View source for Affective neuroscience

{{Short description|Study of the neural mechanisms of emotion}}
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'''Affective neuroscience''' is the study of how the [[brain]] processes [[emotion]]s. This field combines [[neuroscience]] with the [[Psychology|psychological study]] of [[Personality psychology|personality]], [[emotion]], and [[Mood (psychology)|mood]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Panksepp |first=Jaak |title=A Role for Affective Neuroscience in Understanding Stress: The Case of Separation Distress Circuitry |date=1990 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-1990-7_4 |work=Psychobiology of Stress |pages=41–57 |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |doi=10.1007/978-94-009-1990-7_4 |isbn=978-94-010-7390-5 |access-date=2022-11-27|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The basis of emotions and what emotions are remains an issue of debate within the field of affective neuroscience.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Celeghin |first1=Alessia |last2=Diano |first2=Matteo |last3=Bagnis |first3=Arianna |last4=Viola |first4=Marco |last5=Tamietto |first5=Marco |date=2017-08-24 |title=Basic Emotions in Human Neuroscience: Neuroimaging and Beyond |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=8 |page=1432 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01432 |pmid=28883803 |pmc=5573709 |issn=1664-1078|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The term "affective neuroscience" was coined by neuroscientist [[Jaak Panksepp]], at a time when [[cognitive neuroscience]] focused on parts of psychology that did not include emotion, such as attention or memory.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Panksepp |first=Jaak |title=Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0195178050 |edition=1st |language=English}}</ref>

== Brain areas related to emotion ==
Emotions are thought to be related to activity in brain areas that direct our attention, motivate our behavior, and help us make decisions about our environment. Early stages of research on emotions and the brain was conducted by [[Paul Broca]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Broca |first=Paul |date=1878 |title=Anatomie comparée des circonvolutions cérébrales: le grand lobe limbique |journal=Rev. Anthropology |volume=1 |pages=385–498}}</ref> [[James Papez]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=PAPEZ |first=JAMES W. |title=A Proposed Mechanism of Emotion |date=1937-10-01 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1001/archneurpsyc.1937.02260220069003 |journal=Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry |volume=38 |issue=4 |pages=725 |doi=10.1001/archneurpsyc.1937.02260220069003 |issn=0096-6754|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and [[Paul D. MacLean]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=MacLean |first=Paul D. |date=1952 |title=Some psychiatric implications of physiological studies on frontotemporal portion of limbic system (Visceral brain) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0013-4694(52)90073-4 |journal=Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=407–418 |doi=10.1016/0013-4694(52)90073-4 |pmid=12998590 |issn=0013-4694|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Their work suggests that emotion is related to a group of structures in the center of the brain called the [[limbic system]]. The limbic system is made up of the following brain structures:

=== Limbic system ===
* [[Amygdala]] – The amygdala is made up of two small, round structures located closer to the forehead ([[anterior]]) to the [[Hippocampus|hippocampi]] near the [[Temporal lobe|temporal]] poles. The amygdalae are involved in detecting and learning which parts of our surroundings are important and have emotional significance.<ref>{{cite web |last1=The Regents of the University of California |title=Behavior |url=https://memory.ucsf.edu/symptoms/behavior#:~:text=The%20amygdalae%20are%20involved%20in,of%20negative%20emotions%2C%20especially%20fear. |website=Memory and Aging Center |publisher=University of California San Francisco |access-date=8 October 2024 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Šimić |first1=Goran |last2=Tkalčić |first2=Mladenka |last3=Vukić |first3=Vana |last4=Mulc |first4=Damir |last5=Španić |first5=Ena |last6=Šagud |first6=Marina |last7=Olucha-Bordonau |first7=Francisco E. |last8=Vukšić |first8=Mario |last9=R. Hof |first9=Patrick |title=Understanding Emotions: Origins and Roles of the Amygdala |journal=Biomolecules |date=31 May 2021 |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=823 |doi=10.3390/biom11060823 |doi-access=free |pmid=34072960 |hdl=10234/194226 |hdl-access=free |pmc=8228195 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pessoa |first1=Luiz |title=Emotion and cognition and the amygdala: From "what is it?" to "what's to be done?" |journal=Neuropsychologia |date=October 2010 |volume=48 |issue=12 |pages=3416–3429 |doi=10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.06.038 |pmid=20619280 |pmc=2949460 }}</ref> They are critical for the production of [[emotion]]. They are known to be very important for negative emotions, especially fear.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=LeDoux |first=Joseph E. |date=1995 |title=Emotion: Clues from the Brain |url=https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/10.1146/annurev.ps.46.020195.001233 |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |language=en |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=209–235 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ps.46.020195.001233 |pmid=7872730 |issn=0066-4308|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Amygdala activation often happens when we see a potential threat. The amygdala uses our past and related memories to help us make decisions about what is currently happening.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Breiter |first1=Hans C |last2=Etcoff |first2=Nancy L |last3=Whalen |first3=Paul J |last4=Kennedy |first4=William A |last5=Rauch |first5=Scott L |last6=Buckner |first6=Randy L |last7=Strauss |first7=Monica M |last8=Hyman |first8=Steven E |last9=Rosen |first9=Bruce R |date=1996 |title=Response and Habituation of the Human Amygdala during Visual Processing of Facial Expression |journal=Neuron |language=en |volume=17 |issue=5 |pages=875–887 |doi=10.1016/S0896-6273(00)80219-6|pmid=8938120 |s2cid=17284478 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* [[Thalamus]] – The thalamus is involved in combining sensory and motor signals and then sending that information to the [[cerebral cortex]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sherman |first=S. |date=2006 |title=Thalamus |journal=Scholarpedia |language=en |volume=1 |issue=9 |pages=1583 |doi=10.4249/scholarpedia.1583 |bibcode=2006SchpJ...1.1583S |issn=1941-6016|doi-access=free }}</ref> The thalamus plays an important role in regulating [[Neuroscience of sleep|sleep and wakefulness]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Steriade |first1=M |last2=Llinás |first2=R R |date=1988 |title=The functional states of the thalamus and the associated neuronal interplay. |url=https://www.physiology.org/doi/10.1152/physrev.1988.68.3.649 |journal=Physiological Reviews |language=en |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=649–742 |doi=10.1152/physrev.1988.68.3.649 |pmid=2839857 |issn=0031-9333|url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* [[Hypothalamus]] – The hypothalamus is involved in producing a physical response (for example, crying) with an emotion. The hypothalamus is also used in [[Reward system|reward circuits]] which are associated with [[Broaden-and-build|positive emotions]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/825767970 |title=The Cambridge handbook of human affective neuroscience |date=2013 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |others=Jorge Armony, Patrik Vuilleumier |isbn=978-1-107-31401-6 |location=Cambridge |oclc=825767970}}</ref>
* [[Hippocampus]] – The hippocampus is a structure that is mainly involved in [[memory]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rolls |first=Edmund T. |date=2022 |title=The hippocampus, ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and episodic and semantic memory |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0301008222001204 |journal=Progress in Neurobiology |language=en |volume=217 |pages=102334 |doi=10.1016/j.pneurobio.2022.102334|pmid=35870682 |s2cid=250722212 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> It works to make new memories and also connects senses such as visual input, smell or sound to memories. The hippocampus allows [[Long-term memory|long term memories]] to be stored and retrieves them when necessary.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fischer |first1=Håkan |last2=Wright |first2=Christopher I |last3=Whalen |first3=Paul J |last4=McInerney |first4=Sean C |last5=Shin |first5=Lisa M |last6=Rauch |first6=Scott L |date=2003 |title=Brain habituation during repeated exposure to fearful and neutral faces: A functional MRI study |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0361923002009401 |journal=Brain Research Bulletin |language=en |volume=59 |issue=5 |pages=387–392 |doi=10.1016/S0361-9230(02)00940-1|pmid=12507690 |s2cid=43705711 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* [[Fornix of the brain|Fornix]] – The fornix is the main connection between the hippocampus to the mammillary bodies. It is important for [[spatial memory]] functions, [[episodic memory]] and [[executive functions]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Modi |first1=Shilpi |last2=Trivedi |first2=Richa |last3=Singh |first3=Kavita |last4=Kumar |first4=Pawan |last5=Rathore |first5=Ram K.S. |last6=Tripathi |first6=Rajendra P. |last7=Khushu |first7=Subash |date=2013 |title=Individual differences in trait anxiety are associated with white matter tract integrity in fornix and uncinate fasciculus: Preliminary evidence from a DTI based tractography study |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0166432812006468 |journal=Behavioural Brain Research |language=en |volume=238 |pages=188–192 |doi=10.1016/j.bbr.2012.10.007|pmid=23085341 |s2cid=1741104 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* [[Mammillary body]] – Mammillary bodies are important for [[Episodic memory|recollective memory]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Vann |first=Seralynne D. |date=2010 |title=Re-evaluating the role of the mammillary bodies in memory |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0028393209004229 |journal=Neuropsychologia |language=en |volume=48 |issue=8 |pages=2316–2327 |doi=10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2009.10.019|pmid=19879886 |s2cid=2424758 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> They are found by the [[Brainstem|brain stem]] and [[cerebrum]].
* [[Olfactory bulb]] – The olfactory bulbs are the first [[cranial nerves]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Imai |first=Takeshi |date=2014 |title=Construction of functional neuronal circuitry in the olfactory bulb |journal=Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology |volume=35 |pages=180–188 |doi=10.1016/j.semcdb.2014.07.012 |pmid=25084319 |issn=1084-9521|doi-access=free }}</ref> They are involved in smell ([[olfaction]]) and memory that is connected with specific smells.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tong |first1=Michelle T. |last2=Peace |first2=Shane T. |last3=Cleland |first3=Thomas A. |date=2014-07-07 |title=Properties and mechanisms of olfactory learning and memory |journal=Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience |volume=8 |page=238 |doi=10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00238 |pmid=25071492 |pmc=4083347 |issn=1662-5153|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* [[Cingulate gyrus]] – The cingulate gyrus is located above the [[corpus callosum]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Rolls |first=Edmund T. |title=Cingulate Cortex |chapter=The cingulate cortex and limbic systems for action, emotion, and memory |date=2019 |chapter-url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780444641960000029 |series=Handbook of Clinical Neurology |volume=166 |pages=23–37 |publisher=Elsevier |language=en |doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-64196-0.00002-9 |pmid=31731913 |isbn=978-0-444-64196-0 |s2cid=208060755 |access-date=2022-11-27}}</ref> The parts of the cingulate gyrus have different functions, and are involved with affect, visceromotor control, response selection, skeletomotor control, visuospatial processing, and in memory access.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Weissman |first=D.H. |date=2004-07-06 |title=Dorsal Anterior Cingulate Cortex Resolves Conflict from Distracting Stimuli by Boosting Attention toward Relevant Events |journal=Cerebral Cortex |language=en |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=229–237 |doi=10.1093/cercor/bhh125 |pmid=15238434 |issn=1460-2199|doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[anterior cingulate cortex]] is important for conscious, subjective emotional awareness as well as [[motivation]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Medford |first1=Nick |last2=Critchley |first2=Hugo D. |date=2010 |title=Conjoint activity of anterior insular and anterior cingulate cortex: awareness and response |journal=Brain Structure and Function |language=en |volume=214 |issue=5–6 |pages=535–549 |doi=10.1007/s00429-010-0265-x |issn=1863-2653 |pmc=2886906 |pmid=20512367}}</ref> The [[subgenual cingulate]] is more active during both experimentally induced [[sadness]] and during [[Major depressive episode|depressive episodes]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Drevets |first1=Wayne C. |last2=Savitz |first2=Jonathan |last3=Trimble |first3=Michael |date=2008 |title=The Subgenual Anterior Cingulate Cortex in Mood Disorders |journal=CNS Spectrums |language=en |volume=13 |issue=8 |pages=663–681 |doi=10.1017/S1092852900013754 |issn=1092-8529 |pmc=2729429 |pmid=18704022}}</ref>

