View source for Age of Revolution

{{Short description|Period in the 18th century}}
{{For|the book|The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848{{!}}''The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848''}}
{{more citations needed|date=November 2020}}
{{Infobox historical event
| Event_Name = Age of Revolution
| partof     = the [[Age of Enlightenment]]
| Image_Name = Tuileriensturm.jpg
| Imagesize =
| Image_Alt = Scene from the [[French Revolution]]
| Image_Caption = The [[insurrection of 10 August 1792]] during the [[French Revolution]]
| Thumb_Time = 
| AKA = 
| Participants = 
| Location = <!-- The place of the event Try to follow a "place, city, country" or "city, country" or similar. -->
| Date = 22 March 1765 – 4 October 1849
| nongregorian = 
| Deaths = American Revolution: 37,324+<ref name="auto">https://books.google.com/books?id=3KglCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA775 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203082123/https://books.google.com/books?id=3KglCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA775#v=onepage-- |date=2022-12-03 }}></ref>
French Revolution: 150,000+<ref name="auto"/>
Napoleonic Wars: 3,500,000–7,000,000 (see [[Napoleonic Wars casualties]])
Over 3,687,324–7,187,324 casualties (other wars excluded)
| Result = [[Industrial Revolution]]<br>Multiple revolutionary waves<br>[[Atlantic Revolutions]]<br>[[Spanish American wars of independence|Latin American wars of independence]]<br>[[Revolutions of 1820]]<br>[[Revolutions of 1830]]<br>[[Revolutions of 1848]]<br>End of [[feudalism]]<br>Rise of [[Republicanism]]
| URL = <!-- Official website, if applicable -->
}}

The '''Age of Revolution''' is a period from the late-18th to the mid-19th centuries during which a number of significant [[revolution]]ary movements occurred in most of Europe and the [[Americas]].<ref>{{cite journal|author=Matson, Cathy|title=The Atlantic Economy in an Era of Revolutions: An Introduction|publisher=William and Mary Quarterly|date=July 2005}}</ref> The period is noted for the change from [[Absolutism (European history)|absolutist monarchies]] to representative governments with a [[Constitutionalism|written constitution]], and the creation of [[nation state]]s.

Influenced by the new ideas of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], the [[American Revolution]] (1765–1783) is usually considered the starting point of the Age of Revolution. It in turn inspired the [[French Revolution]] of 1789,<ref>R.R. Palmer, ''The Revolution: a political history of Europe and America, 1760–1800'' (2nd ed. 2014) pp. 177–213</ref> which rapidly spread to the rest of Europe through its wars. In 1799, [[Napoleon]] [[Coup of 18 Brumaire|took power in France]] and continued the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] by conquering most of continental Europe. Although Napoleon imposed on his conquests several modern concepts such as [[equality before the law]], or a [[Napoleonic Code|civil code]], his rigorous military occupation triggered national rebellions, notably in [[Peninsular War|Spain]] and [[German Campaign of 1813|Germany]]. After Napoleon's defeat, European great powers forged the [[Holy Alliance]] at the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1814–15, in an attempt to prevent future revolutions, and also restored the previous monarchies. Nevertheless, Spain was considerably weakened by the Napoleonic Wars and could not control its [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|American colonies]], almost all of which [[Spanish American wars of independence|proclaimed their independence]] between 1810 and 1820. Revolution then spread back to southern Europe in 1820, with [[Revolutions of 1820|uprisings]] in [[Liberal Revolution of 1820|Portugal]], [[Trienio Liberal|Spain]], [[Carbonari|Italy]], and [[Greek War of Independence|Greece]]. Continental Europe was shaken by two similar revolutionary waves in [[Revolutions of 1830|1830]] and [[Revolutions of 1848|1848]], also called the Spring of Nations. The democratic demands of the revolutionaries often merged with independence or national unification movements, such as in [[Unification of Italy|Italy]], [[German revolutions of 1848–1849|Germany]], [[Greater Poland Uprising (1848)|Poland]], [[Hungarian Revolution of 1848|Hungary]], etc. The violent repression of the Spring of Nations marked the end of the era.

The expression was popularized by the British historian [[Eric Hobsbawm]] in his book ''[[The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848]]'', published in 1962''.''<ref name=":2">Hobsbawm, Eric, ''The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848'', London, Abacus (1962).</ref>

==Atlantic Revolutions==
{{Infobox civil conflict
| title             = Atlantic Revolutions
| partof            = the [[Age of Revolution]]
| image             = {{Multiple image 
| image1 = Anonymous - Prise de la Bastille.jpg  
| image2 = Declaration of Independence (1819), by John Trumbull.jpg
| image3 = Haitian Revolution.jpg
| image4 = Krayenhoff Daendels 1795.jpeg
| border=infobox
| perrow = 1/2/2
| total_width = 310
| footer_align = center
| footer = {{resize|113%|'''Clockwise from top''': {{flatlist|
* The [[Storming of the Bastille]] (1789)
* [[Battle of Vertières]] (1803)
* Patriot troops during the [[Batavian Revolution]] (1795)
* [[John Trumbull]]'s ''[[Declaration of Independence (painting)|Declaration of Independence]]'' (1776)
}}}}
}}
| date              = 22 March 1765 – 4 December 1838<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=03|day1=22|year1=1765|month2=12|day2=4|year2=1838}})
| place             = [[Atlantic World]]
| causes            = 
* The [[Age of Enlightenment]]
| result            = Multiple revolutions and wars across the Atlantic world, including the [[American Revolutionary War]], [[French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars]], and the [[Spanish American wars of independence]]
}}
{{Revolution sidebar}}
The '''Atlantic Revolutions''' (19 April 1775 – 4 December 1838) were numerous revolutions in the [[Atlantic World]] in the late 18th and early 19th century, which formed a significant portion of the ''Age of Revolution''. Following the [[Age of Enlightenment]], ideas critical of [[Absolutism (European history)|absolutist monarchies]] spread. A [[revolutionary wave]] occurred, with the aim of ending monarchical rule, emphasizing the ideals of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], and spreading [[liberalism]].

In 1755, early signs of governmental changes occurred with the formation of the [[Corsican Republic]] and [[Pontiac's War]]. The largest of these early revolutions was the [[American Revolution]] beginning in 1775, which founded the [[United States]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Timeline of the Revolution |url=https://www.nps.gov/subjects/americanrevolution/timeline.htm |website=nps.gov}}</ref> The American Revolution inspired other movements, including the [[French Revolution]] in 1789, the [[Haitian Revolution]] in 1791 and the [[Colombian War of Independence]] in 1810. These revolutions were based on the equivocation of personal freedom with the right to own property — a concept spread by [[Edmund Burke]] — and on the equality of all men, an idea expressed in [[constitution]]s written as a result of these revolutions.

