View source for Aftermath of World War I

{{Short description|Events after the end of the war in 1918}}
{{Infobox historical event
| event_name = Aftermath of World War I
| partof = the [[interwar period]]
| image_name    = William Orpen - The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors.jpg
| image_caption = [[William Orpen]]'s ''[[The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors]]'': the signing of the [[Treaty of Versailles]] in the [[Hall of Mirrors (Palace of Versailles)|Hall of Mirrors]] at the [[Palace of Versailles]] in 1919
| aka           = 
| participants   = 
| location       = 
| date           = 11 November 1918 – 1 September 1939<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|year1=1918|month1=11|day1=11|year2=1939|month2=09|day2=01}})
| result         = Political and social changes such as:
* [[Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)]]
* [[International relations (1919–1939)]]
* [[Revolutions of 1917–1923]]
* [[World War II]]
}}
{{Campaignbox Aftermath of World War I}}

The '''aftermath of World War I''' saw far-reaching and wide-ranging cultural, economic, and social change across [[Europe]], [[Asia]], [[Africa]], and in areas outside those that were directly involved. Four empires collapsed due to the war, old countries were abolished, new ones were formed, boundaries were redrawn, international organizations were established, and many new and old ideologies took a firm hold in people's minds. Additionally, culture in the nations involved was greatly changed. [[World War I]] also had the effect of bringing political transformation to most of the principal parties involved in the conflict, transforming them into [[Electoral democracy|electoral democracies]] by bringing near-[[universal suffrage]] for the first time in history, as in [[Weimar Republic|Germany]] ([[1919 German federal election]]), [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] ([[1918 United Kingdom general election]]), and the [[United States]] ([[1920 United States presidential election]]).

==Blockade of Germany==

{{Main|Blockade of Germany (1914–1919)}}
Through the period from the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918]] until the signing of the [[Treaty of Versailles]] with the [[Weimar Republic]] on 28 June 1919, the [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] maintained the naval blockade of Germany that had begun during the war. As the German economy was dependent on imports, it is estimated that around half a million civilians had died.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dhm.de/lemo/html/wk1/wirtschaft/versorgung/index.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001102140012/http://www.dhm.de/lemo/html/wk1/wirtschaft/versorgung/index.html|archive-date=2 November 2000|title=Die Lebensmittelversorgung|language=de|trans-title=The Food Supply|date=November 2, 2000|website=Deutsches Historisches Museum|access-date=8 June 2011|first=Burkhard|last=Asmuss}}</ref> N. P. Howard, of the [[University of Sheffield]], estimates that a quarter of a million [[excess deaths]] occurred in eight-month period following the conclusion of the conflict, 40% of which took place in November 1918, making for 474,085 excess deaths for the entire 1914–1919 period.<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://libcom.org/files/blockade%20Germany_0.pdf|title=The Social and Political Consequences of the Allied Food Blockade of Germany, 1918–19|first=N. P.|last=Howard|journal=German History|volume=11|issue=2|date=April 1993|page=166|doi=10.1093/gh/11.2.161|via=libcom.org}}</ref> The continuation of the blockade after the fighting ended, as author [[Robert Leckie (author)|Robert Leckie]] wrote in ''[[Delivered from Evil]]'', did much to "torment the Germans&nbsp;... driving them with the fury of despair into the arms of the devil."{{citation needed|date=May 2012}} The terms of the [[Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|Armistice]] did allow food to be shipped into Germany, but the Allies required that Germany provide the means (the shipping) to do so. The German government was required to use its gold reserves, being unable to secure a loan from the United States.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}}

Historian Sally Marks claims that while "Allied warships remained in place against a possible resumption of hostilities, the Allies offered food and medicine after the armistice, but Germany refused to allow its ships to carry supplies". Further, Marks states that despite the problems facing the Allies, from the German government, "Allied food shipments arrived in Allied ships before the charge made at Versailles".<ref>{{cite book |last=Marks |first=Sally |chapter=1918 and After: The Postwar Era |title=The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered |editor-last=Martel |editor-first=Gordon |location=Boston |publisher=Allen & Unwin |year=1986 |page=[https://archive.org/details/originsofsecondw00gord/page/19 19] |isbn=0-04-940084-3 |chapter-url-access=registration |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/originsofsecondw00gord |url=https://archive.org/details/originsofsecondw00gord/page/19 }}</ref> This position is also supported by Elisabeth Gläser who notes that an Allied task force, to help feed the German population, was established in early 1919 and that by May 1919 Germany "became the chief recipient of American and Allied food shipments". Gläser further claims that during the early months of 1919, while the main relief effort was being planned, France provided food shipments to [[Bavaria]] and the [[Rhineland]]. She further claims that the German government delayed the relief effort by refusing to surrender their merchant fleet to the Allies. Finally, she concludes that "the very success of the relief effort had in effect deprived the [Allies] of a credible threat to induce Germany to sign the Treaty of Versailles.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gläser |title=The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment After 75 Years |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1998 |pages=388–391 |isbn=0-521-62132-1 }}</ref> However, it is also the case that for eight months following the end of hostilities, some form of blockade was continually in place, with some contemporary estimates that a further 100,000 casualties among German civilians due to starvation were caused, on top of the hundreds of thousands which already had occurred. Food shipments, furthermore, had been entirely dependent on Allied goodwill, causing at least in part the post-hostilities irregularity.<ref>Germany. Gesundheits-Amt. Schaedigung der deutschen Volkskraft durch die feindliche Blockade. Denkschrift des Reichsgesundheitsamtes, Dezember 1918.  (Parallel English translation) Injuries inflicted to the German national strength through the enemy blockade. Memorial of the German Board of Public Health, 27 December 1918 [Berlin, Reichsdruckerei,]The report notes on page 17 that the figures for the second half of 1918 were estimated based on the first half of 1918.</ref><ref name=dhm>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/firstworldwar/spotlights/blockade.htm|title=The Blockade of Germany|website=The National Archives|location=United Kingdom}}</ref>

==Paris Peace Conference==
{{Main|Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)}}
[[Image:Mass demonstration in front of the Reichstag against the Treaty of Versailles.jpg|thumb|Demonstration against the Treaty in front of the [[Reichstag building]]]]
After the [[Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)|Paris Peace Conference]] of 1919, the signing of the Treaty of Versailles on 28 June 1919, between Germany on the one side and France, Italy, Britain and other minor allied powers on the other, officially ended war between those countries. Other treaties ended the relationships of the United States and the other Central Powers. Included in the 440 articles of the Treaty of Versailles were the demands that Germany officially accept [[Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles|responsibility "for causing all the loss and damage" of the war]] and pay [[World War I reparations|economic reparations]]. The treaty drastically limited the German military machine: German troops were reduced to 100,000 and the country was prevented from possessing major military armaments such as tanks, warships, armored vehicles and submarines.

==Influenza epidemic==
{{Main|Spanish flu}}
[[File:Post WWI Conflict Map In New-York Tribune November 9 1919 Page 26.jpg|thumb|alt=Map of Europe with numbered locations|400px|
The ''[[New-York Tribune]]'' prints this map on November 9, 1919, of the ongoing armed conflict in Europe in 1919, one year after World War I had ended:{{sfn|New-York Tribune|1919|p=26}}
{{Ordered list |[[Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919|War]] of [[Estonian War of Independence|Independence in Estonia]] and [[Latvian War of Independence|Latvia]]
| [[White movement|White Army]] of [[Nikolai Yudenich|General Yudenich]]  
| [[North Russia intervention]]
| White Army of [[Alexander Kolchak|Kolchak's in Siberia]]
| [[Anton Denikin|General Denikin's White Army]]  
| [[Symon Petlura|General Petlura's Ukrainian directorate]] 
| [[Polish–Soviet War]]
| [[Upper Silesia plebiscite|Silesia]] tension between the Poles and Germans.
| [[Hungarian–Romanian War|Romanian occupation of Hungary]]
| [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]] seizes Fiume, creates the [[Italian Regency of Carnaro]]
| In [[Albania during World War I|Albania promiscuous]] fighting is going on 
| [[Turkish War of Independence]]
}}
]]
Historians continue to argue about the impact the [[1918 flu pandemic]] had on the outcome of the war. It has been posited that the Central Powers may have been exposed to the viral wave before the Allies. The resulting casualties having greater effect, having been incurred during the war, as opposed to the allies who suffered the brunt of the pandemic after the Armistice. When the extent of the epidemic was realized, the respective censorship programs of the Allies and Central Powers limited the public's knowledge regarding the true extent of the disease. Because [[Spain during World War I|Spain]] was [[Neutral country|neutral]], their [[Mass media in Spain|media]] was free to report on the Flu, giving the impression that it began there. This misunderstanding led to contemporary reports naming it the "[[Spanish flu]]". Investigative work by a British team led by virologist [[John Oxford]] of [[St Bartholomew's Hospital]] and the [[Royal London Hospital]], identified a major troop staging and hospital camp in [[Étaples]], France as almost certainly being the center of the 1918 flu pandemic. A significant precursor virus was harbored in birds, and mutated to pigs that were kept near the front.<ref>^ Connor, Steve, "Flu epidemic traced to Great War transit camp", The Guardian (UK), Saturday, 8 January 2000. Accessed 2009-05-09. Archived 11 May 2009.</ref> The exact number of deaths is unknown but about 50&nbsp;million people are estimated to have died from the influenza outbreak worldwide.<ref>[http://www.nap.edu/books//html/7.html NAP]{{dead link|fix-attempted=yes|date=September 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.influenzareport.com/ir/overview.htm|title=Influenza Book|first1=Bernd Sebastian|last1=Kamps|first2=Gustavo|last2=Reyes-Terán|isbn=3-924774-51-X|website=Influenza Report|publisher=Flying Publisher|access-date=2007-02-26|archive-date=2019-10-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028030041/http://www.influenzareport.com/ir/overview.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2005, a study found that, "The [[Influenza A virus subtype H1N1|1918 virus strain]] developed in birds and was similar to the [[H5N1|'bird flu']] that in the 21st century spurred fears of another worldwide pandemic, yet proved to be a normal treatable virus that did not produce a heavy impact on the world's health."<ref>{{cite web|title='Bird Flu' Similar to Deadly 1918 Flu, Gene Study Finds|url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/10/1005_051005_bird_flu.html|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051031042153/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/10/1005_051005_bird_flu.html|archive-date=31 October 2005|website=National geographic|first=Brian|last=Handwerk|date=5 October 2005}}</ref>

==Formation of national identities==
[[File:Subject nationalities of the German alliance - from the Allies' peace terms as stated in their reply to President Wilson's note of 19th Dec. 1916 - (Eurasia). LOC 2004628224.jpg|thumb|alt=Map| Subject nationalities of the German alliance]]After 123 years, [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]] re-emerged as an independent country. The [[Kingdom of Serbia]] and its dynasty, as a "minor Entente nation" and the country with the most casualties per capita,<ref>{{cite news |date=27 July 1918 |title=Appeals to Americans to Pray for Serbians |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/07/27/102727338.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916183729/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/07/27/102727338.pdf |archive-date=16 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=5 November 1918 |title=Serbia Restored |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/11/05/98273895.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916183845/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/11/05/98273895.pdf |archive-date=16 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Simpson |first=Matt |date=22 August 2009 |title=The Minor Powers During World War One&nbsp;– Serbia |url=http://www.firstworldwar.com/features/minorpowers_serbia.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100427065927/http://www.firstworldwar.com/features/minorpowers_serbia.htm |archive-date=27 April 2010 |access-date=27 May 2010 |publisher=firstworldwar.com}}</ref> became the backbone of a new multinational state, the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]], later renamed Yugoslavia. [[Czechoslovakia]], combining the [[Kingdom of Bohemia]] with parts of the Kingdom of Hungary, became a new nation. Romania would [[Great Union|unite]] all Romanian-speaking people under a single state leading to [[Greater Romania]].<ref>Cas Mudde. [https://books.google.com/books?id=bNp6CAlMMcUC&dq=%22term+greater+romania%22&pg=PA190 ''Racist Extremism in Central and Eastern Europe''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160515100954/https://books.google.com/books?id=bNp6CAlMMcUC#v=onepage&q=%22term%20greater%20romania%22&f=false|date=15 May 2016}}</ref> Russia became the [[Soviet Union]] and lost [[Finland]], [[Estonia]], [[Lithuania]], and [[Latvia]], which became independent countries. The [[Ottoman Empire]] was soon replaced by [[Turkey]] and many of its territories became mandates under British or French rule.

