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{{Short description|Late Roman Imperial Courier Service}}
{{italic title}}
The '''''agentes in rebus''''' ({{langx|grc|ἀγγελιαφόροι|angeliaphóroi|messengers}}, or {{lang|grc|μαγιστριανοί}}, ''magistrianoí'', '[[Magister officiorum|magister]]'s men'<ref name="ODB">{{harvnb|ODB|loc="Agentes in rebus" (A. Kazhdan), pp. 36–37}}.</ref>) were the late [[Roman Empire|Roman imperial]] and [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] [[courier]] service and general agents of the central government from the 4th to the 7th centuries.

== History ==
The exact date of their institution is unknown. They are first mentioned in 319, but may date to [[Diocletian]]'s reforms in the late 3rd century, when they replaced the earlier and much-detested ''[[frumentarii]]''. The central imperial administration still needed couriers, and the ''agentes in rebus'' filled this role. Originally they acted as dispatch carriers, but eventually assumed a variety of duties—the title itself translates as "Those Active in Matters". They fell under the jurisdiction of the ''[[magister officiorum]]'' (Master of the Offices), hence their alternate Greek name of ''magistrianoi''.<ref name="ODB"/> They were eventually abolished sometime in the early 8th century, as most of the ''magister''{{'}}s functions were taken over by the ''[[logothetes tou dromou|logothetēs tou dromou]]''.<ref name="ODB"/> The last reference to an ''agens'' comes in the chronicle of [[Theophanes the Confessor]], where the ''magistrianos'' Paul is recorded as having been sent on an embassy in 678.<ref>Theophanes, ''Annus Mundi'' 6178</ref>
===Ostrogothic Kingdom===
The schola of the ''agentes in rebus'' of the [[Western Roman Empire|Western Empire]] did not cease to exist when the West fell, but the office underwent a transformation over the following decades. By the time of the [[Ostrogothic Kingdom]], the function of the ''agentes'' was now inherited by two new types of officials, ''comitiaci'', who were Romans and ''saiones'', who were Goths. These agents answered directly to the King and existed outside of the traditional power structure within the realm. Evidence suggests responsibilities differed between the two types of agents, though they likely frequently collaborated with one another due to overlapping interests of the two groups of citizens.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wiemer |first=Hans-Ulrich |author-link= |date=2023 |title=Theoderic the Great: King of Goths, Ruler of Romans |url= |location= |publisher=Yale University Press |page=147 |isbn= 978-0300271850}}</ref> ''Comitiaci'' are known to have been responsible for affairs concerning Romans, such as hauling people to court who did not appear and dealing with corrupt Roman officials, though ''comitiaci'' do not appear to have had any military authority nor were they armed like their Gothic counterparts. ''Saiones'', who were a part of the Gothic court, were responsible for affairs concerning the king's own people, the Goths, such as serving as protectors for officials, arresting criminals, recruitment for the army and navy, and overseeing the construction of forts. Civilians could also petition ''saiones'' to intervene on their behalf in unspecified situations, for which a ''saio'' would charge a fee. ''Saiones'' had an array of responsibilities and were incredibly versatile due to their relationship with the king and royal court. <ref>{{cite book |last1=Arnold |first1=Jonathan |last2=Bjornlie |first2=Shane |last3=Sessa |first3=Kristina |date=2016 |title=A Companion to Ostrogothic Italy |location= |publisher=Brill |page=66 |isbn= 978-9004315938}}</ref>

== Organization and function ==
The ''agentes in rebus'' were formed into a ''[[schola]]'' of the palace, and in common with other public services of the [[Dominate]], their service was militarized, and considered a ''militia''. Indeed, the ''agentes'' were divided into five ranks, taken from the [[Late Roman army#Junior officers|junior cavalry officers]]: ''equites'', ''circitores'', ''[[Biarchus|biarchi]]'', ''centenarii'' and ''ducenarii''.{{sfnp|Kelly|2004|pp=20, 40}} Two were appointed to each province in 357, one in 395 and more again after 412. Each member of the ''agentes in rebus'' was normally promoted into other branches of the government. The [[Code of Justinian]] notes furthermore that the ''agentes'' enjoyed immunity from prosecution both civil and criminal, unless otherwise sanctioned by the Master of Offices.<ref>''[[Codex Justinianeus]]'', XII.20.4</ref> Senior ''agentes'' were regularly appointed to the post of ''[[officium (Ancient Rome)|princeps officii]]'' of the [[praetorian prefecture]]s, the [[urban prefect]]ures and the [[Roman diocese|dioeceses]], thus exercising control over these departments' bureaucracy and reducing its independence.{{sfnp|Kelly|2004|pp=96, 210}}

As for their function, the 6th-century historian [[Procopius]] notes in his ''[[Procopius#Secret_History|Secret History]]'':