==History==
[[File:Erster Freiheitsbaum Mainz.jpg|right|thumb|A [[Liberty Tree|tree of liberty]] topped with a [[Phrygian cap]] set up in [[Mainz]] in 1793. Such symbols were used by several revolutionary movements of the time.]]
The revolutions took place in both the Americas and Europe, including the [[United States]] (1775–1783), [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] (1788–1792), France and French-controlled Europe (1789–1814), [[Haiti]] (1791–1804), [[Ireland]] (1798) and [[Spanish America]] (1810–1825).<ref>Wim Klooster, ''Revolutions in the Atlantic World: A Comparative History'' (2009)</ref> There were smaller upheavals in Switzerland, Russia, and Brazil. The revolutionaries in each country knew of the others and to some degree were inspired by or emulated them.<ref>Laurent Dubois and Richard Rabinowitz, eds. ''Revolution!: The Atlantic World Reborn'' (2011)</ref>

Independence movements in the [[New World]] began with the [[American Revolution]], 1775&ndash;1783, in which France, the Netherlands and Spain assisted the new United States of America as it secured independence from [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Britain]]. In the 1790s, the [[Haitian Revolution]] broke out. In the 1810's, Colombia became one of the first South American nations to declare independence from the Spanish Empire at the beginning of the [[Colombian War of Independence]]. With Spain tied down in European wars, the mainland [[Spanish colonies]] secured independence around 1820.<ref>Jaime E. Rodríguez O., ''The Independence of Spanish America'' (1998)</ref>

[[File:Bastille-day-belfast-1791.jpg|upright=1.33|thumb|right|Bastille Day, 1792, Belfast, Ireland. Volunteer companies parade "The Colours of Five Free Nations, viz.: Flag of Ireland – motto, Unite and be free. Flag of America – motto, The Asylum of Liberty. Flag of France – motto, The Nation, the Law, and the King. Flag of Poland – motto, We will support it. Flag of Great Britain – motto, Wisdom, Spirit, and Liberality."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Madden |first1=Richard |title=The United Irishmen, Their Lives and Times |date=1843 |publisher=J. Madden & Company |location=Belfast |page=179 |edition=30 May 2020 |url=https://archive.org/stream/s1unitedirishmen01madduoft/s1unitedirishmen01madduoft_djvu.txt}}</ref>]]

In long-term perspective, the revolutions were mostly successful. They widely spread the ideals of [[liberalism]], [[republicanism]], the overthrow of aristocracies, kings and established churches. For instance, the Genevan revolutionaries in Europe were under rebellion against their revolutionary government by noblemen of the Small Council. The revolutionaries confronted them by spreading the ideals of their republic like liberty to the whole world.<ref name=":1a">{{Cite journal |last=Polasky |first=Janet |date=2016 |title=Revolutionaries Between Nations, 1776–1789 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44015366 |journal=Past & Present |issue=232 |pages= |issn=0031-2746}}</ref> They emphasized the universal ideals of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], such as the equality of all men, including equal justice under law by disinterested courts as opposed to particular justice handed down at the whim of a local noble. The success of these revolutions demonstrated that the modern notion of revolution, that is, establishing a radically new government, could work in practice. Revolutionary mentalities were born and continue to flourish to the present day.

The common Atlantic theme breaks down to some extent from reading the works of [[Edmund Burke]]. Burke firstly supported the American colonists in 1774 in "[[On American Taxation]]", and took the view that their property and other rights were being infringed by the crown without their consent. In apparent contrast, Burke distinguished and deplored the process of the French revolution in ''[[Reflections on the Revolution in France]]'' (1790), as in this case property, customary and religious rights were being removed summarily by the revolutionaries and not by the crown. In both cases he was following [[Montesquieu]]'s theory that the right to own property is an essential element of personal freedom.

The American Revolution, a pivotal event in the broader context of Atlantic revolutions, led to the emergence of the United States as an independent nation. Its ripple effects resonated across the Atlantic, influencing subsequent independence movements and revolutions in Europe and the Americas. For instance, the Haitian Revolution erupted in the 1790s, challenging colonial rule and inspiring aspirations for freedom and equality. Similarly, mainland Spanish colonies secured their independence around 1820 amid the turmoil of European wars. In addition, the Dutch were called in 1781 by van der Capellen, a nobleman, to rise up against the [[Stadtholder|Stadholder]], their abusive ruler. Following this effort’s success, Van der Capellen reminded readers in his work, "[[Aan het Volk van Nederland]]" (To the People of the Netherlands), that the Dutch had managed to defeat their ruler gain the power to rule themselves.<ref name=":1a" /> These interconnected revolutions, fueled by ideals of liberalism and republicanism, sought to overthrow entrenched aristocracies and establish governments based on the principles of the Enlightenment. The revolutionary fervor underscored the belief in the possibility of creating radically new governments founded on the principles of justice and equality, a sentiment that continues to resonate in modern times. However, the Atlantic theme of revolution faced complexities and nuances, as highlighted in the contrasting views of figures like Edmund Burke, who supported the American colonists' fight against unjust taxation but criticized the French Revolution for its perceived violation of property and religious rights.

==National revolutions==

=== Europe ===

* [[Corsican Republic|Corsican Revolution]] (1755–1769)
* [[Geneva Revolution of 1782|Geneva Revolution]] (1782)
* [[Patriottentijd|Revolt of Dutch Patriots]] (1785)
* '''[[French Revolution]]''' (1789&ndash;1799)
* [[Liège Revolution]] (1789&ndash;1795)
* [[Brabant Revolution]] (1790)
* Polish [[Polish–Russian War of 1792|War in the Defence of Constitution]] (1792) and [[Kościuszko Uprising]] (1794)
* Stäfner Handel in [[Canton of Zürich]], Switzerland (1794–1795)
* [[Batavian Revolution]] (1795)
* [[Society of the United Scotsmen|Scottish Rebellion]] (1797)
* [[Irish Rebellion of 1798]] (1798)
* [[French invasion of Switzerland|Helvetic Revolution]] (1798)
* [[Altamuran Revolution]] (1799)
* [[Serbian Revolution]] (1804&ndash;1835)
* [[Norwegian War of Independence]] (1814)
* [[Liberal Revolution of 1820]] (1820, Portugal)
* [[Decembrist revolt]] (1825) and [[Chernigov Regiment revolt]] (1825–1826)