Research has shown the limbic system is directly related to emotion, but there are other brain areas and structures that are important for producing and processing emotion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dalgleish |first=Tim |date=2004 |title=The emotional brain |url=http://www.nature.com/articles/nrn1432 |journal=Nature Reviews Neuroscience |language=en |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=583–589 |doi=10.1038/nrn1432 |pmid=15208700 |s2cid=148864726 |issn=1471-003X|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Other brain structures ===
* [[Basal ganglia]] – Basal ganglia are groups of nuclei found on either side of the thalamus. Basal ganglia play an important role in motivation,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Da Cunha |first1=Claudio |last2=Gomez-A |first2=Alexander |last3=Blaha |first3=Charles D. |date=2012 |title=The role of the basal ganglia in motivated behavior |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23079510 |journal=Reviews in the Neurosciences |volume=23 |issue=5–6 |pages=747–767 |doi=10.1515/revneuro-2012-0063 |issn=0334-1763 |pmid=23079510|s2cid=30904211 }}</ref> action selection and reward learning.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mikhael |first1=John G. |last2=Bogacz |first2=Rafal |date=2016-09-02 |editor-last=Blackwell |editor-first=Kim T. |title=Learning Reward Uncertainty in the Basal Ganglia |journal=PLOS Computational Biology |language=en |volume=12 |issue=9 |pages=e1005062 |doi=10.1371/journal.pcbi.1005062 |issn=1553-7358 |pmc=5010205 |pmid=27589489|bibcode=2016PLSCB..12E5062M |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* [[Orbitofrontal cortex]] – The orbitofrontal cortex is involved in decision making and helping us understand how emotions have influenced our decision making.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bechara |first=A. |date=2000-03-01 |title=Emotion, Decision Making and the Orbitofrontal Cortex |journal=Cerebral Cortex |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=295–307 |doi=10.1093/cercor/10.3.295|pmid=10731224 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
* [[Prefrontal cortex]] – The prefrontal cortex is the front of the brain, behind the forehead and above the eyes. It plays a role in regulating emotion and behavior by anticipating consequences. The prefrontal cortex also plays an important role in delayed gratification by maintaining emotions over time and organizing behavior toward specific goals.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Davidson |first1=Richard J |last2=Sutton |first2=Steven K |date=1995 |title=Affective neuroscience: the emergence of a discipline |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/0959438895800298 |journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology |language=en |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=217–224 |doi=10.1016/0959-4388(95)80029-8|pmid=7620310 |s2cid=14639993 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
** The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) is a portion of the prefrontal cortex that has shown to have a significant influence on emotion regulation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Suzuki |first1=Yukihiro |last2=Tanaka |first2=Saori C. |date=2021-09-14 |title=Functions of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in emotion regulation under stress |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=18225 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-97751-0 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=8440524 |pmid=34521947|bibcode=2021NatSR..1118225S }}</ref> Through studies, the vmPFC has shown high activation when presented with highly emotional stimuli. This suggests that this portion of the brain is essential for high emotional arousal.
* Ventral [[striatum]] – The ventral striatum is a group of structures thought to play a role in emotion and behavior. An area of the ventral striatum known as the nucleus accumbens is involved in the experience of pleasure.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kringelbach |first1=Morten L. |last2=Berridge |first2=Kent C. |date=2010 |title=The functional neuroanatomy of pleasure and happiness |journal=Discovery Medicine |volume=9 |issue=49 |pages=579–587 |issn=1944-7930 |pmc=3008353 |pmid=20587348}}</ref> It is common for individuals with addictions to exhibit increased activity in this area when they are exposed to the object of their [[addiction]].
* [[Insular cortex|Insula]] – This area of the brain plays a significant role in bodily emotions due to its connections to other neural structures that control automatic functions such as heart rate, breathing, and digestion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rolls |first=Edmund T. |date=2016-12-01 |title=Functions of the anterior insula in taste, autonomic, and related functions |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S027826261530004X |journal=Brain and Cognition |series=Food for thought: The functional and neural mechanisms of food perception and choice |language=en |volume=110 |pages=4–19 |doi=10.1016/j.bandc.2015.07.002 |pmid=26277487 |s2cid=5961714 |issn=0278-2626|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The insula is also implicated in empathy and awareness of emotion.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gu |first1=Xiaosi |last2=Hof |first2=Patrick R. |last3=Friston |first3=Karl J. |last4=Fan |first4=Jin |date=2013 |title=Anterior insular cortex and emotional awareness: Anterior Insular Cortex and Emotional Awareness |journal=Journal of Comparative Neurology |language=en |volume=521 |issue=15 |pages=3371–3388 |doi=10.1002/cne.23368 |pmc=3999437 |pmid=23749500}}</ref>
* [[Cerebellum]] – Cerebellum has many uses. Has a very important role in emotion perception and emotion attributions.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Adamaszek |first1=Michael |title=Current and Future Perspectives of the Cerebellum in Affective Neuroscience |date=2022 |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-030-99550-8_19 |work=The Emotional Cerebellum |volume=1378 |pages=303–313 |editor-last=Adamaszek |editor-first=Michael |access-date=2023-11-16 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-99550-8_19 |isbn=978-3-030-99549-2 |last2=Manto |first2=Mario |last3=Schutter |first3=Dennis J. L. G. |pmid=35902479 |editor2-last=Manto |editor2-first=Mario |editor3-last=Schutter |editor3-first=Dennis J. L. G.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Cerebellar dysfunction has been shown to decrease positive emotions during lesion studies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Turner |first1=Beth M. |last2=Paradiso |first2=Sergio |last3=Marvel |first3=Cherie L. |last4=Pierson |first4=Ronald |last5=Boles Ponto |first5=Laura L. |last6=Hichwa |first6=Richard D. |last7=Robinson |first7=Robert G. |date=2007-03-25 |title=The cerebellum and emotional experience |journal=Neuropsychologia |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=1331–1341 |doi=10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.09.023 |issn=0028-3932 |pmc=1868674 |pmid=17123557}}</ref> Over the course of evolution, the cerebellum may have evolved into a circuit that helps reduce fear in order to enhance survival. The cerebellum may also play a regulatory role in the neural response to rewarding stimuli, such as money,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Martin-Sölch |first1=C. |last2=Magyar |first2=S. |last3=Künig |first3=G. |last4=Missimer |first4=J. |last5=Schultz |first5=W. |last6=Leenders |first6=K. L. |date=2001 |title=Changes in brain activation associated with reward processing in smokers and nonsmokers. A positron emission tomography study |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11545466 |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=139 |issue=3 |pages=278–286 |doi=10.1007/s002210100751 |issn=0014-4819 |pmid=11545466 |s2cid=29989526}}</ref> addictive drugs,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sell |first1=L. A. |last2=Morris |first2=J. |last3=Bearn |first3=J. |last4=Frackowiak |first4=R. S. |last5=Friston |first5=K. J. |last6=Dolan |first6=R. J. |date=1999 |title=Activation of reward circuitry in human opiate addicts |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10103096 |journal=The European Journal of Neuroscience |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=1042–1048 |doi=10.1046/j.1460-9568.1999.00522.x |issn=0953-816X |pmid=10103096 |s2cid=12004748 |hdl-access=free |hdl=21.11116/0000-0001-A04C-5}}</ref> and orgasm.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zhou |first=Huan-Xiang |date=2008-11-05 |title=The debut of PMC Biophysics |journal=PMC Biophysics |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=1 |doi=10.1186/1757-5036-1-1 |issn=1757-5036 |pmc=2605105 |pmid=19351423 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
** A "[[cerebellar cognitive affective syndrome]]" has been described resulting in personality change and how the person shows emotions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Parvizi |first=J. |date=2001-09-01 |title=Pathological laughter and crying: A link to the cerebellum |url=https://academic.oup.com/brain/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/brain/124.9.1708 |journal=Brain |volume=124 |issue=9 |pages=1708–1719 |doi=10.1093/brain/124.9.1708|pmid=11522574 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> 
* [[Lateral prefrontal cortex]] – Using our emotions, the lateral prefrontal cortex is responsible for helping us reach our goals by suppressing harmful behaviors or selecting productive ones.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Barbas |first1=Helen |title=Prefrontal Cortex Integration of Emotion and Cognition |date=2017 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-4-431-56508-6_4 |work=The Prefrontal Cortex as an Executive, Emotional, and Social Brain |pages=51–76 |place=Tokyo |publisher=Springer Japan |isbn=978-4-431-56506-2 |access-date=2022-11-27 |last2=García-Cabezas |first2=Miguel Ángel|doi=10.1007/978-4-431-56508-6_4 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>
* Primary [[Motor cortex|sensorimotor cortex]] – The somatosensory cortex is involved in each stage of emotional processing.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kropf |first1=Erika |last2=Syan |first2=Sabrina K. |last3=Minuzzi |first3=Luciano |last4=Frey |first4=Benicio N. |date=2019 |title=From anatomy to function: the role of the somatosensory cortex in emotional regulation |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/1516-4446-2018-0183 |journal=Brazilian Journal of Psychiatry |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=261–269 |doi=10.1590/1516-4446-2018-0183 |pmid=30540029 |pmc=6794131 |issn=1809-452X}}</ref> We use it to collect information that helps us in identifying and creating emotion, and then regulate that emotion once it has started.
* [[Temporal lobe|Temporal cortex]] – This brain area is important in processing sound, speech, and language use, as well as helping us understand others faces and others emotions based on facial cues.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Goghari |first1=V. M. |last2=MacDonald |first2=A. W. |last3=Sponheim |first3=S. R. |date=2010-05-19 |title=Temporal Lobe Structures and Facial Emotion Recognition in Schizophrenia Patients and Nonpsychotic Relatives |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbq046 |journal=Schizophrenia Bulletin |volume=37 |issue=6 |pages=1281–1294 |doi=10.1093/schbul/sbq046 |pmid=20484523 |pmc=3196942 |issn=0586-7614}}</ref> The temporal cortex is responsible for determining the quality and content of our emotional memories.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kumfor |first1=Fiona |last2=Irish |first2=Muireann |last3=Hodges |first3=John R. |last4=Piguet |first4=Olivier |date=2014-06-24 |title=Frontal and temporal lobe contributions to emotional enhancement of memory in behavioral-variant frontotemporal dementia and Alzheimer's disease |journal=Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience |volume=8 |page=225 |doi=10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00225 |pmid=25009480 |pmc=4067999 |issn=1662-5153|doi-access=free }}</ref>
* [[Brainstem]] – The brainstem is composed of three parts: ascending (sensory information), descending (motor information), and modulatory.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Venkatraman |first1=Anand |last2=Edlow |first2=Brian L. |last3=Immordino-Yang |first3=Mary Helen |date=2017-03-09 |title=The Brainstem in Emotion: A Review |journal=Frontiers in Neuroanatomy |volume=11 |page=15 |doi=10.3389/fnana.2017.00015 |pmid=28337130 |pmc=5343067 |issn=1662-5129|doi-access=free }}</ref> The brainstem takes information from our environment (ascending) and creates a bodily response (descending) such as crying. The information from the environment and our body's responses to the information we receive is combined in the modulatory part of the brain stem and we are then able to label an emotion.