In the British Empire, the war unleashed new forms of nationalism. In the Dominions of Australia and New Zealand, the Battle of Gallipoli became known as those nations' "Baptism of Fire". It was the first major war in which the newly established countries fought, and it was one of the first times that Australian troops fought as Australians, not just subjects of the [[The Crown|British Crown]], and independent national identities for these nations took hold. [[Anzac Day]], commemorating the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps (ANZAC), celebrates this defining moment.<ref>{{cite news |date=26 April 1916 |title='ANZAC Day' in London; King, Queen, and General Birdwood at Services in Abbey |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1916/04/26/archives/anzac-day-in-london-king-queen-and-general-birdwood-at-services-in.html |url-status=live |access-date=25 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715010040/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9400E1DD113FE233A25755C2A9629C946796D6CF&scp=12&sq=New+Zealand+anzac&st=p |archive-date=15 July 2016}}</ref><ref name="awmtradition">{{cite web |last=Australian War Memorial |title=The ANZAC Day tradition |url=http://www.awm.gov.au/commemoration/anzac/anzac_tradition.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501163212/http://www.awm.gov.au/commemoration/anzac/anzac_tradition.asp |archive-date=1 May 2008 |access-date=2 May 2008 |publisher=[[Australian War Memorial]]}}</ref>

After the Battle of Vimy Ridge, where the Canadian divisions fought together for the first time as a single corps, Canadians began to refer to their country as a nation "forged from fire".<ref>{{cite web |author=Canadian War Museum |title=Vimy Ridge |url=http://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/guerre/vimy-ridge-e.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024111147/http://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/guerre/vimy-ridge-e.aspx |archive-date=24 October 2008 |access-date=22 October 2008 |publisher=[[Canadian War Museum]]}}</ref> Having succeeded on the same battleground where the "mother countries" had previously faltered, they were for the first time respected internationally for their own accomplishments. Like Australia and New Zealand, [[Canada]] entered the war as a [[Dominion|Dominion of the British Empire]] and remained so, although it emerged with a greater measure of independence.<ref>{{cite web |title=The War's Impact on Canada |url=http://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/guerre/war-impact-e.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024111215/http://www.warmuseum.ca/cwm/exhibitions/guerre/war-impact-e.aspx |archive-date=24 October 2008 |access-date=22 October 2008 |publisher=[[Canadian War Museum]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=9 May 2008 |title=Canada's last WW1 vet gets his citizenship back |publisher=[[CBC News]] |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/canada-s-last-ww-i-vet-gets-his-citizenship-back-1.764525 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511014947/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/canada-s-last-ww-i-vet-gets-his-citizenship-back-1.764525 |archive-date=11 May 2008}}</ref> When Britain declared war in 1914, the dominions were automatically at war; at the conclusion, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa were individual signatories of the Treaty of Versailles.<ref>[http://foundingdocs.gov.au/item-did-23.html Documenting Democracy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520203624/http://foundingdocs.gov.au/item-did-23.html|date=20 May 2016}}. Retrieved 31 March 2012</ref>

Lobbying by [[Chaim Weizmann]] and fear that American Jews would encourage the United States to support Germany culminated in the British government's [[Balfour Declaration]] of 1917, endorsing creation of a [[Homeland for the Jewish people|Jewish homeland]] in Palestine.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Balfour Declaration (United Kingdom 1917) |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/50162/Balfour-Declaration |access-date=25 December 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091219202841/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/50162/Balfour-Declaration |archive-date=19 December 2009 |url-status=live}}</ref> A total of more than 1,172,000 Jewish soldiers served in the Allied and Central Power forces in World War{{nbsp}}I, including 275,000 in Austria-Hungary and 450,000 in Tsarist Russia.<ref>{{cite web |title=Timeline of The Jewish Agency for Israel: 1917–1919 |url=http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish+Education/Compelling+Content/Jewish+History/Zionist+Institutions/JAFI+Timeline/1917-1919.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520072856/http://www.jewishagency.org/JewishAgency/English/Jewish%20Education/Compelling%20Content/Jewish%20History/Zionist%20Institutions/JAFI%20Timeline/1917-1919.htm |archive-date=20 May 2013 |access-date=29 August 2013 |publisher=The Jewish Agency for Israel}}</ref>

The establishment of the modern state of Israel and the roots of the continuing [[Israeli–Palestinian conflict]] are partially found in the unstable power dynamics of the Middle East that resulted from World War{{nbsp}}I.{{sfn|Doughty|2005}} Before the end of the war, the Ottoman Empire had maintained a modest level of peace and stability throughout some parts of the Middle East, although during the war the Ottomans conducted the ethnically and religiously motivated [[Greek genocide]], [[Armenian genocide]] and [[Assyrian genocide]], as well as overseeing the [[Great Famine of Mount Lebanon]].{{sfn|Hooker|1996}} With the fall of the Ottoman government, power vacuums developed and conflicting claims to land and nationhood began to emerge.{{sfn|Muller|2008}} The political boundaries drawn by the victors of World War{{nbsp}}I were quickly imposed, sometimes after only cursory consultation with the local population. These continue to be problematic in the 21st-century struggles for [[national identity]].{{sfn|Kaplan|1993}}{{sfn|Salibi|1993}} While the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War{{nbsp}}I was pivotal in contributing to the modern political situation of the Middle East, including the [[Arab–Israeli conflict|Arab-Israeli conflict]],<ref name="Evans_2005">{{harvnb|Evans|2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Pre-State Israel: Under Ottoman Rule (1517–1917) |encyclopedia=Jewish Virtual Library |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Ottoman.html |access-date=30 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071119232431/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Ottoman.html |archive-date=19 November 2007 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Gelvin_2005">{{harvnb|Gelvin|2005}}</ref> the end of Ottoman rule also spawned lesser-known disputes over water and other natural resources.{{sfn|Isaac|Hosh|1992}}

The prestige of Germany and German things in [[Latin America]] remained high after the war but did not recover to its pre-war levels.<ref name="Carlos2011">{{cite book |last1=Sanhueza |first1=Carlos |title=Ideas viajeras y sus objetos. El intercambio científico entre Alemania y América austral. Madrid–Frankfurt am Main: Iberoamericana–Vervuert |date=2011 |pages=29–40 |language=es |chapter=El debate sobre "el embrujamiento alemán" y el papel de la ciencia alemana hacia fines del siglo XIX en Chile |access-date=6 January 2019 |chapter-url=http://publications.iai.spk-berlin.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/Document_derivate_00000510/BIA%20146%20Sanhueza.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220108035633/https://publications.iai.spk-berlin.de/servlets/MCRFileNodeServlet/Document_derivate_00000510/BIA%20146%20Sanhueza.pdf |archive-date=8 January 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Penny2017">{{cite journal |last1=Penny |first1=H. Glenn |date=2017 |title=Material Connections: German Schools, Things, and Soft Power in Argentina and Chile from the 1880s through the Interwar Period |journal=[[Comparative Studies in Society and History]] |volume=59 |issue=3 |pages=519–549 |doi=10.1017/S0010417517000159 |s2cid=149372568}}</ref> Indeed, in [[Chile]] the war bought an end to a period of intense scientific and cultural influence writer [[Eduardo de la Barra (writer)|Eduardo de la Barra]] scornfully called "the German bewitchment" ({{langx|es|el embrujamiento alemán}}).<ref name="Carlos2011" />
[[File:Czech_Troops.jpg|left|thumb|[[Czechoslovak Legion]], Vladivostok, 1918]]
The Transylvanian and Bukovinian Romanians who were taken prisoners of war fought as the [[Romanian Volunteer Corps in Russia]], Romanian Legion of Siberia and Romanian Legion in Italy. Taking part in the Eastern Front as part of the [[Russian Army]] and since summer 1917 in the Romanian front as part of the [[Romanian Army]]. As a supporter of the [[White movement]] with the [[Czechoslovak Legion]] against the [[Red Army]] during the [[Russian Civil War]]. In the battles of Montello, Vittorio Veneto, Sisemolet, Piave, Cimone, Monte Grappa, Nervesa and Ponte Delle Alpi as part of the [[Italian Army]] against [[Austria-Hungary]] and in 1919 as part of the [[Romanian Army]] in the [[Hungarian-Romanian War]].<ref>Erlikman, Vadim (2004). Poteri narodonaseleniia v XX veke : spravochnik. Moscow. p. 51</ref><ref>Volantini di guerra: la lingua romena in Italia nella propaganda del primo conflitto mondiale, Damian, 2012</ref>

In the late spring of 1918, three new states were formed in the [[South Caucasus]]: the [[First Republic of Armenia]], the [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic]], and the [[Democratic Republic of Georgia]], which declared their independence from the Russian Empire. Two other minor entities were established, the [[Centrocaspian Dictatorship]] and [[Provisional National Government of the Southwestern Caucasus|South West Caucasian Republic]] (the former was liquidated by Azerbaijan in the autumn of 1918 and the latter by a joint Armenian-British task force in early 1919). With the withdrawal of the Russian armies from the Caucasus front in the winter of 1917–18, the three major republics braced for an imminent Ottoman advance, which commenced in the early months of 1918. Solidarity was briefly maintained when the [[Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic|Transcaucasian Federative Republic]] was created in the spring of 1918, but this collapsed in May when the Georgians [[Treaty of Poti|asked for and received protection]] from Germany and the Azerbaijanis concluded a treaty with the Ottoman Empire that was more akin to a military alliance. Armenia was left to fend for itself and struggled for five months against the threat of a full-fledged occupation by the Ottoman Turks before defeating them at the [[Battle of Sardarabad]].{{sfn|Hovannisian|1967|pp=1–39}}

Greece [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)|fought]] against [[Turkish National Movement|Turkish nationalists]] led by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]], a war that eventually resulted in a [[Population exchange between Greece and Turkey|massive population exchange between the two countries]] under the Treaty of Lausanne.<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,451140,00.html "The Diaspora Welcomes the Pope"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120604185021/http://www.spiegel.de/international/0%2C1518%2C451140%2C00.html|date=4 June 2012}}, ''Der Spiegel'' Online. 28 November 2006.</ref> According to various sources,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rummel |first1=R.J. |author-link=R.J. Rummel |year=1998 |title=The Holocaust in Comparative and Historical Perspective |journal=Idea Journal of Social Issues |volume=3 |issue=2}}</ref> several hundred thousand Greeks died during this period, which was tied in with the [[Greek genocide]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Hedges |first=Chris |date=17 September 2000 |title=A Few Words in Greek Tell of a Homeland Lost |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/09/17/nyregion/a-few-words-in-greek-tell-of-a-homeland-lost.html |url-status=live |access-date=23 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125062332/https://www.nytimes.com/2000/09/17/nyregion/a-few-words-in-greek-tell-of-a-homeland-lost.html |archive-date=25 November 2018}}</ref>

==Political upheavals==
{{Main|International relations (1919–1939)}}

===Revolutions===
{{Main|Revolutions of 1917–1923}}

[[File:Europe map 1919.jpg|thumb|400px|right|Political divisions of Europe in 1919 after the treaties of [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk|Brest-Litovsk]] and [[Treaty of Versailles|Versailles]] and before the treaties of [[Treaty of Trianon|Trianon]], [[Treaty of Kars|Kars]], [[Treaty of Riga|Riga]] and the creation of the Soviet Union, [[Irish Free State]] and [[Turkey|Turkish Republic]]]]

A [[far-left politics|far-left]] and often explicitly [[communism|communist]] [[revolutionary wave]] occurred in several European countries in 1917–1920, notably in [[German Revolution of 1918–1919|Germany]] and [[Revolutions and interventions in Hungary (1918–1920)|Hungary]]. The single most important event precipitated by the privations of World War I was the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution of 1917]].