=== Americas ===
* [[Pontiac's War]] (1763–1766)
* '''[[American Revolution]]''' (1775&ndash;1783)
* [[Revolt of the Comuneros (New Granada)|Revolt of the Comuneros in New Granada]] (1781)
* [[Northwest Indian War]] (1785–1795)
* [[Inconfidência Mineira|Brazilian Revolutionary Movements]] (1789–1817)
** [[Inconfidência Mineira|Minas Conspiracy]] in [[Minas Gerais]], Brazil (1789)
** [[1798 Revolt of the Alfaiates|Bahian Revolt]] (''Conjuração Baiana'') in [[Salvador, Bahia|Bahia]], Brazil (1798)
** [[Pernambucan Revolt]] in [[Pernambuco]], Brazil (1817)
* '''[[Haitian Revolution]]''' (1791&ndash;1804)
* In the [[British Virgin Islands]], minor slave revolts occurred in 1790, 1823 and 1830.
* [[Curaçao Slave Revolt of 1795|Slave revolt in Curaçao]] (1795)
* Bush War, Saint Lucia (1795)
* [[Fédon's rebellion]], Grenada (1796)
* [[Second Maroon War]], Jamaica (1795–1796)
* [[Second Carib War]], Saint Vincent (1795–1797)
* [[Spanish American wars of independence|'''Spanish American Wars of Independence''']] (1808–1833)
** Independence movements in [[Viceroyalty of New Granada|New Granada]]
*** [[Colombian War of Independence]] (1810–1825)
*** [[Venezuelan War of Independence]] (1810–1823)
*** [[Ecuadorian War of Independence]] (1810–1822)
** Independence movements in [[Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata|Río de la Plata]]
*** [[Argentine War of Independence]] (1810–1818)
*** [[Bolivian War of Independence]] (1810–1825)
** Independence movements in [[New Spain]]
*** [[Mexican War of Independence]] (1810–1821)
** Independence movements in [[Viceroyalty of Peru|Peru]]
*** [[Chilean War of Independence]] (1810–1826)
*** [[Peruvian War of Independence]] (1810–1826)
* [[1811 German Coast uprising]] (1811)
* '''[[Brazilian War of Independence]]''' (1821&ndash;1824)
* [[Rebellions of 1837–1838|Upper and Lower Canada Rebellions]] (1837–1838)

Various connecting threads among these varied uprisings include a concern for the "Rights of Man" and freedom of the individual; an idea (often predicated on [[John Locke]] or [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]) of [[popular sovereignty]]. '''Jean Jacques Rousseau along with other philosophers believe that support for equality and liberty in Europe can be done in the small states.'''<ref name=":1a" /> '''Moreover, there were conflicting perspectives about popular sovereignty regarding slavery. [[Stephen A. Douglas]] and the Democratic Party promoted popular sovereignty in favor of the expansion of slavery in the U.S. [[Frederick Douglass]] believed that if Douglas stood up for women’s rights, the Southern white women would have the right to decide whether to put their black sisters under slavery or not.'''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Lynn |first=Joshua A. |date=2020 |title=Stephen Douglas's Enlightenment: Democracy, Race, and Rights in Civil War–Era Political Thought |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/764387 |journal=Civil War History |volume=66 |issue=3 |pages=272–294 |issn=1533-6271}}</ref> '''Other concerns about human rights and freedom include''' the belief in a "[[social contract]]", which in turn was often codified in written [[constitution]]s; a certain complex of religious convictions often associated with [[deism]] and characterized by veneration of reason; abhorrence of [[feudalism]] and often of [[monarchy]] itself. The Atlantic Revolutions also had many shared symbols, including the name "[[patriotism|Patriot]]" used by so many revolutionary groups; the slogan of "[[Liberty]]"; the [[Phrygian cap|liberty cap]]; [[Liberty (personification)|Lady Liberty or Marianne]]; the [[Liberty Tree|tree of liberty]] or [[liberty pole]], and so on.