== Right hemisphere ==
Many theories about the role of the right hemisphere in emotion has resulted in several models of emotional functioning. After observing decreased emotional processing after right hemisphere injuries, C.K. Mills hypothesized emotions are directly related to the right hemisphere.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mills |first1=C. K. |year=1912a |title=The cerebral mechanism of emotional expression |journal=Transactions of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia |volume=34 |pages=381–390}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mills |first1=C. K. |year=1912b |title=The cortical representation of emotion, with a discussion of some points in the general nervous mechanism of expression in its relation to organic nervous disease and insanity |journal=Proceedings of the American Medico-Psychological Association |volume=19 |pages=297–300}}</ref> In 1992, researchers found that emotional expression and understanding may be controlled by smaller brain structures in the right hemisphere.<ref name="Borod19923">{{cite journal |last1=Borod |first1=J. C. |year=1992 |title=Intel-hemispheric and intrahemispheric control of emotion: A focus on unilateral brain damage |journal=Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology |volume=60 |issue=3 |pages=339–348 |doi=10.1037/0022-006x.60.3.339 |pmid=1619088}}</ref> These findings were the basis for the right hemisphere hypothesis and the valence hypothesis.

=== Right hemisphere hypothesis ===
It is believed that the right hemisphere is more specialized in processing emotions than the left hemisphere.<ref>Borod, J. C., Koff, E., & Caron, H. S. (1983). Right hemispheric specialization for the expression and appreciation of emotion: A focus on the face. In E. Perecman (Ed.), Cognitive functions in the right hemisphere (pp. 83-110). New York: Academic Press.</ref> The right hemisphere is associated with nonverbal, synthetic, integrative, holistic and gestaltic mental strategies.<ref name="Borod19923"/> As demonstrated by patients who have increased spatial neglect when damage affects the right brain rather than the left brain, the right hemisphere is more connected to subcortical systems of autonomic arousal and attention.<ref>Heilman, K. M. (February 1982). Discussant comments. In J. C. Borod & R. Buck (Chairs), Asymmetries in facial expression: Method and meaning. Symposium conducted at the International Neuropsychological Society, Pittsburgh, PA.</ref> Right hemisphere disorders have been associated with abnormal patterns of autonomic nervous system responses.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yokoyama |first1=K. |last2=Jennings |first2=R. |last3=Ackles |first3=P. |last4=Hood |first4=B. S. |last5=Boiler |first5=F. |year=1987 |title=Lack of heart rate changes during an attention-demanding task after right hemisphere lesions |journal=Neurology |volume=37 |issue=4 |pages=624–630 |doi=10.1212/wnl.37.4.624 |pmid=3561774 |s2cid=38096461}}</ref> These findings suggest the right hemisphere and subcortical brain areas are closely related.

=== Valence hypothesis ===
According to the valence hypothesis, although the right hemisphere is involved in emotion, it is primarily involved in the processing of negative emotions, while the left hemisphere is involved in processing positive emotions. In one explanation, negative emotions are processed by the right brain, while positive emotions are processed by the left.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Silberman |first1=E. K. |last2=Weingartner |first2=H. |year=1986 |title=Hemispheric lateralization of functions related to emotion |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1258449 |journal=Brain and Cognition |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=322–353 |doi=10.1016/0278-2626(86)90035-7 |pmid=3530287 |s2cid=2636348}}</ref> An alternative explanation is that the right hemisphere is dominant when it comes to feeling both positive and negative emotions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=N. A. |year=1991 |title=If it's not left, it's right |journal=American Psychologist |volume=46 |issue=8 |pages=863–872 |doi=10.1037/0003-066x.46.8.863 |pmid=1928939}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davidson |first1=R. |last2=Ekman |first2=P. |last3=Saron |first3=C. D. |last4=Senulis |first4=J. A. |last5=Friesen |first5=W V |year=1990 |title=Approach-withdrawal and cerebral asymmetry: Emotional expression and brain physiology I |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=330–341 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.58.2.330 |pmid=2319445}}</ref> Recent studies indicate that the frontal lobes of both hemispheres play an active role in emotions, while the parietal and temporal lobes process them.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Borod |first1=J.C. |last2=Cicero |first2=B.A. |last3=Obler |first3=L.K. |last4=Welkowitz |first4=J. |last5=Erhan |first5=H.M. |last6=Santschi |first6=C. |last7=Grunwald |first7=IS |last8=Agosti |first8=Reto M. |last9=Whalen |first9=John R. |display-authors=6 |year=1998 |title=Right hemisphere emotional perception: Evidence across multiple channels |journal=Neuropsychology |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=446–458 |doi=10.1037/0894-4105.12.3.446 |pmid=9673999}}</ref> Depression has been associated with decreased right parietal lobe activity, while anxiety has been associated with increased right parietal lobe activity.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Engels |first1=AS |last2=Heller |first2=W |last3=Mohanty |first3=A |last4=Herrington |first4=JD |last5=Banich |first5=MT |last6=Webb |first6=AG |last7=Miller |first7=GA |year=2007 |title=Specificity of regional brain activity in anxiety types during emotion processing |journal=Psychophysiology |volume=44 |issue=3 |pages=352–363 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-8986.2007.00518.x |pmid=17433094}}</ref> Based on the original valence model, increasingly complex models have been developed as a result of the increasing understanding of the different hemispheres.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Spielberg |first1=J. |last2=Stewart |first2=J |last3=Levin |first3=R. |last4=Miller |first4=G. |last5=Heller |first5=W. |year=2008 |title=Prefrontal Cortex, Emotion, and Approach/Withdrawal Motivation |journal=Soc Personal Psychol Compass |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=135–153 |doi=10.1111/j.1751-9004.2007.00064.x |pmc=2889703 |pmid=20574551}}</ref>

