View source for Aelia Capitolina

{{short description|Roman colony built on the ruins of Jerusalem}}
{{Infobox ancient site|name=Aelia Capitolina|image=|alt=|caption=|map_type=Jerusalem|map_alt=|map_size=250|location=[[Jerusalem]]|region=|coordinates={{coord|31.775689|35.23104|display=inline}}|type=|part_of=|length=|width=|area=|height=|builder=|material=|built=|cultures=|dependency_of=|occupants=}}
'''Aelia Capitolina''' ([[Latin language|Latin]]: ''Colonia Aelia Capitolina'' [[Help:IPA/Latin|[kɔˈloːni.a ˈae̯li.a kapɪtoːˈliːna]]]) was a [[Colonia (Roman)|Roman colony]] founded during the [[Roman emperor]]  [[Hadrian]]'s visit to [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]] in 129/130 CE.<ref name="Metcalf20122">{{cite book |author=William E. Metcalf |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=trkUDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA492 |title=The Oxford Handbook of Greek and Roman Coinage |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-19-937218-8 |pages=492–}}</ref><ref name="Weksler-Bdolah20192">{{cite book |author=Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DnnEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA54 |title=Aelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman Period: In Light of Archaeological Research |date=December 16, 2019 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-41707-6 |pages=54–58}}</ref> It was founded on the ruins of [[Jerusalem]], which had been almost totally razed after [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|the siege of 70 CE]]. This act marked a significant transformation of the city from a [[Jerusalem during the Second Temple period|Jewish metropolis]] to a small pagan settlement dedicated to the cult of [[Jupiter Capitolinus|Capitoline Jupiter]].{{Sfn|Magness|2024|p=338–339}}

The population of Aelia Capitolina consisted primarily of [[Roman legionaries]], veterans, and other non-Jewish settlers.{{Sfn|Magness|2024|p=338–339}} Jews were forbidden entrance to the city.<ref name="Weksler-Bdolah20192" /><ref name="Jacobson2">{{cite journal |last=Jacobson |first=David |title=The Enigma of the Name Īliyā (= Aelia) for Jerusalem in Early Islam |url=https://www.academia.edu/38981188 |journal=Revision 4 |access-date=2020-12-23}}</ref> The city's urban layout was redesigned with broad colonnaded streets, arched gateways, and forums that served as commercial and social hubs. The religious landscape also shifted, with the worship of Roman deities replacing the Jewish religious practices that had been centered around the [[Temple in Jerusalem]].{{Sfn|Magness|2024|p=338–339}} Aelia Capitolina remained a relatively minor city within the [[Roman Empire]], with an estimated population of around 4,000, significantly lower than the population during the late [[Jerusalem during the Second Temple period|Second Temple period]].{{Sfn|Magness|2024|p=338–339}}

The modest colony would change dramatically starting in the early 4th century, when [[Constantine the Great]] granted Christianity legal status within the Roman Empire. This led to the construction of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]], laying the groundwork for its eventual transformation into a prominent Christian center during the [[Jerusalem during the Byzantine period|Byzantine period]].<ref name=":22">{{Cite book |last=Sivan |first=Hagith |url=https://www.worldcat.org/title/170203843 |title=Palestine in late antiquity |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-928417-7 |location=Oxford; New York |pages=1, 190, 194–195, 221 |oclc=170203843}}</ref> The ban on Jews was maintained until the Muslim conquest of Jerusalem in 636. The ''Aelia'' part of the name was used in Arabic as ''Īlyāʾ'' during the [[Umayyad Caliphate]].<ref name="Jacobson2" />

==Name==
''Aelia'' came from Hadrian's [[Aelia gens]], while ''Capitolina'' meant that the new city was dedicated to [[Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus|Jupiter Capitolinus]],<ref name=":12">{{cite web |title=Aelia Capitolina |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Aelia-Capitolina |access-date=8 August 2024 |publisher=Britannica}}</ref> whom the Romans believed had vanquished and replaced the [[Yahweh|God of the Jews]].{{Sfn|Magness|2024|p=338–339}} A temple to Jupiter was built in the city.<ref name=":12" /> The Latin name ''Aelia'' is the source of the much later term ''Īlyāʾ'' ({{lang|ar|إيليا}}), a 7th-century early Arab name for Jerusalem.<ref name="Jacobson2" />