== Important individuals during the revolutions ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!Name of person or movement
!Allegiance
!Life
|-
|[[Benjamin Franklin]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1706–1790
|-
|[[Israel Putnam]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1718–1790
|-
|[[Samuel Adams]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1722–1803
|-
|[[Richard Price]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}<br />{{Flag|French First Republic||name=France}}
|1723–1791
|-
|[[Pasquale Paoli]]
|{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Corsica.svg}} [[Corsican Republic|Corsica]]
|1725–1807
|-
|[[Horatio Gates]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1727–1806
|-
|[[Guillaume de Bellecombe]]
|{{Flag|Haiti|1803}}
|1728–1792
|-
|'''[[George Washington]]'''
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1732–1799
|-
|[[Joseph Priestley]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1733–1804
|-
|[[John Adams]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1735–1826
|-
|[[Patrick Henry]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1736–1799
|-
|[[Thomas Paine]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1737–1809
|-
|[[Ethan Allen]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}<br />{{Flag|Vermont Republic|name=Vermont}}
|1738–1789
|-
|[[Nathanael Greene]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1742–1786
|-
|'''[[Toussaint Louverture]]'''
|{{Flag|Haiti|1803}}
|1743–1803
|-
|[[Thomas Jefferson]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1743–1826
|-
|[[John Jay]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1745–1829
|-
|[[Tadeusz Kościuszko]]
|{{Flag|Poland–Lithuania}}<br />{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1746–1817
|-
|[[John Paul Jones]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1747–1792
|-
|[[Francisco de Miranda]]
|{{Flag|Venezuela|1810|name=Venezuela}}<br />{{Flag|French First Republic||name=France}}<br />{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1750–1816
|-
|[[Henry Knox]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1750–1806
|-
|[[James Madison]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1751–1836
|-
|[[Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla]]
|{{Flagicon image|Doliente_de_Hidalgo.png}} [[Mexico]]
|1753–1811
|-
|[[Alexander Hamilton]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|1755–1804
|-
|[[Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de Lafayette|Marquis de Lafayette]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}<br />{{Flag|French First Republic||name=France}}
|1757–1834
|-
|'''[[Maximilien Robespierre]]'''
|{{Flag|French First Republic||name=France}}
|1758–1794
|-
|[[Georges Danton]]
|{{Flag|French First Republic||name=France}}
|1759–1794
|-
|[[Wolfe Tone]]
|{{Flagicon image|Green_harp_flag_of_Ireland.svg}} [[Society of United Irishmen|Ireland]]
|1763–1798
|-
|[[José Gervasio Artigas]]
|{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Artigas.svg}} [[Liga Federal]]<br />{{Flag|United Provinces of the Río de la Plata|name=Río de la Plata}}
|1764–1850
|-
|[[José María Morelos]]
|{{Flagicon image|Bandera_y_Estandarte_de_Morelos.svg}} [[Mexico]]
|1765–1815
|-
|[[Antonio Nariño]]
|{{Flag|Gran Colombia|name=Colombia}}<br />{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Cundinamarca.svg}} [[Free and Independent State of Cundinamarca|Cundinamarca]]<br />{{Flag|United Provinces of New Granada|name=New Granada}}
|1765–1823
|-
|[[Camilo Torres Tenorio]]
|{{Flag|United Provinces of New Granada|name=New Granada}}
|1766–1816
|-
|[[Francisco José de Caldas]]
|{{Flag|United Provinces of New Granada|name=New Granada}}
|1768–1816
|-
|[[Napoleon|'''Napoleon Bonaparte''']]
|{{Flag|French First Republic||name=France}}
|1769–1821
|-
|[[Manuel Belgrano]]
|{{Flag|United Provinces of the Río de la Plata|name=Río de la Plata}}
|1770–1820
|-
|[[Cristóbal Mendoza]]
|{{Flag|Venezuela|1810|name=Venezuela}}
|1772–1829
|-
|[[Manuel Piar]]
|{{Flag|Venezuela|1813|name=Venezuela}}
|1774–1817
|-
|[[José Félix Ribas]]
|{{Flag|Venezuela|1810|name=Venezuela}}
|1775–1815
|-
|[[Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald|Thomas Cochrane]]
|{{Flag|Chile|1817}}<br />{{Flag|Empire of Brazil|name=Brazil}}
|1775–1860
|-
|'''[[José de San Martín]]'''
|{{Flag|United Provinces of the Río de la Plata|name=Río de la Plata}}<br />{{Flag|Chile|1817}}<br />{{Flag|Peru|1821}}
|1778–1850
|-
|[[Bernardo O'Higgins]]
|{{Flag|Chile|1817}}
|1778–1842
|-
|[[Jørgen Jørgensen]]
|{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Jørgen_Jørgensen_(1809).svg}} [[Iceland]]
|1780–1841
|-
|[[Vicente Guerrero]]
|{{Flag|Mexico|1824}}
|1782–1831
|-
|[[Mariano Montilla]]
|{{Flag|Gran Colombia|name=Colombia}}<br />{{Flag|Venezuela|1813|name=Venezuela}}<br />{{Flag|United Provinces of New Granada|name=New Granada}}
|1782–1851
|-
|'''[[Simón Bolívar]]'''
|{{Flag|Gran Colombia|name=Colombia}}<br />{{Flag|Venezuela|1813|name=Venezuela}}<br />{{Flag|United Provinces of New Granada|name=New Granada}}<br />{{Flag|Peru|1822}}<br />{{Flag|Bolivia|1825}}
|1783–1830
|-
|[[Agustín de Iturbide]]
|{{Flag|First Mexican Empire||name=Mexico}}
|1783–1824
|-
|[[José Miguel Carrera]]
|{{Flag|Chile|1817}}
|1785–1821
|-
|[[Gregor MacGregor]]
|{{Flag|United Provinces of New Granada|name=New Granada}}<br />{{Flag|Venezuela|1813|name=Venezuela}}<br />{{Flagicon image|Green_Cross_flag_of_Florida.svg}} [[Republic of the Floridas|Florida]]
|1786–1845
|-
|[[Louis-Joseph Papineau]]
|{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Patriote_movement_(Lower_Canada).svg}} [[Patriote movement|Lower Canada]]
|1787–1871
|-
|[[Rafael Urdaneta]]
|{{Flag|Gran Colombia|name=Colombia}}<br />{{Flag|Venezuela|1813|name=Venezuela}}
|1788–1845
|-
|[[Santiago Mariño]]
|{{Flag|Venezuela|1813|name=Venezuela}}<br />{{Flag|Gran Colombia|name=Colombia}}
|1788–1854
|-
|[[Charles Deslondes]]
|{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Louisiana.svg}} [[History of slavery in Louisiana|Louisiana slaves]]
|1789–1811
|-
|[[José Antonio Páez]]
|{{Flag|Venezuela|1830|name=Venezuela}}<br />{{Flag|Gran Colombia|name=Colombia}}
|1790–1873
|-
|[[Samuel Lount]]
|{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Canadian_Republic.svg}} [[Republic of Canada|Canada]]
|1791–1838
|-
|[[Francisco de Paula Santander]]
|{{Flag|Gran Colombia|name=Colombia}}<br />{{Flag|United Provinces of New Granada|name=New Granada}}
|1792–1840
|-
|[[Antonio López de Santa Anna]]
|{{Flag|Mexico|1824}}
|1794–1876
|-
|[[Antonio José de Sucre]]
|{{Flag|Gran Colombia|name=Colombia}}<br />{{Flag|Peru|1822}}<br />{{Flag|Bolivia|1825}}
|1795–1830
|-
|[[William Lyon Mackenzie]]
|{{Flagicon image|Flag_of_the_Canadian_Republic.svg}} [[Republic of Canada|Canada]]
|1795–1861
|-
|[[Pedro I of Brazil]]
|{{Flag|Empire of Brazil|name=Brazil}}
|1798–1834
|-
|[[Alexis de Tocqueville]]
|{{Flag|French Second Republic||name=France}}
|1805–1859
|}

== Important organizations or movements during the revolutions ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+
!Name
!Region
|-
|[[Society of the United Scotsmen]]
|{{Flag|Kingdom of Great Britain||name=Great Britain}}
|-
|[[Sons of Liberty]]
|{{Flag|United States|1776}}
|-
|[[Patriottentijd]]
|{{Flag|Dutch Republic||name=Netherlands}}
|-
|[[Jacobin Club]]
|{{Flag|French First Republic||name=France}}
|-
|[[Société des amis des Noirs]]
|{{Flag|French First Republic||name=France}}
|-
|[[Society of the Friends of the People]]
|{{Flag|Kingdom of Great Britain||name=Great Britain}}
|-
|[[London Corresponding Society]]
|{{Flag|Kingdom of Great Britain||name=Great Britain}}
|-
|[[Lautaro Lodge]]
|{{Flag|Spanish Empire||name=Hispanic America}}
|-
|[[Patriote movement]]
|{{Flag|Lower Canada||name=Lower Canada}}
|-
|{{lang|fr|[[Société des Fils de la Liberté]]|italic=no}}
|{{Flag|Lower Canada||name=Lower Canada}}
|}

