfort|2a2=Grenet|2a3=Lecuyot|2a4=Martinez-Sève|2y=2014|2pp=65–66}} The excavators found the bones of around 120 individuals in the [[Theatre of ancient Greece#Orchestra|orchestra]], probably dating from the fall of the city in 145&nbsp;BC.{{sfn|Francfort|Grenet|Lecuyot|Martinez-Sève|2014|p=66}}

== Significance ==
=== Coinage ===
[[File:Coin of the Bactrian King Agathokles.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|alt=Composite photograph showing both sides of a square silver coin. Both sides display standing figures, but one side is marked with Greek letters and the other with the Brahmi script.|A {{circa}} 180{{nbsp}}BC coin of [[Agathocles of Bactria|Agathocles]] found in Ai-Khanoum, displaying very early depictions of selected Hindu deities and inscribed with both Greek and Brahmi scripts]]
{| class="wikitable floatright" align="right" style="margin-left: 1em;" style="font-size: 85%;"
|+ Greco-Bactrian coins found at Ai-Khanoum{{sfn|Audouin|Bernard|1974|pp=7–41}}{{sfn|Bopearachchi|1993|loc=pp. 433–434, footnote 26}}
|-
! scope="col" | Greco-Bactrian kings
! scope="col" | {{small|Hoard #1<br>(1970)}}
! scope="col" | {{small|Hoard #2<br>(1973)}}
! scope="col" style=max-width:8em | {{small|Hoard #3<br>(1973/4)}}{{efn|As the original composition of this hoard is disputed, this table uses [[Frank Holt]]'s list of those photographed.{{sfn|Holt|1981|loc=pp. 9–10, List C}}}}
! scope="col" | {{small|Stray<br>coins}}
|-
! scope="row" | {{small|[[Diodotus I]]}}
| 0 || 8 || 11 || 26
|-
! scope="row" |  {{small|[[Euthydemus I]]}}
| 0 || 27 || 81 || 49
|-
! scope="row" |  {{small|[[Demetrius I of Bactria|Demetrius I]]}}
| 0 || 3 || 8 || 0
|-
! scope="row" |  {{small|[[Euthydemus II]]}}
| 0 || 1 || 3 || 0
|-
! scope="row" |  {{small|[[Agathocles of Bactria|Agathocles]]}}
| 683 || 3 || 6 || 0
|-
! scope="row" |  {{small|[[Antimachus I]]}}
| 0 || 2 || 2 || 0
|-
! scope="row" |  {{small|[[Apollodotus I]]}}
| 0 || 1 || 2 || 0
|-
! scope="row" |  {{small|[[Eucratides I]]}}
| 0 || 1 || 9 || 12
|}

The excavations of Ai-Khanoum yielded three hoards of [[Ancient Greek coinage#Hellenistic period (323–31 BC)|Hellenistic coins]], along with 274 stray coins, of which 224 were legible.{{sfn|Bopearachchi|1993|pp=433–434}} The first hoard was found in a small room in the [[#Palace complex|administrative section of the palace complex]] in 1970. It contained 677 [[punch-marked coins]] and six silver [[Ancient drachma|drachmas]] all bearing the name of [[Agathocles of Bactria]].{{sfnm|Cribb|1983|1p=89|Bopearachchi|1993|2p=433}} The latter six coins are inscribed with the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] and [[Brahmi]] scripts on either side, and are significant in their own right as "the earliest unambiguous images" of the [[Vrishni heroes|Vrsni Viras]].{{sfn|Srinivasan|1997|p=215}} The figures on the coins can be definitively identified through their iconography: on the Greek side is [[Balarama]], possibly as [[Sankarshana]], holding his customary plough and a club, while the Brahmi side displays [[Vāsudeva]] with his [[Sudarshana Chakra]] and a [[conch shell]].{{sfnm|Srinivasan|1997|1p=215|Singh|2008|2p=437}} The coins indicate that the cult of the Vrsni Viras had spread far from their [[Mathura]]n homeland and that they had retained enough importance to be recognised with royal patronage; further, as the Greek obverse would have been superior to the Brahmi reverse, the coins show that Balarama was considered senior to Vāsudeva, in accordance with the traditional lineage system.{{sfnm|Srinivasan|1997|1p=215|Singh|2008|2p=437}}

The second hoard was found three years later, in the kitchen of [[#Extramural house|the extramural residence]]. This hoard consisted of 63 silver [[tetradrachm]]s, of which 49 were Greco-Bactrian; a majority of these were dedicated to Euthydemus I, while the others were dedicated to other kings.{{sfn|Bopearachchi|1993|p=433}} The third hoard was found during the winter of 1973–4 by an Afghan farmer near the site, and was quickly sold on the antiquities market in [[Kabul]]. Although a large portion of the hoard later passed through New York, where a member of the [[American Numismatic Society]] was able to compile an inventory, its integrity had then been lost; some coins had been removed, while others, such as a drachma of [[Lysias Anicetus]], had been added.{{sfn|Holt|1981|pp=8–11}} Only 77 of the 224 legible stray coins were Greco-Bactrian or Indo-Greek; there were also 68 stray Seleucid coins, 62 of which displayed Antiochus&nbsp;I.{{sfn|Bopearachchi|1993|pp=433–434}}