==Cognitive neuroscience==
While emotions are integral to thought processes, [[cognition]] has been investigated without emotion until the late 1990s, focusing instead on non-emotional processes such as [[memory]], [[attention]], [[perception]], [[problem solving]], and [[mental imagery]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cacioppo |first1=J.T. |last2=Gardner |first2=W.L. |year=1999 |title=Emotion |journal=Annual Review of Psychology |volume=50 |pages=191–214 |doi=10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.191 |pmid=10074678}}</ref> [[Cognitive neuroscience]] and affective neuroscience have emerged as separate fields for studying the neural basis of non-emotional and emotional processes. Despite the fact that fields are classified according to how the brain processes cognition and emotion, the neural and mental mechanisms behind emotional and non-emotional processes often overlap.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davidson |first1=R.J. |year=2000 |title=Cognitive neuroscience needs affective neuroscience (and vice versa) |journal=Brain and Cognition |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=89–92 |citeseerx=10.1.1.487.9015 |doi=10.1006/brcg.1999.1170 |pmid=10739607 |s2cid=22183667}}</ref>

==Cognitive neuroscience tasks in affective neuroscience research==
===Emotion go/no-go===
Emotion go/no-go tasks are used to study behavioral inhibition, especially how it is influenced by emotion.<ref name="Drevets W.C. 19982">{{cite journal |last1=Drevets |first1=W.C. |last2=Raichle |first2=M.E. |year=1998 |title=Reciprocal suppression of regional cerebral blood flow during emotional versus higher cognitive processes: Implications for interactions between emotion and cognition |journal=Cognition and Emotion |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=353–385 |doi=10.1080/026999398379646}}</ref> A "go" cue tells the participant to respond rapidly, but a "no-go" cue tells them to withhold a response. Because the "go" cue occurs more frequently, it can be used to measure how well a subject suppresses a response under different emotional conditions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schulz |first1=K.P. |last2=Fan |first2=J. |last3=Magidina |first3=O. |last4=Marks |first4=D.J. |last5=Hahn |first5=B. |last6=Halperin |first6=J.M. |year=2007 |title=Does the emotional go/no-go task really measure behavioral inhibition? Convergence with measures on a non-emotional analog |journal=Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=151–160 |doi=10.1016/j.acn.2006.12.001 |pmc=2562664 |pmid=17207962}}</ref>

This task is often used in combination with neuroimaging in healthy individuals and patients with affective disorders to identify relevant brain functions associated with [[emotional regulation]].<ref name="Drevets W.C. 19982" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Elliott |first1=R. |last2=Ogilvie |first2=A. |last3=Rubinsztein |first3=J.S. |last4=Calderon |first4=G. |last5=Dolan |first5=R.J. |last6=Sahakian |first6=B.J. |year=2004 |title=Abnormal ventral frontal response during performance of an affective go/no go task in patients with mania |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=55 |issue=12 |pages=1163–1170 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.03.007 |pmid=15184035 |hdl-access=free |hdl=21.11116/0000-0001-A247-8 |s2cid=6511699}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Elliott |first1=R. |last2=Rubinsztein |first2=J.S. |last3=Sahakian |first3=B.J. |last4=Dolan |first4=R.J. |year=2000 |title=Selective attention to emotional stimuli in a verbal go/no-go task: An fMRI study |journal=Brain Imaging |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=1739–1744 |doi=10.1097/00001756-200006050-00028 |pmid=10852235 |s2cid=16872952}}</ref> Several studies, including go/no-go studies, suggest that sections of the prefrontal cortex are involved in controlling emotional responses to stimuli during inhibition.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hare |first1=T.A. |last2=Tottenham |first2=N. |last3=Davidson |first3=M.C. |last4=Glover |first4=G.H. |author4-link=Gary H. Glover |last5=Casey |first5=B.J. |year=2005 |title=Contributions of amygdala and striatal activity in emotion regulation |journal=Biological Psychiatry |volume=57 |issue=6 |pages=624–632 |doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2004.12.038 |pmid=15780849 |s2cid=17690328}}</ref>

===Emotional Stroop===
Adapted from the [[Stroop effect|Stroop]], the emotional Stroop test measures how much attention you pay to emotional stimuli.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stroop |first1=J.R. |year=1935 |title=Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions |journal=Journal of Experimental Psychology |volume=18 |issue=6 |pages=643–662 |doi=10.1037/h0054651 |hdl-access=free |hdl=11858/00-001M-0000-002C-5ADB-7}}</ref><ref name="Epp, A.M. 20122">{{cite journal |last1=Epp |first1=A.M. |last2=Dobson |first2=K.S. |last3=Dozois |first3=D.J.A. |last4=Frewen |first4=P.A. |year=2012 |title=A systematic meta-analysis of the stroop task in depression |journal=Clinical Psychology Review |volume=32 |issue=4 |pages=316–328 |doi=10.1016/j.cpr.2012.02.005 |pmid=22459792|url=https://zenodo.org/record/8034491 }}</ref> In this task, participants are instructed to name the ink color of words while ignoring their meanings.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pratto |first1=F. |last2=John |first2=O. P. |year=1991 |title=Automatic vigilance: The attention grabbing power of negative social information |journal=Journal of Personality & Social Psychology |volume=61 |issue=3 |pages=380–391 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.61.3.380 |pmid=1941510}}</ref> Generally, people have trouble detaching their attention from words with an affective meaning compared with neutral words.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wentura |first1=D. |last2=Rothermund |first2=K. |last3=Bak |first3=P. |year=2000 |title=Automatic vigilance: The attention-grabbing power of approach and avoidance-related social information |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=78 |issue=6 |pages=1024–1037 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.78.6.1024 |pmid=10870906}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=J.M. |last2=Broadbent |first2=K. |year=1986 |title=Distraction by emotional stimuli: use of a Stroop task with suicide attempters |journal=British Journal of Clinical Psychology |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=101–110 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8260.1986.tb00678.x |pmid=3730646}}</ref> It has been demonstrated in several studies that naming the color of neutral words results in a quicker response.<ref name="Epp, A.M. 20122" />

Selective attention to negative or threatening stimuli, which are often related to psychological disorders, is commonly tested with this task.<ref name="Williams, M.G. 19962">{{cite journal |last1=Williams |first1=M.G. |last2=Matthews |first2=A. |last3=MacLeod |first3=C. |year=1996 |title=The emotional stroop task and psychopathology |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=120 |issue=1 |pages=3–24 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.120.1.3 |pmid=8711015}}</ref> Different mental disorders have been associated with specific attentional biases.<ref name="Williams, M.G. 19962" /><ref>Gotlib, I.H., Roberts, J.E., & Gilboa, E. (1996). Cognitive interference in depression. in I.G. Sarason, G.R. Pierce, & B.R. Sarason (Eds.), Cognitive interference: Theories, methods, and findings, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Inc., Hillsdale, NJ, pp. 347–377.</ref> Participants with spider phobia, for example, tend to be more inclined to use spider-related words than negatively charged words.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Watts |first1=E N. |last2=McKenna |first2=E P. |last3=Sharrock |first3=R. |last4=Trezise |first4=L. |year=1986 |title=Colour naming of phobia-related words |journal=British Journal of Psychology |volume=77 |pages=97–108 |doi=10.1111/j.2044-8295.1986.tb01985.x |pmid=2869817}}</ref> Similar findings have been found for threat words related to other anxiety disorders.<ref name="Williams, M.G. 19962" /> Even so, other studies have questioned these conclusions. When the words are matched for emotionality, anxious participants in some studies show the Stroop interference effect for both negative and positive words.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=M. |last2=Williams |first2=R. M. |last3=Clark |first3=D. M. |year=1991 |title=Does anxiety lead to selective processing of threat-related information? |journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=147–160 |doi=10.1016/0005-7967(91)90043-3 |pmid=2021377}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mogg |first1=K. |last2=Mathews |first2=A. M. |last3=Weinman |first3=J. |year=1989 |title=Selective processing of threat cues in anxiety states: A replication |journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=317–323 |doi=10.1016/0005-7967(89)90001-6 |pmid=2775141}}</ref> In other words, the specificity effects of words for various disorders may be primarily due to their conceptual relation to the disorder's concerns rather than their emotionality.<ref name="Williams, M.G. 19962" />

===Ekman 60 faces task===
The [[Paul Ekman|Ekman]] faces task is used to measure emotion recognition of six [[emotion classification|basic emotions]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Diehl-Schmid | first1 = J. | last2 = Pohl | first2 = C. | last3 = Ruprecht | first3 = C. | last4 = Wagenpfeil | first4 = S. | last5 = Foerstl | first5 = H. | last6 = Kurz | first6 = A. | year = 2007 | title = The Ekman 60 faces test as a diagnostic instrument in frontotemporal dementia | journal = Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology | volume = 22 | issue = 4| pages = 459–464 | pmid = 17360152 | doi = 10.1016/j.acn.2007.01.024 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. (1976). Pictures of facial affect. Consulting Psychologists Press: Palo Alto, CA.</ref> Black and white photographs of 10 actors (6 male, 4 female) are presented, with each actor displaying each emotion. Participants are usually asked to respond quickly with the name of the displayed emotion. The task is a common tool to study deficits in emotion regulation in patients with [[dementia]], [[Parkinson's disease|Parkinson's]], and other cognitively degenerative disorders.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Diehl-Schmida | first1 = J. | last2 = Pohla | first2 = C. | last3 = Ruprechta | first3 = C. | last4 = Wagenpfeilb | first4 = S. | last5 = Foerstla | first5 = H. | last6 = Kurza | first6 = A. | year = 2007 | title = The Ekman 60 faces test as a diagnostic instrument in frontotemporal dementia | journal = Archives of Clinical Neuropsychology | volume = 22 | issue = 4| pages = 459–464 | pmid = 17360152 | doi = 10.1016/j.acn.2007.01.024 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The task has been used to analyze recognition errors in disorders such as [[borderline personality disorder]], [[schizophrenia]], and [[bipolar disorder]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ibarretxe-Bilbao | first1 = N. | last2 = Junque | first2 = C. | last3 = Tolosa | first3 = E. | last4 = Marti | first4 = M. | last5 = Valldeoriola | first5 = F. | last6 = Bargalloand | first6 = N. | last7 = Zareio | first7 = M. | year = 2009 | title = Neuroanatomical correlates of impaired decision-making and facial emotion recognition in early Parkinson's disease | journal = European Journal of Neuroscience | volume = 30 | issue = 6| pages = 1162–1171 | doi=10.1111/j.1460-9568.2009.06892.x| pmid = 19735293 | s2cid = 413809 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Soeiro-de-Souza | first1 = M.G. | last2 = Bio | first2 = D.S. | last3 = David | first3 = D.P. | last4 = Santos | first4 = D.R. | last5 = Kerr | first5 = D.S. | last6 = Moreno | first6 = R.A. | last7 = Machado-Vieira | first7 = Rodrigo | last8 = Moreno | first8 = Ricardo Albeto | year = 2012 | title = COMT Met (158) modulates facial emotion recognition in bipolar I disorder mood episodes | journal = Journal of Affective Disorders | volume = 136 | issue = 3| pages = 370–376 | doi=10.1016/j.jad.2011.11.021| pmid = 22222175 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ebert | first1 = A. | last2 = Haussleiter | first2 = I.S. | last3 = Juckel | first3 = G. | last4 = Brune | first4 = M. | last5 = Roser | first5 = P. | year = 2012 | title = Impaired facial emotion recognition in a ketamine model of psychosis | journal = Psychiatry Research | volume = 200 | issue = 2–3| pages = 724–727 | doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2012.06.034| pmid = 22776754 | s2cid = 43744551 }}</ref>

===Dot probe (emotion)===
The emotional [[dot-probe paradigm]] is a task used to assess selective visual [[attention]] to and failure to detach attention from affective stimuli.<ref name="Koster, E.H.W. 2004">{{cite journal | last1 = Koster | first1 = E.H.W. | last2 = Crombez | first2 = G. | last3 = Verschuere | first3 = B. | last4 = De Houwer | first4 = J. | year = 2004 | title = Selective attention to threat in the dot probe paradigm: Differentiating vigilance and difficulty to disengage | journal = Behaviour Research and Therapy | volume = 42 | issue = 10| pages = 1183–1192 | doi=10.1016/j.brat.2003.08.001| pmid = 15350857 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = MacLeod | first1 = C. | last2 = Mathews | first2 = A. | last3 = Tata | first3 = P. | year = 1986 | title = Attentional bias in emotional disorders | journal = Journal of Abnormal Psychology | volume = 95 | issue = 1| pages = 15–20 | doi=10.1037/0021-843x.95.1.15| pmid = 3700842 }}</ref> The paradigm begins with a fixation cross at the center of a screen. An emotional stimulus and a neutral stimulus appear side by side, after which a dot appears behind either the neutral stimulus (incongruent condition) or the affective stimulus (congruent condition). Participants are asked to indicate when they see this dot, and [[mental chronometry|response latency]] is measured. Dots that appear on the same side of the screen as the image the participant was looking at will be identified more quickly. Thus, it is possible to discern which object the participant was attending to by subtracting the reaction time to respond to congruent versus incongruent trials.<ref name="Koster, E.H.W. 2004"/>

The best documented research with the dot probe paradigm involves attention to threat related stimuli, such as fearful faces, in individuals with anxiety disorders. Anxious individuals tend to respond more quickly to congruent trials, which may indicate vigilance to threat and/or failure to detach attention from threatening stimuli.<ref name="Koster, E.H.W. 2004"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Mogg | first1 = K. | last2 = Bradley | first2 = B. P. | year = 1998 | title = A cognitive–motivational analysis of anxiety | journal = Behaviour Research and Therapy | volume = 36 | issue = 9| pages = 809–848 | doi=10.1016/s0005-7967(98)00063-1| pmid = 9701859 }}</ref> A specificity effect of attention has also been noted, with individuals attending selectively to threats related to their particular disorder. For example, those with [[social phobia]] selectively attend to social threats but not physical threats.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Asmundson | first1 = G.J.G. | last2 = Stein | first2 = M.B. | year = 1994 | title = Selective processing of social threat in patients with generalized social phobia: Evaluation using a dot-probe paradigm | journal = Journal of Anxiety Disorders | volume = 8 | issue = 2| pages = 107–117 | doi=10.1016/0887-6185(94)90009-4}}</ref> However, this specificity may be even more nuanced. Participants with [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]] symptoms initially show attentional bias to compulsive threat, but this bias is attenuated in later trials due to habituation to the threat stimuli.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Amir | first1 = N. | last2 = Naimi | first2 = S. | last3 = Morrison | first3 = A.S. | year = 2009 | title = Attenuation of attention bias in obsessive-compulsive disorder | journal = Behaviour Research and Therapy | volume = 47 | issue = 2| pages = 153–157 | doi=10.1016/j.brat.2008.10.020| pmid = 19046576 | pmc=2662360}}</ref>

===Fear potentiated startle===
[[Fear-potentiated startle]] (FPS) has been utilized as a psychophysiological index of [[fear]] reaction in both animals and humans.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Davis | first1 = M. | year = 1986 | title = Pharmacological and anatomical analysis of fear conditioning using the fear-potentiated startle paradigm | journal = Behavioral Neuroscience | volume = 100 | issue = 6| pages = 814–824 | doi=10.1037/0735-7044.100.6.814| pmid = 3545257 }}</ref> FPS is most often assessed through the magnitude of the [[startle response|eyeblink startle]] reflex, which can be measured by [[electromyography]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Baskin-Sommers | first1 = A.R. | last2 = Vitale | first2 = J.E. | last3 = MacCoon | first3 = D. | last4 = Newman | first4 = J.P. | year = 2012 | title = Assessing emotion sensitivity in female offenders with borderline personality symptoms: Results from a fear-potentiated startle paradigm | journal = Journal of Abnormal Psychology | volume = 121 | issue = 2| pages = 477–483 | doi=10.1037/a0026753| pmid = 22250659 | pmc=3358451}}</ref> This eyeblink reflex is an automatic defensive reaction to an abrupt elicitor, making it an objective indicator of fear.<ref name="Vaidyanathan, U. 2009">{{cite journal | last1 = Vaidyanathan | first1 = U. | last2 = Patrick | first2 = C.J. | last3 = Cuthbert | first3 = B.N. | year = 2009 | title = Linking dimensional models of internalizing psychopathology to neurobiological systems: Affect-modulated startle as an indicator of fear and distress disorders and affiliated traits | journal = Psychological Bulletin | volume = 135| issue = 6| pages = 909–942 |doi=10.1037/a0017222 | pmid=19883142 | pmc=2776729}}</ref> Typical FPS paradigms involve bursts of noise or abrupt flashes of light transmitted while an individual attends to a set of stimuli.<ref name="Vaidyanathan, U. 2009"/> Startle reflexes have been shown to be modulated by emotion. For example, healthy participants tend to show enhanced startle responses while viewing negatively valenced images and attenuated startle while viewing positively valenced images, as compared with neutral images.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lang | first1 = P. J. | last2 = Bradley | first2 = M. M. | last3 = Cuthbert | first3 = B. N. | year = 1990 | title = Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 97 | issue = 3| pages = 377–395 | doi=10.1037/0033-295x.97.3.377| pmid = 2200076 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Vrana | first1 = S. R. | last2 = Spence | first2 = E. L. | last3 = Lang | first3 = P. J. | year = 1988 | title = The startle probe response: A new measure of emotion? | journal = Journal of Abnormal Psychology | volume = 97 | issue = 4| pages = 487–491 | doi=10.1037/0021-843x.97.4.487| pmid = 3204235 }}</ref>

The startle response to a particular stimulus is greater under conditions of threat.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Norrholm | first1 = S.D. | last2 = Anderson | first2 = K.M. | last3 = Olin | first3 = I.W. | last4 = Jovanovic | first4 = T. | last5 = Kwon | first5 = C. | last6 = Warren | first6 = Victor T.| last7 = Bradley | first7 = B. | last8 = Bosshardt | first8 = Lauren | last9 = Sabree | first9 = Justin | last10 = Duncan | first10 = Erica J. | last11 = Rothbaum | first11 = Barbara O. | last12 = Bradley | first12 = Bekh | year = 2011 | title = Versatility of fear-potentiated startle paradigms for assessing human conditioned fear extinction and return of fear | journal =  Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience| volume = 5 | page = 77 | doi=10.3389/fnbeh.2011.00077| pmid = 22125516 | pmc = 3221285 | doi-access = free }}</ref> A common example given to indicate this phenomenon is that one's startle response to a flash of light will be greater when walking in a dangerous neighborhood at night than it would under safer conditions. In laboratory studies, the threat of receiving shock is enough to potentiate startle, even without any actual shock.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Grillon | first1 = C. | last2 = Ameli | first2 = R. | last3 = Woods | first3 = S. W. | last4 = Merikangas | first4 = K. | last5 = Davis | first5 = M. | year = 1991 | title = Fear-potentiated startle in humans: Effects of anticipatory anxiety on the acoustic blink reflex | journal = Psychophysiology | volume = 28 | issue = 5| pages = 588–595 | doi=10.1111/j.1469-8986.1991.tb01999.x| pmid = 1758934 }}</ref>

Fear potentiated startle paradigms are often used to study [[fear conditioning|fear learning]] and extinction in individuals with [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) and other anxiety disorders.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Norrholm | first1 = S. | last2 = Jovanovic | first2 = Tanja | year = 2011 | title = Translational fear inhibition models as indices of trauma-related psychopathology | journal = Current Psychiatry Reviews | volume = 7 | issue = 3| pages = 194–204 | doi=10.2174/157340011797183193}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Norrholm | first1 = S. D. | last2 = Jovanovic | first2 = T. | last3 = Olin | first3 = I. W. | last4 = Sands | first4 = L. | last5 = Karapanou | first5 = I. | last6 = Bradley | first6 = B. | last7 = Ressler | first7 = K. J. | year = 2010 | title = Fear extinction in traumatized civilians with posttraumatic stress disorder: relation to symptom severity | journal = Biological Psychiatry | volume = 69 | issue = 6| pages = 556–563 | doi=10.1016/j.biopsych.2010.09.013| pmid = 21035787 | pmc=3052965}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Lang | first1 = P. J. | last2 = McTeague | first2 = L. M. | year = 2009 | title = The anxiety disorder spectrum: Fear imagery, physiological reactivity, and differential diagnosis | journal = Anxiety, Stress & Coping | volume = 22 | issue = 1| pages = 5–25 | doi=10.1080/10615800802478247| pmc = 2766521 | pmid=19096959}}</ref> In fear conditioning studies, an initially neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with an aversive one, borrowing from [[classical conditioning]].<ref name="Cousens, G.A. 2012">{{cite journal | last1 = Cousens | first1 = G.A. | last2 = Kearns | first2 = A. | last3 = Laterza | first3 = F. | last4 = Tundidor | first4 = J. | year = 2012 | title = Excitotoxic lesions of the medial amygdala attenuate olfactory fear-potentiated startle and conditioned freezing behavior | journal = Behavioural Brain Research | volume = 229 | issue = 2| pages = 427–432 | doi=10.1016/j.bbr.2012.01.011| pmid = 22249137 | s2cid = 25116098 }}</ref> FPS studies have demonstrated that PTSD patients have enhanced startle responses during both danger cues and neutral/safety cues as compared with healthy participants.<ref name="Cousens, G.A. 2012"/><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Jovanovic | first1 = T | date = 15 May 2009 | title = Posttraumatic stress disorder may be associated with impaired fear inhibition: relation to symptom severity | journal = Psychiatry Research | volume = 167 | issue =1–2 | pages = 151–160 | doi=10.1016/j.psychres.2007.12.014 |last2=Norrholm |first2= Seth D. | last3 = Fennell | first3 = Jennifer E. | last4 = Keyes | first4 = Megan | last5 = Fiallos | first5 = Ana M. | last6 = Myers | first6 = Karyn M. | last7 = Davis | first7 = Michael | last8 = Duncan | first8 = Erica J. |pmid=19345420 |pmc=2713500 }}</ref>

==Learning==
[[Affect (psychology)|Affect]] plays many roles during learning. Deep, emotional attachment to a subject area allows a deeper understanding of the material and therefore, learning occurs and lasts.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Picard | first1 = R. W. | last2 = Papert | first2 = S | last3 = Bender | first3 = W | last4 = Blumberg | first4 = B | last5 = Breazeal | first5 = C | last6 = Cavallo | first6 = D | last7 = Machover | first7 = T | last8 = Resnick | first8 = M | last9 = Roy | first9 = D |last10=Strohecker |first10=C | year = 2004 | title = Affective Learning – a manifesto | journal = BT Technology Journal | volume = 22 | issue = 4| pages = 253–269 | doi=10.1023/b:bttj.0000047603.37042.33 | citeseerx = 10.1.1.110.3308 | s2cid = 518899 }} {{Closed access}}</ref> The emotions evoked when reading in comparison to the emotions portrayed in the content affects comprehension. Someone who is feeling sad understands a sad passage better than someone feeling happy.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Havas | first1 = D.A. | last2 = Glenberg | first2 = A.M. | last3 = Rinck | first3 = M. | year = 2007 | title = Emotion simulation during language comprehension | journal = Psychonomic Bulletin & Review | volume = 14 | issue = 3| pages = 436–441 | doi=10.3758/bf03194085| pmid = 17874584 | doi-access = free | hdl = 2066/55501 | hdl-access = free }}</ref> Therefore, a student's emotion plays an important role during the learning process.

Emotion can be [[embodied cognition|embodied]] or perceived from words read on a page or in a facial expression. Neuroimaging studies using [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]] have demonstrated that the same area of the brain that is activated when feeling disgust is activated when observing another's disgust.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Wicker | first1 = B. | last2 = Keysers | first2 = Christian | last3 = Plailly | first3 = Jane | last4 = Royet | first4 = Jean-Pierre | last5 = Gallese | first5 = Vittorio | last6 = Rizzolatti | first6 = Giacomo | year = 2003 | title = Both of Us Disgusted in My Insula: The Common Neural Basis of Seeing and Feeling Disgust | journal = Neuron | volume = 40 | issue = 3| pages = 655–664 | doi=10.1016/s0896-6273(03)00679-2 | pmid=14642287| s2cid = 766157 | doi-access = free }}</ref> In a traditional learning environment, the teacher's facial expression can play a critical role in language acquisition. Showing a fearful facial expression when reading passages that contain fearful tones facilitates students learning of the meaning of certain vocabulary words and comprehension of the passage.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Niedenthal | first1 = P. M. | s2cid = 14537829 | year = 2007 | title = Embodying emotion | journal = Science | volume = 316 | issue = 5827| pages = 1002–1005 | doi=10.1126/science.1136930 | pmid=17510358| bibcode = 2007Sci...316.1002N }}</ref>

==Models==
The neurobiological basis of emotion is still disputed.<ref name="CeleghinDiano2017">{{cite journal |last1=Celeghin |first1=Alessia |last2=Diano |first2=Matteo |last3=Bagnis |first3=Arianna |last4=Viola |first4=Marco |last5=Tamietto |first5=Marco |year=2017 |title=Basic Emotions in Human Neuroscience: Neuroimaging and Beyond |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=8 |pages=1432 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01432 |issn=1664-1078 |pmc=5573709 |pmid=28883803 |doi-access=free}}{{CC-notice|cc=by4|url=https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01432/full|author(s)=Alessia Celeghin, Matteo Diano, Arianna Bagnis, Marco Viola, and Marco Tamietto}}</ref> The existence of basic emotions and their defining attributes represents a long lasting and yet unsettled issue in psychology.<ref name="CeleghinDiano2017" /> The available research suggests that the neurobiological existence of basic emotions is still tenable and heuristically seminal, pending some reformulation.<ref name="CeleghinDiano2017" />

===Basic emotions===
{{Main|Emotion#Basic emotions}}

These approaches hypothesize that emotion categories (including happiness, sadness, fear, anger, and disgust) are biologically basic.<ref name="Ekman & Cordaro">{{cite journal|last=Ekman|first=P.|author2=Cordaro, D.|year=2011|title=What is meant by calling emotions basic|journal=Emotion Review|volume=3|issue=4|pages=364–370|doi=10.1177/1754073911410740|s2cid=52833124}}</ref><ref name="Panksepp & Watt">{{cite journal|last=Panksepp|first=J.|author2=Watt, D.|year=2011|title=What is basic about basic emotions? Lasting lessons from affective neuroscience|journal=Emotion Review|volume=3|issue=4|pages=387–396|doi=10.1177/1754073911410741|s2cid=144198152}}</ref> In this view, emotions are inherited, biologically based modules that cannot be separated into more basic psychological components.<ref name="Ekman & Cordaro" /><ref name="Panksepp & Watt" /><ref name="Izard">{{cite journal|last=Izard|first=C.E.|date=2011|title=Forms and functions in emotions: Matters of emotion-cognition interactions|journal=Emotion Review|volume=3|issue=4|pages=371–378|doi=10.1177/1754073911410737|s2cid=144037625}}</ref> Models following this approach hypothesize that all mental states belonging to a single emotional category can be consistently and specifically localized to either a single brain region or a defined network of brain regions.<ref name="Panksepp & Watt" /><ref name="Panksepp 1998">{{cite book|last=Panksepp|first=J.|title=Affective Neuroscience: The foundations of human and animal emotions|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|location=New York}}</ref> Each basic emotion category also shares other universal characteristics: distinct facial behavior, physiology, subjective experience and accompanying thoughts and memories.<ref name="Ekman & Cordaro" />

===Psychological constructionist approaches===
This approach to emotion hypothesizes that emotions like happiness, sadness, fear, anger and disgust (and many others) are constructed mental states that occur when brain systems work together.<ref name="Barrett 2006">{{cite journal|last=Barrett|first=L.F.|author2=Wager, T.|year=2006|title=The structure of emotion: Evidence from the neuroimaging of emotion|journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science|volume=15|issue=2|pages=79–85|citeseerx=10.1.1.470.7762|doi=10.1111/j.0963-7214.2006.00411.x|s2cid=14489624}}</ref> In this view, networks of brain regions underlie psychological operations (e.g., language, attention, etc.) that interact to produce emotion, perception, and cognition.<ref name="Lindquist 2012">{{cite journal|last=Lindquist|first=K.|author2=Wager, T.|last3=Kober|first3=Hedy|last4=Bliss-Moreau|first4=Eliza|last5=Barrett|first5=Lisa Feldman|year=2012|title=The brain basis of emotion: A meta-analytic review|journal=Behavioral and Brain Sciences|volume=35|issue=3|pages=121–143|doi=10.1017/s0140525x11000446|pmc=4329228|pmid=22617651}}</ref> One psychological operation critical for emotion is the network of brain regions that underlie valence (feeling pleasant/unpleasant) and arousal (feeling activated and energized).<ref name="Barrett 2006" /> Emotions emerge when neural systems underlying different psychological operations interact (not just those involved in valence and arousal), producing distributed patterns of activation across the brain. Because emotions emerge from more basic components, heterogeneity affects each emotion category; for example, a person can experience many different kinds of fear, which feel differently, and which correspond to different neural patterns in the brain.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fox |first1=Andrew S. |last2=Shackman |first2=Alexander J. |date=February 2019 |title=The central extended amygdala in fear and anxiety: Closing the gap between mechanistic and neuroimaging research |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neulet.2017.11.056 |journal=Neuroscience Letters |volume=693 |pages=58–67 |doi=10.1016/j.neulet.2017.11.056 |pmid=29195911 |pmc=5976525 |issn=0304-3940}}</ref>

== Aging ==
People typically associate aging with a decline in the functioning of all mental processing abilities; however, this is not the case for emotion regulation. Older adults typically have a stronger drive to maintain and improve on their emotional well being.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last1=Allard |first1=Eric |last2=Kensinger |first2=Elizabeth |date=November 10, 2014 |title=Age-Related Differences in Functional Connectivity During Cognitive Emotion Regulation |url=https://academic.oup.com/psychsocgerontology/article/69/6/852/2940087 |access-date=2023-10-25 |publisher=The Journals of Gerontology}}</ref> Thus providing them to utilize emotion regulation skills that provide a higher satisfaction in life. 

=== Role of the vmPFC in emotion regulation of older adults ===
The [[ventromedial prefrontal cortex]] (vmPFC) has a significant influence on emotion regulation, especially regarding high emotional arousing stimuli.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last1=Suzuki |first1=Yukihiro |last2=Tanaka |first2=Saori C. |date=2021-09-14 |title=Functions of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex in emotion regulation under stress |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=18225 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-97751-0 |issn=2045-2322|doi-access=free |pmid=34521947 |pmc=8440524 |bibcode=2021NatSR..1118225S }}</ref> Compared to other areas of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), the vmPFC loses volume at a much lower rate. Due to this, an older person's emotional regulation abilities are not heavily impacted by brain changes associated with aging. Additionally, the [[anterior cingulate cortex]] (ACC) is an important area of the brain that is used for emotion regulation. The ACC has proven to be a key player in emotion regulation in not just young adults, but also in older adults.<ref name=":2"/> In older adults the ACC is important to create connections with from the vmPFC in order to regulate emotions. This connection was the most salient when negative emotions were reappraised. This demonstrates that older adults use the vmPFC to regulate their emotions in a more positive manner. Despite other areas of the brain decreasing in functionality as humans age, the connection between the vmPFC and ACC remains strong to reappraise negative emotions into more positive emotions. This is different from younger adults, who rely more on other areas of the PFC.

=== Neuropsychology behind older adults emotion regulation differences ===
As people age, most cognitive functions decline. This is not the case when it comes to emotion regulation. A study conducted by Carstensen and colleagues (2000) found that as people increase in age so does their ability to regulate their emotions.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Carstensen |first1=Laura |last2=Pasupathi |first2=Monisha |last3=Ulrich |first3=Mayr |last4=Nesselroade |first4=John |year=2000 |title=Emotional experience in everyday life across the adult life span. |url=https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2001-00438-011 |access-date=2023-10-26 |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=644–655 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.79.4.644 |pmid=11045744 |language=en|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It is important to note that just because older adults had better emotion regulation skills, does not mean they live more stable daily lives. In fact, they tend to have more unstable negative emotions especially in comparison to the stability of their positive emotions.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Urry |first1=Heather L. |last2=Gross |first2=James J. |year=2010 |title=Emotion Regulation in Older Age |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0963721410388395 |journal=Current Directions in Psychological Science |language=en |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=352–357 |doi=10.1177/0963721410388395 |s2cid=1400335 |issn=0963-7214|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The major difference observed in how older adults and younger adults regulate their emotions when negative emotional stimuli are present can be explained by numerous theories. 

=== Theories of emotion regulation in aging ===

==== Passive method of emotion regulation ====
How older adults handle emotionally salient events or stimuli are often vastly different from younger adults, and even middle aged adults. There does not appear to be many differences in ways that younger, middle, and older adults handle social situations; however, when a social situation becomes emotionally charged differences emerge.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last1=Blanchard-Fields |first1=Fredda |last2=Stein |first2=Renee |last3=Watson |first3=Tonya |year=2004 |title=Age Differences in Emotion-Regulation Strategies in Handling Everyday Problems |journal=The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences |volume=59 |issue=6 |pages=261–9 |url=https://academic.oup.com/psychsocgerontology/article/59/6/P261/589694 |access-date=2023-10-26 |publisher=The Journals of Gerontology|doi=10.1093/geronb/59.6.p261 |pmid=15576853 }}</ref> When intense emotions in a social situation were evoked for older adults, they tended to the situation in a more passive manner in comparison to middle aged adults. They also tend to rely more on their previous problem solving skills than both younger and older adults. This is because as people age, there tends to be a shift in preferences to maintain a more positive emotional affect. In fact, there seems to be a decrease in negative emotions felt by older adults once until they reach the age of 60, in which this decrease stops.<ref name=":4" /> It is important to note that while the frequency of negative emotion decreases with age, the intensity of the emotions experienced does not change. Additionally, emotional satisfaction is not lower just because they experience less frequent negative emotions. 

==== Socioemotional selectivity theory ====
Carstensen (2003) hypothesized that the reason that older adults tended to have better emotion regulation skills than younger adults is due to the [[socioemotional selectivity theory]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last1=Carstensen |first1=Laura L. |last2=Fung |first2=Helene H. |last3=Charles |first3=Susan T. |date=2003-06-01 |title=Socioemotional Selectivity Theory and the Regulation of Emotion in the Second Half of Life |url=https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024569803230 |journal=Motivation and Emotion |language=en |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=103–123 |doi=10.1023/A:1024569803230 |s2cid=143149171 |issn=1573-6644|url-access=subscription }}</ref> This theory highlights the role of social interactions in the ability to regulate emotions. Social interactions, while are often positive, can sometimes lead to negative emotional arousal. Since older adults have been alive longer, they have more dense social networks. This creates a drastic increase in social interaction that cause positive emotional arousal. On the chance they experience a negative emotional reaction from a social event, they are likely to be able to pair it with something that is more positively emotionally salient. This causes the negative emotion to be less potent, and therefore increase their hedonic perspective on life.

==Meta-analyses==
A [[meta-analysis]] is a statistical approach to synthesizing results across multiple studies. Included studies investigated healthy, unmedicated adults and that used subtraction analysis to examine brain areas that were more active during emotional processing than during a neutral (control) condition.

===Phan et al. 2002===
In the first neuroimaging meta-analysis of emotion, Phan et al. (2002) analyzed the results of 55 peer reviewed studies between January 1990 and December 2000 to determine if the emotions of fear, sadness, disgust, anger, and happiness were consistently associated with activity in specific brain regions. All studies used [[functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]] or [[positron emission tomography|PET]] techniques to investigate higher-order mental processing of emotion (studies of low-order sensory or motor processes were excluded). The authors' tabulated the number of studies that reported activation in specific brain regions. For each brain region, statistical [[Chi-squared test|chi-squared analysis]] was conducted. Two regions showed a statistically significant association. In the amygdala, 66% of studies inducing fear reported activity in this region, as compared to ~20% of studies inducing happiness, ~15% of studies inducing sadness (with no reported activations for anger or disgust). In the subcallosal cingulate, 46% of studies inducing sadness reported activity in this region, as compared to ~20% inducing happiness and ~20% inducing anger. This pattern of clear discriminability between emotion categories was in fact rare, with other patterns occurring in limbic regions, paralimbic regions, and uni/heteromodal regions. Brain regions implicated across discrete emotion included the basal ganglia (~60% of studies inducing happiness and ~60% of studies inducing disgust reported activity in this region) and medial prefrontal cortex (happiness ~60%, anger ~55%, sadness ~40%, disgust ~40%, and fear ~30%).<ref name="Phan 2002">{{cite journal|last=Phan|first=K.L.|author2=Wager, T.D.|author3=Taylor, S.F.|author4=Liberzon, I.|title=Functional neuroanatomy of emotion: A meta-analysis of emotion activation studies in PET and fMRI.|journal=NeuroImage|year=2002|volume=16|pages=331–348|doi=10.1006/nimg.2002.1087|pmid=12030820|issue=2|s2cid=7150871}}</ref>