==Industrial Revolution==
{{Main|Industrial Revolution}}

The Industrial Revolution was the transition to new manufacturing processes in the period from about 1760 to sometime between 1820 and 1840. It marked a major turning point in history and almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. In particular, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. This led to a rapid expansion of cities that resulted in social strains and disturbances.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Theory of Collective Behavior|last=Smelser|first=Neil|publisher=Quid Pro Books|year=2011|isbn=9781610270854|location=New Orleans|pages=311}}</ref> For instance, economic grievances associated with this industrialization fed later revolutions such as those that transpired from 1848.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The Industrial Revolution: Steam and Steel|last=Wolfe|first=James|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group|year=2015|isbn=9781680480283|location=New York|pages=85}}</ref> New social classes emerged including those that began to reject orthodox politics.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Industrial Revolution|last=Hudson|first=Pat|publisher=Hodder Arnold|year=1992|isbn=9780713165319|location=New York|pages=35}}</ref> This is demonstrated by the rise of the urban [[middle class]], which became a powerful force so that they had to be integrated into the political system.<ref>{{Cite book|title=From Empire to Europe: The Decline and Revival of British Industry Since the Second World War|last=Owens|first=Geoffrey|publisher=HarperCollins Publishers|year=2017|isbn=9780006387503|location=London}}</ref> The upheavals also led to old political ideas that were directed against the social arrangements of the preindustrial regime.<ref name=":0" />

==American Revolution (1765–1783)==
{{Main|American Revolution}}
[[File:Washington Crossing the Delaware by Emanuel Leutze, MMA-NYC, 1851.jpg|thumb|American Revolution]]

The [[American Revolution]] brought about independence for the [[Thirteen Colonies]] of [[British America]]. This was the first European colony to claim independence. It was the birth of the United States of America, ultimately leading to the drafting and ratification of a [[Constitution of the United States|U.S. Constitution]] that included a number of original features within a federated [[republic]] and a system of [[separation of powers]] and checks and balances. Those include but are not limited to an elected head of state, property rights, due process rights, and the rights of free speech, the press and religious practice.<ref>Robert A. Ferguson, ''The American Enlightenment, 1750–1820'' (1997).</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Murrin|first1=John M.|last2=Johnson|first2=Paul E.|last3=McPherson|first3=James M.|last4=Fahs|first4=Alice|last5=Gerstle|first5=Gary|title=Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People|date=2012|publisher=Wadsworth, Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0495904991|page=296|edition=6th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FGSQOiy6uZUC&pg=PT337}}</ref><ref>Wood, ''The American Revolution: A History'' (2003)</ref>

==French Revolution (1789–1799)==
{{Main|French Revolution}}The British historian [[Eric Hobsbawm]] credits the French Revolution with giving the 19th century its ideology and politics, stating:<blockquote>France made its revolutions and gave them their ideas, to the point where a [[Tricolour (flag)|tricolour]] of some kind became the emblem of virtually every emerging nation, and European (or indeed world) politics between 1789 and 1917 were largely the struggle for and against the principles of 1789, or the even more incendiary ones of 1793. [[France]] provided the vocabulary and the issues of [[Liberal democracy|liberal]] and [[Radical democracy|radical-democratic politics]] for most of the world. France provided the first great example, the concept and the vocabulary of [[nationalism]]. France provided the codes of law, the model of scientific and technical organization, the [[metric system]] of measurement for most countries. The ideology of the modern world first penetrated the ancient civilizations which had hitherto resisted European ideas through French influence. This was the work of the French Revolution.<ref name=":2" /></blockquote>
[[File:Prise de la Bastille, le peuple entre.jpg|thumb|[[Storming of the Bastille]] on July 14 ([[Bastille Day]]), 1789]]

The French Revolution was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France from 1789 to 1799 that profoundly affected French and modern history, marking the decline of powerful monarchies and churches and the rise of democracy and nationalism.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Anderson|first=Benedict|url=https://archive.org/details/imaginedcommunit0000ande_f5f1/mode/2up|title=Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism|publisher=[[Verso]]|year=1991|isbn=0860915468|location=London|pages=7, 192–195}}</ref> Popular resentment of the privileges enjoyed by the clergy and aristocracy grew amidst an economic crisis following two expensive wars and years of bad harvests, motivating demands for change. These were couched in terms of Enlightenment ideals and caused the convocation of the Estates-General in May 1789.

The precipitating event was that the King went public that the French state was essentially bankrupt, and because of that he convened the ''États généraux (''Estates general) to replenish state coffers. The Estates-General was made up of 3 estates/orders:

* 1st Estate: Clergy
* 2nd Estate: Nobility
* 3rd Estate: Wealthier, better educated non-nobility (commoners)<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|last=Davidson|first=Ian|title=The French Revolution: From Enlightenment to Tyranny|publisher=[Pegasus Books]|year=2016|isbn=9781681772509|location=United States|pages=9}}</ref><ref name=":2" />

=== King's weakened position ===
The French tax regime was regressive, and traditional noble and bourgeois allies felt shut out.

Centralizing monarchical power, i.e. Royal absolutism, onward from Louis XIII in 1614<ref name=":3" /> inward to the royal court in Versailles led to a snowball effect that ended up alienating both nobility and bourgeoisie. There was a tendency to play favorites with the tax regime, especially by exempting nobility from taxation. This led to a feeling of discrimination among the bourgeoisie, which itself was an engine of the Revolution<ref>Id., pp. 2-3.</ref>

It was also a question of numbers. The population of nobles versus that of the rest of France wildly disparate: nobles = .4-1.5% out of total population of ca. 28 million. The population of clergy versus the rest of France was even less: about 120,000 clergy total, out of which were 139 powerful and wealthy bishops (.0005% of total pop.); the majority of parish priests were as poor as their parishioners.<ref name=":4">Id., pp. 4-5.</ref>

=== Bourgeoisie ===
These were young men from commoner families who were not sustenance farmers and whose families could afford to send their sons to either study the law or take over the family business. When talking about these young (mainly) lawyers from this segment of society, one is also talking about products of the Enlightenment. As the former ''[[Financial Times]]'' chief foreign affairs columnist and author Ian Davidson puts it:<blockquote>"French society, like others in much of Western Europe, was undergoing a colossal transformation. The ultra-intellectual Enlightenment of Montesquieu and Voltaire, Bach and Mozart, Isaac Newton and Adam Smith was just the tip of a vast change that was happening throughout society and producing an expanding, educated, literate and ambitious bourgeoisie."<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Part of this ambition was to enter a political scene that was always locked behind a door to which only the monarchy, clergy, and nobility had the keys. The durable shift here was that, by the time the Estates general convened, their knowledge of law gave them the tools to enter the political scene.