==== Austria-Hungary ====<!-- This section is linked from [[Austria-Hungary]] -->
{{Main|Dissolution of Austria-Hungary|Treaty of Trianon|Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)}}
{{Essay-like|section|date=December 2009}}

With the war having turned decisively against the [[Central Powers]], the people of [[Austria-Hungary]] lost faith in their allied countries, and even before the armistice in November, radical [[nationalism]] had already led to several [[Declaration of independence|declarations of independence]] in south-central Europe after November 1918. As the central government had ceased to operate in vast areas, these regions found themselves without a government and many new groups attempted to fill the void. During this same period, the population was facing food shortages and was, for the most part, demoralized by the losses incurred during the war. Various political parties, ranging from ardent nationalists, to social democrats, to communists attempted to set up governments in the names of the different nationalities. In other areas, existing nation states such as [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] engaged regions that they considered to be theirs. These moves created de facto governments that complicated life for diplomats, idealists, and the Western allies.
[[File:Dissolution of Austria-Hungary.png|right|thumb|300px|Division of [[Austria-Hungary]] after World War I]]
The Western forces were officially supposed to occupy the old Empire, but rarely had enough troops to do so effectively. They had to deal with local authorities who had their own agenda to fulfill. At the peace conference in Paris the diplomats had to reconcile these authorities with the competing demands of the nationalists who had turned to them for help during the war, the strategic or political desires of the Western allies themselves, and other agendas such as a desire to implement the spirit of the Fourteen Points.

For example, in order to live up to the ideal of self-determination laid out in the Fourteen Points, Germans, whether Austrian or German, should be able to decide their own future and government. However, the French especially were concerned that an expanded Germany would be a huge security risk. Further complicating the situation, delegations such as the Czechs and Slovenians made strong claims on some German-speaking territories.

The result was treaties that compromised many ideals, offended many allies, and set up an entirely new order in the area. Many people hoped that the new nation states would allow for a new era of prosperity and peace in the region, free from the bitter quarrelling between nationalities that had marked the preceding fifty years. This hope proved far too optimistic. Changes in territorial configuration after World War I included:

* Establishment of the [[German Austria|Republic of German Austria]] and the [[Hungarian Democratic Republic]], disavowing any continuity with the empire and exiling the [[Habsburg]] family in perpetuity.
* Eventually, after 1920, the new borders of [[Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)|Hungary]] did not include approx. two-thirds of the lands of the former [[Kingdom of Hungary]], including areas where the ethnic Magyars were in a majority. The new republic of [[First Austrian Republic|Austria]] maintained control over most of the predominantly German-controlled areas, but lost various other German majority lands in what was the [[Austrian Empire]].

[[File:Magyarorszag 1920.png|thumb|With the [[Treaty of Trianon]], Kingdom of Hungary lost 72% of its territory (including [[Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia|Croatia]]) and 3.3 million people of Hungarian ethnicity.]]

* [[Bohemia]], [[Moravia]], [[Opava Silesia]] and the western part of the [[Duchy of Cieszyn]], large part of [[Upper Hungary]] and [[Carpathian Ruthenia]] formed the new [[First Czechoslovak Republic|Czechoslovakia]].
* [[Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria|Galicia]], the eastern part of the [[Duchy of Cieszyn]], northern [[Árva County]] and northern [[Szepes County]] were transferred to [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]].
* the Southern half of the [[County of Tyrol]] and [[Trieste]] were granted to [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]].
* [[Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia|Croatia-Slavonia]], [[1918 occupation of Međimurje|Međimurje]], [[Kingdom of Dalmatia|Dalmatia]], [[Slovenia]], [[Syrmia]], parts of [[Banat, Bačka and Baranja|Bács-Bodrog, Baranya, Torontál and Temes Counties]] were joined with [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]] to form the [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]], later [[Yugoslavia]].
* [[Transylvania]], parts of [[Banat]], [[Crișana]], and [[Maramureș]] and [[Bukovina]] became part of [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]].
* The [[Austro-Hungarian concession of Tianjin|Austro-Hungarian concession in Tianjin]] was ceded to the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]].

These changes were recognized in, but not caused by, the Treaty of Versailles. They were subsequently further elaborated in the [[Treaty of Saint-Germain]] and the [[Treaty of Trianon]].

The 1919 treaties generally included guarantees of [[minority rights]], but there was no enforcement mechanism.  The new states of eastern Europe mostly all had large [[ethnic minorities]]. Millions of Germans found themselves in the newly created countries as minorities. More than two million ethnic [[Hungarian diaspora|Hungarians]] found themselves living outside of Hungary in Czechoslovakia, Romania and the Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. Many of these national minorities found themselves in hostile situations because the modern governments were intent on defining the national character of the countries, often at the expense of the other nationalities.  The [[Interwar period|interwar years]] were hard for [[Minority religion|religious minorities]] in the new states built around [[ethnic nationalism]]. The [[Jew]]s were especially distrusted because of their minority religion and distinct subculture.  This was a dramatic come-down from the days of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Although [[Antisemitism in Europe|antisemitism]] had been widespread during [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg rule]], Jews faced no official discrimination because they were, for the most part, ardent supporters of the multi-national state and the monarchy.<ref>{{cite book|author=Marsha L. Rozenblit|title=Reconstructing a National Identity: The Jews of Habsburg Austria During World War I|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CVl3obLidUC&pg=PA163 |year=2004|publisher=Oxford UP|page=163|isbn=9780195176308}}</ref>

The economic disruption of the war and the end of the Austro-Hungarian [[customs union]] created great hardship in many areas. Although many states were set up as democracies after the war, one by one, with the exception of Czechoslovakia, they reverted to some form of authoritarian rule. Many quarreled amongst themselves but were too weak to compete effectively. Later, when [[German rearmament|Germany rearmed]], the nation states of [[south-central Europe]] were unable to resist its attacks, and fell under German domination to a much greater extent than had ever existed in Austria-Hungary.

==== Germany ====
{{Main|German Revolution of 1918–19|Hyperinflation in the Weimar Republic}}

In Germany, there was a socialist revolution which led to the brief establishment of a number of communist political systems in (mainly urban) parts of the country, the abdication of [[Wilhelm II, German Emperor|Kaiser Wilhelm II]], and the creation of the [[Weimar Republic]].

On 28 June 1919 the Weimar Republic was forced, under threat of continued Allied advance, to sign the Treaty of Versailles. Germany viewed the one-sided treaty as a humiliation and as [[Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles|blaming it for the entire war]]. While the intent of the treaty was to assign guilt to Germany to justify financial reparations, the notion of blame took root as a political issue in German society and was never accepted by nationalists, although it was argued by some, such as German historian [[Fritz Fischer (historian)|Fritz Fischer]]. The German government disseminated [[propaganda]] to further promote this idea, and funded the [[Centre for the Study of the Causes of the War]] to this end.

132&nbsp;billion gold marks ($31.5&nbsp;billion, 6.6&nbsp;billion pounds) were demanded from Germany in reparations, of which only 50&nbsp;billion had to be paid. Combined with the weight of war debt and already-high levels of inflation during the war, this weakened the finances of the German state. Whilst the value of the mark was stabilised during 1921 at around 90 marks to the dollar, [[hyperinflation]] caused in part by the printing of money to cover government expenses without raising taxes, particularly to pay workers striking in the occupied Ruhr, plagued Germany between late 1921 and 1923. German officials claimed that this was due to the need to buy foreign currency to make reparations payments, however during the period of hyperinflation little in the way of cash reparations was paid by Germany, with large payments of cash reparation only resuming in 1924. In contrast, Allied analysis of German statistics showed that printing of paper currency was being used to maintain tax rates much lower than in Allied countries, to fund relatively high levels of state expenditure, and that this effect was being worsened by unrestricted capital flight from Germany.<ref name="Marks 1978">{{cite journal |last1=Marks |first1=Sally |title=The Myths of Reparations |journal=Central European History |date=September 1978 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=237–239 |doi=10.1017/S0008938900018707 |jstor=4545835 |access-date=22 February 2024 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4545835|url-access=subscription }}</ref>{{rp|237}} In this period the worth of [[fiat money|fiat]] [[German Papiermark|Papiermark]]s with respect to the earlier [[commodity money|commodity]] [[German gold mark|Goldmark]]s was reduced to one trillionth (one million millionth) of its value.<ref>Table IV (p. 441) of ''The Economics of Inflation'' by Costantino Bresciani-Turroni, published 1937.<!--File:GermanyHyperChart.jpg--></ref> In December 1922 the Reparations Commission declared Germany in default, and on 11 January 1923 French and Belgian troops [[Occupation of the Ruhr|occupied the Ruhr]] until 1925.

The treaty required Germany to permanently reduce the size of its army to 100,000 men, and destroy their tanks, air force, and U-boat fleet (her capital ships, moored at [[Scapa Flow]], were [[Scuttling of the German fleet at Scapa Flow|scuttled by their crews]] to prevent them from falling into Allied hands).

Germany saw relatively small amounts of territory transferred [[Province of Schleswig-Holstein|to Denmark]], Czechoslovakia, and Belgium, a larger [[Alsace-Lorraine|amount to France]] (including the temporary French occupation of the Rhineland) and the greatest portion as part of a reestablished Poland. Germany's overseas colonies were divided between a number of Allied countries, most notably the United Kingdom in Africa, but it was the loss of the territory that composed the newly independent Polish state, including the German city of [[Free City of Danzig|Danzig]] and the separation of East Prussia from the rest of Germany, that caused the greatest outrage{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}. Nazi propaganda would feed on a general German view that the treaty was unfair – many Germans never accepted the treaty as legitimate, and lent their political support to [[Adolf Hitler]].{{citation needed|date=April 2020}}

==== Ottoman Empire ====<!-- This section is linked from [[Ottoman Empire]] -->
{{Main|Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire|Turkish War of Independence|Greco-Turkish War (1919–1922)}}

[[File:Treaty of Sèvres 1920.svg|thumb|260px|Borders of Turkey according to the [[Treaty of Sèvres]] (1920) which was annulled and replaced by the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] in 1923]]

At the end of the war, the Allies [[Occupation of Constantinople|occupied Constantinople]] ([[Istanbul]]) and the Ottoman government collapsed. The [[Treaty of Sèvres]], designed to repair damage caused by Ottomans during the war to the winning Allies, was signed by Ottoman Empire on 10 August 1920, but was never ratified by the Sultan.

The [[occupation of Smyrna]] by Greece on 18 May 1919 triggered a [[Turkish nationalism|nationalist movement]] to rescind the terms of the treaty. [[Turkish National Movement|Turkish revolutionaries]] led by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]], a successful Ottoman commander, rejected the terms enforced at Sèvres and under the guise of General Inspector of the [[Ottoman Army (1861–1922)|Ottoman Army]], left Istanbul for [[Samsun]] to organize the remaining Ottoman forces to resist the terms of the treaty. On the eastern front, after the [[Turkish–Armenian War|invasion of Armenia in 1920]] and signing of the [[Treaty of Kars]] with the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian S.F.S.R.]] Turkey took over territory lost to Armenia and post-Imperial Russia.<ref name="kars=text">{{Cite web|url=http://www.amsi.ge/istoria/sab/yarsi.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070424044332/http://www.amsi.ge/istoria/sab/yarsi.html|title=ყარსის ხელშეკრულება|language=ru|date=13 October 1921|trans-title=Treaty of Kars|archive-date=24 April 2007|website=www.amsi.ge}}</ref>

On the western front, the growing strength of the [[Turkish National Movement]] forces led the [[Kingdom of Greece]], with the backing of Britain, to invade deep into [[Anatolia]] in an attempt to deal a blow to the revolutionaries. At the [[Battle of Dumlupınar]], the Greek army was defeated and forced into retreat, leading to the burning of Smyrna and the withdrawal of Greece from Asia Minor. With the nationalists empowered, the army marched on to reclaim Istanbul, resulting in the [[Chanak Crisis]] in which the British Prime Minister, [[David Lloyd George]], was forced to resign. After Turkish resistance gained control over Anatolia and Istanbul, the Sèvres treaty was superseded by the [[Treaty of Lausanne (1923)|Treaty of Lausanne]] which formally ended all hostilities and led to the creation of the modern [[Turkey|Turkish Republic]]. As a result, Turkey became the only power of World War I to overturn the terms of its defeat, and negotiate with the Allies as an equal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/turkey/13.htm|title=Atatürk and the Turkish Nation|website=Country Studies|publisher=U.S. Library of Congress}}</ref>

Lausanne Treaty formally acknowledged the new League of Nations mandates in the Middle East, the cession of their territories on the Arabian Peninsula, and British sovereignty over [[Cyprus]]. The League of Nations granted ''Class A'' mandates for the [[Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon]] and [[British Mandate of Mesopotamia]] and [[Mandatory Palestine|Palestine]], the latter comprising two autonomous regions: [[Mandate Palestine]] and the [[Emirate of Transjordan]]. Parts of the Ottoman Empire on the [[Arabian Peninsula]] became part of what is today [[Saudi Arabia]] and [[Yemen]]. The [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] became a pivotal milestone in the creation of the modern Middle East, the result of which bore witness to the creation of new conflicts and hostilities in the region.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fromkin |first=David |author-link=David Fromkin |year=1989 |title=A Peace to End All Peace: Creating the Modern Middle East 1914–1922 |location=New York |publisher=H. Holt |page=[https://archive.org/details/peacetoendallpea0000from/page/565 565] |isbn=0-8050-0857-8 |title-link=A Peace to End All Peace: Creating the Modern Middle East 1914–1922 }}</ref>

==== Russian Empire ====
{{See also|Russian Revolution|Russian Civil War}}

[[File:Russian civil war west.svg|thumb|European theatre of the [[Russian Civil War]] in 1918–19]]

The Soviet Union benefited from Germany's loss, as one of the first terms of the armistice was the abrogation of the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]]. At the time of the armistice Russia was in the grips of a [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] which left more than seven million people dead and large areas of the country devastated. The nation as a whole suffered socially and economically.

[[Lithuanian Wars of Independence|Lithuania]], [[Latvian War of Independence|Latvia]] and [[Estonian War of Independence|Estonia]] gained independence. They were [[Occupation of the Baltic states|occupied again by the Soviet Union]] in 1940.

[[Finland]] gained a lasting independence, though it repeatedly had to fight the Soviet Union for its borders in the [[Winter War]].

[[First Republic of Armenia|Armenia]], [[Democratic Republic of Georgia|Georgia]], and [[Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|Azerbaijan]] were established as independent states in the [[Caucasus|Caucasus region]]. However, after the withdrawal of the [[Russian Army (1917)|Russian Army]] in 1917 and during [[Turkish Invasion of Armenia (1920)|1920 Turkish invasion of Armenia]], Turkey captured the Armenian territory around [[Artvin]], [[Kars]], and [[Iğdır]], and these territorial losses became permanent.  As consequence of invasions of Turkey and Russian [[Red Army]] all three Transcaucasian countries were proclaimed as [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet Republics]] in 1920 and in 1922 were absorbed into the Soviet Union as the [[Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic]].

[[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]] gained [[Bessarabia]] from Russia.

The [[Russian concession of Tianjin]] was occupied by the Chinese [[Beiyang government]] in 1920; in 1924 the Soviet Union renounced its claims to the district.

==== United Kingdom ====
{{Main|Interwar Britain|Irish revolutionary period|Interwar unemployment and poverty in the United Kingdom}}

[[File:British and French empires 1920.png|thumb|300px|right|The [[British Empire|British]] and [[French colonial empire]]s reached their peaks after World War I.]]

In the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]], funding the war had a [[Post-WWI recession|severe economic cost]]. From being the world's largest overseas investor, it became one of its biggest debtors with interest payments forming around 40% of all government spending. [[Inflation]] more than doubled between 1914 and its peak in 1920, while the value of the [[Pound Sterling]] (consumer expenditure<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp99/rp99-020.pdf |title= RP 99-020.pdf |access-date=2006-02-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060219130455/http://www.parliament.uk/commons/lib/research/rp99/rp99-020.pdf |archive-date=2006-02-19 }}</ref>) fell by 61%. [[War reparations]] in the form of free German coal depressed local industry, precipitating the [[1926 United Kingdom general strike]].

British private investments abroad were sold, raising £550&nbsp;million. However, £250&nbsp;million in new investment also took place during the war. The net financial loss was therefore approximately £300&nbsp;million; less than two years investment compared to the pre-war average rate and more than replaced by 1928.<ref>{{cite book |first=A. J. P. |last=Taylor |title=English History, 1914–1945|location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1976|page=123 |isbn=0-19-821715-3 }}</ref> Material loss was "slight": the most significant being 40% of the [[Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)|British Merchant Navy]] sunk by [[U-boat campaign|German U-boats]]. Most of this was replaced in 1918 and all immediately after the war.<ref>{{cite book |first=A. J. P. |last=Taylor |title=English History, 1914–1945 |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1976 |page=122 |isbn=0-19-821715-3 }}</ref> The military historian [[Correlli Barnett]] has argued that "in objective truth the Great War in no way inflicted crippling economic damage on Britain" but that the war "crippled the British ''psychologically'' but in no other way".<ref>{{cite book |first=Correlli |last=Barnett |title=The Collapse of British Power |location=London |publisher=Pan |year=2002 |pages=424, 426 |isbn=0-330-49181-4 }}</ref>

Less concrete changes include the growing assertiveness of [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] nations. Battles such as [[Gallipoli Campaign|Gallipoli]] for Australia and New Zealand, and [[Battle of Vimy Ridge|Vimy Ridge]] for Canada led to increased national pride and a greater reluctance to remain subordinate to Britain, leading to the growth of diplomatic autonomy in the 1920s. These battles were often decorated in propaganda in these nations as symbolic of their power during the war.  Overseas possessions such as [[British India]] and [[Colonial Nigeria|Nigeria]] also became increasingly assertive, because of their participation in the war. The populations in these countries became increasingly aware of their own power and Britain's fragility.
[[File:The Girl He Left Behind Him.jpg|alt=|thumb|Cartoon predicting the aftermath of the war by Henry J. Glintenkamp, first published in ''[[The Masses]]'' in 1914]]

In [[Ireland]], the delaying of the  [[Government of Ireland Act 1914]], which was enacted to resolve the [[home rule#Ireland|Home Rule issue]], later exacerbated by the Government's [[Easter Rising#Aftermath|severe response]] to the 1916 [[Easter Rising]] and its failed attempt to introduce [[Conscription Crisis of 1918|conscription in Ireland in 1918]], led to an increased support for separatist radicals. This led indirectly to the outbreak of the [[Irish War of Independence]] in 1919. The creation of the [[Irish Free State]] that followed this conflict in effect represented a territorial loss for the United Kingdom that was all but equal to the loss sustained by Germany, and furthermore, compared to Germany, a much greater loss in terms of its ratio to the country's prewar territory. However, the new Irish Free State remained a [[dominion]] within the [[British Empire]].

World War I also caused a major realignment in British parliamentary politics by leading to the rise of the [[Democratic socialism|democratic socialist]] [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] and to the break-up and decline of the [[Social liberalism|social liberal]] [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]]. Liberal Prime Minister [[H. H. Asquith]] ran into disagreements with not only the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] opposition but members of his own party led by [[David Lloyd George]] who disagreed with his handling of the war. Although Asquith agreed to form a coalition government, the disputes continued and eventually Lloyd George led a faction of the Liberals to form a new [[Lloyd George ministry|coalition government]] with the cooperation of the Conservatives. During the [[1918 United Kingdom general election|1918 "coupon" election]] Conservatives and [[Coalition Coupon|Liberals endorsed by the Coalition]] won a landslide majority in the British Parliament. However, the split between Lloyd George's [[National Liberal Party (UK, 1922)|National Liberals]] and Asquith's [[Independent Liberal Party (UK, 1918)|Independent Liberals]] fatally weakened the party. On the other hand, the Labour Party remained unified despite tensions between pacifist and pro-war leaders; it used the war to expand the [[British trade union movement]], and benefited from the establishment of [[universal suffrage]] under the [[Representation of the People Act 1918]]. As a result both Liberal factions performed poorly in the [[1922 United Kingdom general election|1922 general election]] while Labour became the [[Her Majesty's Most Loyal Opposition (United Kingdom)|Official Opposition]] for the first time. The Liberals reluctantly collaborated with Labour to help it form a brief [[minority government]] under [[Ramsay MacDonald]]. The Liberals would not fully reunify until Asquith's death in 1928, and thereafter primarily expressed influence through [[confidence and supply]] arrangements and [[United Kingdom coalition government|coalitions]] in the event of a [[hung parliament]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/pistolsatdawntwo0000camp/13960/t6wx5mm07 |title=Pistols at Dawn: Two Hundred Years of Political Rivalry from Pitt and Fox to Blair and Brown |date=2010 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=978-1-84595-091-0 |location=London |pages=141–191 |oclc=489636152}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Thorpe |first=Andrew |chapter=The Surge to Second-Party Status, 1914–22 |date=1997 |chapter-url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-1-349-25305-0_3 |title=A History of the British Labour Party |pages=32–54 |place=London |publisher=Macmillan Education UK |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-1-349-25305-0_3 |isbn=978-0-333-56081-5 |access-date=2022-06-16}}</ref>

==== China ====
The [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]] had been one of the Allies; during the war, they had sent [[Chinese Labour Corps|thousands of labourers]] to France. At the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference in 1919]], the Chinese delegation called for an end to Western imperialistic institutions in China, but was rebuffed. China requested at least the formal restoration of its territory of [[Jiaozhou Bay]], under German colonial control as the [[Kiautschou Bay Leased Territory]] since 1898. But the western Allies rejected China's request, instead granting transfer to Japan of all of Germany's pre-war territory and rights in China. Subsequently, China did not sign the Treaty of Versailles, instead signing a separate peace treaty with Germany in 1921.

The Austro-Hungarian and German [[foreign concessions in Tianjin|concessions in Tianjin]] were placed under the administration of the Chinese government; in 1920 they occupied the Russian area as well.

The western Allies' substantial accession to Japan's territorial ambitions at China's expense led to the [[May Fourth Movement]] in China, a social and political movement that had profound influence over subsequent Chinese history. The May Fourth Movement is often cited as the birth of [[Chinese nationalism]], and both the [[Kuomintang]] and [[Chinese Communist Party]] consider the Movement to be an important period in their own histories.

=== France ===
{{Main|Interwar France}}

[[File:French enter Essen.jpg|thumb|French cavalry entering [[Essen]] during the occupation of the Ruhr.]]

[[Alsace–Lorraine]] returned to France, the region which had been ceded to the [[Kingdom of Prussia]] in 1871 after the [[Franco-Prussian War]]. At the 1919 Peace Conference, Prime Minister [[Georges Clemenceau]]'s aim was to ensure that Germany would not seek revenge in the following years. To this purpose, the chief commander of the Allied forces, Marshal [[Ferdinand Foch]], had demanded that for the future protection of France the [[Rhine]] river should now form the border between France and Germany. Based on history, he was convinced that Germany would again become a threat, and, on hearing the terms of the Treaty of Versailles that had left Germany substantially intact, he observed that "This is not Peace. It is an Armistice for twenty years."

The destruction brought upon French territory was to be indemnified by the [[World War I reparations|reparations]] negotiated at Versailles. This financial imperative dominated France's foreign policy throughout the 1920s, leading to the 1923 [[Occupation of the Ruhr]] in order to force Germany to pay. However, Germany was unable to pay, and obtained support from the United States. Thus, the [[Dawes Plan]] was negotiated after Prime Minister [[Raymond Poincaré]]'s occupation of the Ruhr, and then the [[Young Plan]] in 1929.

Also extremely important in the War was the participation of [[French colonial troops]] (who amounted for around 10% of the total number of troops deployed by France across the war), including the Senegalese ''[[tirailleur]]s'', and troops from [[French Indochina|Indochina]], [[French North Africa|North Africa]], and [[French Madagascar|Madagascar]]. When these soldiers returned to their homelands and continued to be treated as second class citizens, many became the nuclei of pro-independence groups.

Furthermore, under the state of war declared during the hostilities, the [[Economy of France|French economy]] had been somewhat centralized in order to be able to shift into a "[[war economy]]", leading to a first breach with [[classical liberalism]].

Finally, the socialists' support of the National Union government (including [[Alexandre Millerand]]'s nomination as Minister of War) marked a shift towards the [[French Section of the Workers' International]]'s (SFIO) turn towards [[social democracy]] and participation in "bourgeois governments", although [[Léon Blum]] maintained a socialist rhetoric.

====Women in France====
"But with its faceless state machinery and unremitting mechanized slaughter, the war instead collapsed these old ideals"<ref>{{Cite book|last=Roberts|first=Mary Louise|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/368265682|title=Civilization without sexes : reconstructing gender in postwar France, 1917–1927|date=1994|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-72127-9|location=Chicago|oclc=368265682}}</ref> (Roberts 2). When the war was over and the men returned home, the world was a vastly different place than it had been before the war. Many ideals and beliefs were shattered with the war. Those returning from the front lines, and even those who were on the Homefront, were left to pick up the pieces of what was left of those ideals and beliefs, and try to rebuild them. Before the Great War, many thought this war would be a quick war, like many before had been. With new technology and weapons though, the war was at a stalemate for a large part of it, dragging what many thought would be a quick war out into a long, grueling war. With so much death and destruction done to France, it is not surprising when looking back that the way of life for French citizens was forever changed.

Many citizens saw the change in culture and blamed the war for taking away the rose tinted glasses that society had viewed things through. Many scholars and writers, such as Drieu la Rochelle, found many ways to describe this new view on reality such as stripping away clothes<ref>{{Cite book|last=Roberts|first=Mary Louise|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/368265682|title=Civilization without sexes : reconstructing gender in postwar France, 1917–1927|date=1994|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-72127-9|location=Chicago|oclc=368265682}}</ref> (Roberts 2). This comparison of the new reality and clothing being stripped away also ties into the fact that gender roles changed greatly after the war.

During the war many jobs had been left to women because many men were fighting on the front lines. This gave women a new sense of freedom that they had not been able to experience ever before. Not many women wanted to go back to how things were before the war, when they expected to stay at home and take care of the house. When the war was over many of the older generations and men wanted women to return to their previous roles.

At a time where gender roles were so heavily defined and intertwined with the culture of many places, for French citizens viewing how many women went against said roles after World War I, or the Great War as it was called at the time, it was ghastly. While [[gender role]]s had slowly been changing over time since the [[Industrial Revolution]] gave more work options outside of the home in factories, it had never been such a quick and drastic change as it was after World War I. During the war many men went off to fight, leaving behind factory jobs that were usually seen as a man's job only. These jobs had to be filled and without men there to fill the jobs, it was women who stepped up to fill the hole instead. France suffered a great loss of life during World War I, leaving many jobs unable to be refilled even after the war.

Debates and discussions concerning gender identity and gender roles in relation to society became one of the main ways to discuss the war and people's stances on it<ref>{{Cite book|last=Roberts|first=Mary Louise|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/368265682|title=Civilization without sexes : reconstructing gender in postwar France, 1917–1927|date=1994|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-72127-9|location=Chicago|oclc=368265682}}</ref> (Roberts 5). The war left people struggling to grasp the new reality. There were mixed reactions to the new way of life after World War I and how it affected both men and women. Some people were willing to completely embrace the new standards that were emerging following the war, while others harshly rejected the changes, seeing the changes as summarizing all the horrors they experienced during the war. Others looked for ways to compromise between the new and old way of life, tried to combine the ideals and beliefs from before and after the war to find a healthy middle ground.

Discussions pertaining to women during post-war debates often split the view of women into three categories—the "modern woman," the "mother," and the "single woman"<ref>{{Cite book|last=Roberts|first=Mary Louise|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/368265682|title=Civilization without sexes : reconstructing gender in postwar France, 1917–1927|date=1994|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-72127-9|location=Chicago|oclc=368265682}}</ref> (Roberts 9). These categories broke up the view of women by the roles they took on, the jobs they did, the way they acted, or by the beliefs they might hold. These categories also came to encompass the views of gender roles in relation to before and after the war. The "mother" category relates back to the role of women before the Great War, the woman who stayed at home and took care of the household while the husband was off at work. The "modern woman" relates to how many women were after the war, working jobs meant for men, engaging in sexual pleasures, and often doing things at a fast pace. The "single woman" was the middle ground between the other two that were very different from one another. The "single woman" came to represent the women who would never be able to marry because there were not enough men for every woman to marry<ref>{{Cite book|last=Roberts|first=Mary Louise|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/368265682|title=Civilization without sexes : reconstructing gender in postwar France, 1917–1927|date=1994|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-72127-9|location=Chicago|oclc=368265682}}</ref> (Roberts 10).

One thing that sparked much debate in regards to the postwar woman is fashion. During the war things like cloth material were rationed, with people being encouraged to not use as much fabric, so that there would be enough for the military. In response to these rations, women wore shorter dresses and skirts, usually about knee length, or pants. This change in apparel was something that many women continued to wear even after the war ended. It was such a drastic change to the clothing norms for women before the war. This change led to some "modern women" to be described in harsh lights, as if wearing dresses and skirts that short showed that those women were promiscuous.

Those coming back from the war, from the fighting, were very traumatized and had wanted to come back to a home that was not very changed in order to give themselves a sense of normalcy. When these men came back to a home that had changed a lot they did not know what to make of it. Gone were the times of very defined gender roles that most of society conformed to. It was often hard for these traumatized men to accept these new changes, especially the changes in how women behaved.

===Italy===
{{multiple image
 | align = right 
 | image1 = Kingdom of Italy - 1871.png
 | width1 = 220
 | alt1 = Goffredo Mameli
 | image2 = Kingdom of Italy 1924 map.svg
 | width2 = 220
 | alt2 = Michele Novaro
 | footer = On the left, a map of the [[Kingdom of Italy]] before the World War I, on the right, a map of the Kingdom of Italy after the World War I.
}}

[[File:Council of Four Versailles.jpg|thumb|Italian Prime Minister [[Vittorio Emanuele Orlando]] (2nd from left) at the World War I peace negotiations in [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]] with [[David Lloyd George]], [[Georges Clemenceau]] and [[Woodrow Wilson]] (from left)]]
[[File:Fiume cheering D'Annunzio.jpg|thumb|right|Residents of [[Fiume]], now Rijeka, Croatia, cheering D'Annunzio and his ''Legionari'', September 1919. At the time, Fiume had 22,488 (62% of the population) Italians in a total population of 35,839 inhabitants.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Fiume-question|title=Fiume question|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date=8 May 2025}}</ref>]]
[[File:Promised Borders of the Tready of London.png|thumb|right|Territories promised to Italy by the [[Treaty of London (1915)]], i.e. [[Trentino-Alto Adige]], the [[Julian March]] and [[Dalmatia]] (tan), and the [[Snežnik (plateau)|Snežnik Plateau]] area (green). Dalmatia, after WWI, however, was not assigned to Italy but to [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]].]]

Even after 1870, after the [[unification of Italy]], many ethnic Italian-speakers (Italians in [[Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol]], [[Savoyard Italians]], [[Corfiot Italians]], [[Niçard Italians]], [[Swiss Italians]], [[Corsican Italians]], [[Maltese Italians]], [[Istrian Italians]], and [[Dalmatian Italians]]) remained outside the borders of the [[Kingdom of Italy]], planting the seeds of [[Italian irredentism]].

Italy [[Italian entry into World War I|entered into the World War I]] in 1915 with the aim of completing national unity: for this reason, the Italian intervention in the World War I is also considered the [[Fourth Italian War of Independence]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.piacenzaprimogenita150.it/index.php?it%2F176%2Fil-1861-e-le-quattro-guerre-per-lindipendenza-1848-1918|title=Il 1861 e le quattro Guerre per l'Indipendenza (1848–1918)|date=6 March 2015|language=it|access-date=12 March 2021|archive-date=19 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319075828/http://www.piacenzaprimogenita150.it/index.php?it%2F176%2Fil-1861-e-le-quattro-guerre-per-lindipendenza-1848-1918|url-status=dead}}</ref> in a historiographical perspective that identifies in the latter the conclusion of the unification of Italy, whose military actions began during the [[revolutions of 1848]] with the [[First Italian War of Independence]].<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web|url=http://www.beniculturali.it/mibac/export/MiBAC/sito-MiBAC/Contenuti/MibacUnif/Eventi/visualizza_asset.html_1239896580.html|title=La Grande Guerra nei manifesti italiani dell'epoca|language=it|access-date=12 March 2021|archive-date=23 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923183754/http://www.beniculturali.it/mibac/export/MiBAC/sito-MiBAC/Contenuti/MibacUnif/Eventi/visualizza_asset.html_1239896580.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_LntMIUOXngC&q=%22quarta+guerra+d%27indipendenza%22&pg=PA41|title=Il Manuale di Storia in Italia, di Piergiovanni Genovesi|isbn=978-8856818680|language=it|access-date=12 March 2021|last1=Genovesi|first1=Piergiovanni|date=11 June 2009|publisher=FrancoAngeli }}</ref>

In 1882, [[Kingdom of Italy|Italy]] joined with the [[German Empire]] and the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]] to form the [[Triple Alliance (1882)|Triple Alliance]]. However, even if relations with [[Berlin]] became very friendly, the alliance with [[Vienna]] remained purely formal, as the Italians were keen to acquire [[Trentino]] and [[Trieste]], parts of the Austro-Hungarian empire populated by Italians.

During [[World War I]] Italy aligned with the Allies, instead of joining Germany and Austria. This could happen since the alliance formally had merely defensive prerogatives, while the Central Empires were the ones who started the offensive. With the [[Treaty of London (1915)|Treaty of London]], Britain secretly offered Italy [[Trentino]] and [[County of Tyrol|Tyrol]] as far as [[Brenner, South Tyrol|Brenner]], [[Trieste]] and [[Istria]], all the [[Dalmatia]]n coast except [[Fiume]], full ownership of Albanian [[Vlorë|Valona]] and a protectorate over [[Italian protectorate over Albania|Albania]], [[Antalya]] in [[Turkey]] and a share of the [[Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] and [[German colonial empire#Confiscation|German colonial empire]], in exchange for Italy siding against the Central Empires.

On the Dalmatian coast, Italy established the [[Governorate of Dalmatia#The first Governorate of Dalmatia|Governorate of Dalmatia]], which had the provisional aim of ferrying the territory towards full integration into the Kingdom of Italy, progressively importing national legislation in place of the previous one. The administrative capital was [[Zadar|Zara]]. The Governorate of Dalmatia was evacuated following the Italo-Yugoslav agreements which resulted in the [[Treaty of Rapallo (1920)|Treaty of Rapallo]] (1920).

After the victory, [[Vittorio Orlando]], Italy's [[President of the Council of Ministers of Italy|President of the Council of Ministers]], and [[Sidney Sonnino]], its [[Foreign Minister of Italy|Foreign Minister]], were sent as the Italian representatives to [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris]] with the aim of gaining the promised territories and as much other land as possible. In particular, there was an especially strong opinion about the [[Fiume question|status of Fiume]], which they believed was rightly Italian due to Italian population, in agreement with [[Woodrow Wilson|Wilson]]'s [[Fourteen Points]], the 9th of which read:

{{quote|A readjustment of the frontiers of Italy should be effected along clearly recognizable lines of nationality|9th [[Fourteen Points|Fourteen Point]] of [[Woodrow Wilson]]}}

The Italian government was infuriated by the [[Fourteen Points]] of [[Woodrow Wilson]], the [[List of Presidents of the United States|President of the United States]], as advocating national [[self-determination]] which meant that Italy would not gain Dalmatia as had been promised in the [[Treaty of London (1915)|Treaty of London]].<ref name="Seton_7">Seton-Watson, p. 493</ref> In the [[Parliament of Italy]], nationalists condemned Wilson's fourteen points as betraying the Treaty of London, while socialists claimed that Wilson's points were valid and claimed the Treaty of London was an offense to the rights of [[Slavic peoples|Slavs]], [[Greeks]] and [[Albanians]].<ref name="Seton_7" /> Negotiations between Italy and the Allies, particularly the new Yugoslav delegation (replacing the Serbian delegation), agreed to a trade off between Italy and the new [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia]], which was that Dalmatia, despite being claimed by Italy, would be accepted as Yugoslav, while [[Istria]], claimed by Yugoslavia, would be accepted as Italian.<ref>Seton-Watson, p. 495</ref>

Nevertheless, by the end of the war the Allies realized they had made contradictory agreements with other Nations, especially regarding [[Central Europe]] and the [[Middle East]]. In the meetings of the "Big Four", in which Orlando's powers of diplomacy were inhibited by his lack of English, the Great powers were only willing to offer [[Trentino]] to the [[Brenner, South Tyrol|Brenner]], the Dalmatian port of [[Zadar|Zara]], the island of [[Lastovo|Lagosta]] and a couple of small German colonies. All other territories were promised to other nations and the great powers were worried about Italy's imperial ambitions; Wilson, in particular, was a staunch supporter of Yugoslav rights on Dalmatia against Italy and despite the Treaty of London which he did not recognize.<ref>But perhaps the major hindrance to Italy's aims were the different opinions of Orlando and Sonnino: the first was decided to obtain Fiume and forsake Dalmatia, Sonnino did not mean to abandon Dalmatia and would have willingly left Fiume. This indecision proved fatal for Italy, which did not gain either of the territories.</ref> As a result of this, Orlando left the conference in a rage. This simply favored Britain and France, which divided among themselves the former Ottoman and German territories in Africa.<ref>(Jackson, 1938)</ref> Despite this, Orlando agreed to sign the Treaty of Versailles, which caused uproar against his government. The [[Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)|Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye]] (1919) and the [[Treaty of Rapallo (1920)|Treaty of Rapallo]] (1920) allowed the annexation of [[Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol|Trentino Alto-Adige]], the [[Julian March]], [[Istria]], [[Kvarner Gulf|Kvarner]] as well as the [[Dalmatia]]n city of [[Zadar|Zara]].

Furious over the peace settlement, the Italian nationalist poet [[Gabriele D'Annunzio]] led disaffected war veterans and nationalists to form the [[Free State of Fiume]] in September 1919. His popularity among nationalists led him to be called {{lang|it|[[Il Duce]]}} ("The Leader"), and he used black-shirted paramilitary in his assault on Fiume. The leadership title of {{lang|it|Duce}} and the blackshirt paramilitary uniform would later be adopted by the [[Italian Fascism|Fascist]] movement of [[Benito Mussolini]]. The demand for the Italian annexation of Fiume spread to all sides of the political spectrum, including Mussolini's Fascists.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Mack Smith |first1=Denis|title=Modern Italy: A Political History |date=1997 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-04342-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p36rQgAACAAJ |language=en|page=293}}</ref>

The subsequent [[Treaty of Rome (1924)|Treaty of Rome]] (1924) led to the annexation of the city of [[Fiume]] to Italy. Italy's lack of territorial gain led to the outcome being denounced as a ''[[mutilated victory]]''. The rhetoric of ''mutilated victory'' was adopted by Mussolini and led to the [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|rise of]] [[Italian fascism]], becoming a key point in the [[propaganda of Fascist Italy]]. Historians regard ''mutilated victory'' as a "political myth", used by fascists to fuel [[Italian imperialism]] and obscure the successes of [[liberal Italy]] in the aftermath of World War I.<ref>G.Sabbatucci, {{lang|it|La vittoria mutilata}}, in AA.VV., {{lang|it|Miti e storia dell'Italia unita}}, Il Mulino, Bologna 1999, pp.101-106</ref> Italy also gained a permanent seat in the [[League of Nations]]'s executive council.

==== Benito Mussolini in war and postwar ====
{{Main|Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist and anti-Fascist violence in Italy (1919–1926)}}
[[File:Mussolini mezzobusto.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Benito Mussolini]], who titled himself [[Duce]] and [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|ruled the country from 1922 to 1943]]]]

In 1914, [[Benito Mussolini]] was forced out of the [[Italian Socialist Party]] after calling for Italian intervention in the war against [[Austria-Hungary]]. Before World War I, Mussolini had opposed military conscription, protested against Italy's occupation of Libya and was the editor of the Socialist Party's official newspaper, ''[[Avanti! (Italian newspaper)|Avanti!]]'', but over time he simply called for revolution without mentioning class struggle.<ref name="Smith">Smith (1997), p. 284.</ref> In 1914, Mussolini's nationalism enabled him to raise funds from [[Italian Ansaldo company|Ansaldo]] (an armaments firm) and other companies to create his newspaper, ''[[Il Popolo d'Italia]]'', which at first attempted to convince socialists and revolutionaries to support the war.<ref>{{cite book|last=Gregor|first=Anthony James|title=Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DTZ_holEfS0C&pg=PA200|year=1979|publisher=U. of California Press|page=200|isbn=9780520037991|access-date=2015-08-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150921204225/https://books.google.com/books?id=DTZ_holEfS0C&pg=PA200|archive-date=2015-09-21|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]], eager to draw Italy to the war, helped finance the newspaper.<ref>Clark, Martin. 1996. ''Modern Italy: 1871–1995''. (2nd ed. Longman), p. 183.</ref> Later, after the war, this publication would become the official newspaper of the Fascist movement. During the war, Mussolini served in the Army and was wounded once.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.history.com/this-day-in-history/mussolini-wounded-by-mortar-bomb|title=Mussolini wounded by mortar bomb|website=HISTORY.com|access-date=Sep 22, 2020}}</ref>
[[File:Biennio rosso settembre 1920 Milano operai armati occupano le fabbriche.jpg|thumb|Armed workers occupying factories in Milan, September 1920, during the ''[[Biennio Rosso]]'']]
[[File:Mussd.jpg|thumb|[[Benito Mussolini]] (second from left) and his Fascist [[Blackshirts]] in 1920]]

Following the end of the war and the [[Treaty of Versailles]] in 1919, Mussolini created the ''[[Fasci di Combattimento]]'' or Combat League. It was originally dominated by patriotic socialist and [[syndicalist]] veterans who opposed the pacifist policies of the Italian Socialist Party. This early Fascist movement had a platform more inclined to the left, promising social revolution, proportional representation in elections, women's suffrage (partly realized in 1925) and dividing rural private property held by estates.<ref>Passmore ''Women, Gender and Fascism'', pp.&nbsp;11–16.</ref><ref>Smith (1997), pp. 284–286.</ref> They also differed from later Fascism by opposing [[censorship]], [[militarism]] and [[dictatorship]].<ref name="Smith 1997, pp. 284">Smith (1997), pp. 284.</ref> Mussolini claimed that "we are libertarians above all, loving liberty for everyone, even for our enemies" and said that freedom of thought and speech were among the "highest expressions of human civilization."<ref>Denis Mack Smith (1983). ''Mussolini: A Biography''. New York: Random House. p. 35.</ref> On 15 April 1919, the Fascists made their debut in political violence when a group of members from the ''Fasci di Combattimento'' attacked the offices of ''Avanti!''.

At the same time, the so-called ''[[Biennio Rosso]]'' (red biennium) took place in the two years following the [[World War I|first world war]] in a context of economic crisis, high unemployment and political instability. The 1919–20 period was characterized by mass strikes, worker manifestations as well as self-management experiments through land and factory occupations. In [[Turin]] and [[Milan]], [[workers councils]] were formed and many [[factory occupations]] took place under the leadership of [[anarcho-syndicalist]]s. The agitations also extended to the agricultural areas of the [[Padan plain]] and were accompanied by peasant strikes, rural unrests and guerilla conflicts between left-wing and right-wing militias.

On 15 April 1919, the Fascists made their debut in political violence when a group of members from the ''Fasci di Combattimento'' attacked the offices of ''Avanti!''. But they found little public support, and in the [[1919 Italian general election|elections of November 1919]], the Fascists suffered a heavy defeat, accompanied by a rapid loss of membership.<ref name="Smith 1997, pp. 284"/> In response, Mussolini moved the organization away from the left and turned the revolutionary movement into an electoral movement in 1921 named the ''Partito Nazionale Fascista'' ([[National Fascist Party]]). The party echoed the nationalist themes of D'Annunzio and rejected parliamentary democracy while still operating within it in order to destroy it. Mussolini changed his original revolutionary policies, such as moving away from anti-clericalism to supporting the Roman Catholic Church and abandoned his public opposition to the monarchy.<ref name="Smith_2">Smith (1997), p. 298.</ref> Support for the Fascists began to grow in 1921, and pro-Fascist army officers began taking arms and vehicles from the army to use in counter-revolutionary attacks on socialists.<ref>Smith (1997), p. 302.</ref>

=== Japan ===
{{see also|Japan during World War I}}

Because of the treaty that Japan had signed with Great Britain in 1902, Japan was one of the Allies during the war. With British assistance, Japanese forces attacked Germany's territories in [[Shandong]], China, including the East Asian coaling base of the [[Imperial German Navy]]. The German forces were and surrendered to Japan in November 1914. The Japanese navy also succeeded in seizing several of Germany's island possessions in the western Pacific: the [[Caroline Islands|Carolines]], the [[Mariana Islands]], and the [[Marshall Islands]].

At the [[Paris Peace Conference, 1919|Paris Peace Conference in 1919]], Japan was granted all of Germany's pre-war rights in [[Shandong|Shandong Province]] in China (despite China also being one of the Allies during the war): outright possession of the territory of [[Jiaozhou Bay]], and favorable commercial rights throughout the rest of the province, as well as the [[South Seas Mandate]] over the German Pacific island possessions that the [[Imperial Japanese Navy]] had taken. Also, Japan was granted a permanent seat on the [[Council of the League of Nations]]. Nevertheless, the Western powers refused Japan's request for the inclusion of a [[Racial Equality Proposal|"racial equality" clause]] as part of the Treaty of Versailles. Shandong reverted to Chinese control in 1922 after mediation by the United States during the [[Washington Naval Conference]]. [[Weihai]] followed in 1930.<ref>Stephen G. Craft, "John Bassett Moore, Robert Lansing, and the Shandong Question." ''Pacific Historical Review'' 66.2 (1997): 231–249. [http://commons.erau.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1233&context=publication online ]</ref>

===United States===
{{Further|History of the United States (1917–1945)}}

While disillusioned by the war, it having not achieved the high ideals promised by President [[Woodrow Wilson]], American [[International Chamber of Commerce|commercial interests]] did finance Europe's rebuilding and reparation efforts in Germany, at least until the onset of the [[Great Depression]]. American opinion on the propriety of providing aid to Germans and Austrians was split, as evidenced by an exchange of correspondence between [[Edgar Gott]], an executive with [[Boeing|The Boeing Company]] and Charles Osner, chairman of the Committee for the Relief of Destitute Women and Children in Germany and Austria. Gott argued that relief should first go to citizens of countries that had suffered at the hands of the [[Central Powers]], while Osner made an appeal for a more universal application of humanitarian ideals.<ref>Kuhlman, Erika A., [https://books.google.com/books?id=t7139hAmM6AC&dq=edgar+gott&pg=PA120 Of Little Comfort]. 2012. pp.&nbsp;120–121.</ref> The American economic influence allowed the [[Great Depression]] to start a [[domino effect]], pulling Europe in as well.

==Territorial gains and losses==
[[File:Map_Europe_1923-en.svg|thumb|right|400px|A map with the post-war borders in red over the pre-war map of Europe. Note: this map does not show the [[Irish Free State]].]]

===Countries that gained or regained territory or independence after World War I===

* {{Flag|First Republic of Armenia|name=Armenia}}: independence from [[Russian Empire]]
* {{Flag|Australia}}: gained control of [[German New Guinea]], the [[Bismarck Archipelago]] and [[Nauru]]
* {{Flag|Austria|1230}}: gained territories ([[Burgenland|Őrvidék]]) from [[Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)|Hungary]]
* {{Flag|Azerbaijan Democratic Republic|name=Azerbaijan}}: independence from [[Russian Empire]]
* {{Flag|Belgium}}: gained control of [[Eupen-Malmedy]] and the [[Africa]]n territories of [[Ruanda-Urundi]] from the German Empire
* {{Flag|Belarusian People's Republic}}: gained control of several cities from the Russian Empire
* {{Flag|First Czechoslovak Republic|name=Czechoslovakia}}: gained independence and territories from the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]], from the [[Cisleithania|northern and western part]] gained [[Bohemia]], [[Moravia]], and part of [[Austrian Silesia|Silesia]] and from the [[Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen|southern and eastern part]] gained mostly [[Upper Hungary]] and [[Carpathian Ruthenia]]
* {{Flag|Danzig}}: [[Free City of Danzig|semi-autonomous free city]] with independence from the [[German Empire]]
* {{Flag|Denmark}}: gained [[Nordschleswig]] after the [[1920 Schleswig plebiscites]] from the German Empire
* {{Flag|Estonia}}: independence from the [[Russian Empire]]
* {{Flag|Finland}}: independence from the Russian Empire
* {{Flag|France}}: gained [[Alsace-Lorraine]] as well as various [[Africa]]n colonies from the German Empire, and [[Middle East]] territories from the [[Ottoman Empire]]. The African and Middle East gains were officially [[League of Nations]] Mandates.
* {{Flag|Democratic Republic of Georgia|name=Georgia}}: independence from the Russian Empire
* {{Flag|Kingdom of Greece|name=Greece}}: gained [[Western Thrace]] from [[Kingdom of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]]
* {{Flag|Ireland}}: [[Irish Free State]] (approximately five-sixths of [[Ireland (island)|the island]]) gained independence from the [[United Kingdom]] (but still part of the [[British Empire]] as a [[Dominion]])
* {{Flag|Kingdom of Italy|name=Italy}}: gained [[South Tyrol]], [[Trieste]], [[Istria]], and [[Zadar]] from the Austro-Hungarian Empire
* {{Flag|Empire of Japan|name=Japan}}: gained [[Jiaozhou Bay]] and most of the [[Shandong Peninsula]] from China and the [[South Seas Mandate]] (both controlled by German Empire before the war) 
* {{Flag|Latvia}}: independence from the Russian Empire
* {{Flag|Lithuania}}: independence from the Russian Empire
* {{Flag|New Zealand}}: gained control of [[German Samoa]]
* {{Flag|Second Polish Republic|name=Poland}}: recreated and gained parts of the [[Cisleithania|Austrian Empire]], [[German Empire]], Russian Empire and [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]] (small northern parts of the former [[Árva County|Árva]] and [[Szepes County|Szepes]] counties)
* {{Flag|Portugal}}: gained control of the port of [[Kionga]] 
* {{Flag|Kingdom of Romania|name=Romania}}: gained [[Transylvania]], parts of [[Banat]], [[Crișana]], and [[Maramureș]] from the Kingdom of Hungary, Bukovina from the Austrian Empire, regained Dobruja from Bulgaria, and Bessarabia from the Russian Empire
* {{Flag|Union of South Africa|1912|name=South Africa}}: gained control of [[South West Africa]]
* {{Flag|Turkey}}: gained control of part of the [[Armenian Highlands]] from the Russian Empire in the [[Treaty of Kars]], while losing territory overall
* {{Flag|Ukrainian People's Republic}}: gained independence from the Russian Empire and recognized by [[Soviet Russia]] in the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]]
* {{Flag|United Kingdom}}: gained League of Nations Mandates in Africa and the Middle East
* {{Flag|Kingdom of Yugoslavia|name=Yugoslavia}}: created from the [[Kingdom of Serbia]], [[Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Kingdom of Croatia-Slavonia]] and gained parts from [[Cisleithania|Austrian Empire]] (part of [[Duchy of Carniola]], [[Austrian Littoral]], [[Kingdom of Dalmatia]]) and [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]] ([[Međimurje (region)|Muraköz]], [[Prekmurje|Muravidék]], parts of [[Baranya (region)|Baranya]], [[Bačka|Bácska]] and [[Banat]])

===Nations that lost territory or independence after World War I===
* {{Flag|Austria|1230}}: as the successor state of [[Cisleithania]] in the Austro-Hungarian Empire
* {{Flag|Kingdom of Bulgaria|name=Bulgaria}}: lost [[Western Thrace]] to [[Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg)|Greece]], also lost a part of [[Pirin Macedonia]] and [[Western Outlands]] to Serbia (Yugoslavia)
* {{Flag|Republic of China (1912–1949)|1912|name=China}}: temporarily lost [[Jiaozhou Bay]] and most of [[Shandong]] to the [[Empire of Japan]]
* {{Flag|Weimar Republic|name=Germany}}: as the successor state of the [[German Empire]]
* {{Flag|Kingdom of Hungary (1920–1946)|name=Hungary}}: as the successor state of [[Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen|Transleithania]] in the Austro-Hungarian Empire
* {{Flag|Kingdom of Montenegro|name=Montenegro}}: declared union with [[Kingdom of Serbia|Serbia]] and subsequently became incorporated into [[Kingdom of Yugoslavia|Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes]]
* {{Flag|Russian SFSR|1918}}, as the successor state of the [[Russian Empire]]
* {{Flag|Turkey}}: as the successor state of the [[Ottoman Empire]] (although it did simultaneously gain some territory from the Russian Empire in the [[Treaty of Kars]] and reverse some territorial losses in [[Anatolia]] with the [[Turkish War of Independence]])
* {{Flag|United Kingdom}}: lost most of [[Ireland]] as the [[Irish Free State]], [[Kingdom of Egypt|Egypt]] in 1922 and [[Emirate of Afghanistan|Afghanistan]] in 1919

==Social trauma==
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2009}}
[[File:Wiosna 1917 nad Świtezią.jpg|thumb|Bogdan Nowakowski's caricature titled ''Spring 1917 on Świteź'', being a commentary on common use of gas masks during World War I. It also references one of [[Adam Mickiewicz]]'s [[Romanticism|romantic]] [[ballad]]s called ''Świteź''.]]
The experiences of the war in the west are commonly assumed to have led to a sort of collective [[national trauma]] afterward for all of the participating countries. The optimism of [[Exposition Universelle (1900)|1900]] was entirely gone and those who fought became what is known as "the [[Lost Generation]]" because they never fully recovered from their suffering. For the next few years, much of Europe mourned privately and publicly; memorials were erected in thousands of villages and towns.

So many British men of marriageable age died or were injured that the students of one girls' school were warned that only 10% would marry.{{r|nicholson2008}}{{rp|20,245}} The [[1921 United Kingdom census]] found 19,803,022 women and 18,082,220 men in [[England and Wales]], a difference of 1.72&nbsp;million which newspapers called the "Surplus Two Million".<ref name="nicholson2008">{{cite book | title=Singled Out: How Two Million British Women Survived Without Men After the First World War | publisher=Oxford University Press | author=Nicholson, Virginia | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-19-537822-1}}</ref>{{rp|22–23}} In the 1921 census there were 1,209 single women aged 25 to 29 for every 1,000 men. In 1931 50% were still single, and 35% of them did not marry while still able to bear children.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Changes in Population after WW1 {{!}} Kingston upon Hull War Memorial 1914 - 1918 |url=https://ww1hull.com/changes-in-population-after-ww1/ |access-date=2025-06-26 |language=en-GB}}</ref>

As early as 1923, [[Stanley Baldwin]] recognized a new strategic reality that faced Britain in a disarmament speech. [[Chemical weapon|Poison gas]] and the [[aerial bombing]] of civilians were new developments of the First World War. The British civilian population, for many centuries, had not had any serious reason to fear invasion. So the new threat of poison gas dropped from enemy [[Bomber|bomber aircraft]] excited a grossly exaggerated view of the civilian deaths that would occur on the outbreak of any future war. Baldwin expressed this in his statement that "[[The bomber will always get through]]." The traditional British policy of a balance of power in Europe no longer safeguarded the British home population.

One gruesome reminder of the sacrifices of the generation was the fact that this was one of the first times in international conflict whereby more men died in battle than from disease, which was the main cause of deaths in most previous wars.

This social trauma made itself manifest in many different ways. Some people were revolted by [[nationalism]] and what they believed it had caused, so they began to work toward a more [[internationalism (politics)|internationalist]] world through organizations such as the League of Nations. [[Pacifism]] became increasingly popular. Others had the opposite reaction, feeling that only military strength could be relied upon for protection in a chaotic and inhumane world that did not respect hypothetical notions of civilization. Certainly a sense of disillusionment and [[Cynicism (contemporary)|cynicism]] became pronounced. [[Nihilism]] grew in popularity. Many people believed that the war heralded the end of the world as they had known it, including the collapse of [[capitalism]] and [[imperialism]]. [[Communist]] and [[socialist]] movements around the world drew strength from this theory, enjoying a level of popularity they had never known before. These feelings were most pronounced in areas directly or particularly harshly affected by the war, such as central Europe, Russia and France.

Artists such as [[Otto Dix]], [[George Grosz]], [[Ernst Barlach]], and [[Käthe Kollwitz]] represented their experiences, or those of their society, in blunt paintings and sculpture. Similarly, authors such as [[Erich Maria Remarque]] wrote grim novels detailing their experiences. These works had a strong impact on society, causing a great deal of controversy and highlighting conflicting interpretations of the war. In Germany, [[German nationalism|German nationalists]] including the [[Nazism|Nazis]] believed that much of this work was [[Degenerate art|degenerate]] and undermined the cohesion of society as well as dishonoring the dead.

==Economic consequences==
{{main|Post–World War I recession}}
The war left allied countries overburdened with debt to the United States, and the wrecked German economy was not able to pay reparations except when loaned by American banks. Many wished to restore the [[gold standard]] despite opinions that would hurt their economies.

After the war, governments did not return to the policies of the [[First globalization]], instead erecting [[capital control]]s and trade barriers, and new borders did not help. Introduced as a temporary war measure, [[passport]] control hindered economic migration and prevented equalizing labor costs in poor and developed countries, with the latter declaring their wish to abolish any restrictions but not actually wanting their workers to compete with immigrants.

The end of the first total, global war, met world industry with a massive overcapacity for military and military-related production (as well as military surpluses), such as aviation engines and stimulated research in how to adapt it to the peaceful life. For example, [[nitrocellulose lacquer]]s were commercialized after it was invented how to decrease velocity of the substance formerly produced for gunpowder. Many companies specializing in the affected industries went out of business. Some industries, such as shipbuilding, were initially flooded with reconstruction orders, e.g., to replace lost shipping, but faltered as soon as the demand returned to normal levels.
{{expand section|date=January 2023}}
[[Image:World-war-one-belgium-iron-harvest-fieldside.redvers.jpg|left|thumb|[[Iron harvest]] World War I ordnance left beside a field for disposal by the army in 2004 near [[Ypres]] in Belgium]]

==Remains of ammunition==
{{Main|Iron harvest}}

Throughout the areas where trenches and fighting lines were located, such as the [[Champagne, France|Champagne]] region of France, quantities of [[unexploded ordnance]] have remained, some of which remain dangerous, continuing to cause injuries and occasional fatalities in the 21st century. Some are found by farmers ploughing their fields and have been called the [[iron harvest]]. Some of this ammunition contains [[Chemical weapons in World War I|toxic chemical products]], such as [[mustard gas]]. Cleanup of major battlefields is a continuing task with no end in sight for decades to come. Squads remove, defuse or destroy hundreds of tons of unexploded ammunition from both World Wars every year in Belgium, France, and Germany.<ref name=Neiberg>{{cite book |last=Neiberg |first=Michael |title=The World War I Reader |date=2007 |page=1}}</ref>

==Memorials==
[[File:Sacrario militare di Redipuglia agosto 2014.JPG|thumb|The [[Redipuglia War Memorial]] of [[Fogliano Redipuglia|Redipuglia]], with the tomb of [[Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta (1869–1931)|Prince Emanuele Filiberto, Duke of Aosta]] in the foreground, nicknamed the ''Undefeated Duke'' for having reported numerous victories in the [[First World War]] without ever being defeated on the battlefield.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/savoia-aosta-emanuele-filiberto-di-duca-d-aosta_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/|title=SAVOIA AOSTA, Emanuele Filiberto di, duca d'Aosta|access-date=23 November 2021|language=it}}</ref> This War Memorial is the resting place of 100,187 Italian soldiers killed between 1915 and 1917 in the [[Battles of the Isonzo|eleven battles]] fought on the Karst and [[Isonzo front]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.turismofvg.it/Monumenti-e-Siti-Storici/Sacrario-Militare-di-Redipuglia|title=Il più grande Sacrario Militare Italiano}}</ref>]]

===War memorials===
[[File:Noms 14-18 Draguignan.jpg|thumb|250px|World War I memorial in [[Draguignan]], France]]
Many towns in the participating countries have [[war memorial]]s dedicated to local residents who died. Examples include:
* [[Australian War Memorial]], [[Canberra]], Australia
* [[Liberty Memorial]], [[Kansas City, Missouri]], United States
* Jutland Memorial Park, [[Thyborøn]], [[Jutland]], Denmark
* [[District of Columbia War Memorial]], [[Washington, D.C.]], United States
* [[Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial]]
* [[Cenotaph#The Cenotaph, London|The Cenotaph]], London, United Kingdom
* [[Menin Gate Memorial]], [[Ypres]], Belgium
* [[Thiepval Memorial]]
* [[Tyne Cot Cemetery|Tyne Cot Memorial to the Missing]] at [[Passendale|Passchendaele]]
* [[Verdun|Verdun Memorial Museum]]
* [[Vimy Memorial|Vimy Ridge Memorial]], [[Vimy]], France
* [[Gallipoli Memorial]], Turkey
* [[Shrine of Remembrance]], [[Melbourne]], Australia
* [[Irish National War Memorial Gardens]], [[Dublin]], Ireland
* [[Island of Ireland Peace Park]], [[Mesen|Messines]], Belgium
* [[National War Memorial (Canada)|National War Memorial]], [[Ottawa|Ottawa, Ontario]], Canada
* [[National War Memorial (Newfoundland)|National War Memorial]], [[St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador|St. John's, Newfoundland]], Canada
* Kriegerdenkmal auf dem Neroberg,<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.werkost.com/Wiesbdn.htm|title=Neroberg war memorial 1914-1918|website=www.werkost.com}}</ref> [[Wiesbaden]], Hessen, Germany
* [[Fogliano Redipuglia#World War I memorial|Sacrario militare di Redipuglia, Fogliano Redipuglia]], Italy
* [[Mausoleum of Mărășești]], Romania

===Tombs of unknown soldiers===
[[File:Altare della Patria-July 2016 (59).jpg|thumb|[[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Italy)|Tomb of the Italian Unknown Soldier]], under the statue of [[Roma (mythology)|goddess Roma]], at [[Victor Emmanuel II Monument#Altar of the Fatherland|Altare della Patria]], [[Rome]]. Above it can be seen the equestrian statue of [[Victor Emmanuel II of Italy|Victor Emmanuel II of Savoy]], the first king of a [[Italian unification|unified Italy]]]]
* [[Monument to the Unknown Hero]], [[Belgrade]], Serbia
* [[India Gate|Amar Jawan Jyoti]], [[New Delhi]], India
* [[Canadian Tomb of the Unknown Soldier|Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]], [[Ottawa|Ottawa, Ontario]], Canada
* [[Arc de Triomphe]], Paris, France
* [[The Unknown Warrior|The Tomb of the Unknown Warrior]] in [[Westminster Abbey]], London, United Kingdom
* [[Tomb of the Unknowns]], [[Arlington National Cemetery]], [[Virginia]], United States
* [[Monument of Vittorio Emanuele II|Tomba del milite ignoto]], Rome, Italy
* [[Australian War Memorial]], [[Canberra]], Australia
* [[New Zealand Tomb of the Unknown Warrior]], [[Wellington]], New Zealand
* [[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Athens)|Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]], [[Syntagma Square]], [[Athens]], Greece
* [[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Bucharest|Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]], [[Bucharest]], Romania
* [[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier (Portugal)|Tomb of the Unknown Soldier]] in [[Batalha Monastery]], [[Batalha, Portugal|Batalha]], Portugal
* [[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Warsaw]], [[Poland]]

==See also==
* [[Historiography of World War I]]
* [[International relations (1919–1939)]]
* [[Revolutions of 1917–1923]]
* [[Interwar period]]
* [[Political history of the world]]
* [[Political terror in Finland and Baltic States after World War I]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
* {{cite book |last=Doughty |first=Robert A. |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=vZRmHkdGk44C}} |title=Pyrrhic victory: French strategy and operations in the Great War |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-674-01880-8 |author1-link=Robert A. Doughty}}
* {{cite book |last=Evans |first=Leslie |title=Future of Iraq, Israel-Palestine Conflict, and Central Asia Weighed at International Conference |url=http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=24920 |publisher=UCLA International Institute |date=2005 |access-date=30 December 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080524084407/http://www.international.ucla.edu/article.asp?parentid=24920 |archive-date=24 May 2008 }}
* {{cite book |last=Gelvin |first=James L. |author-link=James L. Gelvin |title=The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-521-85289-0 |oclc=59879560}}
* {{cite book |last=Hooker |first=Richard |year=1996 |title=The Ottomans |url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/OTTOMAN/OTTOMAN1.HTM |publisher=Washington State University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19991008042702/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/OTTOMAN/OTTOMAN1.HTM |archive-date=8 October 1999 |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |last=Hovannisian |first=Richard G. |url=https://archive.org/details/armeniaonroadtoi00hova |title=Armenia on the Road to Independence, 1918 |publisher=University of California Press |year=1967 |isbn=978-0-520-00574-7 |location=Berkeley |author-link=Richard G. Hovannisian |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last1=Isaac |first1=Jad |url=http://www.oranim.ac.il/courses/meast/water/Roots+of+the+Water+Conflict+in+the+Middle+East.htm |title=Roots of the Water Conflict in the Middle East |last2=Hosh |first2=Leonardo |date=7–9 May 1992 |location=University of Waterloo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060928053605/http://www.oranim.ac.il/courses/meast/water/Roots%20of%20the%20Water%20Conflict%20in%20the%20Middle%20East.htm |archive-date=28 September 2006 |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Kaplan |first=Robert D. |date=February 1993 |title=Syria: Identity Crisis |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/199302/kaplan |url-status=live |magazine=The Atlantic |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224211629/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1993/02/syria-identity-crisis/303860/ |archive-date=24 December 2018 |access-date=30 December 2008}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Muller |first=Jerry Z. |date=March–April 2008 |title=Us and Them&nbsp;– The Enduring Power of Ethnic Nationalism |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/europe/2008-03-02/us-and-them |url-status=live |magazine=Foreign Affairs |publisher=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623090446/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/europe/2008-03-02/us-and-them |archive-date=23 June 2015 |access-date=30 December 2008}}
* {{cite news |date= November 9, 1919|title= Where the fighting still goes on|last=|url=https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1919-11-09/ed-1/seq-26/|newspaper=[[New-York Tribune]]|publisher=|location=New York|issn=1941-0646|oclc=9405688|pages=1–86 |access-date= November 10, 2019 | ref = {{SfnRef|New-York Tribune|1919}} }}
* {{cite book |last=Salibi |first=Kamal Suleiman |title=A House of Many Mansions&nbsp;– the history of Lebanon reconsidered |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=1993 |isbn=978-1-85043-091-9 |chapter=How it all began&nbsp;– A concise history of Lebanon |oclc=224705916 |access-date=11 March 2008 |chapter-url=http://almashriq.hiof.no/lebanon/900/902/Kamal-Salibi/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403005824/http://almashriq.hiof.no/lebanon/900/902/Kamal-Salibi/ |archive-date=3 April 2017 |url-status=live}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |last=Aldcroft |first=Derek H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M5MWDAAAQBAJ |title=Europe's Third World |date=2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-13888-4 |series=Modern economic and social history series |location=Aldershot |doi=10.4324/9781315581156}}
* {{Cite book |last=Blom |first=Philipp |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cZpVDgAAQBAJ |title=Fracture: life & culture in the West, 1918 - 1938 |date=2015 |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |isbn=978-0-465-04071-1 |location=New York, NY}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://www.berghahnbooks.com/title/CornelissenWriting |title=Writing the Great War: the historiography of World War I from 1918 to the present |date=2021 |publisher=Berghahn Books |isbn=978-1-78920-457-5 |editor-last=Cornelissen |editor-first=Christoph |location=New York |editor-last2=Weinrich |editor-first2=Arndt}} Full coverage for major countries.
* {{Cite journal |last=Gerwarth |first=R. |date=August 2008 |title=The Central European Counter-Revolution: Paramilitary Violence in Germany, Austria and Hungary after the Great War |journal=[[Past & Present (journal)|Past & Present]] |issue=200 |pages=175–209 |doi=10.1093/pastj/gtm046 |issn=0031-2746}}
* {{Cite book |last=Gerwarth |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5O2pCwAAQBAJ |title=The vanquished: why the First World War failed to end, 1917-1923 |date=2017 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |isbn=978-0-14-197637-2 |location=London}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Kallis |first=Aristotle |date=4 April 2015 |title=When Fascism Became Mainstream: The Challenge of Extremism in Times of Crisis |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/fasc/4/1/article-p1_1.xml |journal=Fascism |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–24 |doi=10.1163/22116257-00401001 |issn=2211-6249 |doi-access=free}}
* {{Cite book |last=MacMillan |first=Margaret |author-link=Margaret MacMillan |title=Peacemakers: the Paris Conference of 1919 and its attempt to end war |title-link=Peacemakers (book) |date=2001 |publisher=[[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]] |isbn=978-0-7195-5939-6 |location=London}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mazower |first=Mark |title=Dark continent: Europe's twentieth century |date=1999 |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]] |isbn=978-0-679-43809-0 |location=New York}}
* {{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/iB_CMH/12 |title=The New Cambridge Modern History |date=1968 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |editor-last=Mowat |editor-first=C. L. |editor-link=C. L. Mowat |edition=2nd |volume=XII: The Shifting Balance of World Forces, 1898-1945}}
* {{Cite book |last=Overy |first=Richard J. |url=https://archive.org/details/interwarcrisis190002over |title=The inter-war crisis 1919-1939 |date=2007 |publisher=[[Pearson Longman]] |isbn=978-1-4058-2468-2 |edition=2nd |series=Seminar studies in history |location=Harlow}}
* {{Cite book |last=Somervell |first=D. C. |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.176466 |title=The reign of King George the Fifth; an English chronicle |date=1936 |publisher=[[Faber & Faber]] |location=London |oclc=782562}} Wide ranging political, social and economic coverage of Britain, 1910–35
* {{Cite book |last=Wheeler-Bennet |first=John Wheeler |author-link=John Wheeler-Bennett |title=The wreck of reparations, being the political background of the Lausanne Agreement, 1932 |date=1972 |publisher=H. Fertig |location=New York |lccn=70080602 |oclc=393149 |ol=6920338W}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/themes/post-war/ Post-war], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home/ 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
*Kitchen, James E.: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/colonial_empires_after_the_wardecolonization Colonial Empires after the War/Decolonization], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home/ 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
*[[Bessel, Richard]]: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/post-war_societies Post-war Societies], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home/ 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
*Rothermund, Dietmar: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/post-war_economies Post-war Economies], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home/ 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
*Sharp, Alan: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/article/the_paris_peace_conference_and_its_consequences The Paris Peace Conference and its Consequences], in: [https://encyclopedia.1914-1918-online.net/home/ 1914–1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War].
* [http://www.firstworldwar.com/ FirstWorldWar.com] "A multimedia history of World War I"
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1998/10/98/world_war_i/198172.stm The war to end all wars on BBC site]
* [http://www.greatwar.nl/ "The Heritage of the Great War"]
* [http://www.1914-1918.net/ The British Army in the Great War]

{{World War I}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Aftermath of World War I| ]]
[[Category:Aftermath of wars|World War I]]