{{cquote|The earlier Emperors, in order to gain the most speedy information concerning the movements of the enemy in each territory, seditions or unforeseen accidents in individual towns, and the actions of the governors and other officials in all parts of the Empire, and also in order that those who conveyed the yearly tribute might do so without danger or delay, had established a rapid service of public couriers."<ref>Procopius, ''Secret History'', XXX</ref> }}

As the service handling communications and communications systems within the Empire, their duties included the supervision of the roads and inns of the ''[[cursus publicus]]'' (public postal system), the carrying of letters, or verifying that a traveller was carrying the correct warrant (''evectio'') while using the ''cursus''. Further duties assigned to the ''agentes'' included the role of customs officers, the supervision of public works and the billeting of soldiers.<ref name="ODB"/> They were also used to supervise the arrest of senior officials as required, to escort senior Romans into exile (such as [[John Chrysostom]] in 404), and even to assist in the enforcement of government regulation of the church.{{sfnp|Sinnegen|1959|p=248}} [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] and Procopius also noted their use as ambassadors on several occasions.{{sfnp|Sinnegen|1959|p=249}} 

Other tasks included supervising the provincial bureaucracy and delivering Imperial commands, often staying in the area to ensure their implementation. Being outside the control of the provincial governors, some ''agentes'', the ''curiosi'' ({{langx|el|διατρέχοντες}}, ''diatrechontes'') were appointed as inspectors and acted as a sort of secret agents,<ref name="ODB"/> for which they gained a reputation as a [[secret police]] force.{{sfnp|Jones|Tomlin|2015}} As their routine assignments brought them into contact with matters of great concern to the court, and as they reported back to the court on everything they saw or heard on their varied missions, the ''agentes'' can be seen to have had an [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] function, in the broadest modern sense of the term.<ref name="ODB"/> This role, as well as their extraordinary power, made them feared: the 4th-century philosopher [[Libanius]] accused them of gross misconduct, terrorizing and extorting the provincials, "sheep-dogs who had joined the wolf pack". Nevertheless, the vast majority operated quite openly, and the claims of the ''agentes'' operating as a modern-day secret police are certainly exaggerated.{{sfnp|Kelly|2004|p=207}}

The numbers of the ''agentes'' tended towards inflation,<ref name="ODB"/> and the corps was viewed with a measure of mistrust by the emperors, who repeatedly tried to regulate its size:{{sfnp|Kelly|2004|p=207}} 1,174 in the year 430 according to a law of [[Theodosius II]], and 1,248 under [[Leo I (emperor)|Leo I]] (457–474).<ref>''[[Codex Theodosianus]]'', VI ''De Agentibus in rebus'' 27.23; ''[[Codex Justinianeus]]'', XII.20.3</ref> Imperial edicts also regulated their promotion, which was to be strictly on seniority, with the annual exception of two officers, whom the emperor could advance at his pleasure.{{sfnp|Kelly|2004|p=212}}

== In popular culture ==

* [[Harry Turtledove]]'s alternate history novel, ''[[Agent of Byzantium]]'', features a ''magistrianos'' as the eponymous protagonist.
* [[Gillian Bradshaw]]'s historical novel ''Imperial Purple'', set in the 5th century, features one of the ''agentes'' and the Master of the Offices as the antagonists.
* In John Conroe's ''Demon Accords'', Agents in Rebus (A.I.R.) was founded at the end of the Revolutionary War by patriots, eventually evolving into a rogue intelligence and black ops subsection of the U.S. government.
* Q. V. Hunter's ''Embers of Empire'' series chronicles the career of a fictional ''agens'' in the late 4th century.

== See also ==
* [[Travel in Classical antiquity]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|20em}}

==References==
*N. J. E. Austin and N. B. Rankov, ''Exploratio; Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople''
*Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Brown, Oleg Grabar, ''Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World'' sv "Agens in rebus"
* {{The Imperial Administrative System of the Ninth Century}}
* {{cite book |title=The later Roman Empire, 284-602: a social economic and administrative survey |first=Arnold Hugh Martin |last=Jones |publisher=JHU Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-8018-3354-0 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/laterromanempire01jone }}
* {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Jones |first1=Arnold Hugh Martin |last2=Tomlin |first2=R. S. O. |title=agentes in rebus |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics |date=22 December 2015 |isbn=9780199381135 |doi=10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.192}}
* {{Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium|ref={{harvid|ODB}}}}
* {{cite book |title=Ruling the later Roman Empire |first=Christopher |last=Kelly |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-674-01564-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HhXx67fX7hoC}}
* {{cite journal |first=William J. |last=Sinnegen |title=Two Branches of the Roman Secret Service |journal=The American Journal of Philology |volume=80 |issue=3 |date=1959 |pages=238–254|doi=10.2307/291793 |jstor=291793 }}

[[Category:Ancient Roman government]]
[[Category:Defunct intelligence agencies]]
[[Category:Government of the Byzantine Empire]]
[[Category:Late Roman Empire political office-holders]]
[[Category:Secret police]]