=== Constitutional chronology ===
* ''[[Ancien régime]]'' (pre 1789)
** ''[[National Constituent Assembly (France)|National Constituent Assembly]]'' (1789–1791)
* [[Constitutional Cabinet of Louis XVI|Constitutional Monarchy]] (1791–1792)
** [[National Legislative Assembly (France)|National Legislative Assembly]] (1791–1792)
* [[French First Republic|First Republic]] (1792–1804)
** [[National Convention]] (1792–1795)
** [[Directory of France|Directory]] (1795–1799)
** [[French Consulate|Consulate]] (1799–1804)
* [[First French Empire|First Empire]], the reign of [[Napoleon]] (1804–1814)

==Haitian Revolution (1791–1804)==
{{Main|Haitian Revolution}}
[[File:Haitian Revolution.jpg|200px|thumb|Attack and siege of the Crête-à-Pierrot during Haitian revolution]]
The Haitian Revolution was a slave rebellion in the French colony of [[Saint-Domingue]], which culminated in the elimination of slavery there<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Ghachem |first1=Malick W. |last2=Danforth |first2=Susan |title=The Other Revolution |url=https://www.brown.edu/Facilities/John_Carter_Brown_Library/exhibitions/haitian/pages/part7.html |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=[[John Carter Brown Library]] |publisher=[[Brown University]]}}</ref> and the eventual founding of the [[Republic of Haiti (1806–1820)|Republic of Haiti]]. The Haitian Revolution was the only slave revolt which led to the founding of a state. Furthermore, it is generally considered the most successful slave rebellion ever to have occurred and as a defining moment in the histories of both Europe and the Americas. The rebellion began with a revolt of black African slaves in August 1791.<ref>{{cite book |author=Adam Hochschild |url=https://archive.org/details/burychainsprophe00hoch |title=Bury the Chains |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=2005 |page=[https://archive.org/details/burychainsprophe00hoch/page/257 257] |url-access=registration}}</ref> It ended in November 1803 with the French defeat at the [[Battle of Vertières]]. Haiti became an independent country on January 1, 1804.

One-third of French overseas trade and revenue came from Haitian sugar and coffee plantations. During the [[French Revolution]] the island was ignored, allowing the revolt to have some initial successes. However, after [[Napoleon]] became the first consul of France, he sent troops to suppress the revolt.

The war was known for cruelty on both sides, and extensive guerrilla warfare. French forces showed no mercy, as they were fighting blacks, who were not considered to be worthy opponents of the French army.

The French army suffered from severe outbreaks of disease, and the Haitians were under-equipped. Top leaders of both sides were killed, and the leader of the Haitians died in captivity.

==United Irishmen's Rebellion (1798)==
{{unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
{{Main|Irish Rebellion of 1798}}
[[File:Vinhill.gif|200px|thumb|[[Battle of Vinegar Hill]] during 1798 Irish rebellion]]

In 1798, a revolt broke out against [[British rule in Ireland]] in the hopes of creating an independent Irish republic. The rebellion was initiated by the [[Society of United Irishmen]] and led by [[Wolfe Tone]]. The revolt was motivated by a combination of factors, including [[Irish nationalism]], news of the success of the French Revolution, and resentment at the British-instituted [[Penal law (British)|Penal laws]], which discriminated against Catholics and Presbyterians in Ireland. The rebellion failed and led to the [[Acts of Union 1800]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Irish Act of Union, 1800: bicentennial essays |date=2003 |publisher=Irish Academic Press |isbn=978-0-7165-2772-5 |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=Michael |location=Dublin |editor-last2=Geoghegan |editor-first2=Patrick M. |editor-last3=Kelly |editor-first3=James}}</ref>

== Serbian Revolution (1804–1835) ==
{{Main|Serbian Revolution}}
The Serbian Revolution was a national uprising and constitutional change in [[Serbia]] that took place between 1804 and 1835, during which the territory evolved from an [[Sanjak of Smederevo|Ottoman province]] into a rebel territory, a [[Principality of Serbia|constitutional monarchy]], and finally the modern Serbian state. The first part of the period, from 1804 to 1815, was marked by a violent struggle for independence from the [[Ottoman Empire]] with three armed uprisings taking place (The [[First Serbian Uprising]], [[Hadži-Prodan's rebellion]] and the [[Second Serbian Uprising]]), ending with a ceasefire.{{citation needed|date=June 2024}} During the later period (1815–1835) a peaceful consolidation of political power developed in the increasingly autonomous Serbia, culminating in the recognition of the right to hereditary rule by [[List of Serbian monarchs|Serbian princes]] in 1830 and 1833 and the territorial expansion of the young monarchy. The adoption of the first written [[1835 Constitution of Serbia|Constitution]] in 1835 abolished [[feudalism]] and [[serfdom]], and made the country [[Suzerainty|suzerain]]. The term "Serbian Revolution" was coined by a German academic historiographer, [[Leopold von Ranke]], in his book ''Die Serbische Revolution'', published in 1829. These events marked the foundation of the modern [[Principality of Serbia]].{{citation needed|date=June 2024}}

Scholars have characterized the Serbian War of Independence and subsequent national liberation as a revolution because the uprisings were started by broad masses of rural Serbian people who were in severe class conflict with the Turkish landowners as a political and economic masters at the same time, similar to [[Greek War of Independence|Greece in the 1820s]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cirkovic |first1=Sima |title=The Serbs |date=2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |pages=290–295}}</ref>

==Latin American Wars of Independence (1808–1833)==
{{unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
{{Main|Spanish American wars of independence|War of Independence of Brazil}}

Latin America experienced [[Spanish American wars of independence|independence revolutions]] in the early 19th century that separated the colonies from [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]], creating new nations. These movements were generally led by the ethnically Spanish but locally born [[Creole peoples|Creole]] class; these were often wealthy citizens that held high positions of power but were still poorly respected by the European-born Spaniards. One such Creole was [[Simón Bolívar]], who led several revolutions throughout South America and helped establish [[Gran Colombia]]. Another important figure was [[José de San Martín]], who helped create the [[United Provinces of the Río de la Plata]] and became the first president of [[Peru]].

==Greek War of Independence (1821–1829)==
{{unreferenced section|date=June 2020}}
{{Main|Greek War of Independence}}
Greece in the early 1800s was under the rule of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. A series of revolts, starting in 1821, began the conflict. The Ottoman Empire sent in forces to suppress the revolts. By 1827, forces from Russia, Great Britain, and France entered the conflict, helping the Greeks drive the Turkish forces off the [[Peloponnese Peninsula]]. The Turks finally recognized Greece as a free nation in May 1832.

==Revolutions of 1820==
{{main|Revolutions during the 1820s}}
The Revolutions of 1820 were a series of revolutionary uprisings in [[Spain]], [[Italy]], [[Portugal]], and [[Greece]]. Unlike the wars of 1830, these wars tended to be in the outer regions of Europe.<ref>[[James H. Billington]], ''[[Fire in the Minds of Men]]: Origins of the Revolutionary Faith'', Transaction Publishers, 2011, p. 148: "Whereas the revolutions of 1820 had occurred in traditional societies (Spain, southern Italy, Greece, and Russia), the revolutions of 1830 affected regions where the workings of a market economy were relatively advanced..."</ref>

==Revolutions of 1830==
{{main|Revolutions of 1830}}
A [[revolutionary wave]] in Europe which took place in 1830. It included two "[[Romantic nationalism|romantic nationalist]]" revolutions, the [[Belgian Revolution]] in the [[United Kingdom of the Netherlands]] and the [[July Revolution]] in [[Kingdom of France|France]]. There also were revolutions in [[Congress Poland]], [[Italian states]], [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]] and [[Switzerland]]. It was followed eighteen years later by another and  much stronger wave of revolutions known as the [[Revolutions of 1848]].<ref>Clive H. Church, "Forgotten Revolutions: recent work on the revolutions of 1830 in Europe." ''European Studies Review'' 7.1 (1977): 95-106.</ref><ref>Clive H. Church, ''Europe in 1830: Revolution and political change'' (1983)</ref>

==Revolutions of 1848==
{{Main|Revolutions of 1848}}
The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations, Springtime of the Peoples or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout Europe in 1848. It remains the most widespread revolutionary wave in European history, but within a year, reactionary forces had regained control, and the revolutions collapsed.

The political impact of the 1848 revolutions was more evident in Austria in comparison to the revolution's effects in countries like Germany. This is attributed to the way the upheavals in Vienna resulted in greater loss of life and gained stronger support from intellectuals, students, and the working class.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=The 1848 Revolutions in German-Speaking Europe|last=Hahn|first=Hans Joachim|publisher=Routledge|year=2014|isbn=9780582357655|location=Oxon|pages=107}}</ref> An account described the German experience as less concerned with national issues, although it succeeded in breaking down class barriers.<ref name=":1" /> There was a previously prevalent view that there was only one revolutionary event in Germany but recent scholarship pointed to a fragmented picture of several revolutions happening at the same time.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849: From Reform to Reaction|last1=Evans|first1=Robert John|last2=von Strandmann|first2=Hartmut Pogge|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2002|isbn=0199249970|location=Oxford|pages=132}}</ref>

The 1848 revolutions were also notable because of the increased participation of women. While women rarely participated in revolutionary activities, there were those who performed supportive and auxiliary roles such as the cases of the women's political club in [[Vienna]], which demanded revolutionary measures from the Austrian Constituent Assembly, and the Parisian women who protested and proposed their own solutions to social problems, particularly those involving their rights and crafts.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The European Revolutions, 1848–1851|last=Sperber|first=Jonathan|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2005|isbn=0521839076|location=Cambridge|pages=188}}</ref>

==Eureka Rebellion (1854)==
{{Main|Eureka Rebellion}}
The Eureka Rebellion was a 20-minute shootout between the miners of [[Ballarat]], Victoria, and the [[British Army]]. After the imposition of Gold Mining Licences, that being that a person had to have one of these to mine gold, and which cost 30 shillings a month to own a license, the miners decided that it was too much. The Ballarat miners started rallies at [[Bakery Hill]] and burnt their licenses, took an oath under the flag of the [[Southern Cross]], elected Peter Lalor as their rebellion leader, and built a stockade (a makeshift fort) around the diggings. Eventually, the British troops, led by Governor [[Charles Hotham]] of Ballarat fired upon the stockade. The miners fired back and lasted 20 minutes before their stockade was stormed by British troops. Most of the miners were arrested by the British colonial authorities, and taken to trial. If found guilty, they would hang for high treason. All were eventually acquitted. The Eureka Rebellion is controversially identified with the birth of democracy in Australia and interpreted by many as a political revolt.<ref>'Dr. H.V. Evatt, leader of the ALP, wrote that "The Eureka Stockade was of crucial importance in the making of Australian democracy"; Robert Menzies, later Liberal Prime Minister, said that "the Eureka revolution was an earnest attempt at democratic government"; [[Ben Chifley]], former ALP Prime Minister, wrote that "Eureka was more than an incident or passing phase. It was greater in significance than the short-lived revolt against tyrannical authority would suggest. The permanency of Eureka in its impact on our development was that it was the first real affirmation of our determination to be masters of our own political destiny." (from {{cite web
 |title       = The Eureka Rebellion
 |publisher   = National Republicans
 |url         = http://home.alphalink.com.au/~eureka/eukand.htm
 |url-status     = live
 |archiveurl  = https://web.archive.org/web/20170308223221/http://home.alphalink.com.au/~eureka/eukand.htm
 |archivedate = 8 March 2017}}, quoting ''Historical Studies: Eureka Supplement'', Melbourne University Press, Carlton, Vic., 1965, pages 125–6)</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Sunterass |first=Anne Beggs |year=2003 |url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lab/85/sunter.html |title=Contested Memories of Eureka: Museum Interpretations of the Eureka Stockade |work=Labour History |publisher=History Cooperative |accessdate=22 December 2006 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070426185846/http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/lab/85/sunter.html |archivedate=26 April 2007}}</ref><ref>[[Geoffrey Blainey]] commented in 1963 that "Eureka became a legend, a battlecry for nationalists. republicans, liberals, radicals, or communists, each creed finding in the rebellion the lessons they liked to see." ..."In fact the new colonies' political constitutions were not affected by Eureka, but the first Parliament that met under Victoria's new constitution was alert to the democratic spirit of the goldfields, and passed laws enabling each adult man in Victoria to vote at elections, to vote by [[secret ballot]], to stand for the Legislative Assembly." {{Cite book| last = Blainey | first = Geoffrey | authorlink = Geoffrey Blainey | title = The Rush That Never Ended | year = 1963 | publisher = Melbourne University Press | pages = 56–7}}</ref>

== First War of Indian Independence (1857–1858) ==
{{Main|Indian Rebellion of 1857}}
{{see also|Indian independence movement}}

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major, but ultimately unsuccessful, uprising in India in 1857–58 against the rule of the [[British East India Company]], which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown. The rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the form of a mutiny of sepoys of the Company's army in the garrison town of Meerut, 40&nbsp;mi (64&nbsp;km) northeast of [[Delhi]] (that area is now Old Delhi). It then erupted into other mutinies and civilian rebellions chiefly in the upper Gangetic plain and central India, though incidents of revolt also occurred farther north and east. The rebellion posed a considerable threat to British power in that region, and was contained only with the rebels' defeat in [[Gwalior]] on 20 June 1858. On 1 November 1858, the British granted amnesty to all rebels not involved in murder, though they did not declare the hostilities to have formally ended until 8 July 1859. Its name is contested, and it is variously described as the Sepoy Mutiny, the Indian Mutiny, the Great Rebellion, the Revolt of 1857, the Indian Insurrection, and the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|First War of Independence]].

== Bulgarian revolts and liberation (1869–1878) ==
{{main|April Uprising of 1876|Bulgarian National Revival|National awakening of Bulgaria}}

[[Bulgarians|Bulgarian]] modern [[nationalism]] emerged under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman rule]] in the late 18th and early 19th century, under the influence of western ideas such as liberalism and nationalism, which trickled into the country after the French Revolution. In 1869 the [[Internal Revolutionary Organization]] was initiated. An autonomous [[Bulgarian Exarchate]] was established in 1870/1872 for the Bulgarian diocese wherein at least two-thirds of Orthodox Christians were willing to join it. The [[April Uprising of 1876]] indirectly resulted in the [[Liberation of Bulgaria|re-establishment of Bulgaria in 1878]].

==Paris Commune (1871)==
{{Main|Paris Commune}}
The [[Paris Commune]] was a revolutionary [[socialist]] government that controlled Paris from 18 March to 28 May 1871. It was established by radicalized defectors from the [[National Guard (France)|French National Guard]], which had been mobilized to defend Paris in the [[Franco-Prussian War]] (19 July 1870 – 28 January 1871).

== See also ==
* [[Atlantic history]], on historiography
* [[List of revolutions and rebellions]]
* [[Modern era]]
* [[Long nineteenth century]]
* [[Pax Britannica]]
* [[Political history of the world]]
* [[Risorgimento]]
* [[Timeline of national independence]]
* [[Revolutionary Spring]] by [[Christopher Clark]]
* [[Spanish American wars of independence]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Canny, Nicholas, and Philip Morgan, eds. ''The Oxford Handbook of the Atlantic World: 1450–1850'' (Oxford UP, 2011).
* Donoghue, John. ''Fire under the Ashes: An Atlantic History of the English Revolution'' (U  of Chicago Press, 2013).
*Geggus, David P. ''The Impact of the Haitian Revolution in the Atlantic World'' (2002)
*[[Jacques Godechot]]. ''France and the Atlantic revolution of the eighteenth century, 1770–1799'' (1965)
*Gould, Eliga H. and Peter S. Onuf, eds. ''Empire and Nation : The American Revolution in the Atlantic World'' (2004)
*Greene, Jack P., Franklin W. Knight, Virginia Guedea, and Jaime E. Rodríguez O. "AHR Forum: Revolutions in the Americas", ''American Historical Review'' (2000) 105#1 92–152. Advanced scholarly essays comparing different revolutions in the New World. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/i325440 in JSTOR]
*[[Jonathan I. Israel|Israel, Jonathan I.]] ''The Expanding Blaze: How the American Revolution Ignited the World, 1775-1848''. Princeton: Princeton University Press 2017. {{ISBN|978-0-691-17660-4}}
*Klooster, Wim. ''Revolutions in the Atlantic World: A Comparative History'' (2nd ed. 2018)
* Leonard, A.B. and David Pretel, eds. ''The Caribbean and the Atlantic World Economy''(2018)
*Palmer, Robert. ''The Age of Democratic Revolutions'' 2 vols. (1959, 1964)
* Perl-Rosenthal, Nathan. "Atlantic cultures and the age of revolution." ''William & Mary Quarterly'' 74.4 (2017): 667–696. [https://muse.jhu.edu/article/675316 online]
* Peterson, Mark. "The Cambridge History of Age of Atlantic Revolutions" (2023) pp.&nbsp;159–541 https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108567671.008
* Polasky, Janet L. ''Revolutions without Borders'' (Yale UP, 2015). 392 pp. [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=44565 online review]
* Potofsky, Allan. "Paris-on-the-Atlantic from the Old Regime to the Revolution." ''French History'' 25.1 (2011): 89–107.
*Sepinwall, Alyssa G. "Atlantic Revolutions", in ''Encyclopedia of the Modern World'', ed. Peter Stearns (2008), I: 284 – 289
*Verhoeven, W.M. and Beth Dolan Kautz, eds. '' Revolutions and Watersheds: Transatlantic Dialogues, 1775–1815'' (1999)
* Vidal, Cécile, and Michèle R. Greer. "For a Comprehensive History of the Atlantic World or Histories Connected In and Beyond the Atlantic World?." ''Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales'' 67#2 (2012). [https://www.cairn-int.info/focus-E_ANNA_672_0391--for-a-comprehensive-history-of-the-atlan.htm online]

{{Western culture}}

[[Category:Age of Revolution| ]]
[[Category:Napoleonic Wars]]
[[Category:18th-century revolutions]]
[[Category:19th-century revolutions]]
[[Category:Historical eras|Revolution]]
[[Category:History of Europe]]
[[Category:History of North America]]
[[Category:History of South America]]
[[Category:18th century in Europe]]
[[Category:19th century in Europe]]
[[Category:18th century in North America]]
[[Category:19th century in North America]]
[[Category:18th century in South America]]
[[Category:19th century in South America]]
[[Category:Revolutionary waves]]