One series of Bactrian coins from the reign of Antiochus&nbsp;I was stamped with a triangular [[monogram]] ([[File:AiKhanoumSymbol.jpg|alt=Symbol resembling a triangle in a circle.|15px]]) during the coining process. At Ai-Khanoum, bricks bearing the same mark were found in the [[#Heroön of Kineas|heroön]], one of the oldest structures in the city.{{sfnm|Kritt|1996|1p=23|Martinez-Sève|2015|2p=28}} Therefore, it is considered probable that Ai-Khanoum was the site of the primary Seleucid mint during Antiochus' [[coregency]] and early sole reign; an earlier mint, which was most likely located at Bactra but may have been elsewhere, was terminated near-simultaneously after a relatively brief period of operation.{{sfnm|Kritt|1996|1pp=31–33|Holt|1999|2pp=114–115}}

=== Wider influence ===
{{See also|Hellenistic influence on Indian art}}
[[File:Ai Khanum, Heracles.jpg|thumb|upright|left|alt=A grey-green statuette of a naked man holding a club in one hand.|Bronze statuette of [[Heracles]], identified by his club]]
Some items found at Ai-Khanoum, such as Greek olive oil in the treasury or the Mediterranean [[Plaster mold casting|plater mouldings]] on Greco-Bactrian artwork, would suggest the existence of large-scale trading networks, but such findings are few, while the Indian art in the treasury seems to have simply been plunder.{{sfn|Rapin|2007|pp=63–64}} Historians have thus concluded that Greco-Bactria was isolated in terms of trade, but had a developed administration with a high level of economic diversity.{{sfn|Francfort|Grenet|Lecuyot|Martinez-Sève|2014|p=77}} This administration was passed on to the Yuezhi and Kushan nations, as shown by their use of Greek titles and coinage and their adaptations of the Hellenistic [[Greek numerals|numerical]] and [[Ancient Greek calendars|calendrical]] systems.{{sfn|Burstein|2010|p=187}}

The art historian [[John Boardman (art historian)|John Boardman]] has also noted that Ai-Khanoum may have been one of the conduits for [[Hellenistic influence on Indian art|Greek art influencing the art of ancient India]]; the sculpture of the [[pillars of Ashoka]] may have been inspired by drawings of Greco-Bactrian buildings brought back to the [[Mauryan Empire]] by ambassadors. It is impossible to say whether inspiration came from Ai-Khanoum or other Hellenistic sites.{{sfn|Boardman|1998|pp=13–15}} The artwork of Ai-Khanoum does display innovative and original craftsmanship, such as the biggest [[Egyptian faience|faïence]] sculpture found in the Hellenistic world, which melded Oriental production techniques with Greek traditions of [[acrolith]]ic statues.{{sfn|Bopearachchi|2005|pp=106–109}}  A statuette of Heracles found at the site displays artistic continuity with later Indo-Greek coinage, which depict [[Vajrapani]] as syncretised with the demigod and Zeus.{{sfn|Bopearachchi|2005|pp=111–116}}

=== Modern scholarship ===
The discovery of Ai-Khanoum, even more than that of the nearby temple of [[Takht-i Sangin]], was of fundamental importance to the study of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. Before its discovery, archaeologists such as [[Alfred Charles Auguste Foucher|Alfred Foucher]] had devoted careers to trying to find any physical confirmation for the existence of Hellenistic culture in Central Asia, but had continually failed.{{sfn|Mairs|2011|p=14}} Apart from textual fragments in classical texts and a variety of coins with Greek inscriptions found throughout the region, there was a near-complete absence of evidence to support the theory.{{sfn|Holt|1994|pp=4–5}} Foucher, who had found nothing during a difficult 18-month excavation in Balkh, gradually lost all hope, famously dismissing the hypothesis as the "Greco-Bactrian mirage".{{sfnm|Mairs|2011|1p=14|Holt|1994|2pp=8–9}} The discovery of Ai-Khanoum re-energised the discipline and several Hellenistic sites have since been found throughout Central Asia. Mairs has noted that the discovery of Ai-Khanoum did represent a sort of "turning point" in the study of the Hellenistic Far East, even if the primary pre-discovery questions were still asked after the excavations had been finished.{{sfnm|Mairs|2011|1pp=14–15|Bernard|1996|2pp=101–102}}
{{Clear}}

== References ==

=== Notes ===
{{notelist|35em}}

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|22em}}

=== Sources ===
==== Primary ====
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |author=Justin |author-link=Justin (historian) |title=Epitome of Pompeius Trogus |translator-last=Watson |translator-first=John Selby |translator-link=John Selby Watson |date=1853 |url=https://www.attalus.org/info/justinus.html |accessdate=26 July 2024 }}
* {{cite book |author=Polybius |author-link=Polybius |title=The Histories |title-link=The Histories (Polybius) |translator-last1=Paton |translator-first1=William |translator-link1=William Roger Paton |translator-last2=Walbank |translator-first2=F.W. |translator-link2=F. W. Walbank |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |date=2010 |isbn=978-0674996373 |ref={{harvid|Polybius}}}}
* {{cite book |author=Ptolemy |author-link=Ptolemy |title=Geographia |url=https://topostext.org/work/209 |translator-last=Kiesling |translator-first=Brady |translator-link=John Brady Kiesling |date=c. 150 |via=topostext.org}}
{{refend}}

==== Secondary ====
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Audouin |first1=Rémy |last2=Bernard |first2=Paul |author-link2=Paul Bernard (archaeologist) |date=1974 |title=Trésor de monnaies indiennes et indo-grecques d'Aï Khanoum (Afghanistan): Les monnaies indo-grecques |trans-title=Hoard of Indian and Indo-Greek coins from Aï Khanoum (Afghanistan): Indo-Greek coins |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/numi_0484-8942_1974_num_6_16_1062 |journal=Revue numismatique |language=fr |volume=6 |issue=16 |pages=6–41 |doi=10.3406/numi.1974.1062 |issn=0484-8942}}
* {{cite journal |last=Auffret |first=Thomas |date=2019 |title=Un " nouveau " fragment du Περὶ φιλοσοφίας : le papyrus d'Aï Khanoum |trans-title=A “new” fragment of the Περὶ φιλοσοφίας: the papyrus of Aï Khanoum |language=fr |journal=Elenchos |doi=10.1515/elen-2019-0002 |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |volume=40 |issue=1 |pages=26–66 }}
* {{cite report |author-last=Bernard |author-first=Paul |author-link=Paul Bernard (archaeologist) |date=1970 |title=Campagne de fouilles 1969 à Aï Khanoum en Afghanistan |trans-title=1969 excavation campaign at Aï Khanoum in Afghanistan |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/crai_0065-0536_1970_num_114_2_12525?q=ai-khanoum#crai_0065-0536_1970_num_114_2_T1_0317_0000 |publisher=[[DAFA]] |access-date=14 November 2022 }}
* {{cite magazine |last=Bernard |first=Paul |date=1982 |title=An Ancient Greek City in Central Asia |magazine= [[Scientific American]] |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/24966505 |issue=246 |access-date=21 April 2022 |pages=148–159 |jstor=24966505 |author-link=Paul Bernard (archaeologist)}}
* {{cite book |last=Bernard |first=Paul |date=1996 |chapter=The Greek Kingdoms of Central Asia |chapter-url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/sites/default/files/knowledge-bank-article/vol_II%20silk%20road_the%20greek%20kingdoms%20of%20central%20asia.pdf |title=History of civilizations of Central Asia |volume=2 |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |editor-first=János |editor-last=Harmatta |location=Paris |isbn=978-9231028465 |author-link=Paul Bernard (archaeologist)}}
* {{cite journal |last= Bernard |first= Paul |date=2001 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/crai_0065-0536_2001_num_145_2_16315 |doi= 10.3406/crai.2001.16315 |title= Aï Khanoum en Afghanistan hier (1964–1978) et aujourd'hui (2001) : Un site en péril. |trans-title=Aï Khanoum in Afghanistan yesterday (1964–1978) and today (2001): a site in danger.  |journal= Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres |volume = 145 |issue = 2 |pages = 971–1029 |author-link=Paul Bernard (archaeologist) |language=fr}}
* {{cite journal |last=Boardman |first=John |author-link=John Boardman (art historian) |date=1998 |journal=Bulletin of the Asia Institute |title=Reflections on the Origins of Indian Stone Architecture |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/24049089 |pages=13–22 |volume=12|jstor=24049089 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Bopearachchi |first=Osmund |author-link=Osmund Bopearachchi |date=1993 |title=On the so-called earliest representation of Ganesa |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/topoi_1161-9473_1993_num_3_2_1479 |journal=Topoi. Orient-Occident |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=425–453 |doi=10.3406/topoi.1993.1479}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Bopearachchi |first1=Osmund |author-link=Osmund Bopearachchi |title=Contribution of Greeks to the Art and Culture of Bactria and India: New Archaeological Evidence |journal=[[Indian Historical Review]] |date=2005 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=103–125 |doi=10.1177/037698360503200103 |url=https://www.academia.edu/22821569}}
* {{cite journal |last=Burstein |first=Stanley |title=New Light on the Fate of Greek in Ancient Central and South Asia |journal=Ancient West & East |volume=9 |pages=181–192 |date=2010 |doi=10.2143/AWE.9.0.2056307 }}
* {{cite book |last=Cohen |first=Getzel |date=2013 |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/The_Hellenistic_Settlements_in_the_East/3aabFPHxRPUC?hl=en |title=The Hellenistic Settlements in the East from Armenia and Mesopotamia to Bactria and India |location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0520953567 |jstor=10.1525/j.ctt2tt96k}}
* {{cite journal |last=Cribb |first=Joe |author-link=Joe Cribb |date=1983 |title=Investigating the introduction of coinage in India –a review of recent research |journal=Journal of the Numismatic Society of India |issue=XLV |pages=80–101}}
* {{cite journal |last=Francfort |first=Henri-Paul |date=2012 |author-link=Henri-Paul Francfort |journal=Parthica |issue=14 |location=[[Pisa]] |pages=109–136 |title=Ai Khanoum 'Temple with Indented Niches' and Takht-i Sangin 'Oxus Temple' in Historical Cultural Perspective: Outline of a Hypothesis about the Cults |url=https://www.academia.edu/5304430}}
* {{cite book |date=2014 |editor-last1=Francfort |editor-first1=Henri-Paul |editor-link1=Henri-Paul Francfort |editor-last2=Grenet |editor-first2=Frantz |editor-last3=Lecuyot |editor-first3=Guy |editor-last4=Martinez-Sève |editor-first4=Laurianne |editor-last5=Rapin |editor-first5=Claude |editor-last6=Lyonnet |editor-first6=Bertille |title=Il y a 50 ans ... la découverte d'Aï Khanoum: 1964–1978, fouilles de la Délégation archéologique française en Afghanistan (DAFA) |trans-title=50 years ago ... the discovery of Aï Khanoum: the 1964–1978 excavations by the French Archaeological Delegation in Afghanistan (DAFA) |location=Paris |publisher=Editions de Boccard |isbn=978-2701804194 |language=fr |volume=35 |jstor=j.ctt1b7x71z }}
* {{cite book |last=Hollis |first=Adrian |author-link=Adrian Hollis |date=2011 |chapter=Greek Letters in Hellenistic Bactria |title=Culture in Pieces : Essays on Ancient Texts in Honour of Peter Parsons |editor-last1=Obbink |editor-first1=Dirk |editor-link1=Dirk Obbink |editor-last2=Rutherford |editor-first2=Richard |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/2131025788 |url-access=subscription |pages=104–118 |isbn=978-0191558887|id={{ProQuest|2131025788}} }}
* {{cite journal |last=Holt |first=Frank |author-link=Frank Holt |date=1981 |title=The Euthydemid Coinage of Bactria: Further Hoard Evidence from Aï Khanoum |journal={{ill|Revue numismatique|fr}} |volume=6 |issue=23 |pages=7–44 |doi=10.3406/numi.1981.1811 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/numi_0484-8942_1981_num_6_23_1811}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Holt |first=Frank |author-link=Frank Holt |date=1994 |title=A History in Silver and Gold |magazine=[[Aramco World]] |issue=3 #45 |accessdate=23 April 2022 |url=https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/199403/a.history.in.silver.and.gold.htm}}
* {{cite book |last=Holt |first=Frank |author-link=Frank Holt |title=Thundering Zeus |date=1999 |location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0520211407 |url=https://archive.org/details/thunderingzeusma0000holt}}
* {{cite book |last=Holt |first=Frank |author-link=Frank Holt |date=2012 |title=Lost World of the Golden King: In Search of Ancient Afghanistan |series=Hellenistic Culture and Society |edition=1st |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt1ppw75 |isbn=978-0520953741 |location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |jstor=10.1525/j.ctt1ppw75 }}
* {{cite news |last=Ibbotson |first=Sophie |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/asia/uzbekistan/articles/Kampir-tepe-pompeii-uzbekistan/ |accessdate=24 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190917211636/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/asia/uzbekistan/articles/Kampir-tepe-pompeii-uzbekistan/ |title=Inside the 'Pompeii of Uzbekistan', Alexander the Great's forgotten city |website=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |date=13 September 2019 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=17 September 2019 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Jarrige |first1=Jean-François |author-link1=Jean-François Jarrige |last2=Cambon |first2=Pierre |editor-last1=Bernard |editor-first1=Paul |editor-link1=Paul Bernard (archaeologist) |editor-last2=Schiltz |editor-first2=Véronique |editor-link2=Véronique Schiltz |date=2007 |title=Afghanistan: les trésors retrouvés – collections du Musée national de Kaboul, 6 Décembre 2006–30 Avril 2007 |trans-title=Afghanistan: Treasures Recovered – Collections of the National Museum of Kabul, 6 December 2006 – 30 April 2007 |publisher=[[Réunion des Musées Nationaux]], on behalf of the [[Guimet Museum]] and the [[National Museum of Afghanistan]] |location=Paris |isbn=978-2711852185 |language=fr }}
* {{cite book |last=Kritt |first=Brian |date=1996 |title=Seleucid Coins of Bactria |location=[[Lancaster, Pennsylvania|Lancaster]] |publisher=Classical Numismatic Group |isbn= 0963673823}}
* {{cite conference |last1=Lecuyot |first1=Guy |last2=Nishizawa |first2=Osamu |date=2005 |title=NHK, Taisai, CNRS : une collaboration franco-japonaise à la restitution 3D de la ville d'Aï Khanoum en Afghanistan |trans-title=NHK, Taisai, CNRS: a Franco-Japanese collaboration for the 3D reconstruction of the city of Aï Khanoum in Afghanistan |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01763104/document |accessdate=17 August 2022 |conference=Virtual Retrospect 2005 |location=[[Biarritz]] |language=fr }}
* {{cite book |last=Lecuyot |first=Guy |editor-last1=Cribb |editor-first1=Joe |editor-link1=Joe Cribb |editor-last2=Herrmann |editor-first2=Georgina |editor-link2=Georgina Herrmann |chapter=Ai Khanum Reconstructed |chapter-url=https://britishacademy.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.5871/bacad/9780197263846.001.0001/upso-9780197263846-chapter-7 |title=After Alexander: Central Asia Before Islam |url=https://britishacademy.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.5871/bacad/9780197263846.001.0001/upso-9780197263846 |isbn=978-0197263846 |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2007 |pages=155–162 |doi=10.5871/bacad/9780197263846.001.0001 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite book |last=Lecuyot |first=Guy |date=2020 |editor-last=Mairs |editor-first=Rachel |title=The Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek World |publisher=[[Routledge]] |pages=539–552 |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315108513-31/ai-khanoum-east-west-guy-lecuyot?context=ubx&refId=dd06a2f7-71ee-4aba-ad72-bb673530d770 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781315108513/graeco-bactrian-indo-greek-world-rachel-mairs |chapter=Ai Khanoum, between East and West |doi=10.4324/9781315108513-31 |isbn=978-1315108513 |edition=1st |url-access=subscription |location=London}}
* {{cite book |last=Leriche |first=Pierre |series=Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique française en Afghanistan |location=Paris |publisher=Editions de Boccard |volume=V |title=Fouilles d'Aï Khanoum: Les remparts et les monuments associés |trans-title=Excavations of Aï Khanoum: The ramparts and associated monuments |date=1986 |isbn=978-2701803487 |language=fr }}
* {{cite book |last=Leriche |first=Pierre |editor-last1=Cribb |editor-first1=Joe |editor-link1=Joe Cribb |editor-last2=Herrmann |editor-first2=Georgina |editor-link2=Georgina Herrmann |chapter=Bactria, Land of a Thousand Cities |chapter-url=https://britishacademy.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.5871/bacad/9780197263846.001.0001/upso-9780197263846-chapter-6 |title=After Alexander: Central Asia Before Islam |url=https://britishacademy.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.5871/bacad/9780197263846.001.0001/upso-9780197263846 |isbn=978-0197263846 |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2007 |pages=121–154 |doi=10.5871/bacad/9780197263846.001.0001 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lerner |first=Jeffrey |date=2003a |journal=Archäologische Mitteilungen aus Iran und Turan  |volume=35–36 |pages=373–410 |title=Correcting the early history of Ay Kanum |url=https://www.academia.edu/31790210 |accessdate=23 April 2022}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lerner |first=Jeffrey |date=2003b |journal=[[Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik|ZPE]] |title=The Aï Khanoum Philosophical Papyrus |pages=45–51 |url=https://www.academia.edu/25917171 |volume=142 |accessdate=6 July 2022}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lyonnet |first=Bertille |date=2012 |title=Questions on the Date of the Hellenistic Pottery from Central Asia (Ai Khanoum, Marakanda and Koktepe) |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270635187 |journal=Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia |volume=18 |issue=18 |pages=143–173|doi=10.1163/157005712X638672 }}
* {{cite book |last=Mairs |first=Rachel |date=2011 |title=The Archaeology of the Hellenistic Far East: A Survey |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Archaeopress]] |isbn=978-14073-07527 |url=https://www.academia.edu/420524}}
* {{cite book |last=Mairs |first=Rachel |date=2013 |chapter=The 'Temple with Indented Niches' at Ai Khanoum: Ethnic and Civic Identity in Hellenistic Bactria |editor-last1=Alston |editor-first1=Richard |editor-link1=Richard Alston (classicist) |editor-last2=van Nijf |editor-first2=Onno |editor-last3=Williamson |editor-first3=Christina |title=Cults, Creeds and Identities in the Greek City after the Classical Age |location=[[Leuven]] |publisher=[[Peeters Publishers]] |isbn=978-9042927148 |url=https://www.academia.edu/209809}}
* {{cite book |last=Mairs |first=Rachel |date=2014 |title=The Hellenistic Far East: Archaeology, Language, and Identity in Greek Central Asia |edition=1st |accessdate=22 April 2022 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/j.ctt7zw3v4 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0520292468 |location=[[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]] |jstor=10.1525/j.ctt7zw3v4 }}
* {{cite book |last=Mairs |first=Rachel |date=2015 |editor-last=Mac Sweeney |editor-first=Naoíse |chapter=The Founder's Shrine and the Foundation of Ai Khanoum |title=Foundation Myths in Ancient Societies: Dialogues and Discourses |pages=103–128 |publisher=[[University of Pennsylvania Press]] |location=Philadelphia |jstor=j.ctt9qh48v.8 |chapter-url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qh48v.8 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt9qh48v |isbn=978-0812290219}}
* {{cite journal |last=Martinez-Sève |first=Laurianne |title=The Spatial Organization of Ai Khanoum, a Greek City in Afghanistan |journal=[[American Journal of Archaeology]] |volume=118 |issue=2 |year=2014 |pages=267–283 |doi=10.3764/aja.118.2.0267 |jstor=10.3764/aja.118.2.0267 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3764/aja.118.2.0267|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite journal |last=Martinez-Sève |first=Laurianne |journal=Electrum |doi=10.4467/20800909EL.15.002.3218 |volume=22 |date=2015 |title=Ai Khanoum and Greek Domination in Central Asia |pages=17–46 |url=https://www.academia.edu/30811063}}
* {{cite journal |last=Martinez-Sève |first=Laurianne |date=2018 |journal=Ancient Civilizations from Scythia to Siberia |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=354–419 |title=Ai Khanoum after 145 BC: The Post-Palatial Occupation |doi=10.1163/15700577-12341336}}
* {{cite book |last=Martinez-Sève |first=Laurianne |date=2020 |editor-last=Mairs |editor-first=Rachel |title=The Graeco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek World |publisher=[[Routledge]] |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781315108513-13/afghan-bactria-laurianne-martinez-s%C3%A8ve?context=ubx&refId=1693a25e-1b94-4b86-9dfb-578dbcbe5748 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781315108513/graeco-bactrian-indo-greek-world-rachel-mairs |pages=217–248 |chapter=Afghan Bactria |doi=10.4324/9781315108513-13 |isbn=978-1315108513 |edition=1st |url-access=subscription |location=London}}
* {{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170627154002/https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2009/afghanistan/photo-gallery |archive-date=27 June 2017 |url-status=live |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/exhibitions/listings/2009/afghanistan/photo-gallery# |title=Afghanistan: Hidden Treasures from the National Museum, Kabul |publisher=[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |access-date=30 October 2022 |ref={{harvid|Metropolitan Museum of Art 2019}}}}
* {{cite book |last=O'Brien |first=Patrick |title=Concise Atlas of World History |date=2002 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-019521921-0 |location=New York |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ffZy5tDjaUkC&pg=PA51}}
* {{cite book |last=Rapin |first=Claude |editor-last=Descœudres |editor-first=Jean-Paul |date=1990 |chapter=Greeks in Afghanistan: Ai Khanum |title=Greek Colonists and Native Populations: Proceedings of the First Australian Congress of Classical Archaeology |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/5733677 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press#Clarendon Press|Clarendon Press]] |location=Oxford |pages=329–342 |isbn=978-0198148692}}
* {{cite book |last=Rapin |first=Claude |series=Mémoires de la Délégation archéologique française en Afghanistan |location=Paris |publisher=Editions de Boccard |volume=VIII |title=Fouilles d'Aï Khanoum: La Trésorerie du palais hellénistique d'Aï Khanoum |trans-title=Excavations of Ai Khanoum: The Treasury of the Hellenistic Palace of Ai Khanoum |language=fr |date=1992 |isbn=978-2701803487 |url=http://claude.rapin.free.fr/Rapin_Tresorerie_Fouilles_Ai_Khanoum_VIII_DAFA_v3.pdf |at=([http://claude.rapin.free.fr/4LDisIndRecons.jpg Reconstruction of encrusted disc])}}
* {{cite book |last=Rapin |first=Claude |editor-last1=Cribb |editor-first1=Joe |editor-link1=Joe Cribb |editor-last2=Herrmann |editor-first2=Georgina |editor-link2=Georgina Herrmann |chapter-url=https://britishacademy.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.5871/bacad/9780197263846.001.0001/upso-9780197263846-chapter-3 |chapter=Nomads and the Shaping of Central Asia: from the Early Iron Age to the Kushan Period |url=https://britishacademy.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.5871/bacad/9780197263846.001.0001/upso-9780197263846 |title=After Alexander: Central Asia Before Islam |isbn=978-0197263846 |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2007 |pages=29–72 |doi=10.5871/bacad/9780197263846.001.0001 |url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite report |last=Renaud |first=Karine |date=2014 |url=https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/prd-wret/assets/palladium/production/mineral-pubs/country/2014/myb3-2014-af.pdf |title=The Mineral Industry of Afghanistan |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |access-date=22 April 2022 |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731183815/https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/prd-wret/assets/palladium/production/mineral-pubs/country/2014/myb3-2014-af.pdf}}
* {{cite journal |last=Robert |first=Louis |author-link=Louis Robert (historian) |date=1968 |title=De Delphes à l'Oxus: Inscriptions grecques nouvelles de la Bactriane |trans-title=From Delphi to the Oxus, New Greek Inscriptions from Bactria |language=fr |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/crai_0065-0536_1968_num_112_3_12291 |journal=Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres |volume=112–113 |pages=416–457}}
* {{cite book |last=Singh |first=Upinder |author-link=Upinder Singh |date=2008 |title=A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century |isbn=978-8131711200 |location=New Delhi |publisher=[[Pearson Longman]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC}}
* {{cite book |last=Srinivasan |first=Doris |author-link=Doris Meth Srinivasan |date=1997 |title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art |isbn=978-9004107588 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |location=[[Leiden]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vZheP9dIX9wC}}
* {{cite book |last1=Tissot |first1=Francine |title=Catalogue of the National Museum of Afghanistan, 1931–1985 |date=2006 |url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000148244 |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |location=Paris |isbn=978-9231040306}}
* {{cite journal |last=Wallace |first=Shane |journal=Greece and Rome |volume=63 |issue=2 |date=2016 |doi=10.1017/S0017383516000073 |title=Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries |pages=205–226 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26776786|url-access=subscription }}
* {{cite book |last=Wood |first=John |author-link=John Wood (explorer) |title=A Personal Narrative of a Journey to the Source of the River Oxus By the Route of the Indus, Kabul, and Badakhshan |date=1841 |oclc=781806851 |location=London |publisher=[[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]]}}
* {{cite journal |last=Yailenko |first=Valeri |date=1990 |title=Les maximes delphiques d'Aï Khanoum et la formation de la doctrine du dhamma d'Asoka |trans-title=The Delphic Maxims of Ai Khanum and the Formation of Asoka's Dhamma Doctrine |language=fr |volume=16 |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/dha_0755-7256_1990_num_16_1_1467 |pages=239–256 |journal=Dialogues d'histoire ancienne|doi=10.3406/dha.1990.1467 }}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
* {{cite book |author=Arrian |author-link=Arrian |title=Anabasis of Alexander |title-link=The Anabasis of Alexander |translator-last=Brunt |translator-first=P.A. |isbn=978-0674992603 |date=1976 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |translator-link=Peter Brunt|ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Holt |first=Frank |author-link=Frank Holt |date=2012b |title=When Did the Greeks Abandon Ai Khanoum? |issue=3 |pages=161–172 |journal=Anabasis: Studia Classica et Orientalia |url=https://www.academia.edu/4429886 |oclc=999046800|ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lerner |first=Jeffrey |date=2010 |journal=Anabasis: Studia Classica et Orientalia |title=Revising the Chronologies of the Hellenistic Colonies of Samarkand-Marakanda (Afrasiab II-III) and Aï Khanoum (Northeastern Afghanistan) |pages=58–79 |oclc=922503718 |issue=1 |url=https://www.academia.edu/31790077|ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lerner |first=Jeffrey |date=2011 |journal=Anabasis: Studia Classica et Orientalia |title=A reappraisal of the economic inscriptions and coin finds from Aï Khanoum |url=https://www.academia.edu/31790096 |pages=103–147 |oclc=999031857 |issue=2|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Lerner |first=Jeffrey |date=2015 |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-world-history/regional-study-baktria-the-crossroads-of-ancient-eurasia/01F90B0141B4E8FEEAB562B33336AE08 |chapter=Regional study: Baktria – the crossroads of ancient Eurasia |title=[[The Cambridge World History]] |volume=4: A World with States, Empires and Networks 1200 BCE–900 CE |pages=300–324 |editor-last=Benjamin |editor-first=Craig |editor-link=Craig Benjamin |location=[[Cambridge]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139059251.013 |isbn=978-1139059251 |ref=none}}
* {{cite journal |last=Lerner |first=Jeffrey |date=2018 |journal=Anabasis: Studia Classica et Orientalia |title=Die Studies of Six Greek Baktrian and Indo-Greek Kings |pages=236–246 |url=https://www.academia.edu/41204710 |issue=9|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last=Mairs |first=Rachel |date=2013b |chapter=Greek Settler Communities in Central and South Asia, 323 BCE to 10 CE |editor-last1=Quayson |editor-first1=Ato |editor-link1=Ato Quayson |editor-last2=Daswani |editor-first2=Girish |title=A Companion to Diaspora and Transnationalism |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |isbn=978-1405188265 |location=[[Oxford]] |pages=443–454|ref=none}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sherwin-White |first1=Susan |last2=Kuhrt |first2=Amélie |author-link2=Amélie Kuhrt |publisher=[[Duckworth Books|Duckworth]] |date=1993 |title=From Samarkhand to Sardis: a new approach to the Seleucid Empire |location=London |isbn=978-0715624135 |url=https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/From_Samarkhand_to_Sardis/IZ65PED6ykMC?hl=en|ref=none}}

{{Central Asian history}}
{{Hellenistic colonies}}
{{Authority control}}
{{bots|deny=Citation bot}}

[[Category:Seleucid colonies]]
[[Category:Populated places along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 3rd century BC]]
[[Category:280s BC establishments]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Bactrian and Indian Hellenistic period]]
[[Category:Bactrian and Indian Hellenistic colonies]]
[[Category:Cities in Central Asia]]
[[Category:Hellenistic sites in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Takhar Province]]
[[Category:Populated places disestablished in the 2nd century BC]]
[[Category:Monuments and memorials in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:1961 archaeological discoveries]]