==Founding==
In 129–130 CE, Hadrian visited [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]]. Jerusalem, once heavily rebuilt by [[Herod the Great]], was still in ruins following the decisive siege of the city in 70 CE as part of the [[First Jewish–Roman War]]. The emperor resolved to reconstruct the city as a Roman colony dedicated to Jupiter.{{sfn|Magness|2024|pp=294–295}} The decision to rebuild the city with a pagan character was seen by the Jewish population as a direct affront to their religion. [[E. Mary Smallwood|Mary E. Smallwood]] writes that the foundation of Aelia Capitolina was likely "an attempt to combat resurgent Jewish nationalism" by secularizing the Jewish capital.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=434}} Martin Goodman describes Hadrian's decision as a deliberate effort to enact a "final solution for Jewish rebelliousness," aiming to erase the city permanently and prevent future uprisings, both in Judaea and among diaspora communities, as [[Diaspora Revolt|had occurred]] under [[Trajan]].{{sfn|Goodman|2004|p=27–28}} According to Goodman, the foundation of a Roman colony—rather than a Hellenistic [[polis]]—was designed to transplant foreign populations and impose Roman religious practices. While Hadrian established many cities, this case was distinct, as it was "not to flatter but to suppress the natives."{{sfn|Goodman|2004|p=27–28}}

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| footer            = The first coin issued at the mint of Aelia Capitolina about 130/132. Reverse: COL[ONIA] AEL[IA] CAPIT[OLINA] COND[ITA] ('The founding of Colonia Aelia Capitolina'), showing Hadrian while ploughing the first furrow.
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In the past, conflicting accounts in ancient sources led scholars to debate whether Aelia Capitolina's foundation was a cause or a consequence of the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] (132–135 CE).{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=433}} According to [[Cassius Dio]], Hadrian's decision to rebuild Jerusalem and erect a temple to Jupiter on the site of the former Jewish Temple was a direct catalyst for the revolt. He writes that the construction "''caused a long and serious war, since the Jews objected to having gentiles settled in their city and foreign cults established there''."{{Efn|Cassius Dio, LXIX, 12, 1-2{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=432}}}} In contrast, [[Eusebius|Eusebius of Caesarea]], writing from a Christian perspective, framed the establishment of Aelia Capitolina as a punitive measure following the Jewish defeat.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=433}} He wrote that when the city "h''ad been emptied of the Jewish nation and had suffered the total destruction of its ancient inhabitants, it was colonized by a different race, and the Roman city which subsequently arose changed its name and was called Aelia''".{{Efn|Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History, IV, 6.3–6.4{{sfn|Magness|2024|p=307}}}}{{sfn|Magness|2024|p=307}} Supporters of this view regarded the construction of Aelia Capitolina as part of Hadrian's broader policies to suppress Jewish nationalism following the revolt, including the prohibition of circumcision, the expulsion of Jews from Jerusalem, and the renaming of Judaea as [[Syria Palaestina]], removing its Jewish-associated name.<ref>Elizabeth Speller, {{Google books|id=3c8kB3m0r8kC|page=218|title=Following Hadrian: A Second-Century Journey Through the Roman Empire}}, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 218</ref>

The discovery of Aelia Capitolina coins struck before the revolt, found in a building abandoned prior to the uprising and in coin hoards from [[Bar Kokhba refuge caves]], has provided strong archaeological evidence that the city's foundation preceded the revolt.{{sfn|Magness|2024|p=307}}{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=107}} This evidence has led most modern historians to favor Cassius Dio's account, placing Hadrian's urban and religious policies as key factors that contributed to Jewish resistance. Meanwhile, Eusebius' interpretation, which presents the city's reconstruction as a post-revolt punishment, is now seen as likely influenced by a [[Supersessionism|supersessionist]] theology.{{sfn|Magness|2024|p=307}}{{Infobox Historical Era|name=Aelia Capitolina (Jerusalem)|image=Roman Empire 125.png|caption=Jerusalem in the Roman empire under [[Hadrian]] showing the location of the Roman legions|start=AD 130|end=AD 324–325|before=[[Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period#Herodian period|Jerusalem during the Early Roman period]]|after=[[History of Jerusalem during the Middle Ages#Byzantine rule|Jerusalem during the Byzantine period]]}}

== Construction and plan ==
{{Jerusalem large}}
Jerusalem was rebuilt in the style of its original [[Hippodamus of Miletus|Hippodamian plan]], although adapted to Roman use. Jews were prohibited from entering the city on pain of death except for one day each year: during the [[Ta'anit|fast day]] of [[Tisha B'Av]]. Taken together, these measures<ref name="Schäfer20032">{{cite book |author=Peter Schäfer |url={{Google books |id=1TA-Fg4wBnUC |page=36 |plainurl=yes }} |title=The Bar Kokhba war reconsidered: new perspectives on the second Jewish revolt against Rome |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |year=2003 |isbn=978-3-16-148076-8 |pages=36– |access-date=2011-12-04}}</ref><ref name="erp-places2">{{cite encyclopedia |title=Palestine: History |encyclopedia=The On-line Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces |publisher=The University of South Dakota |url=http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/history.htm |access-date=2007-04-18 |last=Lehmann |first=Clayton Miles |date=2007-02-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080310053428/http://www.usd.edu/erp/Palestine/history.htm |archive-date=2008-03-10}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cohen |first=Shaye J. D. |title=Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism: A Parallel History of their Origins and Early Development |publisher=Biblical Archaeology Society |year=1996 |editor=Hershel Shanks |location=Washington DC |page=196 |chapter=Judaism to Mishnah: 135–220 AD}}</ref> (which also affected [[Jewish Christians]])<ref>Emily Jane Hunt, {{Google books|id=Dn5ERgK0djMC|page=7|title=Christianity in the second century: the case of Tatian}}, Psychology Press, 2003, p. 7</ref> essentially secularized the city.<ref>E. Mary Smallwood {{Google books|id=nw0VAAAAIAAJ|page=460|title=The Jews under Roman rule: from Pompey to Diocletian : a study in political relations}} BRILL, 1981, p. 460.</ref> Historical sources and archaeological evidence indicate that veterans of the Roman military and immigrants from the western parts of the empire now inhabited the rebuilt city.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Klein |first1=Ezra |title=New Studies on Jerusalem 16 |date=2010 |editor1-last=Baruch |editor1-first=E |location=Ramat-Gan |pages=321–350 |chapter=The Origins of the Rural Settlers in Judean Mountains and Foothills during the Late Roman Period |quote=Following the failure of the revolt, the process of the Roman administration's takeover of the city's lands and its surroundings was completed [...] The historical sources confirm that Hadrian gave the city the status of a colony of the citizens of Rome, a title that was awarded almost exclusively to cities where veterans and their families lived. [...] The totality of the data allows us to conclude that a significant component of the population of Ilia Capitolina is the veterans of the Roman army and settlers from the west of the empire. |editor2-last=Levy-Reifer |editor2-first=A |editor3-last=Faust |editor3-first=A}}</ref>

Archaeological evidence from this period indicates that Roman customs, including pork consumption and the presence of statues and figured decorations, became widespread. Jewish symbols and practices, such as the use of [[mikveh|miqvaot]] (ritual baths) and [[stone vessels in ancient Judaea|traditional stone vessels]], disappeared.{{Sfn|Magness|2024|p=338–339}}

The city was without walls, protected by a light garrison of [[Legio X Fretensis]] during the Late Roman period. The detachment at Jerusalem, which encamped all over the city's western hill, was responsible for preventing Jews from returning to the city. Roman enforcement of this prohibition continued through the 4th century.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}{{stack|[[File:Roman_Jerusalem.svg|alt=|thumb|The two pairs of main roads—the cardines (north-south) and decumani (east-west)—in Aelia Capitolina.]]}}

===Layout and street pattern===
{{Main|The Cardo (Jerusalem)}}
The urban plan of Aelia Capitolina was that of a typical Roman town wherein main thoroughfares crisscrossed the [[Urban planning|urban grid]] lengthwise and widthwise.<ref>[http://jeru.huji.ac.il/ed22.htm The Cardo] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081217114200/http://jeru.huji.ac.il/ed22.htm|date=December 17, 2008}} Hebrew University</ref> The urban grid was based on the usual central north–south road (''[[cardo]] maximus'') and central east–west route (''[[Decumanus Maximus|decumanus maximus]]''). However, as the main cardo ran up the western hill, and the [[Temple Mount]] blocked the eastward route of the main decumanus, the strict pattern had to be adapted to the local topography; a secondary, eastern cardo, diverged from the western one and ran down the [[Tyropoeon Valley]], while the decumanus had to zigzag around the Temple Mount, passing it on its northern side. The Hadrianic western cardo terminated not far beyond its junction with the decumanus, where it reached the Roman garrison's encampment, but in the Byzantine period, it was extended over the former camp to reach the southern, expanded margins of the city.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

The two cardines converged near the [[Damascus Gate]], and a semicircular [[piazza]] covered the remaining space; in the piazza, a columnar monument was constructed, hence the Arabic name for the gate, ''Bab el-Amud'' ("Gate of the Column"). [[Tetrapylon]]es were constructed at the other junctions between the main roads.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

This street pattern has been preserved in the [[Old City of Jerusalem]] to the present. The original thoroughfare, flanked by rows of columns and shops, was about {{convert|73|ft|m|abbr=off|sp=us}} wide, but buildings have extended onto the streets over the centuries, and the modern lanes replacing the ancient grid are now quite narrow. The substantial remains of the western cardo have now been exposed to view near the junction with Suq el-Bazaar, and remnants of one of the tetrapylones are preserved in the 19th century [[Franciscan]] chapel at the junction of the Via Dolorosa and Suq Khan ez-Zeit.{{citation needed|date=October 2024}}

===Western forum===
As was standard for new Roman cities, Hadrian placed the city's main [[Forum (Roman)|forum]] at the junction of the main cardo and decumanus, now the location for the (smaller) [[Muristan]]. Adjacent to the forum, Hadrian built [[Temple of Venus (Aelia Capitolina)|a large temple to Venus]], at a site later used for the construction of the [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]]; several boundary walls of Hadrian's temple have been found among the archaeological remains beneath the church.<ref>[[Virgilio Canio Corbo|Virgilio Corbo]], ''The Holy Sepulchre of Jerusalem'' (1981)</ref>

===Valley cardo and eastern forum===
The [[Struthion Pool]] lay in the path of the northern decumanus, so Hadrian placed [[vault (architecture)|vaulting]] over it, added a large pavement on top, and turned it into a secondary forum;<ref name="benoit2">Benoit, Pierre, ''The Archaeological Reconstruction of the Antonia Fortress'', in ''Jerusalem Revealed'' (edited by [[Yigael Yadin]]), (1976)</ref> the pavement can still be seen under the [[Convent of the Sisters of Zion]].<ref name="benoit2" />
{{multiple image
| total_width       = 400
| image1            = Ecce Homo arch in 1864.jpg
| image2            = Ewilson-ecce-homo-arch.jpg
| image3            = PikiWiki Israel 13396 Ecce Homo arch.JPG
| caption1          = The remaining two arches of the gateway in 1864; the smaller arch (left) was incorporated in the [[Basilica of Ecce Homo]].
| caption2          = The portion of the arch visible today (approx. 180° opposite the former image)
| caption3          = The [[basilica]] interior preserves the northern arch of the Aelia Capitolina's [[Ecce Homo arch|eastern forum gateway]] under its [[apse]].
}}

===''Ecce homo'' arch===
Near the Struthion Pool, Hadrian built a triple-arched gateway as an entrance to the eastern forum of Aelia Capitolina.<ref>[[Pierre Benoit (archaeologist)|Benoit, Pierre]], ''The Antonia of Herod the Great, and the East Forum of Aelia Capitolina'' (1971)</ref> Traditionally, this was thought to be the gate of [[Herod the Great|Herod]]'s [[Antonia Fortress]], which itself was alleged to be the location of [[Jesus]]' trial and [[Pontius Pilate]]'s ''[[Ecce homo]]'' speech as described in [[John 19]]:13.<ref>{{bibleverse||John|19:13}}</ref><ref name="cruise2">{{cite book |last1=Warren |first1=E.K. |title=Glimpses of Bible Lands: The Cruise of the Eight Hundred to Jerusalem |last2=Hartshorn |first2=W.N. |last3=McCrillis |first3=A.B. |publisher=The Central Committee |year=1905 |location=Boston, MA |page=168}}</ref> This was due in part to the 1864 discovery of a game etched on a flagstone of the pool. According to the convent's nuns, the game was played by Roman soldiers<ref>Cf. Michael Sebbane (2019), "Board Games from the Eastern Cardo", in ''Jerusalem: Western Wall Plaza Excavations I: The Roman and Byzantine Remains'' (IAA Reports 63), p. 153 {{doi|10.2307/j.ctvpb3vzw.10}}</ref> and may have ended in the execution of a 'mock king'.<ref name="video2">{{cite web |year=2012 |title=Ecce Homo Arch Video |url=http://www.jerusalemexperience.com/tour/ecce-homo-arch-notre-dame-de-sion-convent-via-dolorosa/ |website=Jerusalem Experience}}</ref> [[Ermete Pierotti]] is the first to term the words ''Ecce Homo'' to the arch, in reference to Pilate's words to Jesus.<ref>Pierotti, Ermete (1864), ''Jerusalem explored'' (volume 2), [https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/44241/pg44241-images.html#plate12 Plate XIII]</ref> It is possible that following its destruction, the Antonia Fortress's pavement tiles were brought to the cistern of Hadrian's plaza.<ref name="video2" />

When later constructions narrowed the ''[[Via Dolorosa]]'', the two arches on either side of the central arch became incorporated into a succession of more modern buildings. The Basilica of Ecce Homo now preserves the northern arch.<ref name="cruise2" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Benoit |first1=P. |date=1971 |title=L'Antonia D'Hérode le Grand et le Forum Oriental D'Aelia Capitolina |journal=The Harvard Theological Review |language=fr |volume=64 |issue=2/3 |pages=135–167 |doi=10.1017/S0017816000032478 |issn=0017-8160 |jstor=1509294 |s2cid=162902370}}</ref> The southern arch was incorporated into a [[Zawiya (institution)|zawiya (Sufi monastery)]] for [[Uzbeks|Uzbek]] [[dervish]]es of the [[Naqshbandi order]] in the 16th century,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Madain Project |title=Arch of Hadrian |url=https://madainproject.com/ecce_homo_arch |access-date=2019-07-12}}</ref> but these were demolished in the 19th century in order to found a mosque.<ref>Lewin, Thomas. [https://books.google.com/books?id=2SldAAAAcAAJ&dq=Via+Dolorosa+south+arch+monastery&pg=PA202 ''The Siege of Jerusalem by Titus: With the Journal of a Recent Visit to the Holy City, and a General Sketch of the Topography of Jerusalem from the Earliest Times Down to the Siege'']. London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, & Green, 1863: 202. [[Google Books|Google books]]. 2019-07-12.</ref>

== Population ==
Aelia Capitolina remained a relatively minor city within the [[Roman Empire]], with an estimated population of around 4,000 inhabitants, significantly lower than the population during the late [[Jerusalem during the Second Temple period|Second Temple period]].{{Sfn|Magness|2024|p=338–339}} The demographic consisted primarily of [[Roman legionaries]], veterans, and other non-Jewish settlers.{{Sfn|Magness|2024|p=338–339}}

Jews were permitted to enter Aelia Capitolina only once a year, on [[Tisha B'Av]], to mourn the destruction of the Second Temple.{{sfn|Friedman|1996|p=137}} A [[Itinerarium Burdigalense|Christian pilgrim from Bordeaux]], who visited the city in 333, recorded that Jews would gather annually to anoint a perforated stone, where they would "''bewail themselves with groans, rend their garments, and so depart''."{{sfn|Friedman|1996|p=138}} Similarly, Jerome described the annual Jewish pilgrimage to the city, writing: ''And in order for them to be allowed to weep over the ruin of their city, they pay a fine [...] on the day in which Jerusalem was captured and plundered by the Romans, the people came mourning, the feeble foolish women assemble, and the old men, covered with years and rags, show the wrath of the Lord in their bodies and in their physical appearance''.<ref>[[Jerome]], ''Commentary on Zephaniah'' 1:15–16 (translation by [[Thomas P. Scheck]])</ref>{{sfn|Millar|2010|pp=65, 77}}

According to [[Eusebius]], the [[Early centers of Christianity#Jerusalem|Jerusalem church]] was dispersed twice, first in 70 CE and again in 135 CE. A key distinction between these periods is that from 70 to 130 CE, the bishops of Jerusalem bore Jewish names, whereas after 135 CE, the bishops of Aelia Capitolina appear to have been Greek.<ref>"Jerusalem in Early Christian Thought" p. 75 ''Explorations in a Christian theology of pilgrimage'' ed Craig G. Bartholomew, Fred Hughes</ref> Eusebius' evidence for the continuation of a church at Aelia Capitolina is confirmed by the [[Itinerarium Burdigalense]], a 4th-century Christian [[Travelogues of Palestine|travelogue]].<ref>Richard Bauckham "The Christian Community of Aelia Capitolina" in ''The Book of Acts in Its Palestinian Setting'' p. 310.</ref>

== Later history ==
{{Main|Jerusalem during the Byzantine period}}
The reign of Constantine the Great and the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in the early fourth century initiated the process of Christian establishment in Jerusalem, eventually transforming the small colony into a prominent Christian center.<ref name=":22" /> The city was later ranked the fifth imperial patriarchate, alongside Rome, Alexandria, Constantinople, and Antioch.<ref name=":22" /> This transformation continued over the next three centuries during the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine period]] until the [[Siege of Jerusalem (636–637)|Muslim conquest of the city]] in 636/7.<ref name=":22" />

{{stack|[[File:Madaba_map.jpg|thumb|The [[Madaba Map]] depiction of 6th-century [[Jerusalem]] has the ''[[Cardo]] Maximus'', the town's main street, beginning at the northern gate (today's [[Damascus Gate]]), and traversing the city in a straight line south to "New Church".]]}}
The ban on Jewish entry remained in place after the [[Christianity as the Roman state religion|Christianization of the Roman Empire]],{{sfn|Friedman|1996|p=138}} and continued until the 7th-century Muslim conquest of Jerusalem.<ref>{{cite web |last=Zank |first=Michael |title=Byzantian Jerusalem |url=https://www.bu.edu/mzank/Jerusalem/p/period3-2.htm |access-date=1 February 2007 |publisher=Boston University}}</ref>{{sfn|Friedman|1996|pp=138–139}} Christians had been allowed to visit the city since the 4th century, when Constantine ordered the construction of Christian holy sites in the city. Burial remains from the Byzantine period are exclusively Christian, suggesting that the population of Jerusalem in Byzantine times probably consisted only of Christians.<ref>Gideon Avni, {{Google books|id=ZLucAgAAQBAJ|page=144|title=The Byzantine-Islamic Transition in Palestine: An Archaeological Approach}}, Oxford University Press 2014 p.144.</ref>

In the fifth century, the emperor based in [[Constantinople]] maintained control of the city, but following [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian emperor]] [[Khosrow II]]'s early seventh-century advance through [[Syria]], his generals [[Shahrbaraz]] and [[Shahin Vahmanzadegan]] attacked Jerusalem, aided by the Jews of [[Palaestina Prima]], who had risen against the Byzantines.<ref name="AntiochusStrategos2">{{Cite book |last=Conybeare |first=Frederick C. |author-link=Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare |title=The Capture of Jerusalem by the Persians in 614 AD |year=1910 |series=English Historical Review 25 |pages=502–517}}</ref> In 614, after 21 days of siege, [[Sasanian conquest of Jerusalem|Jerusalem was captured]]. Byzantine chronicles relate that the Sasanian and Jewish forces slaughtered tens of thousands of Christians in the city, many at the [[Mamilla Pool]], and destroyed their monuments and churches, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The conquered city would remain in Sasanian hands for some fifteen years. It was reconquered by emperor [[Heraclius]] in 629.<ref>Rodney Aist,''The Christian Topography of Early Islamic Jerusalem,''Brepols Publishers, 2009 p.56:'Persian control of Jerusalem lasted from 614 to 629'.</ref>

Byzantine Jerusalem was conquered by the armies of [[Umar]], the [[Rashidun Caliph|Rashid caliph]], in 636,<ref>{{cite book |author=Dan Bahat |title=The Illustrated Atlas of Jerusalem |year=1996 |page=71}}</ref> which resulted in the removal of the restrictions on Jews living in the city. In this era, it was referred to in Arabic as ''Madinat Bayt al-Maqdis'' "City of the Temple",<ref>Ben-Dov, M. ''Historical Atlas of Jerusalem''. