View source for Afrikaners

{{short description|Ethnic group in Southern Africa}}
{{Redirect|Afrikaner|other uses|Afrikaner (disambiguation)}}
{{Use South African English|date=April 2014|Engvar=June 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2018}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Afrikaners
| flag             = Afrikaner Vryheidsvlag.svg
| flag_caption     = The Vryheidsvlag, based on the flags of the [[Dutch Republic]] and the [[South African Republic]], is used to represent Afrikaners at the [[UNPO]].<ref>South African Bureau of Heraldry (1995) [http://www.national.archsrch.gov.za/sm300cv/smws/sm30ddf0?200703110354512380EDC6&DN=00000008 Afrikaner-Volksfront flag], retrieved 28 June 2006</ref><ref>UNPO (2025) [https://unpo.org/member/afrikaners/], retrieved 17 April 2025</ref>
| pop              = {{circa}} 2.8–3.5 million<ref name="unpo">''"Afrikaners constitute nearly three million out of approximately 53 million inhabitants of the Republic of South Africa, plus as many as half a million in diaspora."'' [http://www.unpo.org/members/8148 Afrikaner] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171128102230/http://unpo.org/members/8148 |date=28 November 2017 }} – Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization. Retrieved 24 August 2014.</ref>
[[File:Afrikaner_Diaspora.png|center|frameless|260x260px]]
| region1          = {{Flag|South Africa}}
| pop1             = 2,710,461 <small>(2011)</small><ref name="Census 2011" />
| ref1             =
| region2          = {{Flag|Namibia}}
| pop2             = 92,400 <small>(2003)</small><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.namibiagovernment.com/demographics.htm|title=Demographics|website=Namibiagovernment.com|access-date=18 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028054131/http://www.namibiagovernment.com/demographics.htm|archive-date=28 October 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| region3          = {{Flag|Zambia}}
| pop3             = ≈41,000 <small>(2006)</small>{{Efn|name=ethnologue|[[Ethnologue]]|[[Ethnologue]] records 41,000 speakers of Afrikaans in Zambia and 13,000 speakers in Swaziland. The number of Afrikaners in each country may be higher or lower.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/language/AFR/***EDITION*** |title=Afrikaans |work=Ethnologue |date=19 February 1999 |access-date=12 May 2014 |archive-date=24 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224215223/https://www.ethnologue.com/language/AFR/***EDITION***%20 |url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| ref3             =
| region4          = {{Flag|United Kingdom}}
| pop4             = ≈40,000 <small>(2006)</small>{{Efn|name=ethnologue|[[Ethnologue]]|[[Ethnologue]] records 40,000 speakers of Afrikaans in Zambia and 13,000 speakers in Swaziland. The number of Afrikaners in each country may be higher or lower.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Language and Identity The Afrikaans Community in the UK|date=1 January 2004 |s2cid=24317773}}</ref>}}
| ref4             =
| region5          = {{Flag|Botswana}}
| pop5             = ≈20,000 <small>(2010)</small><ref name="Okavango">{{cite book| last = Chris McIntyre| title = Botswana: Okavango Delta - Chobe - Northern Kalahari| year = 2010| edition = 2010| page = [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781841623085/page/37 37]| publisher = Bradt Travel Guides Ltd| isbn = 978-1-84162-308-5| url-access = registration| url = https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781841623085/page/37}}</ref>
| region6          = {{Flag|Eswatini}}
| pop6             = ≈13,000 <small>(2006)</small>{{Efn|name=ethnologue}}
| ref6             =
| region7          = {{Flag|Australia}}
| pop7             = 5,079 <small>(2011)</small>{{Efn|The [[2011 Australian Census]] records 5,079 Australian residents who explicitly identify as Afrikaner (that is, excluding those who identified as "African" or "South African"), while 35,031 identified as Afrikaans speakers.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140714131850/http://www.immi.gov.au/media/publications/statistics/immigration-update/people-australia-2013-statistics.pdf ''The People of Australia: Statistics from the 2011 Census''] – Department of Immigration and Border Protection. p. 29, p. 55. Retrieved 8 August 2014.</ref>}}
| ref7             =
| region8          = {{Flag|New Zealand}}
| pop8             = 1,197 <small>(2013)</small>{{Efn|The [[2013 New Zealand census]] records 1,197 New Zealand residents who explicitly identify as Afrikaner (that is, excluding those who identified as "African" or "South African"), while 27,387 identified as [[Afrikaans]] speakers.<ref>[http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Census/2013%20Census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/tables.xls 2013 Census QuickStats about culture and identity] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150115195646/http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Census/2013%20Census/profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-culture-identity/tables.xls |date=15 January 2015 }} (Excel file) – Statistics New Zealand. Retrieved 8 August 2014.</ref>}}
| ref8             =
| region9         = {{Flag|Argentina}}
| pop9            = 650 <small>(2019)</small><ref>{{cite web|title=Afrikaans is making a comeback in Argentina - along with koeksisters and milktart|url=https://www.businessinsider.co.za/afrikaans-is-making-a-comeback-in-argentina-2019-1|publisher=Business Insider South Africa|access-date=11 October 2019|archive-date=16 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190116003955/https://www.businessinsider.co.za/afrikaans-is-making-a-comeback-in-argentina-2019-1|url-status=live}}</ref>
| ref9             =
| languages        = '''First language'''<br />[[Afrikaans]]<br />'''Second or third language''' {{hlist| [[South African English]] | [[Bantu languages]]}}
| religions        = Predominantly [[Reformed Christianity]]<br>(see [[Afrikaner Calvinism]]; <small>specifically: [[Nederduitse Gereformeerde Kerk|Dutch Reformed]]{{•}}[[Nederduitsch Hervormde Kerk van Afrika|Dutch Reformed of Africa]]{{•}}[[Gereformeerde Kerke|Reformed]]{{•}}[[Afrikaanse Protestantse Kerk|Afrikaans Protestant]]</small>) or [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholicism]]<br />Minority<br />[[Irreligion]] ([[Atheism]], [[Agnosticism]])
| related          = {{hlist| [[British diaspora in Africa]] | [[White Namibians]] | [[Dutch people|Dutch]] | [[French people|French]] | [[Frisians]] | [[Flemish people|Flemings]] | [[German Namibians]] | [[Indo people|Indos]] | [[Cape Coloured]]s | [[Baster]]s | [[Griqua people|Griqua]]s | [[Oorlam people|Oorlam]]s }}<!-- includes groups with significant intermarriage, ordered alphabetically -->
}}
<!--READ FIRST: General consensus on previous talk page discussions holds that Afrikaners should be described first and foremost as a Southern African ethnic group. Terms such as "European", "Eurocentric", and "Germanic" may be considered pejorative in the lead (i.e. "European ethnic group in Africa") and should not be added without a broad change in consensus. Please raise this issue first on the talk page, even if sources are cited. Thank you.-->

'''Afrikaners''' ({{IPA|af|afriˈkɑːnərs|lang}}) are a [[Southern Africa]]n [[ethnic group]] descended from predominantly [[Dutch people|Dutch]] [[Settler colonialism|settlers]] who first arrived at the [[Cape of Good Hope]] in [[Free Burghers in the Dutch Cape Colony|1652]].<ref name="Britannica1933">Entry: Cape Colony. ''Encyclopædia Britannica Volume 4 Part 2: Brain to Casting''. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 1933. James Louis Garvin, editor.</ref> Until 1994, they dominated [[South Africa]]'s politics as well as the country's commercial agricultural sector.<ref name="zastudy">{{cite book|last=Kaplan|first=Irving|title=Area Handbook for the Republic of South Africa|pages=46–771|url=http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED056947.pdf|access-date=7 March 2015|archive-date=28 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150428004403/http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED056947.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Afrikaans]], a language which evolved from the [[Hollandic Dutch|Dutch dialect]] of [[South Holland]], is the [[First language|mother tongue]] of Afrikaners and most [[Cape Coloureds]].<ref name="zastudy" /> According to the [[2022 South African census|South African National Census of 2022]], 10.6% of South Africans claimed to speak Afrikaans as a first language at home, making it the country's third-largest home language after [[Zulu language|Zulu]] and [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 10, 2023 |title=Census 2022: Statistical Release |url=https://census.statssa.gov.za/assets/documents/2022/P03014_Census_2022_Statistical_Release.pdf |access-date=July 8, 2024 |website=statssa.gov.za}}</ref>

The arrival of [[Portugal|Portuguese]] explorer [[Vasco da Gama]] at [[Calicut]], India, in 1498 opened a gateway of free access to Asia from [[Western Europe]] around the [[Cape of Good Hope]]. This access necessitated the founding and safeguarding of trade stations along the African and Asian coasts.<ref name="Britannica1933"/> The Portuguese landed in [[Mossel Bay]] in 1498, explored [[Table Bay]] two years later, and by 1510 had started raiding inland.<ref name="Kaap">{{cite book | last = Alexander Wilmot & John Centlivres Chase| title = History of the Colony of the Cape of Good Hope: From Its Discovery to the Year 1819 |edition= 2010 |pages= 1–548 | publisher = Claremont: David Philip (Pty) Ltd| isbn= 978-1144830159}}</ref> Shortly afterwards, the [[Dutch Republic]] sent merchant vessels to India and, in 1602, founded the [[Dutch East India Company]] ({{lang|nl|Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie}}; VOC).<ref name="VanGoor">{{cite book | last = Van Goor, Jurrien| title = Prelude to Colonialism: The Dutch in Asia| year = 2004|edition= 2005|pages= 9–83 | publisher = Verloren B.V., Uitgeverij| isbn = 978-9065508065}}</ref> As the volume of traffic rounding the Cape increased, the VOC recognised its natural harbour as an ideal watering point for the long voyage around Africa to East Asia and established a victualling station there in 1652.<ref name="Britannica1933"/> VOC officials did not favour the [[Settler colonialism|permanent settlement]] of Europeans in their trading empire, although during the 140 years of Dutch rule many VOC servants retired or were discharged and remained as private citizens.<ref name="VanGoor"/> Furthermore, the exigencies of supplying local garrisons and passing fleets compelled the administration to confer free status on employees and oblige them to become independent farmers.<ref name="Keegan">{{cite book | last = Keegan| first = Timothy| title = Colonial South Africa and the Origins of the Racial Order| year = 1996| url = https://archive.org/details/colonialsouthafr0000keeg| url-access = registration|edition= 1996|pages= [https://archive.org/details/colonialsouthafr0000keeg/page/15 15–37] | publisher = David Philip Publishers (Pty) Ltd| isbn = 978-0813917351}}</ref>

Encouraged by the success of this experiment, the company extended free passage from 1685 to 1707 for Dutch families wishing to settle at the Cape.<ref name="Keegan"/> In 1688, it sponsored the settlement of 200 [[French people|French]] [[Huguenot]] refugees forced into exile by the [[Edict of Fontainebleau]].<ref name="Greaves">{{cite book|last= Greaves|first=Adrian|title=The Tribe that Washed its Spears: The Zulus at War|date=2 September 2014|location=Barnsley|publisher=Pen & Sword Military|edition=2013|pages= 36–55|isbn=978-1629145136}}</ref> The terms under which the Huguenots agreed to immigrate were the same as those offered to other VOC subjects, including free passage and the requisite farm equipment on credit. Prior attempts at cultivating vineyards or exploiting olive groves for fruit had been unsuccessful, and it was hoped that Huguenot colonists accustomed to Mediterranean agriculture could succeed where the Dutch had failed.<ref name="Theale">Theale, George McCall (4 May 1882). ''Chronicles of Cape Commanders, or, An abstract of original manuscripts in the Archives of the Cape Colony''. Cape Town: WA Richards & Sons 1882. pp 24—387.</ref> They were augmented by VOC soldiers returning from Asia, predominantly [[German people|German]]s channelled into Amsterdam by the company's extensive recruitment network and thence overseas.<ref name="Kaapstad">{{cite book | last = Nigel Worden, Elizabeth Van Heyningen & Vivian Bickford-Smith| title = Cape Town: The Making of a City| year = 2004|edition= 2012|pages= 51–93 | publisher = New Africa Books| isbn = 978-0864866561}}</ref><ref name="Atlantic">{{cite book | last = Groenewald| first = Gerald |editor-last= D'Maris Coffman, Adrian Leonard & William O'Reilly | title = The Atlantic World| year = 2015 |edition= 2015|pages= 15–37 | publisher = Routledge Books| isbn = 978-0415467049}}</ref> Despite their diverse nationalities, the colonists used a common language and adopted similar attitudes towards politics.<ref name="Worden">{{cite book | last = Worden| first = Nigel| title = Slavery in Dutch South Africa| date = 5 August 2010|edition= 2010|pages= 94–140 | publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0521152662}}</ref> The attributes they shared served as a basis for the evolution of Afrikaner identity and consciousness.<ref name="Tamarkin">{{cite book | last = Tamarkin| first = Mordechai| title = Cecil Rhodes and the Cape Afrikaners: The Imperial Colossus and the Colonial Parish Pump| year = 1996|edition= 1996|pages= 24–92 | publisher = Frank Cass & Co. Ltd| isbn = 978-0714642673}}</ref>

In the twentieth century, [[Afrikaner nationalism]] took the form of political parties and closed societies, such as the {{lang|af|[[Afrikaner Broederbond|Broederbond]]}}. In 1914, the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] was founded to promote Afrikaner interests.<ref name="Britannica1933" /> It gained power by winning [[1948 South African general election|South Africa's 1948 general elections]].<ref name="NP">{{Cite web |title=National Party (NP) {{!}} South African History Online |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/article/national-party-np |access-date=2023-11-15 |website=www.sahistory.org.za}}</ref> The party was noted for implementing a harsh policy of racial segregation ([[apartheid]]) and declaring South Africa a republic in 1961.<ref name="Britannica1933" /> Following decades of domestic unrest and [[international sanctions]] that resulted in [[Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa|bilateral and multi-party negotiations to end apartheid]], South Africa held its [[1994 South African general election|first multiracial elections]] under a [[universal franchise]] in 1994.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1994 Election – Apartheid Museum |url=https://www.apartheidmuseum.org/exhibitions/1994-election |access-date=2023-11-18 |website=www.apartheidmuseum.org |language=en}}</ref> As a result of this election the National Party was ousted from power, and was eventually dissolved in 2005.<ref name="NP"/>

==Nomenclature==
The term "Afrikaner" currently denotes the politically, culturally, and socially dominant and majority group<ref>{{cite book |last= Minahan |first= James |title= One Europe, many nations: a historical dictionary of European national groups |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC |access-date= 25 May 2013 |year= 2000 |publisher= [[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn= 0313309841 |page= 769 |archive-date= 16 January 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230116024421/https://books.google.com/books?id=NwvoM-ZFoAgC |url-status= live }}</ref>{{request quotation|date=September 2019|reason="De Klerk dismantles apartheid in South Africa". BBC News. February 2, 1990. Archived from the original on 15 February 2009. Retrieved 21 February 2009.}} among [[white South Africans]], or the [[Afrikaans]]-speaking population of [[Dutch people|Dutch]] origin. Their original progenitors, especially in paternal lines, also included smaller numbers of [[Flemish people|Flemish]], [[Huguenot|French Huguenot]], [[Germans|German]], [[Danes|Danish]], [[Norwegians|Norwegian]], [[Swiss people|Swiss]], and [[Swedes|Swedish]] immigrants.<ref name="Britannica1933"/> Historically, the terms "{{lang|af|[[Burgher (Boer republics)|burgher]]|italics=no}}" and "{{lang|af|[[Boer]]|italics=no}}" have both been used to describe white Afrikaans-speakers as a group; neither is particularly objectionable, but "Afrikaner" has been considered a more appropriate term.<ref name="zastudy"/>

By the late nineteenth century, the term was in common usage in both the [[Boer Republics|Boer republics]] and the [[Cape Colony]].<ref>S. W. Martin, ''Faith Negotiating Loyalties: An Exploration of South African Christianity Through a Reading of the Theology of H. Richard Niebuhr'' (University Press of America, 2008), {{ISBN| 0761841113}}, pp. 53-54.</ref> At one time, ''burghers'' denoted [[Cape Dutch]]: those settlers who were influential in the administration, able to participate in urban affairs, and did so regularly. ''[[Boers]]'' often refer to settled ethnic European farmers or nomadic cattleherders. During the [[Batavian Republic]] of 1795–1806, {{lang|nl|burgher}} ('citizen') was popularised among Dutch communities both at home and abroad as a popular revolutionary form of address.<ref name="zastudy"/> In South Africa, it remained in use as late as the [[Second Boer War]] of 1899–1902.<ref name="Conspiracy">{{cite book | last = CH Thomas| title = Origin of the Anglo-Boer War Revealed: The Conspiracy of the 19th Century Unmasked |edition= 1900 |pages= 144–146 | publisher = Hodder and Stoughton | isbn= 9781437510454}}</ref>

The first recorded instance of a colonist identifying as an Afrikaner occurred in March 1707, during a disturbance in [[Stellenbosch]].<ref name="Lion">{{cite book | last = Rian Malan | title = The Lion Sleeps Tonight | date = February 2013|edition= 2012 |pages= 144–146 | publisher = Grove Press UK | isbn= 978-1-61185-994-2}}</ref> When the [[magistrate]], Johannes Starrenburg, ordered an unruly crowd to desist, a young white man named Hendrik Biebouw retorted, "{{lang|nl|Ik wil niet loopen, ik ben een Afrikaander – al slaat de landdrost mij dood, of al zetten hij mij in de tronk, ik zal, nog wil niet zwijgen!}}" ("I will not leave, I am an African – even if the magistrate were to beat me to death or put me in jail, I shall not be, nor will I stay, silent!").<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.bdlive.co.za/articles/2012/06/06/letter-i-too-am-an-african|title= LETTER: I, too, am an African|work= Business Day Live|access-date= 18 March 2015|archive-date= 2 April 2015|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150402103147/http://www.bdlive.co.za/articles/2012/06/06/letter-i-too-am-an-african|url-status= live}}</ref> Biebouw was flogged for his insolence and later banished to [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]]<ref name=gilomafrikaners />{{rp|22}} (present-day Jakarta, Indonesia). The word ''Afrikaner'' is thought to have first been used to classify [[Cape Coloured]]s, or other groups of [[mixed-race]] ancestry. Biebouw had numerous "half-caste" (mixed race) siblings and may have identified with Coloureds socially.<ref name="Lion"/> The growing use of the term appeared to express the rise of a new identity for white South Africans, suggesting for the first time a group identification with the [[Dutch Cape Colony|Cape Colony]] rather than with an ancestral homeland in Europe.<ref name="Middle">{{cite book | last = Breyten Breytenbach | title = Notes from the Middle World | date = May 2010 | edition = 2009 | pages = 73–74 | access-date = 5 September 2019 | publisher = Haymarket Books | isbn = 978-1-61185-994-2 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yL_6rU6J49sC | archive-date = 5 October 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20231005002927/https://books.google.com/books?id=yL_6rU6J49sC | url-status = live }}</ref>

Afrikaner culture and people are also commonly referred to as ''The Afrikaans'' or ''Afrikaans people''.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Pollak|first=Sorcha|title='The Irish remind me of Afrikaans people. They're quite reserved'|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/people/the-irish-remind-me-of-afrikaans-people-they-re-quite-reserved-1.4154039|access-date=2021-06-04|newspaper=The Irish Times|language=en|archive-date=12 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212202544/https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/people/the-irish-remind-me-of-afrikaans-people-they-re-quite-reserved-1.4154039|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="iolDontCallMeBoer">{{Cite web|title=Don't call me a boer|url=https://www.iol.co.za/pretoria-news/opinion/dont-call-me-a-boer-1610759|access-date=2021-06-04|website=www.iol.co.za|language=en|archive-date=12 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212211451/https://www.iol.co.za/pretoria-news/opinion/dont-call-me-a-boer-1610759|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Afrikaans culture (ZA)|url=https://www.southafrica.net/za/en/travel/article/the-rich-and-diverse-afrikaans-culture|access-date=2021-06-04|website=www.southafrica.net|archive-date=12 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212202629/https://www.southafrica.net/za/en/travel/article/the-rich-and-diverse-afrikaans-culture|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Population==
===1691 estimates===
{{Bar chart
| title  = Increase of European families in the Cape by year<ref name="February">{{cite book | last = Vernon February| title = The Afrikaners of South Africa| year = 1991|edition= 1991|pages= 8–14 | publisher = Routledge Publishers| isbn= 978-0710303530}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=GYCAAAAAQBAJ&q=vernon+february+the+afrikaners+of+south+africa&pg=PP1|title= The Afrikaners of South Africa|date= 21 August 2013|edition= 1991|publisher= Kegan Paul International|isbn= 978-0-7103-0353-0|access-date= 8 November 2020|archive-date= 5 October 2023|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231005002928/https://books.google.com/books?id=GYCAAAAAQBAJ&q=vernon+february+the+afrikaners+of+south+africa&pg=PP1#v=snippet&q=vernon%20february%20the%20afrikaners%20of%20south%20africa&f=false|url-status= live}}</ref>
| label_type = Year
| data_type = Number
| bar_width = 15
| width_units = em
| data_max = 400
| float  = right
| label1 = 1657–1675
| data1 = 46
| label2 = 1675–1700
| data2 = 154
| label3 = 1700–1725
| data3 = 263
| label4 = 1725–1750
| data4 = 272
| label5 = 1750–1775
| data5 = 400
| label6 = 1775–1795
| data6 = 391
}}

{{Historical populations|type=ZA|percentages = pagr
|1657|137
|1754|6000
|1806|26720
|1936|1120770
|1960|1600000
|1985|2581080
|1996|2558956
|2001|2576184
|2011|2710461
|2022|2512096
|footnote=<ref name=Hunt1/><ref name=GoodHope1754/><ref name="Britannica1933"/><ref name="zastudy"/><ref name="yearbook1936">{{Cite book |last=Malherbe |first=E.G. |title=Official Year Book of the Union of South Africa and of Basutoland, Bechuanaland Protectorate, and Swaziland |publisher=Union of South Africa |year=1939 |volume=20 |location=Pretoria |pages=1047}}</ref><ref name=Afrikaans1/><ref name=2001census/><ref name="Census 2011"/><br />Note: For the years 1985–2022, the census statistics show the number of Afrikaans-speaking whites. Considering that there is an increasingly significant number of English-speaking Afrikaners (especially after 2001), the numbers could be higher.
}}

VOC initially had no intention of establishing a permanent Dutch
settlement at the [[Cape of Good Hope]]; until 1657, it devoted as little attention as possible to the development or administration of the [[Dutch Cape Colony]].<ref name=Hunt1>{{cite book|last=Hunt|first=John|editor-last=Campbell|editor-first=Heather-Ann|title=Dutch South Africa: Early Settlers at the Cape, 1652-1708|date=2005|pages=13–35|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-1904744955}}</ref> From the VOC's perspective, there was little financial incentive to regard the region as anything more than the site of a strategic manufacturing centre.<ref name=Hunt1/> Furthermore, the Cape was unpopular among VOC employees, who regarded it as a barren and insignificant outpost with little opportunity for advancement.<ref name=Hunt1/>

A small number of longtime VOC employees who had been instrumental in the colony's founding and its first five years of existence, however, expressed interest in applying for grants of land with the objective of retiring at the Cape as farmers.<ref name=Hunt1/> In time, they came to form a class of former VOC employees, {{lang|de|vrijlieden}}, also known as {{lang|af|vrijburgers}} (free citizens, who stayed in Dutch territories overseas after serving their contracts.<ref name=Parthesius>{{cite book|last=Parthesius|first=Robert|title=Dutch Ships in Tropical Waters: The Development of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) Shipping Network in Asia 1595-1660|year=2010|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|location=Amsterdam|isbn=978-9053565179}}</ref> The {{lang|af|vrijburgers}} were to be of Dutch birth (although exceptions were made for some Germans), married, "of good character", and had to undertake to spend at least twenty years in Southern Africa.<ref name=Hunt1/> In March 1657, when the first {{lang|af|vrijburgers}} started receiving their farms, the white population of the Cape was only about 134.<ref name=Hunt1/> Although the soil and climate in [[Cape Town]] were suitable for farming, willing immigrants remained in short supply, including a number of orphans, refugees, and foreigners.<ref name="zastudy"/> From 1688 onward, the Cape attracted some French [[Huguenot]]s, most of them refugees from the protracted conflict between Protestants and Catholics in France.<ref name="Britannica1933"/>

South Africa's white population in 1691 has been described as the Afrikaner "parent stock", as no significant effort was made to secure more colonist families after the dawn of the 18th century,<ref name="Britannica1933"/> and a majority of Afrikaners are descended from progenitors who arrived prior to 1700 in general and the late 1600s in particular.<ref name=Ethnicity>{{cite book|last=Coetzee|first=J.H.|editor-last=Du Toit|editor-first=Brian|title=Ethnicity in Modern Africa|date=1978|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ethnicityinmoder0000unse/page/235 235–245]|publisher=Westview Press|location=Boulder, Colorado|isbn=0-89158-314-9|url=https://archive.org/details/ethnicityinmoder0000unse/page/235}}</ref><ref name=Walker1>{{cite book|last=Walker|first=Eric|title=A History of Southern Africa|date=1964|pages=47–61, 81–92|publisher=William Clowes and Sons, Publishers|location=London|asin=B0028A9JIE}}</ref> Although some two-thirds of this figure were Dutch-speaking Hollanders, there were at least 150 Huguenots and a nearly equal number of [[Low German]] speakers.<ref name="Britannica1933"/> Also represented in smaller numbers were [[Swedish people|Swede]]s, [[Danes]], and [[Belgians]].<ref name="February"/>

{|class="sort wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 95%"
|+White population in the [[Dutch Cape Colony]], 1691<ref name="Britannica1933"/>
!Ancestry
!Percentage
|-
| [[Dutch people|Dutch]] ||66.67%
|-
| [[French people|French]]||16.67%
|-
| [[German people|German]] ||14.29%
|-
| [[Scandinavia]]n, [[Belgians|Belgian]] ||2.37%
|-
|colspan=2| <small> ''Note'' – Figures do not include expatriate soldiers, sailors, or servants of the company.</small>
|}

===1754 estimates===
In 1754, Cape Governor [[Ryk Tulbagh]] conducted a census of his non-indigenous subjects. White {{lang|af|vrijburgers}} - now outnumbered by slaves brought from [[West Africa]], [[Mozambique]], [[Madagascar]] and the [[Dutch East Indies]] - only totalled about 6,000.<ref name=GoodHope1754>{{cite web|url=http://www.goodhope.nl/slavery.html|title=Slavery|website=Goodhope.nl|access-date=18 March 2015|archive-date=1 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001202907/http://www.goodhope.nl/slavery.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===1806 estimates===
Following the defeat and collapse of the Dutch Republic during [[Joseph Souham]]'s [[Low Countries theatre of the War of the First Coalition|Flanders Campaign]], [[William V, Prince of Orange]], escaped to the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] and appealed to the British to occupy his colonial possessions until he was restored. Holland's administration was never effectively reestablished; upon a new outbreak of hostilities with France, expeditionary forces led by [[Sir David Baird, 1st Baronet]], finally permanently imposed British rule when they defeated Cape governor [[Jan Willem Janssens]] in 1806.<ref name="zastudy"/>

At the onset of [[Cape Town]]'s annexation to the [[British Empire]], the original Afrikaners numbered 26,720 – or 36% of the colony's population.<ref name="Britannica1933"/>

{|class="sort wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 95%"
|+White population in the [[Cape Colony|British Cape Colony]], 1806<ref name="Boeren">Colenbrander, Herman. ''{{lang|nl|De Afkomst Der Boeren}} (1902)''. Kessinger Publishing 2010. {{ISBN|978-1167481994}}.</ref>
!Ancestry
!Percentage
|-
| [[Dutch people|Dutch]] ||50.0%
|-
| [[German people|German]] ||27.0%
|-
| [[French people|French]] ||17.0%
|-
| [[Scandinavia]]n, [[Belgians|Belgian]], other ||5.5%
|-
|colspan=2| <small> ''Note'' – Figures do not include expatriate soldiers or officials from other [[British possessions]].</small>
|}

=== 1936 Census ===
The [[South African National Census of 1936|South African census of 1936]] gave the following breakdown of language speakers of European origin.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Home language of people of European origin in 1936<ref name="yearbook1936"/>
!Language
![[Cape Province|Cape of Good Hope]]
![[Natal (province)|Natal]]
![[Transvaal (province)|Transvaal]]
![[Orange Free State (province)|Orange Free State]]
![[Union of South Africa]] (total)
!Percentage of total
|-
|Afrikaans
|461,356
|38,301
|452,252
|168,861
|1,120,770
|55.93%
|-
|[[British diaspora in Africa|English]]
|297,077
|141,550
|318,090
|26,354
|783,071
|39.08%
|-
|Afrikaans & English
|19,698
|3,727
|23,192
|3,794
|50,411
|2.52%
|-
|[[Germans in South Africa|German]]
|6,048
|4,792
|6,470
|500
|17,810
|0.89%
|-
|[[Yiddish]]
|4,745
|299
|11,528
|1,112
|17,684
|0.88%
|-
|[[Dutch language|Dutch]]
|826
|175
|2,740
|167
|3,908
|0.19%
|-
|[[Greeks in South Africa|Greek]]
|299
|98
|1,435
|86
|1,918
|0.1%
|-
|[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
|158
|67
|1,510
|8
|1,743
|0.09%
|-
|[[Italian language|Italian]]
|383
|114
|1,175
|7
|1,679
|0.08%
|-
|[[French language|French]]
|189
|815
|423
|18
|1,445
|0.07%
|-
|Other
|578
|548
|1600
|47
|2,773
|0.14%
|-
|Unspecified
|217
|63
|341
|24
|645
|0.03%
|}

===1960 Census===
The South African census of 1960 was the final census undertaken in the [[Union of South Africa]]. The ethno-linguistic status of some 15,994,181 South African citizens was projected by various sources through sampling language, religion, and race. At least 1.6 million South Africans were white Afrikaans speakers, or 10% of the total population. They also constituted 9.3% of the population in neighbouring [[South West Africa]].<ref name="zastudy"/>

===1985 Census===
According to the 1985 South African census, there were 2,581,080 white Afrikaans speakers then residing in the country, or about 9.4% of the total population.<ref name=Afrikaans1>{{cite book|last1=Kriger|first1=Robert|last2=Kriger|first2=Ethel|title=Afrikaans Literature: Recollection, Redefinition, Restitution|date=1997|pages=75–78|publisher=Rodopi BV|location=Amsterdam|isbn=978-9042000513}}</ref>

===1996 Census===
The [[South African National Census of 1996]] was the first census conducted in post-[[apartheid]] South Africa. It was calculated on Census Day and reported a population of 2,558,956 white Afrikaans speakers. The census noted that Afrikaners represented the eighth largest ethnic group in the country, or 6.3% of the total population. Even after the end of apartheid, the ethnic group only fell by 25,000 people.

===2001 Census===
The [[South African National Census of 2001]] was the second census conducted in post-[[apartheid]] South Africa. It was calculated on October 9 and reported a population of 2,576,184 white Afrikaans speakers. The census noted that Afrikaners represented the eighth largest ethnic group in the country, or 5.7% of the total population.<ref name=2001census>{{cite web|url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/census01/html/CInBrief/CIB2001.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050505140723/http://www.statssa.gov.za/census01/HTML/CInBrief/CIB2001.pdf|archive-date=5 May 2005 |title=Statistics South Africa - CENSUS 2001 - Census in brief |publisher=StatsSA |year=2003 |access-date=15 July 2013}}</ref>

====Distribution====
{{Main|Distribution of white South Africans}}
[[File:South Africa 2001 linguistic distribution of white people map.svg|thumb|Distribution of Afrikaans versus English as home language of white South Africans.
{{legend|#2166ac|87.5–100% Afrikaans}}
{{legend|#4393c3|75–87.5% Afrikaans}}
{{legend|#92c5de|62.5–75% Afrikaans}}
{{legend|#d1e5f0|50–62.5% Afrikaans}}
{{legend|#fddbc7|50–62.5% English}}
{{legend|#f4a582|62.5–75% English}}
{{legend|#d6604d|75–87.5% English}}
{{legend|#b2182b|87.5–100% English}}]]
Afrikaners make up approximately 58% of South Africa's white population, based on language used in the home. English speakers account for closer to 37%.<ref name="zastudy"/> As in [[Canada]] or the [[United States]], most modern European immigrants elect to learn English and are likelier to identify with those descended from British colonials of the nineteenth century.<ref name="roskinstudies">{{cite book|last=Roskin|first=Roskin|title=Countries and concepts: an introduction to comparative politics|pages=343–373}}</ref> Aside from coastal pockets in the [[Eastern Cape]] and [[KwaZulu-Natal]] they remain heavily outnumbered by those of Afrikaans origin.<ref name="statssa2001">{{cite web|url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/timeseriesdata/pxweb2006/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=Language%20by%20province&ti=Table%3A+Census+2001+by+province%2C+language%2C+population+group+and++gender.&path=../Database/South%20Africa/Population%20Census/Census%202001%20-%20NEW%20Demarcation%20boundaries%20as%20at%209%20December%202005/Provincial%20level%20-%20Persons/&lang=1 |title=Table: Census 2001 by province, language, population group and gender. |work=Census 2001 |publisher=Statistics South Africa |access-date=18 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061130131334/http://www.statssa.gov.za/timeseriesdata/pxweb2006/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=Language%20by%20province&ti=Table%3A+Census+2001+by+province%2C+language%2C+population+group+and++gender.&path=..%2FDatabase%2FSouth%20Africa%2FPopulation%20Census%2FCensus%202001%20-%20NEW%20Demarcation%20boundaries%20as%20at%209%20December%202005%2FProvincial%20level%20-%20Persons%2F&lang=1 |archive-date=30 November 2006 }}</ref>

{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right"
|+Percentage of Afrikaners among white South Africans by province<ref name="statssa2001"/>
|-
!Province !!Afrikaners !!% Afrikaners !!''All whites''
|-
|style="text-align:left"| [[Eastern Cape]]||149,395||48.8%||''305,839''
|-
|style="text-align:left"| [[Free State (South African province)|Free State]]||214,020||89.6%||''238,789''
|-
|style="text-align:left"| [[Gauteng]]||984,472||56.7%||''1,735,094''
|-
|style="text-align:left"| [[KwaZulu-Natal]]||115,721||24.0%||''482,114''
|-
|style="text-align:left"| [[Limpopo (South African province)|Limpopo]]||115,921||87.5%||''132,421''
|-
|style="text-align:left"| [[Mpumalanga]]||164,620||83.5%||''197,078''
|-
|style="text-align:left"| [[North West (South African province)|North West]]||237,598||89.0%||''266,884''
|-
|style="text-align:left"| [[Northern Cape]]||93,637||91.3%||''102,518''
|-
|style="text-align:left"| [[Western Cape]]||461,522||55.4%||''832,899''
|- class="sortbottom"
|style="text-align:left"| Total||'''2,536,906'''||'''59.1%'''||'''''4,293,636'''''
|}

===2011 Census===
The [[South African National Census of 2011]] counted 2,710,461 [[white South African]]s who speak Afrikaans as a first language,<ref name="Census 2011" /> or approximately 5.23% of the total South African population. The census also showed an increase of 5.21% in Afrikaner population compared to the previous, 2001 census.

==History==
===Early Dutch settlement===
{{main|Free Burghers in the Dutch Cape Colony}}
[[File:Charles Bell - Jan van Riebeeck se aankoms aan die Kaap.jpg|left|thumb|Painting of the arrival of [[Jan van Riebeeck]]]]

The earliest Afrikaner communities in South Africa were formed at the [[Cape of Good Hope]], mainly through the introduction of Dutch colonists, French [[Huguenot]] refugees and erstwhile servants of the [[Dutch East India Company]].<ref name="Britannica1933"/> During the early colonial period, Afrikaners were generally known as "Christians", "colonists", "emigrants", or ''ingezeetenen'' ("inhabitants").<ref name="Afstudy">{{cite book | last = Andre du Toit & Hermann Giliomee| title = Afrikaner Political Thought: Analysis and Documents, Volume One (1780 - 1850). | year = 1983|edition= 1983 |pages= 1–305  | publisher = Claremont: David Philip (Pty) Ltd| isbn= 0908396716}}</ref> Their concept of being rooted in Africa&mdash;as opposed to the company's expatriate officialdom&mdash;did not find widespread expression until the late eighteenth century.<ref name="Afstudy"/>

It is to the ambitions of [[Henry the Navigator|Prince Henry the Navigator]] that historians attribute the discovery of the Cape as a settling ground for Europeans.<ref name="Britannica1933"/> In 1424 Henry and [[Fernando de Castro]] besieged the [[Canary Islands]], under the impression that they might be of use to further Portuguese expeditions around Africa's coast.<ref name="Kaap"/> Although this attempt was unsuccessful, Portugal's continued interest in the continent made possible the later voyages of [[Bartholomew Dias]] in 1487 and [[Vasco de Gama]] ten years later. Dias made known to the world a "Cape of Storms", rechristened "Good Hope" by [[John II of Portugal|John II]].<ref name="Britannica1933"/> As it was desirable to take formal possession of this territory the Portuguese erected a stone cross in [[Algoa Bay]]. Da Gama and his successors, however, did not take kindly to the notion, especially following a skirmish with the [[Khoikhoi]] in 1497, when one of his admirals was wounded.<ref name="Kaap"/>

After the [[East India Company|British East India Company]] was founded in 1599, London merchants began to take advantage of the route to India by the Cape. [[James Lancaster]], who had visited [[Robben Island]] some years earlier, anchored in [[Table Bay]] in 1601.<ref name="Kaap"/> By 1614 the British had planted a penal colony on the site, and in 1621 two Englishmen claimed Table Bay on behalf of King [[James VI and I|James I]], but this action was not ratified.<ref name="Kaap"/> They eventually settled on [[Saint Helena]] as an alternative port of refuge.<ref name="Britannica1933"/>

Due to the value of the spice trade between Europe and their outposts in the [[Dutch East India Company in Indonesia|East Indies]], Dutch ships began to call sporadically at the Cape in search of provisions after 1598.<ref name="zastudy"/> In 1601 a Captain Paul van Corniden came ashore at [[St. Sebastion's Bay]] near [[Overberg]].<ref name="Kaap"/> He discovered a small inlet which he named ''Vleesch Bay'', after the cattle trade, and another ''Visch Bay'' after the abundance of fish.<ref name="Kaap"/> Not long afterwards, Admiral [[Joris van Spilbergen]] reported catching penguins and sheep on Robben Island.<ref name="Kaap"/>

In 1648, Dutch sailors Leendert Jansz and Nicholas Proot had been shipwrecked in Table Bay and marooned for five months until picked up by a returning ship.<ref name="Britannica1933"/> During this period they established friendly relations with the locals, who sold them sheep, cattle, and vegetables. Both men presented a report advocating the Table valley as a fort and garden for the East India fleets.<ref name="Britannica1933"/>

{{quote|We say, therefore, that the Honourable Company, by the formation of a fort or redoubt, and also of a garden of such size as may be practicable or necessary at the above-mentioned Cabo de Boa Esperanza, upon a suitable spot in Table Valley, stationing there according to your pleasure sixty to seventy as well soldiers as sailors, and a few persons acquainted with gardening and horticulture, could raise, as well for the ships and people bound to India as for those returning thence, many kinds of fruit, as will hereafter be more particularly demonstrated.|Excerpt from Jansz and Proot's report.<ref name="Kaap"/>}}

Under recommendation from [[Jan van Riebeeck]], the [[Heeren XVII]] authorised the establishment of a fort at the Cape, and this the more hurriedly to preempt any further imperial manoeuvres by Britain, France or Portugal.<ref name=Hunt1/> Van Riebeeck, his family and seventy to eighty VOC personnel arrived there on 6 April 1652 after a journey of three and a half months.<ref name=Hunt1/> Their immediate task was the establishment of some gardens, "taking for this purpose all the best and richest ground"; following this they were instructed to conduct a survey to determine the best pastureland for the grazing of cattle.<ref name=Hunt1/> By 15 May they had nearly completed construction on the [[Castle of Good Hope]], which was to be an easily defensible victualing station serving Dutch ships plying the [[Indian Ocean]].<ref name=Hunt1/> Dutch sailors appreciated the mild climate at the Cape, which allowed them to recuperate from their protracted periods of service in the tropical humidity of Southeast Asia.<ref name=Blok>{{cite book|last=Blok|first=Petrus Johannes|title=History of the People of the Netherlands, Volume Four|date=1970|page=526|publisher=AMS Press|location=New York|isbn=978-1-330-44171-8}}</ref> VOC fleets bearing cargo from the Orient anchored in the Cape for a month, usually from March or April, when they were resupplied with water and provisions prior to completing their return voyage to the Netherlands.<ref name=Blok/>

In extent the new refreshment post was to be kept as confined as possible to reduce administrative expense.<ref name="Afstudy"/> Residents would associate amiably with the natives for the sake of livestock trade, but otherwise keep to themselves and their task of becoming self-sufficient.<ref name="Afstudy"/> As the VOC's primary goal was merchant enterprise, particularly its shipping network traversing the Atlantic and Indian Oceans between the Netherlands and various ports in Asia, most of its territories consisted of coastal forts, factories, and isolated trading posts dependent entirely on indigenous host states.<ref name=Ward>{{cite book|last=Ward|first=Kerry|title=Networks of Empire: Forced Migration in the Dutch East India Company|date=2009|pages=322–342|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-521-88586-7}}</ref> The exercise of Dutch sovereignty, as well the large scale settlement of Dutch colonists, was therefore extremely limited at these sites.<ref name=Ward/> During the VOC's history only two primary exceptions to the rule emerged: the [[Dutch East Indies]] and the Cape of Good Hope, through the formation of a large class of ''"vrijlieden"'', or ''"vrijburgers"'' (free citizens).<ref name=Ward/>

The VOC operated under a strict corporate hierarchy which allowed it to formally assign classifications to those whom it determined fell within its legal purview.<ref name=Ward/> Most Europeans within the VOC's registration and identification system were denoted either as Company employees or vrijburgers.<ref name=Parthesius/> The legal classifications imposed upon every individual in the Company possessions determined their position in society and conferred restraints upon their actions.<ref name=Ward/> VOC ordinances made a clear distinction between the "bonded" period of service, and the period of "freedom" that began once an employment contract ended.<ref name=Deserter>{{cite book|last1=Van Rossum|first1=Matthias|last2=Kamp|first2=Jeannette|title=Desertion in the Early Modern World: A Comparative History|date=2016|pages=188–197|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc|location=London|isbn=978-1474215992}}</ref> In order to ensure former employees could be distinguished from workers still in the service of the company, it was decided to provide them a "letter of freedom", a licence known as a ''vrijbrief''.<ref name=Deserter/> European employees were repatriated to the Netherlands upon the termination of their contract, unless they successfully applied for a vrijbrief, in which they were charged a small fee and registered as vrijburgers in a Company record known collectively as the ''vrijboeken''.<ref name=Deserter/> Fairly strict conditions were levied on those who aspired to become vrijburgers at the Cape of Good Hope. They had to be married Dutch citizens who were regarded as being "of good character" by the VOC and committed to at least twenty years' residence in South Africa.<ref name=Hunt1/> Reflecting the multi-national nature of the workforce of the early modern trading companies, some foreigners, particularly Germans, were open to consideration as well.<ref name=Hunt1/> If their application for vrijburger status was successful, the Company granted them plots of farmland of thirteen and a half [[morgen]], which were tax exempt for twelve years.<ref name=Hunt1/> They were also loaned tools and seeds.<ref name=Lucas>{{cite book|last=Lucas|first=Gavin|title=An Archaeology of Colonial Identity: Power and Material Culture in the Dwars Valley, South Africa|date=2004|pages=29–33|publisher=Springer, Publishers|location=New York|isbn=978-0306485381}}</ref> The extent of their farming activities, however, remained heavily regulated: for example, the vrijburgers were ordered to focus on the cultivation of grain.<ref name=Hunt1/> Each year their harvest was to be sold exclusively to the VOC at fixed prices.<ref name=Lucas/> They were forbidden from growing tobacco, producing vegetables for any purpose other than personal consumption, or purchasing cattle from the native [[Khoikhoi]] at rates which differed from those set by the VOC.<ref name=Hunt1/> With time, these restrictions and other attempts by the VOC to control the settlers resulted in successive generations of vrijburgers and their descendants becoming increasingly localised in their loyalties and national identity and hostile towards the colonial government.<ref name=Ward/>

Around March 1657, [[Rijcklof van Goens]], a senior VOC officer appointed as commissioner to the fledgling [[Dutch Cape Colony]], ordered Jan van Riebeeck to help more employees succeed as vrijburgers so the company could save on their wages.<ref name=Hunt1/> Although an overwhelming majority of the vrijburgers were farmers, some also stated their intention to seek employment as farm managers, fishermen, wagon-makers, tailors, or hunters.<ref name=Hunt1/> A ship's carpenter was granted a tract of forest, from which he was permitted to sell timber, and one miller from Holland opened his own water-operated corn mill, the first of its kind in Southern Africa.<ref name=Hunt1/> The colony initially did not do well, and many of the discouraged vrijburgers returned to VOC service or sought passage back to the Netherlands to pursue other opportunities.<ref name=Geyl>{{cite book|last=Geyl|first=Pieter|title=The Netherlands in the Seventeenth Century, Part Two|date=1964|pages=66–67, 356–364|publisher=Barnes & Noble, Incorporated|location=New York|isbn=978-0510269319}}</ref> Vegetable gardens were frequently destroyed by storms, and cattle lost in raids by the Khoikhoi, who were known to the Dutch as ''Hottentots''.<ref name=Geyl/> There was also an unskilled labour shortage, which the VOC later resolved by importing slaves from Angola, Madagascar, and the East Indies.<ref name=Geyl/>

In 1662 van Riebeeck was succeeded by [[Zacharias Wagenaer]] as governor of the Cape. Wagenaer was somewhat aloof towards the vrijburgers, whom he dismissed as "sodden, lazy, clumsy louts...since they do not pay proper attention to the [slaves] lent to them, or to their work in the fields, nor to their animals, for that reason seem wedded to the low level and cannot rid themselves of their debts".<ref name=Geyl/> When Wagenaer arrived, he observed that many of the unmarried vrijburgers were beginning to cohabit with their slaves, with the result that 75% of children born to Cape slaves at the time had a Dutch father.<ref name="Linguistic">{{Citation | last1 =Thomason | first1 =Sarah Grey | last2 =Kaufman | first2 =Terrence | publication-date =1991 | year =1988 | title =Language Contact, Creolization, and Genetic Linguistics | publisher =University of California Press | isbn =0-520-07893-4 | pages =252–254}}</ref><ref>Morris, Michael and Linnegar, John with the South Africa Ministry of Education, Human Sciences Research Council, Social Cohesion & Integration Research Programme. 2004. ''Every Step of the Way: the journey to freedom in South Africa''. Cape Town: HSRC Press, pp. 184–185. {{ISBN|978-0-7969-2061-4}}</ref> Wagenaer's response was to sponsor the immigration of Dutch women to the colony as potential wives for the settlers.<ref name=Geyl/> Upon the outbreak of the [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]], Wagenaer was perturbed by the British capture of [[New Amsterdam]] and attacks on other Dutch outposts in the Americas and on the west African coast.<ref name=Geyl/> He increased the Cape garrison by about 300 troops and replaced the original earthen fortifications of the Castle of Good Hope with new ones of stone.<ref name=Geyl/>

In 1672 there were 300 VOC officials, employees, soldiers and sailors at the Cape, compared to only about 64 vrijburgers, 39 of whom were married, with 65 children.<ref name=Geyl/> By 1687 the number had increased to about 254 vrijburgers, of whom 77 were married, with 231 children.<ref name=Geyl/> [[Simon van der Stel]], who was appointed governor of the Cape in 1679, reversed the VOC's earlier policy of keeping the colony limited to the confines of the Cape peninsula itself and encouraged Dutch settlement further abroad, resulting in the founding of [[Stellenbosch]].<ref name=Geyl/> Van der Stel persuaded 30 vrijburgers to settle in Stellenbosch and a few years afterwards the town received its own municipal administration and school.<ref name=Geyl/> The VOC was persuaded to seek more prospective European immigrants for the Cape after local officials noted that the cost of maintaining gardens to provision passing ships could be eliminated by outsourcing to a greater number of vrijburgers.<ref name=Walker1/> Furthermore, the size of the Cape garrison could be reduced if there were many colonists capable of being called up for militia service as needed.<ref name=Walker1/>

Following the passage of the [[Edict of Fontainebleau]], the [[Netherlands]] served as a major destination for French [[Huguenot]] refugees fleeing persecution at home.<ref name=Lambert>{{cite book|last=Lambert|first=David|title=The Protestant International and the Huguenot Migration to Virginia|date=2009|pages=32–34|publisher=Peter Land Publishing, Incorporated|location=New York|isbn=978-1433107597}}</ref> In April 1688, the VOC agreed to sponsor the resettlement of over 100 Huguenots at the Cape.<ref name="Keegan"/> Smaller numbers of Huguenots gradually arrived over the next decade, and by 1702 the community numbered close to 200.<ref name="Denis1">{{cite book|last=Denis|first=Phillipe|editor1-last=Van Ruymbeke|editor1-first=Bertrand|editor2-last=Sparks|editor2-first=Randy|title=Memory and Identity: The Huguenots in France and the Atlantic Diaspora|year=2003|publisher=University of South Carolina Press|isbn=978-1-57003-484-8|pages=285–303}}</ref> Between 1689 and 1707 they were augmented by additional numbers of Dutch settlers sponsored by the VOC with grants of land and free passage to Africa.<ref name="Keegan"/> Additionally, there were calls from the VOC administration to sponsor the immigration of more German settlers to the Cape, as long as they were Protestant.<ref name="Indisch">{{cite book | first = Gijs (ed. Geert Oostindie) | last = Kruijtzer| title = Dutch Colonialism, Migration and Cultural Heritage: Past and Present| year = 2008|edition= 2008|page= 115 | publisher = KITLV Press| isbn= 978-9067183178}}</ref> VOC pamphlets began circulating in German cities exhorting the urban poor to seek their fortune in southern Africa.<ref name="Indisch"/> Despite the increasing diversity of the colonial population, there was a degree of cultural assimilation due to intermarriage, and the almost universal adoption of the Dutch language.<ref name=NHOSA>{{cite book|last1=Mbenga|first1=Bernard|last2=Giliomee|first2=Hermann|title=New History of South Africa|date=2007|pages=59–60|publisher=Tafelburg, Publishers|location=Cape Town|isbn=978-0624043591}}</ref> The use of other European languages was discouraged by a VOC edict declaring that Dutch should be the exclusive language of education, administrative record, and religious services.<ref name=Briggs>{{cite book|last=Briggs|first=Philip|title=Top Ten: Cape Town and the Winelands|date=2014|page=31|publisher=Dorling Kindersley|location=London|isbn=978-0-756661-472}}</ref> In 1752 the French astronomer [[Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille]] visited the Cape and observed that the nearly all the third generation descendants of the original Huguenot and German settlers spoke Dutch as a first language.<ref name="Denis1"/>

=== Impact of the British occupation of the Cape ===
[[File:Daniell Trekboer.jpg|thumb|''{{lang|nl|Trekboers}} making camp'', an 1804 painting by [[Samuel Daniell]].]]
Long before the British annexed the Cape Colony, there were already large Dutch-speaking European settlements in the [[Cape Peninsula]] and beyond; by the time British rule became permanent in 1806, these had a population of over 26,000.<ref name="Boeren"/> There were, however, two distinct subgroups in the {{lang|nl|vrijburger}} population settled under the VOC.<ref name=SSA>{{cite book|last1=Collins|first1=Robert|last2=Burns|first2=James|title=A History of Sub-Saharan Africa|date=2007|pages=288–293|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-1107628519}}</ref> The first were itinerant farmers who began to progressively settle further and further inland, seeking better pastures for their livestock and freedom from the VOC's regulations.<ref name="Greaves"/> This community of settlers collectively identified themselves as Boers to describe their agricultural way of life.<ref name="Greaves"/> Their farms were enormous by European standards, as the land was free and relatively underpopulated; they merely had to register them with the VOC, a process that was little more than a formality and became more irrelevant the further the Boers moved inland.<ref name="Greaves"/> A few Boers adopted a semi-nomadic lifestyle permanently and became known as {{lang|nl|[[trekboers]]}}.<ref name=Kaap1>{{cite book|last1=Bradley|first1=John|last2=Bradley|first2=Liz|last3=Vidar|first3=Jon|last4=Fine|first4=Victoria|title=Cape Town: Winelands & the Garden Route|date=2011|pages=13–19|publisher=Modern Overland, LLC|location=Madison, Wisconsin|isbn=978-1609871222}}</ref> The Boers were deeply suspicious of the centralised government and increasing complexities of administration at the Cape; they constantly migrated further from the reaches of the colonial officialdom whenever it attempted to regulate their activities.<ref name=Patterson>{{cite book|last=Patterson|first=Shiela|title=The Last Trek: A Study of the Boer People and the Afrikaner Nation|date=2004|pages=6–16|publisher=Routledge|location=Abingdon|isbn=978-0415329996}}</ref> By the mid-eighteenth century the Boers had penetrated almost a thousand kilometres into South Africa's interior beyond the Cape of Good Hope, at which point they encountered the [[Xhosa people]], who were migrating southwards from the opposite direction.<ref name="Greaves"/> Competition between the two communities over resources on the frontier sparked the [[Xhosa Wars]].<ref name="Greaves"/> Harsh Boer attitudes towards black Africans were permanently shaped by their contact with the Xhosa, which bred insecurity and fear on the frontier.<ref name=Patterson/>

The second subgroup of the {{lang|nl|vrijburger}} population became known as the [[Cape Dutch]] and remained concentrated in the southwestern Cape and especially the areas closer to Cape Town.<ref name=Tribalism>{{cite book|last=Giliomee|first=Hermann|title=The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa|date=1991|pages=21–28|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=978-0520074200}}</ref> They were likelier to be urban dwellers, more educated, and typically maintained greater cultural ties to the Netherlands than the Boers.<ref name=Manners>{{cite book|last=Ross|first=Robert|title=Status and Respectability in the Cape Colony, 1750–1870: A Tragedy of Manners|date=1999|pages=47–58|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Philadelphia|isbn=978-0521621229}}</ref> The Cape Dutch formed the backbone of the colony's market economy and included the small entrepreneurial class.<ref name="Tamarkin"/> These colonists had vested economic interests in the Cape peninsula and were not inclined to venture inland because of the great difficulties in maintaining contact with a viable market.<ref name="Tamarkin"/> This was in sharp contrast with the Boers on the frontier, who lived on the margins of the market economy.<ref name="Tamarkin"/> For this reason the Cape Dutch could not easily participate in migrations to escape the colonial system, and the Boer strategy of social and economic withdrawal was not viable for them.<ref name=Patterson/> Their response to grievances with the Cape government was to demand political reform and greater representation, a practice that became commonplace under Dutch and subsequently British rule.<ref name=Patterson/> In 1779, for example, hundreds of Cape {{lang|nl|burghers}} smuggled a petition to Amsterdam demanding an end to VOC corruption and contradictory laws.<ref name=Patterson/> Unlike the Boers, the contact most Cape Dutch had with black Africans were predominantly peaceful, and their racial attitudes were more paternal than outright hostile.<ref name=Patterson/>

Meanwhile, the VOC underwent a period of commercial decline beginning in the late eighteenth century which ultimately resulted in its bankruptcy.<ref name=Nierstrasz>{{cite book|last=Nierstrasz|first=Chris|title=In the Shadow of the Company: The Dutch East India Company and Its Servants in the Period of Its Decline (1740-1796)|date=2012|pages=1–2|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=978-9004234291}}</ref> The company had suffered immense losses to its trade profits as a result of the [[Fourth Anglo-Dutch War]] and was heavily in debt with European creditors.<ref name=Nierstrasz/> In 1794, the Dutch government intervened and assumed formal administration of the Cape Colony.<ref name="Greaves"/> However, events at the Cape were overtaken by turmoil in the Netherlands, which was occupied by [[Napoleon]] during the [[Low Countries theatre of the War of the First Coalition|Flanders Campaign]].<ref name=Lloyd1/> This opened the Cape to French naval fleets.<ref name="Greaves"/> To protect her own prosperous maritime shipping routes, [[Great Britain]] occupied the fledgling colony by force until 1803.<ref name=Lloyd1>{{cite book|last=Lloyd|first=Trevor Owen|title=The British Empire, 1558-1995|date=1997|pages=201–206|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0198731337}}</ref> From 1806 to 1814 the Cape was again governed as a British military dependency, whose sole importance to the [[Royal Navy]] was its strategic relation to Indian maritime traffic.<ref name=Lloyd1/> The British formally assumed permanent administrative control around 1815, as a result of the [[Treaty of Paris (1815)|Treaty of Paris]].<ref name=Lloyd1/>

Relations between some of the colonists and the new British administration quickly soured.<ref name=Arquilla>{{cite book|last=Arquilla|first=John|title=Insurgents, Raiders, and Bandits: How Masters of Irregular Warfare Have Shaped Our World|date=2011|pages=130–142|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group|location=Lanham|isbn=978-1566638326}}</ref> The British brought more liberal attitudes towards slavery and treatment of the indigenous peoples to the Cape, which were utterly alien to the colonists.<ref name=Arquilla/> Furthermore, they insisted that the Cape Colony finance its own affairs by taxes levied on the white population, an unpopular measure which bred resentment.<ref name="Greaves"/> By 1812, new attorneys-general and judges had been imported from England and many of the preexisting VOC-era institutions abolished, namely the Dutch magistrate system and the only vestige of representative government at the Cape, the {{lang|nl|burgher}} senate.<ref name="Tamarkin"/> The new judiciary then established circuit courts, which brought colonial authority directly to the frontier.<ref name=Patterson/> These circuit courts were permitted to try colonists for allegations of abuse of slaves or indentured servants.<ref name=Patterson/> Most of those tried for these offences were frontier Boers; the charges were usually brought by British missionaries and the courts themselves staffed by unsympathetic and liberal Cape Dutch.<ref name=Patterson/> The Boers, who perceived most of the charges levelled against them to be flimsy or exaggerated, often refused to answer their court summons.<ref name=Patterson/>

In 1815, a Cape police unit was dispatched to arrest a Boer for failure to appear in court on charges of cruelty towards indentured Khoisan servants; the colonist fired on the troopers when they entered his property and was killed.<ref name=Patterson/> The controversy which surrounded the incident led to the abortive [[Slachter's Nek Rebellion]], in which a number of Boers took up arms against the British.<ref name="Greaves"/> British officials retaliated by hanging five Boers for insurrection.<ref name=Lloyd1/> In 1828, the Cape governor declared that all native inhabitants but slaves were to have the rights of citizens, in respect of security and property ownership, on parity with whites.<ref name=Lloyd1/> This had the effect of further alienating the Boers.<ref name=Lloyd1/> Boer resentment of successive British administrators continued to grow throughout the late 1820s and early 1830s, especially with the official imposition of the English language.<ref name=Kaap1/> This replaced Dutch with English as the language used in the Cape's judicial system, putting the Boers at a disadvantage, as most spoke little or no English at all.<ref name=Lloyd1/>

Bridling at what they considered an unwarranted intrusion into their way of life, some in the Boer community began to consider selling their farms and venturing deep into South Africa's unmapped interior to preempt further disputes and live completely independent from British rule.<ref name="Greaves"/> From their perspective, the Slachter's Nek Rebellion had demonstrated the futility of an armed uprising against the new order the British had entrenched at the Cape; one result was that the Boers who might have otherwise been inclined to take up arms began preparing for a mass emigration from the colony instead.<ref name="Tamarkin"/>

=== The Great Trek ===
{{main|Great Trek}}
Between 1834 and 1840 about 15 000 Afrikaners left the Cape Colony permanently. They called themselves 'emigrants' and their mass-trek an 'emigration', but in the late 19th century this mass-movement became known as the Great Trek [Die Groot Trek] ["Kaalvoet oor die Drakensberge"] and the emigrants {{lang|af|[[Voortrekkers]]}}. The {{lang|af|Voortrekkers}} departed the colony in a series of parties, taking with them all their livestock and portable property, as well as slaves, and their dependents.<ref name="Laband">{{cite book |last=Laband |first=John |title=The Transvaal Rebellion: The First Boer War, 1880-1881 |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge Books |isbn=978-0582772618 |location=Abingdon |pages=10–13}}</ref> They had the skills to maintain their own wagons and firearms, but remained dependent on equally mobile traders for vital commodities such as gunpowder and sugar.<ref name=Laband/> Nevertheless, one of their goals was to sever their ties with the Cape's commercial network by gaining access to foreign traders and ports in east Africa, well beyond the British sphere of influence.<ref name=Laband/>

The various motives for the Great Trek are laid out in the Voortrekker leader, [[Piet Retief|Piet Retief's]] 1837 manifesto.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manifesto of the emigrant farmers By Piet Retief, 1837 {{!}} South African History Online |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/manifesto-emigrant-farmers-piet-retief-1837 |access-date=2023-12-29 |website=www.sahistory.org.za}}</ref> On the one hand, there was an ongoing conflict between the Boers and the Xhosa inhabitants on the frontier, as well as growing resentment between the farmers and the restrictions imposed upon them by British colonial authorities. Land prices had also increased considerably during the 1820s and 1830s, which meant that the younger generation could not afford their own pieces of land, a problem that would only grow. Another reason was concerns about labour loss and financial retribution with the passing of Ordinance 50 in 1828, which outlawed slavery.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Piet Retief's Great Trek manifesto is completed {{!}} South African History Online |url=https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/piet-retiefs-great-trek-manifesto-completed |access-date=2023-12-29 |website=www.sahistory.org.za}}</ref>

The Great Trek split the Afrikaner community along social and geographical lines, driving a wedge between the {{lang|af|Voortrekkers}} and those who remained in the Cape Colony.<ref name="Mortality">{{cite book |last=Abulof|first=Uriel|title=The Mortality and Morality of Nations: Jews, Afrikaners, and French-Canadians|year=2015|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|pages=234–235|isbn=978-1107097070}}</ref> Only about a fifth of the colony's Dutch-speaking white population at the time participated in the Great Trek.<ref name="Greaves" /> The [[Dutch Reformed Church]], to which most of the Boers belonged, condemned the migration.<ref name="Greaves" /> Despite their hostility towards the British, there were also Boers who chose to remain in the Cape of their own accord.<ref name="Arquilla" /> For its part, the distinct Cape Dutch community remained loyal to the British Crown and focused its efforts on building political organisations seeking representative government; its lobbying efforts were partly responsible for the establishment of the [[Cape Qualified Franchise]] in 1853.<ref name="Mortality" />

[[File:Charles Bell - Zoeloe-aanval op 'n Boerelaer - 1838.jpg|thumb|left|[[Weenen massacre]]: Zulus killed hundreds of Boer colonists (1838)]]As important as the Trek was to the formation of Boer ethnic identity, so were the running conflicts with various indigenous groups along the way. One conflict central to the construction of Boer identity occurred with the [[Zulu people|Zulu]] in the area of present-day [[KwaZulu-Natal]].

The Boers who entered Natal discovered that the land they wanted came under the authority of the Zulu King [[Dingane kaSenzangakhona]], who ruled that part of what subsequently became KwaZulu-Natal. The British had a small port colony (the future Durban) there but were unable to seize the whole area from the war-ready Zulus and only kept to the Port of Natal. The Boers found the land safe from the British and sent an unarmed Boer land treaty delegation under [[Piet Retief]] on February 6, 1838, to negotiate with the Zulu King. The negotiations went well, and a contract between Retief and Dingane was signed.

However, the agreement between Retief's and Dingane's people was that no weapons would be present during their negotiation time. Dingane and his people did not keep to this treaty, kicked their assegaai's from their burried hiding places, and killed the members of the delegation while they were still in the kraal; a large-scale massacre of the Boers followed: see [[Weenen massacre]]. Zulu {{lang|zu|[[impi|izibutho]]}} ('regiments') attacked Boer encampments in the [[Drakensberg]] foothills at what was later called [[Blaauwkrans]] and [[Weenen]], killing women and children along with men. (By contrast, in earlier conflicts the {{lang|af|trekkers}} had experienced along the eastern Cape frontier, the [[Xhosa people|Xhosa]] had refrained from harming women and children.)

A commando of 470 men arrived to help the settlers. On 16 December 1838, the {{lang|af|Voortrekkers}} under the command of [[Andries Wilhelmus Jacobus Pretorius|Andries Pretorius]] confronted about 10,000 Zulus at the prepared positions.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Blood-River|title=Battle of Blood River|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=18 March 2015|archive-date=30 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030044322/https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Blood-River|url-status=live}}</ref> The Boers had three injuries without any fatalities. Due to the blood of 3,000 slain Zulus that stained the [[Ncome River]], the conflict afterwards became known as the [[Battle of Blood River]].

In present-day South Africa, 16 December remains a celebrated public holiday, initially called "Dingane's Day". After 1952, the holiday was officially recognised and named the Day of the Covenant, changed to [[Day of the Vow]] [["Geloftedag"]] in 1980 (Mackenzie 1999:69){{clarify|date=February 2014}} <!-- Please insert a complete reference here, there is no "MacKenzie 1999" source listed in the footnotes --> and, after the abolition of apartheid, to [[Day of Reconciliation]] in 1994. The Boers saw their victory at the Battle of Blood River as evidence that they had found divine favour from The Lord for their [[Emigration|exodus]] from British rule.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Marix Evans, Martin.|title=Encyclopedia of the Boer War, 1899-1902|date=2000|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=1-85109-332-X|location=Santa Barbara, Calif.|oclc=43417980}}</ref>

=== Boer republics ===
{{Main|Boer Republics}}
[[File:Afrikaner Commandos2.JPG|thumb|[[Boer]] guerrillas during the Second Boer War]]
After defeating the Zulu and the recovery of the treaty between Dingane and Retief, the Voortrekkers proclaimed the [[Natalia Republic]]. In 1843, Britain annexed Natal and many Boers trekked inwards again.

Due to the return of British rule, Boers fled to the frontiers to the north-west of the [[Drakensberg]] mountains, and onto the [[highveld]] of the {{lang|af|[[South African Republic|Transvaal]]}} and {{lang|af|Transoranje}}. These areas were mostly unoccupied due to conflicts in the course of the genocidal {{lang|zu|[[Mfecane]]}} wars of the Zulus on the local Basuthu population who used it as summer grazing for their cattle. Some Boers ventured beyond the present-day borders of South Africa, north as far as present-day Zambia and Angola. Others reached the Portuguese colony of [[Delagoa Bay]], later called {{lang|pt|Lourenço Marques}} and subsequently [[Maputo]] – the capital of Mozambique.
[[File:LizzieVanZyl.jpg|thumb|left|[[Lizzie van Zyl]], visited by [[Emily Hobhouse]] in a British [[concentration camp]]]]

A significant number of Afrikaners also went as {{lang|af|[[Dorsland Trek]]kers}} to [[Angola]], where a large group settled on the [[Huíla Province|Huíla Plateau]], in [[Humpata]], and smaller communities on the [[Bihe Plateau|Central Highlands]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/4032/1/W_G_Clarence-Smith_-_The_thirstland_trekkers_in_Angola_-_Some_reflections_on_a_frontier_society.pdf |title=The thirstland trekkers in Angola – Some reflections on a frontier society |publisher=University of London |access-date=12 March 2013 |archive-date=24 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324053122/http://sas-space.sas.ac.uk/4032/1/W_G_Clarence-Smith_-_The_thirstland_trekkers_in_Angola_-_Some_reflections_on_a_frontier_society.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> They constituted a closed community which rejected integration as well as innovation, became impoverished in the course of several decades, and returned to [[South West Africa]] and South Africa in waves.<ref>
Petrus Johannes van der Merwe, ''{{lang|af|Ons Halfeeu in Angola}} (1880–1928)'' (our half century in Angola), Johannesburg 1951
</ref><ref>
Nicolas Stassen: ''The Boers in Angola, 1928 – 1975'' Protea Boekhuis, Pretoria 2011</ref>

[[File:Afrikaner Diaspora.png|thumb|Afrikaner diaspora in Africa and the world.
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
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{{legend|#74C476|<&nbsp;10,000}}
{{legend|#31A354|10,000+}}
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{{div col end}}]]

The Boers created sovereign states in what is now South Africa: {{lang|nl|de Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek}} (the [[South African Republic]]) and the Orange Free State were the most prominent and lasted the longest.

The discovery of goldfields awakened British interest in the Boer republics, and the two Boer Wars resulted: The [[First Boer War]] (1880–1881) and the [[Second Boer War]] (1899–1902).<ref>{{Cite web|title=First Boer War and Second Boer War: despatches and awards|url=https://www.thegazette.co.uk/all-notices/content/100512|website=www.thegazette.co.uk|language=en|access-date=2020-05-26|archive-date=25 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725003354/https://www.thegazette.co.uk/all-notices/content/100512|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=My Site|url=http://thesecondboerwar.weebly.com/|website=thesecondboerwar.weebly.com|access-date=2020-05-26|archive-date=26 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726203324/https://thesecondboerwar.weebly.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> The Boers won the first war and retained their independence. The second ended with British victory and annexation of the Boer areas into the British colonies. The British employed [[scorched earth]] tactics and held many Boers in [[concentration camps]] as a means to separate commandos from their source of shelter, food and supply. The strategy had its intended effect, but an estimated 27,000 Boers (mainly women and children under sixteen) died in these camps from [[starvation|hunger]] and [[infectious diseases|disease]].

=== Post Boer War diaspora ===
{{see also|South African Argentines}}
[[File:Desembarco de colonos boers en Argentina.jpg|thumb|Landing of [[Boers|Boer settlers]] in [[Chubut Province|Chubut]], [[Argentina]].]]

In the 1890s, some Boers trekked into [[Mashonaland]], where they were concentrated at the town of Enkeldoorn, now [[Chivhu]].<ref name="DuToit1998" /> After the second Boer War, more Boers left South Africa. Starting in 1902 to 1908 a large group of around 650 Afrikaners<ref name="SApeopleBeor">{{cite web | url=http://www.sapeople.com/2015/08/15/the-boers-at-the-end-of-the-world-film-south-african-expats/ | title=The Boers at the End of the World…Not Your Usual SA Expats! | publisher=SA People News | date=15 August 2015 | access-date=10 September 2015 | archive-date=19 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150919092611/http://www.sapeople.com/2015/08/15/the-boers-at-the-end-of-the-world-film-south-african-expats/ | url-status=live }}</ref> emigrated to the [[Patagonia]] region of [[Argentina]], under the leadership [[:es:Louis Baumann|Louis Baumann]] and the Italian [[Camillo Ricchiardi]] (most notably to the towns of [[Comodoro Rivadavia]] and [[Sarmiento, Chubut|Sarmiento]]),<ref>{{cite news |title=Don't cry for me Orania |url=http://www.timeslive.co.za/sundaytimes/article117837.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100429155747/http://www.timeslive.co.za/sundaytimes/article117837.ece |archive-date=29 April 2010 |newspaper=The Times |location=South Africa |date=5 February 2008 |access-date=5 February 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Vertel my van SA, Afrikaans|url=http://www.beeld.com/nuus/2013-07-26-vertel-my-van-sa-afrikaans|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801040258/http://www.beeld.com/nuus/2013-07-26-vertel-my-van-sa-afrikaans|archive-date=1 August 2013|access-date=26 July 2013|newspaper=Beeld|date=26 July 2013|language=af|trans-title=Tell me of SA, Afrikaans|quote=Haar voorouers het in 1903 ná die Anglo-Boere-oorlog na Sarmiento in die Patagonië-streek verhuis.}}</ref> choosing to settle there due to its similarity to the [[Karoo]] region of South Africa.<ref name="SApeopleBeor" />

Another group emigrated to British-ruled Kenya, from where most returned to South Africa during the 1930s as a result of warfare there amongst indigenous people. A third group, under the leadership of General [[Ben Viljoen]], emigrated to [[Chihuahua (state)|Chihuahua]] in northern Mexico and to the states of [[Arizona]], California, [[New Mexico]] and [[Texas]] in the south-western US. Others migrated to other parts of Africa, including German East Africa (present day Tanzania, mostly near Arusha).<ref name="DuToit1998" />

[[Brazil]] is the country in [[Latin America]] with the largest community of Afrikaners, they mostly live in [[Southeastern Brazil]], the most populous area of the country. In 2020, they numbered 2,895 people.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nepo.unicamp.br/observatorio/bancointerativo/numeros-imigracao-internacional/sincre-sismigra/|title=Sincre / Sismigra|website=www.nepo.unicamp.br|access-date=2 January 2022|archive-date=19 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819004608/https://www.nepo.unicamp.br/observatorio/bancointerativo/numeros-imigracao-internacional/sincre-sismigra/|url-status=live}}</ref>

A relatively large group of Boers settled in Kenya. The first wave of migrants consisted of individual families, followed by larger multiple-family treks.<ref name="DuToit1998" /> Some had arrived by 1904, as documented by the caption of a newspaper photograph noting a tent town for "some of the early settlers from South Africa" on what became the campus of the [[University of Nairobi]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Title Unknown <!-- BOT GENERATED TITLE --> |url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Rhodes/1266/historical-kenya-photocamp.jpg |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090325025908/http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Rhodes/1266/historical-kenya-photocamp.jpg |archive-date=25 March 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Probably the first to arrive was W.J. van Breda (1903), followed by John de Waal and Frans Arnoldi at Nakuru (1906). Jannie De Beer's family resided at [[Athi River]], while Ignatius Gouws resided at Solai.<ref name="DuToit1998" />

The second wave of migrants is exemplified by Jan Janse van Rensburg's trek. Janse van Rensburg left the Transvaal on an exploratory trip to [[British East Africa]] in 1906 from {{lang|pt|Lourenço Marques|italics=no}} (then [[Portuguese empire|Portuguese]]), Mozambique. Van Rensburg was inspired by an earlier Boer migrant, Abraham Joubert, who had moved to Nairobi from Arusha in 1906, along with others. When Joubert visited the Transvaal that year, van Rensburg met with him.<ref name="DuToit1998" /> Sources disagree about whether van Rensburg received guarantees for land from the Governor of the [[East Africa Protectorate]], Sir [[James Hayes Sadler (colonial administrator)|James Hayes Sadler]].<ref name="DuToit1998" />

On his return to the Transvaal, van Rensburg recruited about 280 Afrikaners (comprising either 47 or 60 families) to accompany him to British East Africa. On 9 July 1908 his party sailed in the chartered ship ''SS {{lang|af|Windhuk}}'' from {{lang|pt|Lourenço Marques|italics=no}} to Mombasa, from where they boarded a train for Nairobi. The party travelled by five trains to Nakuru.<ref name="autogenerated1" />

In 1911, the last of the large trek groups departed for Kenya, when some 60 families from the Orange Free State boarded the ''SS {{lang|af|Skramstad}}'' in Durban under leadership of C.J. Cloete.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> But migration dwindled, partly due to the British secretary of state's (then Lord Crewe) cash requirements for immigrants. When the British granted self-government to the former Boer republics of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State in 1906 and 1907, respectively, the pressure for emigration decreased. A trickle of individual {{lang|af|trekker}} families continued to migrate into the 1950s.<ref name="DuToit1998" />

A combination of factors spurred on Boer migration. Some, like van Rensburg and Cloete, had collaborated with the British, or had surrendered during the Boer War.<ref name="DuToit1998" /> These joiners and {{lang|af|hensoppers}} ("hands-uppers") subsequently experienced hostility from other Afrikaners. Many migrants were extremely poor and had subsisted on others' property.<ref name="autogenerated1" /> Collaborators tended to move to British East Africa, while those who had fought to the end (called {{lang|af|[[bittereinder]]s}}, "bitter-enders") initially preferred [[German South West Africa]].<ref name="DuToit1998" />

One of the best known Boer settlements in the British East Africa Protectorate became established at [[Eldoret]], in the south west of what became known as Kenya in 1920. By 1934, some 700 Boers lived here, near the Ugandan border.<ref>
{{cite news|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,748005,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930100838/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C748005%2C00.html |archive-date=30 September 2007 |magazine=Time |title=GREAT BRITAIN: In Kenya Colony |date=15 October 1934 |access-date=23 April 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{Multiple image
| image1            = Voortrekker-1938 (2).jpg
| caption1          = Afrikaners in Voortrekker attire in 1938.
}}

=== South West Africa ===
{{Main|South West Africa|White Namibians}}

With the onset of the [[First World War]] in 1914, the Allies asked the Union of South Africa to attack the German territory of South West Africa, resulting in the [[South West Africa Campaign]] (1914–1915). Armed forces under the leadership of General Louis Botha defeated the German forces, who were unable to put up much resistance to the overwhelming South African forces.

[[File:Boercamp1.jpg|thumb|Boer women and children in British concentration camps]]
Many Boers, who had little love or respect for Britain, objected to the use of the "[[Second Boer War concentration camps|children from the concentration camps]]"{{Clarify|reason=Does this mean child soldiers? Imprisoning children? Something else?|date=February 2021}} to attack the anti-British Germans, resulting in the [[Maritz Rebellion]] of 1914, which was quickly quelled by the government forces.

Some Boers subsequently moved to South West Africa, which was administered by South Africa until its independence in 1990, after which the country adopted the name Namibia.

== Genealogy ==
Scholars have traditionally considered Afrikaners to be a homogeneous population of [[Dutch people|Dutch]] ancestry, subject to a significant [[founder effect]].<ref name="Jaco">{{cite journal|last=Greeff|first=Jaco Maree|title=Deconstructing Jaco: Genetic Heritage of an Afrikaner|journal=Annals of Human Genetics|year=2007|volume=71|issue=5|doi=10.1111/j.1469-1809.2007.00363.x|url=http://www.africandna.com/ScienPapers/Deconstructing_Jaco_Genetic_Heritage_of_an_Afrikaner.pdf|access-date=23 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305051928/http://www.africandna.com/ScienPapers/Deconstructing_Jaco_Genetic_Heritage_of_an_Afrikaner.pdf|archive-date=5 March 2012|pages=674–688|pmid=17521310|hdl=2263/5168|s2cid=7504506|hdl-access=free}}</ref> This viewpoint has been complicated by recent studies suggesting multiple uncertainties regarding the genetic composition of white South Africans at large and Afrikaners in particular.<ref name="Jaco"/>

Afrikaners are descended, to varying degrees, from Dutch, German and French Huguenot immigrants, along with minor percentages of other Europeans and indigenous African peoples.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Erasmus|first1=Christoff|title=Genetic Heritage, MT DNA and Y-Chromosomes|url=http://www.genza.org.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=360%3Agenetic-heritage-mtdan-and-ychromosome&catid=129%3Antvl-branch-activities|website=The Genealogical Society of South Africa|access-date=23 September 2014|archive-date=30 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170830005520/http://www.genza.org.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=360%3Agenetic-heritage-mtdan-and-ychromosome&catid=129%3Antvl-branch-activities|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Kennelly|first=Brian|url=http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/portal/article/view/77/49|title=Beauty in Bastardy: Breytenbach on Afrikaans and the Afrikaners|journal=PORTAL: Journal of Multidisciplinary International Studies|publisher=UTSePress|volume=2|issue=2|year=2005|access-date=12 March 2013|doi=10.5130/portal.v2i2.77|doi-access=free|archive-date=10 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510145108/http://epress.lib.uts.edu.au/journals/index.php/portal/article/view/77/49|url-status=live}}</ref> The first mixed race marriage which took place in Cape Town in 1664 was that of [[Krotoa]], a Khoi woman, and Peder Havgaard, a Danish surgeon. Krotoa and Peder's descendants are the Pelzer, Kruger, Steenkamp and other Afrikaner families.<ref>{{lang|af|Geslagsregister van die familie PELSER, PELSTER, PELSZER, PELTSER, PELTZER en PELZER in Suid-Afrika sedert 1708 deur R. DE V. PIENAAR}} [Genealogy of the Pelser, Peltster, ... and Pelzer families in South Africa since 1708 through R. de van Pienaar], Stellenbosch, 2004. Page 8.</ref> Although the Cape Colony was administered and initially settled by VOC, a number of foreigners also boarded ships in the Netherlands to settle there. Their numbers can be reconstructed from censuses of the Cape rather than passenger lists, taking into account VOC employees who later returned to Europe.<ref name="Britannica1933"/> Some Europeans also arrived from elsewhere in Holland's sphere, especially German soldiers being discharged from colonial service.<ref name="Indisch"/> As a result, by 1691 over a quarter of the white population of South Africa was not ethnically Dutch.<ref name="Britannica1933"/> The number of permanent settlers of both sexes and all ages, according to figures available at the onset of British rule, numbered 26,720,<ref name="Britannica1933"/> of whom 50% were Dutch, 27% German, 17% French and 5.5% other.<ref name="Boeren"/> This demographic breakdown of the community just prior to the end of the Dutch administration has been used in many subsequent studies to represent the ethnic makeup of modern Afrikaners, a practise criticised by some academics such as Dr. Johannes Heese.<ref name=Heese1971/>
[[File:Nylstroom Camp, c.1901. (22989079605).jpg|thumb|Boer children, c. 1901]]
Based on Heese's genealogical research of the period from 1657 to 1867, his study ''{{lang|af|Die Herkoms van die Afrikaners}}'' ("The Origins of the Afrikaners") estimated an average ethnic admixture for Afrikaners of 35.5% Dutch, 34.4% German, 13.9% French, 7.2% non-European, 2.6% English, 2.8% other European and 3.6% unknown.<ref name=Heese1971/><ref name=gilomafrikaners/>{{rp|18}}<ref>{{cite web|title=Johannes August Heese (1907–1990)|url=http://www.stellenboschwriters.com/heeseja.html|publisher=Stellenbosch Writers.com|access-date=12 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020235245/http://www.stellenboschwriters.com/heeseja.html|archive-date=2013-10-20|url-status=live}}</ref> Heese reached this conclusion by recording all the wedding dates and number of children of each immigrant. He then divided the period between 1657 and 1867 into six thirty-year blocs, and working under the assumption that earlier colonists contributed more to the gene pool, multiplied each child's bloodline by 32, 16, 8, 4, 2 and 1 according to respective period.<ref name="Jaco"/> Heese argued that previous studies wrongly classified some German progenitors as Dutch, although for the purposes of his own study he also reclassified a number of Scandinavian (especially Danish) progenitors as German.<ref name="February"/> Drawing heavily on [[Christoffel Coetzee de Villiers]]' ''{{lang|af|Geslacht Register der Oude Kaapsche Familien}}'', British historian [[George McCall Theal]] estimated an admixture of 67% Dutch, with a nearly equal contribution of roughly 17% from the Huguenots and Germans.<ref name="February"/><ref name="Aswegen">{{cite book | first = HJ | last = van Aswegen| title = History of South Africa to 1854| year = 1990|edition= 1993|page= 79 | publisher = Van Schaik Publishers| isbn= 978-0627019524}}</ref> Theal argued that most studies suggesting a higher percentage of German ancestry among Afrikaners wrongly counted as "German" all those who came from German-speaking Swiss cantons or the Baltics and ignored the VOC's policy of recruiting settlers among the Dutch diaspora living in the border regions of several German states.<ref name=Walker1/>

The degree of intermixing among Afrikaners may be attributed to the unbalanced sex ratio which existed under Dutch governance.<ref name="Shell">Shell, Robert (1992) Tender Ties: Women and the slave household, 1652-1834. Collected Seminar Papers. Institute of Commonwealth Studies, 42. pp. 1-33. {{ISSN|0076-0773}}.</ref> Only a handful of VOC employees who sailed from the Netherlands were allowed to bring their families with them, and the Dutch never employed European women in a full-time capacity. Between 1657 and 1806 no more than 454 women arrived at the Cape, as compared to the 1,590 male colonists.<ref name="Indisch"/> One of the most fundamental demographic consequences was that white South African women, much like their counterparts in colonial [[North America]], began to marry much younger and consequently bear more children than Western Europeans.<ref name="Shell"/> Another was the high occurrence of inter-family marriages from the matrilineal aspect.{{Clarify|reason=What is an inter-family marriage from the matrilineal aspect?|date=February 2021}} These were reinforced by the familial interdependence of the Cape's credit and mortgage obligations.<ref name="Shell"/> Afrikaner families thus became larger in size, more interconnected, and clannish than those of any other colonial establishment in the world.<ref name="Shell"/> Some of the more common Afrikaner surnames include [[Botha]], [[Pretorius]] and [[van der Merwe]].<ref name="Voters' Roll 1988">{{cite web |url=http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/SOUTH-AFRICA/2000-02/0950470830 |title=RootsWeb: SOUTH-AFRICA-L RE: SA's most popular surnames |publisher=Archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com |access-date=12 May 2014 |archive-date=23 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141223010532/http://archiver.rootsweb.ancestry.com/th/read/SOUTH-AFRICA/2000-02/0950470830 |url-status=live }}</ref> As in other cases where large population groups have been propagated by a relatively small pool of progenitors, Afrikaners have also experienced an increase in the frequency of some otherwise rare deleterious ailments, including [[variegate porphyria]]<ref name="Jaco"/> and [[familial hypercholesterolaemia]].

=== Non-European ancestry ===
[[File:Admixture proportions of the Afrikaner.png|thumb|Admixture analysis of 77 Afrikaners.<ref name="pmid32089133"/>]]
According to a genetic study in February 2019, almost all Afrikaners have admixture from non-Europeans. The total amount of non-European ancestry - on average - is 4.8%, of which 2.1% are of African ancestry and 2.7% Asian/[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] ancestry.<ref name="pmid32089133">{{cite journal| last1=Hollfelder|first1= N|last2= Erasmus|first2= JC|last3= Hammaren|first3= R|last4=Vicente|first4= M|last5= Jakobsson|first5= M|last6= Greeff|first6= JM | display-authors=etal| title=Patterns of African and Asian admixture in the Afrikaner population of South Africa. | journal=BMC Biol | year= 2020 | volume= 18 | issue= 1 | pages= 16 | pmid=32089133 | doi=10.1186/s12915-020-0746-1 |doi-access=free | pmc=7038537 }}</ref> Among the 77 Afrikaners investigated, 6.5% had more than 10% non-European admixture, 27.3% had between 5 and 10%, 59.7% had between 1 and 5%, and 6.5% below 1%. It appears that some 3.4% of the non-European admixture can be traced to enslaved peoples who were brought to the Cape from other regions during colonial times. Only 1.38% of the admixture is attributed to the local Khoisan people.<ref name="pmid32089133"/>

==Black Afrikaners==
Approximately 100 black families who identify as Afrikaners live in the settlement of [[Onverwacht, Gauteng|Onverwacht]], established in 1886 near the mining town of [[Cullinan, Gauteng|Cullinan]]. Members of the community descend from the freed slaves who had been with the [[Voortrekkers]] who settled in the area.<ref>{{cite news|last=Motale|first=Phalane|title=Proudly 'boer' – A lifestyle in tatters|url=http://www.sundayworld.co.za/Feeds/SundayWorld/2012/12/10/proudly-boer---a-lifestyle-in-tatters|access-date=1 December 2013|newspaper=Sunday World|date=10 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130406225938/http://www.sundayworld.co.za/Feeds/SundayWorld/2012/12/10/proudly-boer---a-lifestyle-in-tatters|archive-date=6 April 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=De Vries|first=Anastasia|title=Dié swart Afrikaners woon al jare op hul 'bloedgrond'|url=http://www.rapport.co.za/Suid-Afrika/Nuus/Die-swart-Afrikaners-woon-al-jare-op-hul-bloedgrond-20050226-2|access-date=1 December 2013|newspaper=Rapport|language=af|trans-title=These black Afrikaners have lived on their 'blood ground' for years|date=26 February 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131201141343/http://www.rapport.co.za/Suid-Afrika/Nuus/Die-swart-Afrikaners-woon-al-jare-op-hul-bloedgrond-20050226-2|archive-date=1 December 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=De Vries|first=Anastasia|title=Stryd is nou teen plakkers|url=http://www.rapport.co.za/Suid-Afrika/Nuus/Stryd-is-nou-teen-plakkers-20050226|access-date=2 December 2013|newspaper=Rapport|language=af|trans-title=Battle is against squatters now|date=26 February 2005|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202061313/http://www.rapport.co.za/Suid-Afrika/Nuus/Stryd-is-nou-teen-plakkers-20050226|archive-date=2 December 2013|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Rhode|first=Sandra|chapter=The people of Onverwacht|editor-last=Landman|editor-first=Christina|title=Oral history: Heritage and identity|year=2013|publisher=Research Institute for Theology and Religion|location=Pretoria|isbn=9781868887378|pages=7–10|url=http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/9788/OHASA__3__-_2010-2012.pdf?sequence=1|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203010325/http://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/9788/OHASA__3__-_2010-2012.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=3 December 2013|access-date=2 December 2013}}</ref>

== Modern history ==
=== Apartheid era ===
{{Apartheid}}
{{Main|South Africa under apartheid}}

In South Africa, the [[National Party (South Africa)|National Party]] came to power in 1948 and enacted a series of segregation laws known as ''apartheid'', meaning "separateness". The apartheid laws allowed for sporadic persecution of opposition leaders and enforced general segregation by classifying all South African inhabitants into racial groups. Non-White political participation was outlawed, and the entire public sphere, including education, residential areas, medical care, and common areas such as public transport, beaches, and amenities, were segregated.

Apartheid was officially abolished in 1991<ref>{{Cite web|title=Picture Archive: South Africa, 1930s|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/10/131014-picture-photo-south-africa-durban-zulu-apartheid/|date=2013-10-16|website=National Geographic News|language=en|access-date=2020-05-26|archive-date=25 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725002819/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/10/131014-picture-photo-south-africa-durban-zulu-apartheid/|url-status=dead}}</ref> after decades of widespread unrest by opponents who were seeking equal rights, led by supporters of the [[United Democratic Front (South Africa)|United Democratic Front]], [[Pan-African Congress]], [[South African Communist Party]], and [[African National Congress]], and a long international embargo against South Africa.<ref name="Lodge 1983" /> The effective end to apartheid, however, is widely regarded as the 1994 general election, the [[South African general election, 1994|first fully-democratic multi-racial election]].

It took place following [[negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa, a long series of negotiations]] involving the National Party government under President [[Frederik Willem de Klerk]] (FW de Klerk), the ANC under [[Nelson Mandela]], and other parties.<ref>{{cite news
| url  = http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/2/newsid_2524000/2524997.stm
| title  = De Klerk dismantles apartheid in South Africa
| work  = BBC News
| access-date  = 21 February 2009
| date  = 2 February 1990
| archive-date  = 15 February 2009
| archive-url  = https://web.archive.org/web/20090215004142/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/february/2/newsid_2524000/2524997.stm
| url-status  = live
}}</ref> The [[African National Congress]] won and Mandela was elected as president.

=== Post-apartheid era ===
[[File:Frederik de Klerk with Nelson Mandela - World Economic Forum Annual Meeting Davos 1992.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|de Klerk and Mandela shake hands in January 1992]]

In 2006 some 350,000 Afrikaners were classified as poor, with some research claiming that up to 150,000 were struggling to survive.<ref name="GU">{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jan/22/southafrica.features|title=Simon Wood meets the people who lost most when Mandela won in South Africa|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=22 January 2006|access-date=18 March 2015|archive-date=13 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513185630/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jan/22/southafrica.features|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.abc.net.au/foreign/content/2006/s1655159.htm|title=Foreign Correspondent - 30/05/2006: South Africa - Poor Whites|website=Abc.net.au|access-date=18 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071205033500/http://www.abc.net.au/foreign/content/2006/s1655159.htm| archive-date=5 December 2007|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

In the early 2000s, [[Genocide Watch]] theorised that farm attacks constituted early warning signs of genocide against Afrikaners. It criticised the South African government for its inaction on the issue. <ref> {{cite web|url=http://www.genocidewatch.org/BoersSlain01.htm |title=Over 1000 Boer Farmers in South Africa Have Been Murdered Since 1991 |publisher=Genocide Watch |access-date=31 December 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051230121634/http://www.genocidewatch.org/BoersSlain01.htm |archive-date=30 December 2005 |url-status=live }}</ref> Of the 67 South Africans murdered on farms in 2014, the majority were white, while as of the 1996 census, only 9.2 percent of the people in the agriculture and hunting sector were white.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/EmployTrendsAgri/EmployTrendsAgri.pdf| title=Employment trends in agriculture in South Africa| last=Lestrada-Jefferis| first=Joyce| date=2000| publisher=StatsSA| pages=98–99| access-date=16 October 2019| archive-date=19 August 2019| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819053954/http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/EmployTrendsAgri/EmployTrendsAgri.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref> [[Genocide Watch]] has since stated “White genocide” is not currently underway in South Africa, although racist hate crimes against Boers have been committed, especially by followers of [[Julius Malema]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.genocidewatch.com/_files/ugd/137a5c_eb9607cc3ff342558c13996e016f6383.pdf |title=“White genocide” is not underway in South Africa |publisher=Genocide Watch |access-date=22 June 2025 |url-status=live }}</ref>  [[The Sunday Times]] has advanced that since 1994, close to 3,000 farmers have been murdered in [[South African farm attacks|farm attacks]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article7078730.ece|title=White farmers 'being wiped out'|work=[[The Sunday Times]]|via=Times Online|access-date=14 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603141223/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article7078730.ece|archive-date=2010-06-03|first=Dan|last=McDougall|date=March 28, 2010|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

== Geography ==
Afrikaners originated in the [[Dutch Cape Colony]] (after 1806, the [[Cape Colony|British Cape]] Colony), and thus their present-day numbers are concentrated in [[South Africa]]. Afrikaners also have a significant presence in [[Namibia]] due to the country's long political administration and de facto incorporation into South Africa between 1915 and 1990.

An Afrikaner diaspora has developed since the end of the South African white minority government in 1994. Emigrants have settled predominantly in English-speaking countries, with their largest concentrations in [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]].

=== South Africa ===
The [[South African National Census of 2011]] shows the greatest geographic concentration of Afrikaners is in the [[City of Tshwane Metropolitan Municipality|City of Tshwane]], with over 453,000 white Afrikaans-speakers there overall.<ref name="Geanker in Afrika">{{cite web |last1=Solidariteit |title=Geanker in Afrika |url=https://navorsing.solidariteit.co.za/solidariteit-demografie-projek-geanker-in-afrika/ |website=Solidariteit Navorsingsinstituut |access-date=26 April 2023 |archive-date=27 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427032919/https://navorsing.solidariteit.co.za/solidariteit-demografie-projek-geanker-in-afrika/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Afrikaners are particularly prevalent in [[Pretoria]] and [[Centurion, South Africa|Centurion]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rawlings |first1=Alex |title=Is Afrikaans in danger of dying out? |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200514-is-afrikaans-in-danger-of-dying-out |access-date=5 April 2023 |work=BBC |date=14 May 2020 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407210739/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20200514-is-afrikaans-in-danger-of-dying-out |url-status=live }}</ref>
At the time of the census, over 331,000 residents of Pretoria spoke Afrikaans as their first language and the city was majority (52%) white. In nearby Centurion (formerly Verwoerdburg), also majority white (59%), 115,000 residents spoke Afrikaans as their first language.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Frith |first1=Adrian |title=Census 2011 |url=https://census2011.adrianfrith.com/ |access-date=5 April 2023 |archive-date=2 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502235615/https://census2011.adrianfrith.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
The importance of this region to post-apartheid Afrikaner society can be seen in the building of campuses for two new Afrikaans-medium institutions of higher education in the vicinity, Sol-Tech in 2020 (Pretoria) and [[Akademia]] in 2021 (Centurion). The importance of the City of Tshwane can also be gleaned from the numbers of high schools in the area. In 2022, 20 Afrikaans-medium secondary schools and another 6 dual- or parallel-medium (Afrikaans and English) secondary schools existed in Pretoria and Centurion graduating 4,515 students.<ref>{{cite book |title=National Senior Certificate (NSC) School Performance Report 2022 |date=2023 |publisher=Department of Basic Education |location=Pretoria |pages=81–88 |url=https://www.education.gov.za/Portals/0/Documents/Reports/2021NSCReports/2022%20School%20Performance%20Report.pdf?ver=2023-01-20-114306-343 |access-date=8 April 2023 |archive-date=4 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404225949/https://www.education.gov.za/Portals/0/Documents/Reports/2021NSCReports/2022%20School%20Performance%20Report.pdf?ver=2023-01-20-114306-343 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Significant concentrations of Afrikaners also exist in the [[East Rand]]/[[City of Ekurhuleni Metropolitan Municipality|City of Ekurhuleni]], [[Cape Town]] (especially the northern suburbs around [[Bellville, South Africa|Bellville]] and [[Strand, Western Cape|Strand]] in the [[Helderberg]]), the [[West Rand District Municipality|West Rand]], [[Gqeberha|Port Elizabeth]], [[Bloemfontein]] and the [[Vaal Triangle]].<ref name="Geanker in Afrika"/>

=== Namibia ===
[[File:Toutrek.jpg|thumb|Afrikaner children in [[Namibia]] playing [[tug of war]]]]

The chief site of Afrikaner settlement in Namibia is the country's capital city, [[Windhoek]]. Afrikaners are concentrated in the sections of the city east of the Western Bypass road, areas historically reserved for whites prior to the end of legal residential apartheid in 1977.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rowland |first1=Stephanie |title=The Uncanny Capital: Mapping the Historical Spatial Evolution of Windhoek |journal=Urban Forum |date=2023 |volume=35 |pages=121–145 |doi=10.1007/s12132-023-09484-0 |s2cid=256603330 |doi-access=free }}</ref> In the 2011 Namibian Census, 29,717 residents spoke Afrikaans in the constituencies of Windhoek East and Windhoek West combined,<ref>{{cite book |title=Atlas of Namibia |date=2022 |publisher=Namibia Nature Foundation |page=Map data, Figure 09_14 Distribution of major languages |url=http://the-eis.com/elibrary/search/26669 |access-date=18 April 2023 |archive-date=8 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408043935/http://the-eis.com/elibrary/search/26669 |url-status=live }}</ref> both located for the most part east of the Western Bypass.<ref>{{cite web |title=Namibia Constituency Boundaries 2014 |url=https://namibia.africageoportal.com/datasets/africageoportal::namibia-constituency-boundaries-2014/ |website=Namibia GeoPortal |publisher=Africa GeoPortal |access-date=8 April 2023 |archive-date=8 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408041444/https://namibia.africageoportal.com/datasets/africageoportal::namibia-constituency-boundaries-2014/ |url-status=live }}</ref> This is a fair estimate of the size of the Afrikaner resident population in the city at that time.

Smaller concentrations of Afrikaners exist in the coastal Namibian cities of [[Swakopmund]] and [[Walvis Bay]], the latter an exclave of South Africa until 1994.

=== Botswana ===
Botswana has a small group of Afrikaners historically concentrated in the [[Ghanzi]] area, as well more recent arrivals as in the [[Kgalagadi District]] along the country's southwest border with South Africa. Afrikaners have lived in the Ghanzi area since 1898 when the [[British South Africa Company]] offered land to settlers who moved to the region.<ref>{{cite book |last=Russell |first=Martin |author-link=|date=1979 |title=Afrikaners of the Kalahari}}</ref> According to the 2001 Botswana Census, 6,750 residents of the country spoke Afrikaans at home making up 0.4% of the total population. As some unknown number of those counted were Coloured, the number of Afrikaners in Botswana is some degree less than the stated census figure.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chebanne |first1=Andy |title=Found and Lost Languages: A Survey of the Past and Current Situation of Botswana Ethic and Linguistic Communities |journal=Botswana Notes and Records |date=2016 |volume=48 |issue=special |pages=160–175 |jstor=90025334 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/90025334 |access-date=8 April 2023 |archive-date=8 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230408191438/https://www.jstor.org/stable/90025334 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Afrikaner diaspora ===
{{see also|Economy of South Africa#Knowledge|l1=Brain drain in South Africa}}

White South Africans began emigrating in significant numbers in the mid-1970s in the wake of the [[Soweto uprising]] and again in the mid-1980s after the 1985 declaration of the state of emergency and the intensification of the [[South African Border War]]. These early waves were overwhelmingly Anglo in character, however. Not until the early 1990s, during [[Negotiations to end apartheid in South Africa|the transition period]] out of apartheid and white minority rule, did Afrikaners begin leaving the country.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Louw |first1=Eric |title=Packing for Perth: The Growth of a Southern African Diaspora |journal=Asian and Pacific Migration Journal |date=2001 |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=303–333 |doi=10.1177/011719680101000204 |s2cid=153693948 |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/011719680101000204 |access-date=10 April 2023 |archive-date=11 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411021114/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/011719680101000204 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Statistics South Africa estimated a net 304,112 white residents left the country over the years 1986–2000 with another 341,000 over the period 2001–2016.<ref>{{cite book |title=Mid-year population estimates 2015 |date=23 July 2015 |publisher=Statistics South Africa |location=Pretoria |page=4 |url=https://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0302/P03022015.pdf |access-date=9 April 2023 |archive-date=6 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606070304/http://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0302/P03022015.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> This emigration is the source of a notable Afrikaner diaspora today.

====Australia and New Zealand====
Outside South Africa and Namibia, the largest population of Afrikaners resides in Australia and New Zealand. According to the [[2021 Australian census]], 49,375 residents spoke Afrikaans at home.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cultural Diversity: Census |date=12 January 2022 |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/people-and-communities/cultural-diversity-census/2021 |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics |access-date=27 March 2023 |archive-date=10 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221110043217/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/people-and-communities/cultural-diversity-census/2021 |url-status=live }}</ref> While not all of those are Afrikaners, they are likely the overwhelming majority. In 2018, 36,966 residents of New Zealand spoke Afrikaans.<ref>{{cite web |title=Languages spoken (total responses) and birthplace (broad geographic areas) by age group and sex, for the census usually resident population count, 2006, 2013, and 2018 Censuses (RC, TA, DHB) Information on table. |url=https://nzdotstat.stats.govt.nz/wbos/Index.aspx |website=NZ.Stat |publisher=Stats NZ Tatauranga Aotearoa |access-date=27 March 2023 |archive-date=27 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327161938/https://nzdotstat.stats.govt.nz/wbos/Index.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>

The largest geographic concentration of Afrikaners outside Africa is likely Auckland, New Zealand. In 2018, 1.1% of all [[Auckland region]] residents spoke Afrikaans, or roughly 16,980 people.<ref>{{cite web |title=People who can speak Afrikaans in New Zealand |url=https://figure.nz/chart/e7I4z3CbH7IqZbdf |website=figure.nz |publisher=Figure NZ Trust |access-date=27 March 2023 |archive-date=27 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327174234/https://figure.nz/chart/e7I4z3CbH7IqZbdf |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[North Shore, New Zealand|North Shore]] is a site of notable Afrikaner settlement, especially [[Browns Bay, New Zealand|Browns Bay]] and the surrounding suburbs. [[East Auckland]] is a secondary site, especially [[Howick, New Zealand|Howick]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=van Rooyen |first1=Johann |title=The New Great Trek: The Story of South Africa's White Exodus |date=2000 |publisher=Unisa Press |location=Pretoria |page=148}}</ref>

A second major overseas concentration is [[Greater Perth]], Australia. In 2021, 0.6% of the population of [[Western Australia]]'s capital and its environs, or 11,870 persons, spoke Afrikaans.<ref>{{cite web |title=Greater Perth: Language spoken at home |url=https://profile.id.com.au/australia/language?WebID=300&BMID=10 |website=.id community |publisher=.id consulting pty ltd |access-date=27 March 2023 |archive-date=5 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005002930/https://profile.id.com.au/australia/language?WebID=300&BMID=10 |url-status=live }}</ref> The city's northwest suburbs, particularly the [[City of Wanneroo]] and [[City of Joondalup]], have the highest concentrations of Afrikaans-speakers.<ref>{{cite web |title=2021 Census Community Profiles |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/search-by-area |publisher=Australian Bureau of Statistics |access-date=17 April 2023 |archive-date=15 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230415072033/https://www.abs.gov.au/census/find-census-data/search-by-area |url-status=live }}</ref> The South African, and especially Afrikaans-speaking, community is so large there that South Africans have nicknamed the city "Perthfontein" and "Bloemfontein by the sea".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Weertman |first1=Warren |title=Let's Perth(fontein) again like we did last summer |url=https://thoughtleader.co.za/lets-perthfontein-again-like-we-did-last-summer/ |access-date=16 April 2023 |work=Mail & Guardian |date=7 December 2009 |archive-date=17 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417033110/https://thoughtleader.co.za/lets-perthfontein-again-like-we-did-last-summer/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

====North America====
=====Canada=====
According to the 2021 Canadian Census, 14,665 residents of Canada spoke Afrikaans. The largest concentration was in the [[Greater Vancouver|Vancouver metropolitan area]] at 1,860 persons.<ref>{{cite web |title=Language spoken at home by single and multiple responses of language spoken at home and mother tongue: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810020101 |website=Statistics Canada | date=17 August 2022 |access-date=27 March 2023 |archive-date=11 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411202525/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810020101 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=====United States=====
Over the period 2009–13, the [[American Community Survey]] recorded 23,010 Afrikaans-speakers age 5 and over in the United States. The [[Atlanta metropolitan area]] had the highest concentration with 1,900 speakers.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2013/demo/2009-2013-lang-tables.html |title=Detailed Languages Spoken at Home and Ability to Speak English for the Population 5 Years and Over: 2009-2013 |publisher=United States Census Bureau |access-date=27 March 2023 |archive-date=17 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200417223557/https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2013/demo/2009-2013-lang-tables.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

On 7 February 2025, US President [[Donald Trump]] signed an [[List of executive orders in the second presidency of Donald Trump|executive order]], addressing South Africa's Expropriation Act 13 of 2024, which allowed land seizures targeting Afrikaner farmers. In addition, the US would be halting aid to South Africa and prioritising refugee resettlement for Afrikaners facing discrimination.<ref>{{Cite news |last=[[White House Office of the Press Secretary|Office of the Press Secretary]] |date=February 7, 2025 |title=Addressing Egregious Actions of The Republic of South Africa |url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/02/addressing-egregious-actions-of-the-republic-of-south-africa/ |work=[[whitehouse.gov]] |via=[[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Mackintosh |first=Thomas |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/clykenglv32o |title=Trump signs order freezing aid to South Africa over land law |publisher=BBC News |date=8 February 2025 }}</ref> A month later, the [[US State Department]] reported receiving approximately 8,000 inquiries from Afrikaners, seeking refugee resettlement.<ref>{{cite web |last=Savage |first=Rachel |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/may/09/us-grants-asylum-to-54-white-afrikaner-south-africans |title=US grants asylum to 54 white Afrikaner South Africans, reports say |publisher=The Guardian |date=9 May 2025 }}</ref> In addition, the Trump administration indicated that up to 1,000 Afrikaners could be admitted to the United States within the year.<ref>{{cite web |last=Hairsine |first=Kate |url=https://www.dw.com/en/white-south-africans-leave-for-us-under-trump-refugee-plan/a-72511336 |title=White South Africans leave for US under Trump refugee plan |publisher=DW |date=12 May 2025 }}</ref> Two months later, on 12 May, nearly 60 Afrikaner refugees arrived at [[Dulles International Airport]] under a new US policy prioritising their resettlement.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Psaledakis |first1=Daphne |last2=Cocks |first2=Tim |last3=Lewis |first3=Simon |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/first-white-south-africans-fly-us-under-trump-refugee-plan-2025-05-12/ |title=First white South Africans arrive in US as Trump claims they face discrimination |publisher=Reuters |date=12 May 2025 }}</ref> In the meantime, the [[Episcopal Church (United States)|Episcopal Church]] ended its refugee resettlement partnership with the US government, claiming their policy is racially biased and inconsistent with their values of justice and equity.<ref>{{cite web |last=Jenkins |first=Jack |url=https://www.npr.org/2025/05/12/g-s1-65988/episcopal-church-white-afrikaners-ends-partnership-u-s-government |title=Episcopal Church refuses to resettle white Afrikaners, citing moral opposition |publisher=NPR |date=12 May 2025 }}</ref>

====The United Kingdom====
While the [[United Kingdom]] is the leading destination for white South African emigrants, very few Afrikaners move to the country. In England and Wales in 2021, over 217,000 residents were born in South Africa but only 7,489 spoke Afrikaans as their main language.<ref>{{cite web |title=Language, England and Wales: Census 2021 |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/language/bulletins/languageenglandandwales/census2021 |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=27 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326023625/https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/language/bulletins/languageenglandandwales/census2021 |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Netherlands====
The Netherlands, due to persistent skilled labour shortages in the 2020s, is increasingly recruiting Afrikaners. Their distance to the Dutch labour market is significantly lessened due to the partial mutual intelligibility of Afrikaans and Dutch as well as the rapid pace at which Afrikaners can typically learn Dutch.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2010/0517/White-South-Africans-use-Facebook-in-campaign-to-return-to-Holland |title=White South Africans use Facebook in campaign to return to Holland |date=May 17, 2010 |website=The Christian Science Monitor |first= Ian |last=Evans |access-date=17 August 2023 |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817170018/https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Africa/2010/0517/White-South-Africans-use-Facebook-in-campaign-to-return-to-Holland |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.emerce.nl/wire/headhunters-bob-es-sebastian-t-hoff-bundelen-krachten-willen-zuidafrikaans-talent-nederland-halen |title=Headhunters Bob van Es en Sebastian van 't Hoff bundelen krachten en willen Zuid-Afrikaans talent naar Nederland halen |date=12 May 2023 |website=Emerce |access-date=17 August 2023 |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817170022/https://www.emerce.nl/wire/headhunters-bob-es-sebastian-t-hoff-bundelen-krachten-willen-zuidafrikaans-talent-nederland-halen |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.telegraaf.nl/nieuws/1023634851/steeds-meer-blanke-afrikaners-kiezen-voor-veiliger-nederland |title=Steeds meer blanke Afrikaners kiezen voor veiliger Nederland |date=Apr 14, 2021 | website=Telegraaf.nl |access-date=17 August 2023 |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817170018/https://www.telegraaf.nl/nieuws/1023634851/steeds-meer-blanke-afrikaners-kiezen-voor-veiliger-nederland |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.barneveldsekrant.nl/lokaal/economie/668165/-barneveld-is-het-nieuwe-bloemfontein-#closemodal |title='Barneveld is het nieuwe Bloemfontein' |date=20 Feb 2021 |website=Barneveldse Krant |access-date=17 August 2023 |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817170019/https://www.barneveldsekrant.nl/lokaal/economie/668165/-barneveld-is-het-nieuwe-bloemfontein-#closemodal |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.facebook.com/groups/207093386145129/ |title=Suid Afrikaners in Nederland 🌎 |website=Facebook |access-date=17 August 2023 |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817170021/https://www.facebook.com/groups/207093386145129/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.facebook.com/groups/suidafrikanersinnederland |title=Suid Afrikaners in Nederland / South Africans in Netherlands |website=Facebook |access-date=17 August 2023 |archive-date=17 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230817170019/https://www.facebook.com/groups/suidafrikanersinnederland |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Other====
[[File:South African farmer in Georgia.jpg|thumb|left|Afrikaner farmer in [[Agriculture in Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Caucasus]] region, 2011]]

Since the early 1990s, the country of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] has attracted a small number of Afrikaner farmers to help revive its agricultural sector.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Edilashvili-Biermann |first1=Maia |title=South Africans setting up in rural Georgia: reasons, challenges and hopes |url=https://jam-news.net/boers-newfound-home-in-rural-georgia/ |website=JAM News |access-date=16 April 2023 |archive-date=26 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230226232335/https://jam-news.net/boers-newfound-home-in-rural-georgia/ |url-status=live |date=2018 }}</ref>

As of 2018 Russia has begun attempts of attracting Afrikaner farmers to deal with declining population.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Ferris-Rotman |first1=Amie |title=Why Russia is wooing South Africa's white farmers |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/why-russia-is-wooing-south-africas-white-farmers/2018/09/23/3308a7c4-b6a3-11e8-ae4f-2c1439c96d79_story.html |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |date=24 September 2018 |access-date=1 August 2023 |archive-date=25 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221125073942/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/why-russia-is-wooing-south-africas-white-farmers/2018/09/23/3308a7c4-b6a3-11e8-ae4f-2c1439c96d79_story.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
{{clear left}}

== Culture ==
=== Religion ===
{{Main|Afrikaner Calvinism}}
At the time of settlement, Dutch traders and others came out of a majority- Protestant area, where the Reformation had resulted in high rates of literacy in the Netherlands. Boers in South Africa were part of the Calvinist tradition in the northern Europe Protestant countries. The original South African Boer republics were founded on the principles of the Dutch Reformed Church. Missionaries established new congregations on the frontier and churches were the center of communities.

In 1985, 92% of Afrikaners identified as members of the Reformed churches that developed from this background. Pentecostal churches have also attracted new members.

=== Language ===
{{Main|Afrikaans}}
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Alaric speaking Afrikaans.webm|thumb|Alaric speaking Afrikaans.]]
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Roussow speaking Afrikaans.webm|thumb|Rossouw speaking Afrikaans.]]
The Afrikaans language changed over time from the [[Dutch language|Dutch]] spoken by the first white settlers at [[Cape of Good Hope|the Cape]]. From the late 17th century, the form of Dutch spoken at the Cape developed differences, mostly in morphology but also in pronunciation and accent and, to a lesser extent, in syntax and vocabulary, from that of the Netherlands, although the languages are still similar enough to be [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]]. Settlers who arrived speaking German and French soon shifted to using Dutch and later Afrikaans. The process of [[language change]] was influenced by the languages spoken by slaves, Khoikhoi, and people of mixed descent, as well as by [[Cape Malay]], Zulu, British and Portuguese. While the Dutch of the Netherlands remained the official language, the new dialect, often known as Cape Dutch, African Dutch, kitchen Dutch, or {{lang|af|taal}} (meaning "language" in Afrikaans) developed into a separate language by the 19th century, with much work done by the {{lang|af|[[Genootskap van Regte Afrikaners]]}} and writers such as [[Cornelis Jacobus Langenhoven]]. In a 1925 act of Parliament, Afrikaans was given equal status with Dutch as one of the two official languages (English being the second) of the [[Union of South Africa]]. There was much objection to the attempt to legislate the creation of Afrikaans as a new language. [[Marthinus Steyn]], a prominent jurist and politician, and others were vocal in their opposition. Today, Afrikaans is recognised as one of the eleven official [[languages of South Africa]], and is the third most common first language in South Africa. In June 2013, the Department of Basic Education included Afrikaans as an African language to be compulsory for all pupils.

Afrikaans is offered at many universities outside of South Africa including in the [[Netherlands]], [[Belgium]], [[Germany]], [[Poland]], [[Russia]] and the [[United States]].<ref>http://www.afrikaans.com/news-headlines/het-jy-geweet/afrikaans-floreer-in-die-buiteland {{dead link|date=September 2018|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>

=== Literature ===
{{see also|South African literature}}
Afrikaners have a long literary tradition, and have produced a number of notable novelists and poets, including [[Eugene Marais]], [[Uys Krige]], [[Elisabeth Eybers]], [[Breyten Breytenbach]], [[André Brink]], [[C. J. Langenhoven]] and [[Etienne Leroux]].

Nobel Prize winner [[J. M. Coetzee]] is of Afrikaner descent, although he spoke English at home as a child in Cape Town. He has translated some works from Afrikaans and Dutch into English, but writes only in English.

=== Arts ===
{{See also|Protest_music#South_Africa|l1=South African protest music|Music of South Africa}}
Music is a popular art form among Afrikaners. While the traditional {{lang|af|[[Boeremusiek]]}} ("Boer music") and {{lang|af|[[Volkspele]]}} ('folk dancing', lit. 'people games') enjoyed popularity in the past, most Afrikaners today favour a variety of international genres and light popular Afrikaans music. American country and western music has enjoyed great popularity and has a strong following among many South Africans. Some also enjoy a social dance event called a {{lang|af|[[sokkie]]}}. The South African rock band [[Seether]] has a hidden track on their album ''[[Karma and Effect]]'' titled {{lang|af|Kom Saam Met My}} ("Come With Me"), sung in Afrikaans. There is also an underground rock music movement and bands like the controversial {{lang|af|[[Fokofpolisiekar]]}} ('Fuck-off-police-car') have a large following. The television Channel [[MK (channel)]] also supports local Afrikaans music and mainly screens videos from the Afrikaans Rock genre.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://beta.mnet.co.za/MK/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110327165316/http://beta.mnet.co.za/mk/|archive-date=27 March 2011 |title=M-Net&nbsp;— Mk |publisher=Beta.mnet.co.za |date=1 April 2007 |access-date=18 March 2011}}</ref> Afrikaner classical musicians include the pianists Wessel van Wyk, Ben Schoeman, and [[Petronel Malan]], and the music departments of the various universities ([[University of Pretoria|Pretoria]], [[Stellenbosch University|Stellenbosch]], [[Potchefstroom University for Christian Higher Education|Potchefstroom]], [[University of the Free State|Free State]]) that started as Afrikaans universities still are renowned. In the 20th century, [[Mimi Coertse]] was an internationally renowned opera singer. She is also known as African Lieder interpreter by [[Stephanus Le Roux Marais]]. The world-renowned [[UNISA]] music exams include a section of South African contemporary music, which acknowledges Afrikaner composers. The contemporary musical {{lang|af|Ons vir jou}} ('Us for you'), dealing with the Second Boer War, featured a book by Deon Opperman and a score by Sean Else and Johan Vorster of the band [[Eden (South African band)|Eden]]. Afrikaner film musicals flourished in the 1950s and 1960s, and have returned in the 21st century with two popular films, Liefling and Pretville, featuring singers such as [[Bobby van Jaarsveld]], [[Steve Hofmeyr]], and Kevin Leo.<ref>[[:af:Afrikaners|Afrikaners]] in the Afrikaans Wikipedia</ref>{{circular reference|date=June 2019}}

=== Cuisine ===
[[Afrikaner cuisine]] has contributed three unique terms to the South African lexicon, namely {{lang|af|boerekos}} ('farmer/Boer food'), {{lang|af|[[potjiekos]]}} ('small pot food') and {{lang|af|braaivleis}} ('grilled meat'; frequently just {{lang|af|braai}}, 'grilled'), although the latter (meaning "grilled meat") has actually expanded to a common South African habit.

A typical recipe for {{lang|af|boerekos}} consists of meat (usually roasted in a pan or oven), vegetables such as green beans, roots or peas, and starch such as [[potatoes]] or [[rice]], with sauce made in the pot in which the meat is cooked. The dish can also use [[pumpkins]] or [[sweet potatoes]], and some of the ingredients may be further processed into {{lang|af|pampoenkoekies}} ('pumpkin biscuits', pumpkin baked in a kind of puff) or {{lang|af|plaasboontjies}} ("Farm beans") consisting of green beans cooked and crushed with potatoes and onions. Afrikaners eat most types of meat such as mutton, beef, chicken, pork and various game species, but the meat of draft animals such as horses and donkeys is rarely eaten and is not part of traditional cuisine.

East Indian influence emerges in dishes such as {{lang|af|[[bobotie]]}} and curry, and the use of turmeric and other spices in cooking. Afrikaner households often eat combinations such as {{lang|af|pap}}-and-sausage, meat curry and rice, and even fish and chips (although the latter are bought rather than self-prepared). Other traditional Afrikaner dishes include {{lang|af|[[biltong]]}}, {{lang|af|[[droëwors]]}}, {{lang|af|[[koeksister]]s}}, {{lang|af|[[melktert]]}}, and a variety of traditionally homemade but increasingly storebought pastries.

=== Sport ===
[[Rugby union in South Africa|Rugby]], [[cricket in South Africa|cricket]], [[golf in South Africa|golf]] and [[shot-put]] are the most popular sports among Afrikaners. Rugby in particular is considered one of the central pillars of the Afrikaner community. The national rugby team, the [[Springboks]], did not compete in the first two rugby world cups in [[1987 Rugby World Cup|1987]] and [[1991 Rugby World Cup|1991]] because of [[Anti-Apartheid Movement|anti-apartheid]] [[Sporting boycott of South Africa during the Apartheid era|sporting boycotts]] of South Africa, but later on the Springboks won the [[1995 Rugby World Cup|1995]], [[2007 Rugby World Cup|2007]], [[2019 Rugby World Cup|2019]] and [[2023 Rugby World Cup|2023]] Rugby World Cups.

{{lang|af|Boeresport}} ('farmer/Boer sport') also played a big role in the Afrikaner history. It consisted of a variety of sports like [[tug of war]], three-legged races, {{lang|af|[[jukskei]]}}, {{lang|af|skilpadloop}} ('tortoise walk') and other games.

=== Numismatics ===
The world's first ounce-denominated gold coin, the {{lang|af|[[Krugerrand]]|italics=no}}, was struck at the [[South African Mint]] on 3 July 1967. The name Krugerrand was derived from ''Kruger'' (after president [[Paul Kruger]]) and the ''[[South African rand|rand]]'' monetary unit of South Africa.

In April 2007, the [[South African Mint]] coined a collectors R1 gold coin commemorating the Afrikaner people as part of its cultural series, depicting the [[Great Trek]] across the [[Drakensberg]] mountains.

== Institutions ==
=== Cultural ===
The {{lang|af|[[Afrikaanse Taal en Kultuurvereniging]]}} ("Afrikaans Language and Culture Association"), referred to by its initials, ''ATKV'', promotes Afrikaans language and culture.

{{lang|af|[[Voortrekkers (youth organisation)|Voortrekkers]]}} is a youth movement for Afrikaners in South Africa and Namibia with a membership of over 10,000 active members to promote cultural values, maintaining norms and standards as Christians, and being accountable members of public society.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.voortrekkers.org.za/|title=Die Voortrekkers se Amptelike Afrikaanse|website=Voortrekkers.org.za|access-date=18 November 2017|archive-date=1 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701222311/http://www.voortrekkers.org.za/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Political ===
The vast majority of Afrikaners supported the [[Democratic Alliance (South Africa)|Democratic Alliance]] (DA), the official opposition party, in the [[South African general election, 2014|2014 general election]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news24.com/Elections/News/X-still-drawn-along-racial-lines-20140511|title=X still drawn along racial lines|website=News24.com|access-date=18 November 2017|archive-date=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201083911/https://www.news24.com/Elections/News/X-still-drawn-along-racial-lines-20140511|url-status=live}}</ref> The DA is a liberal party and a [[Liberal International#Full member|full member of Liberal International]].

Smaller numbers are involved in nationalist or separatist political organisations. The [[Freedom Front Plus]] (FF+) is an Afrikaner ethnic political party which lobbies for minority rights to be extended to Afrikaners. The FF+ is also leading the [[Volkstaat]] initiative and is closely associated with the small town of [[Orania, Northern Cape|Orania]].<ref>[http://www.globalpolitician.com/2764-south-africa Afrikaner Independence (1): Interview With Freedom Front General-Secretary Col. Piet Uys] Global Politician. 24 May 2005 {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100103173019/http://www.globalpolitician.com/2764-south-africa |date=3 January 2010 }}</ref> Then-Freedom Front Plus leader [[Pieter Mulder]] served as Deputy Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries in the [[Cabinet of South Africa|Cabinet]] of [[President of South Africa|President]] [[Jacob Zuma]] from 2009 to 2014.

Very few Afrikaners vote for the ruling [[ANC]]. Some prominent Afrikaner ANC politicians include [[Derek Hanekom]], [[Marthinus van Schalkwyk]], [[Andries Nel]], [[Gert Oosthuizen]] and [[Carl Niehaus]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Uys |first1=Stanley |title=The ANC and the Afrikaners |url=https://www.politicsweb.co.za/news-and-analysis/the-anc-and-the-afrikaners |access-date=11 February 2020 |newspaper=Politicsweb |date=21 August 2009 |archive-date=18 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200518174859/https://www.politicsweb.co.za/news-and-analysis/the-anc-and-the-afrikaners |url-status=live }}</ref>

In an online poll of the Beeld newspaper during November 2012, in which nearly 11,000 Afrikaners participated, 42% described themselves as conservative and 36% as liberal.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.beeld.com/Stem |title=Vorige Meningspeilings |website=www.beeld.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029113049/http://www.beeld.com/Stem |archive-date=2012-10-29}}</ref>

In the [[2019 South African general election|2019 general elections]], the FF+'s support surged in former strongholds of the DA.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mailovich |first1=Claudi |title=FF Plus defies expectations |url=https://www.businesslive.co.za/bd/national/2019-05-09-ff-plus-on-track-to-being-biggest-success-story-of-election-2019/ |access-date=11 February 2020 |newspaper=BusinessLIVE |date=9 May 2019 |archive-date=25 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725003233/https://www.businesslive.co.za/bd/national/2019-05-09-ff-plus-on-track-to-being-biggest-success-story-of-election-2019/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Senior FF+ member [[Philip van Staden]] said that his party had grown significantly in the election due to the DA leader [[Mmusi Maimane]]'s positions on race and ethnic identity resulting in the estrangement of many Afrikaans-speaking white voters.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Du Toit |first1=Pieter |title=ANALYSIS: How the Freedom Front Plus ate (some of) the DA's lunch |url=https://www.news24.com/elections/voices/how-the-freedom-front-plus-ate-some-of-the-das-lunch-20190511 |access-date=11 February 2020 |newspaper=News24 |date=11 May 2019 |archive-date=15 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215095719/https://www.news24.com/elections/voices/how-the-freedom-front-plus-ate-some-of-the-das-lunch-20190511 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Haffajee |first1=Ferial |title=White anxiety and the rise of the Freedom Front Plus |url=https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2019-05-14-white-anxiety-and-the-rise-of-the-freedom-front-plus/ |access-date=11 February 2020 |newspaper=The Daily Maverick |date=14 May 2019 |archive-date=25 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725011240/https://www.dailymaverick.co.za/article/2019-05-14-white-anxiety-and-the-rise-of-the-freedom-front-plus/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The party has since gone on to win previous DA wards with concentrated Afrikaner populations.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Head |first1=Tom |title=Schweizer-Reneke: DA disaster, as they lose third ward in six months to FF Plus |url=https://www.thesouthafrican.com/news/schweizer-reneke-by-election-results-da-ff-plus-support/ |access-date=11 February 2020 |newspaper=The South African |date=16 January 2019 |archive-date=26 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200126191408/https://www.thesouthafrican.com/news/schweizer-reneke-by-election-results-da-ff-plus-support/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Notable people ==
{{Main|List of Afrikaners}}

== See also ==
{{Portal|South Africa}}
{{Commons category}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [[Afrikaners in Zimbabwe]]
* [[Afrikaner Calvinism]]
* [[Afrikaner nationalism]]
* [[Afrikaner-Jews]]
* [[Afrikaans-speaking population of South Africa]]
* [[Boer]]
* [[Cape Dutch]]
* [[Huguenots in South Africa]]
* [[South African Argentine|Afrikaner Argentines]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=

<ref name=DuToit1998>{{cite book
| publisher   = Bergin & Gavey
| location = Westport, CT
| title    = The Boers in East Africa: Ethnicity and Identity
| author   = Brian M. Du Toit
| date = 1998
}}
</ref>
<ref name=Heese1971>{{cite book
| publisher   = A. A. Balkema
| location = Cape Town
| title    = Die herkoms van die Afrikaner, 1657–1867
| ol    = 5361614M
| author   = J. A. Heese
| date = 1971
| oclc    = 1821706
| language   = af
|trans-title=The origin of the Afrikaner
}}</ref>
<ref name=gilomafrikaners>{{cite book|author1=Hermann Giliomee|author2=Hermann Buhr Giliomee|title=The Afrikaners: Biography of a People|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=blgjhkGD0vgC|access-date=5 February 2016|date=January 2003|publisher=C. Hurst & Co. Publishers|isbn=978-1-85065-714-9|archive-date=5 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005002929/https://books.google.com/books?id=blgjhkGD0vgC|url-status=live}}</ref>
<ref name="autogenerated1">
{{cite web
 |title=van Rensburg trek leader to Kenya
 |url=http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Rhodes/1266/historical-Kenya.htm
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023070255/http://geocities.com/Athens/Rhodes/1266/historical-Kenya.htm
 |archive-date=23 October 2009
 |url-status=dead
}}</ref>
<ref name="Lodge 1983">{{cite book|first=Tom|last=Lodge|year=1983|title=Black Politics in South Africa Since 1945|location=New York|publisher=Longman}}</ref>
<!--
<ref name="NAcensus">International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (2001) [http://webarchive.iiasa.ac.at/Research/POP/pde/briefs/na-pop.html Population project]</ref>
-->
<ref name="Census 2011">{{cite book |title=Census 2011: Census in brief |url=http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf |publisher=Statistics South Africa |location=Pretoria |year=2012 |isbn=9780621413885 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150513171240/http://www.statssa.gov.za/census/census_2011/census_products/Census_2011_Census_in_brief.pdf |archive-date=13 May 2015 |url-status=live |page=26 }} The number of people who described themselves as white in terms of population group and specified their first language as Afrikaans in South Africa's 2011 Census was 2,710,461. The total white population with a first language specified was 4,461,409 and the total population was 51,770,560.</ref>
}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite news|last=Botha|first=Anton I|title=Ek is 'n Boer …or am I?|url=http://thoughtleader.co.za/mandelarhodesscholars/2011/03/11/ek-is-%E2%80%98n-boer-or-am-i/|date=11 March 2011|newspaper=Thought Leader|access-date=14 April 2013}}
* {{cite web|last=de Vos|first=Pierre|title=A note on Afrikaners and tribalism|url=http://constitutionallyspeaking.co.za/a-note-on-afrikaners-and-tribalism/|date=9 May 2012|publisher=Constitutionally Speaking|access-date=14 April 2013}}
* Du Toit, André. "No Chosen People: The Myth of the Calvinist Origins of Afrikaner Nationalism and Racial Ideology." The American Historical Review 88, no. 4 (1983): 920–52. doi:10.2307/1874025.
* {{cite book|last=Gilliomee |first=Hermann |chapter=The Beginnings of Afrikaner Ethnic Consciousness, 1850–1915|editor=Leroy Vail |title=The Creation of Tribalism in Southern Africa. |place=London/Berkeley |publisher=Currey University of California Press |year=1989|url=http://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft158004rs&chunk.id=d0e505&toc.depth=1&toc.id=d0e505&brand=eschol|isbn=978-0520074200}}
* {{cite book|url=http://www.e-family.co.za/ffy/RemarkableWriting/CapeMeltingPot-FFY.pdf|last1=Heese|first1=H.F.|translator-first=Delia|translator-last=Robertson|title=Cape melting pot: The role and status of the mixed population at the Cape, 1652-1795|isbn=978-0620-34153-0|date=2015|others=First published in Afrikaans in 1985 as ''Groep Sonder Grense''; translated, updated and annotated by Delia Robertson|publisher=D.A. Robertson }}
* {{cite book|last=Mackenzie|first=S.P.|title=Revolutionary armies in the modern era : a revisionist approach|year=1998|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0415096904}}
* {{cite web|last=Van der Watt |first=Liese|url=http://www.unisa.ac.za/Default.asp?Cmd=ViewContent&ContentID=7253|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130516203646/http://www.unisa.ac.za/Default.asp?Cmd=ViewContent&ContentID=7253|archive-date=16 May 2013 |title='Savagery and civilisation': race as a signifier of difference in Afrikaner nationalist art, ''De Arte'' 55. |publisher=Unisa.ac.za |year=1997 |access-date=18 March 2011}}
* {{cite book|editor=Wills, Walter H |editor2=Barrett, R. J|title=The Anglo-African Who's Who and Biographical Sketch-Book|publisher=George Routledge & Sons, Ltd.|location=London|year=1905|url=https://archive.org/details/angloafricanwhos00will|access-date=13 July 2013}} Contains details of prominent British and Afrikaner people in the British Empire in Africa.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071205033500/http://www.abc.net.au/foreign/content/2006/s1655159.htm South Africa – Poor Whites] (Australian Broadcasting Corporation: Foreign Correspondent, transcript)
* [http://strategyleader.org/profiles/afrikaner.html The Afrikaners of South Africa.] (Strategy Leader Resource Kit: People Profile)
* [http://countrystudies.us/south-africa/ South Africa] (Rita M. Byrnes, ed. ''South Africa: A Country Study''. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1996.)

==External links==
{{Commons category-inline}}

{{Ethnic groups in South Africa}}
{{Ethnic groups in Namibia}}
{{Ethnic groups in Zimbabwe}}
{{UNPO}}
{{Dutch diaspora}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Afrikaner people| ]]
[[Category:South African people of Dutch descent| ]]
[[Category:Dutch Cape Colony]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Namibia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Zimbabwe]]
[[Category:Members of the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Dutch diaspora in South Africa]]