===Murphy et al. 2003===
Murphy, et al. 2003 analyzed 106 peer reviewed studies published between January 1994 and December 2001 to examine the evidence for regional specialization of discrete emotions (fear, disgust, anger, happiness and sadness) across a larger set of studies. Studies included in the meta-analysis measured activity in the whole brain and regions of interest (activity in individual regions of particular interest to the study). 3-D [[Kolmogorov–Smirnov test|Kolmogorov-Smirnov]] (KS3) statistics were used to compare rough spatial distributions of 3-D activation patterns to determine if statistically significant activations were specific to particular brain regions for all emotional categories. This pattern of consistently activated, regionally specific activations was identified in four brain regions: amygdala with fear (~40% of studies), insula with disgust (~70%), globus pallidus with disgust (~70%), and lateral orbitofrontal cortex with anger (80%). Other regions showed different patterns of activation across categories. For example, both the dorsal medial prefrontal cortex and the rostral anterior cingulate cortex showed consistent activity across emotions (happiness ~50%, sadness ~50%, anger ~ 40%, fear ~30%, and disgust ~ 20%).<ref name="Murphy 2003">{{cite journal|last=Murphy|first=F.C.|author2=Nimmo-Smith, I.|author3= Lawrence, A.D.|title=Functional Neuroanatomy: A meta-analysis|journal=Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience|year=2003|volume=3|issue=3|pages=207–233|doi=10.3758/cabn.3.3.207|pmid=14672157|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Barrett et al. 2006===
[[Lisa Feldman Barrett|Barrett]], et al. 2006 examined 161 studies published between 1990 and 2001. The authors compared the consistency and specificity of prior meta-analytic findings specific to each notional basic emotion. Consistent neural patterns were defined by brain regions showing increased activity for a specific emotion (relative to a neutral control condition), regardless of the method of induction used (for example, visual vs. auditory cue). Specific neural patterns were defined as separate circuits for one emotion vs. the other emotions (for example, the fear circuit must be discriminable from the anger circuit, although both may include common brain regions). In general, the results supported Phan et al. and Murphy et al., but not specificity. Consistency was determined through the comparison of chi-squared analyses that revealed whether the proportion of studies reporting activation during one emotion was significantly higher than the proportion of studies reporting activation during the other emotions. Specificity was determined through the comparison of emotion-category brain-localizations by contrasting activations in key regions that were specific to particular emotions. Increased amygdala activation during fear was the most consistently reported across induction methods (but not specific). Both meta-analyses associated the anterior cingulate cortex with sadness, although this finding was less consistent (across induction methods) and was not specific. Both meta-analyses found that disgust was associated with the basal ganglia, but these findings were neither consistent nor specific. Neither consistent nor specific activity was observed across the meta-analyses for anger or happiness. This meta-analysis introduced the concept of the basic, irreducible elements of emotional life as dimensions such as approach and avoidance.<ref name="Barrett 2006" />

===Kober et al. 2008===
Kober reviewed 162 neuroimaging studies published between 1990 and 2005 in order to determine if specific brain regions were activated when experiencing an emotion directly and (indirectly) through the experience of someone else.<ref name="Wager 2007">{{cite journal|last=Wager|first=T.D.|author2=Lindquist, M. |author3=Kaplan, L.|title=Meta-analysis of functional neuroimaging data: Current and future directions|journal=Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience|year=2007|volume=2|issue=2|pages=150–158|doi=10.1093/scan/nsm015 |pmc=2555451|pmid=18985131}}</ref> According to the study, six different functional groups showed similar activation patterns. The psychological functions of each group were discussed in more basic terms. These regions may also play a role in processing visual information and paying attention to emotional signals.<ref name="Kober 2008">{{cite journal |last=Kober |first=H. |author2=Barrett, L.F. |author3=Joseph, J. |author4=Bliss-Moreau, E. |author5=Lindquist, K. |author6=Wager, T.D. |year=2008 |title=Functional grouping and cortical-subcortical interactions in emotion: A meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies |journal=NeuroImage |volume=42 |issue=2 |pages=998–1031 |doi=10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.03.059 |pmc=2752702 |pmid=18579414}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Groups 
! Group !! Regions !!Notes
|-
| Core limbic||left amygdala, hypothalamus, periaqueductal gray/thalamus regions, and amygdala/ventral striatum/ventral globus pallidus/thalamus regions|| A functional emotional center responsible for evaluating affective significance. 
|-
|Lateral Paralimbic|| ventral anterior insula/frontal operculum/right temporal pole/ posterior orbitofrontal cortex, the anterior insula/ posterior orbitofrontal cortex, the ventral anterior insula/ temporal cortex/ orbitofrontal cortex junction, the midinsula/ dorsal putamen, and the ventral striatum /mid insula/ left hippocampus ||Contributes to motivation, especially in reward, by making stimuli more valuable. 
|-
|Medial Prefrontal Cortex|| dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, pregenual anterior cingulate cortex, and rostral dorsal anterior cingulate cortex||Plays a role in both the generation and regulation of emotion. 
|-
|Cognitive/ Motor Network|| right frontal operculum, the right interior frontal gyrus, and the pre-supplementray motor area/ left interior frontal gyrus, regions|| Plays a general role in information processing and cognitive control.
|-
| Occipital/ Visual Association|| V8 and V4 areas of the primary visual cortex, the medial temporal lobe, and the lateral occipital cortex||
|-
|Medial Posterior|| posterior cingulate cortex and area V1 of the primary visual cortex||
|}

===Vytal et al. 2010===
Vytal, et al. 2010 examined 83 neuroimaging studies published between 1993–2008 to examine whether neuroimaging evidence supports biologically discrete, basic emotions (i.e. fear, anger, disgust, happiness, and sadness). Consistency analyses identified brain regions associated with individual emotions. Discriminability analyses identified brain regions that were differentially active under contrasting pairs of emotions. This meta-analysis examined PET or fMRI studies that reported whole brain analyses identifying significant activations for at least one of the five emotions relative to a neutral or control condition. The authors used activation likelihood estimation (ALE) to perform spatially sensitive, voxel-wise (sensitive to the spatial properties of [[voxel]]s) statistical comparisons across studies. This technique allows for direct statistical comparison between activation maps associated with each discrete emotion. Thus, discriminability between the five discrete emotion categories was assessed on a more precise spatial scale than in prior meta-analyses.

Consistency was first assessed by comparing the cross-study ALE map for each emotion to ALE maps generated by random permutations. Discriminability was assessed by pair-wise contrasts of emotion maps. Consistent and discriminable activation patterns were observed for the five categories. 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Associations<ref name="Vytal 2010">{{cite journal|last=Vytal|first=K.|author2=Hamann, S.|title=Neuroimaging support for discrete neural correlates of basic emotions: A voxel-based meta-analysis|journal=Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience|year=2010|volume=22|issue=12|pages=2864–2885|doi=10.1162/jocn.2009.21366|pmid=19929758|s2cid=18151469}}</ref>

! Emotion !! Peak !! Regions
|-
| Happiness ||right superior temporal gyrus, left rostral anterior cingulate cortex ||9 regional brain clusters
|-
| Sadness ||left medial frontal gyrus || 35 clusters - especially, left medial frontal gyrus, right middle temporal gyrus, and right inferior frontal gyrus
|-
| Anger || left inferior frontal gyrus||13 clusters - bilateral inferior frontal gyrus, and in right parahippocampal gyrus
|-
| Fear || left amygdala|| 11 clusters - left amygdala and left putamen
|-
| Disgust || right insula/ right inferior frontal gyrus|| 16 clusters - right putamen and the left insula.
|}

===Lindquist et al. 2012===
Lindquist, et al. reviewed 91 PET and fMRI studies published between January 1990 and December 2007. Induction methods were used to elicit fear, sadness, disgust, anger, and happiness. The goal was to compare basic emotions approaches with psychological constructionist approaches.<ref name="Wager 2007" />

It was found that many brain regions activated consistently or selectively for one emotion category when experienced or perceived. As predicted by constructionist models, no region demonstrated functional specificity for fear, disgust, happiness, sadness, or anger.

The authors suggest that certain brain areas traditionally assigned to certain emotions are incorrect and instead correspond to different emotion categories. There is some evidence that the amygdala, anterior insula, and orbitofrontal cortex all contribute to "core affect", which are feelings of pleasure or discomfort. 
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Core affects
! Region !! Role
|-
| Amygdala || Identifying whether external sensory information is motivationally relevant, new, or evokes uncertainty
|-
|Anterior insula || Describes the core affective feelings, mostly driven by body sensations, across all emotion categories
|-
|Orbitofrontal cortex || Guides behavior by combining sensory information from the body and our environment
|}
The anterior cingulate and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex play a key role in attention, which is closely related to core affect. By using sensory information, the anterior cingulate directs attention and motor responses. According to psychological constructionist theory, emotions are conceptualizations connecting the world and the body, and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex facilitates executive attention. As well as playing an active role in conceptualizing, the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus also simulate previous experiences. In several studies, the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, which supports language, was consistently active during emotion perception and experience.<ref name="Lindquist 2012" />

==See also==
* [[Affective science]]
* [[Affective spectrum]]
* [[Affect (psychology)]]
* [[Endocrinology]]
* [[Experience machine]]
* [[Feeling]]
* [[Music therapy]]
* [[Neuroendocrinology]]
* [[Outline of brain mapping]]
* [[Outline of the human brain]]
* [[Psychiatry]]
* [[Psychophysiology]]
* [[S.M. (patient)]]
* [[Wirehead (science fiction)]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal | last1 = Davidson | first1 = R.J. | last2 = Irwin | first2 = W. | year = 1999 | title = The functional neuroanatomy of emotion and affective style | journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences | volume = 3 | issue = 1| pages = 11–21 | doi=10.1016/s1364-6613(98)01265-0| pmid = 10234222 | s2cid = 30912026 }}
* {{cite journal | last1 = Panksepp | first1 = J. | year = 1992 | title = A critical role for affective neuroscience in resolving what is basic about basic emotions | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 99 | issue = 3| pages = 554–60 | doi=10.1037/0033-295x.99.3.554| pmid = 1502276 }}
* Harmon-Jones E, & Winkielman P. (Eds.) Social Neuroscience: Integrating Biological and Psychological Explanations of Social Behavior. New York: Guilford Publications.
* Cacioppo, J.T., & Berntson, G.G. (2005). Social Neuroscience. Psychology Press.
* Cacioppo, J.T., Tassinary, L.G., & Berntson, G.G. (2007). Handbook of Psychophysiology. Cambridge University Press.
* Panksepp J. (1998). Affective Neuroscience: The Foundations of Human and Animal Emotions (Series in Affective Science). Oxford University Press, New York, New York.
* ''Brain and Cognition'', Vol. 52, No. 1, pp.&nbsp;1–133 (June, 2003). Special Issue on Affective Neuroscience.

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{{Neuroscience}}
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[[Category:Affective science]]
[[Category:Branches of neuroscience]]
[[Category:Emotion]]
[[Category:Neuropsychology]]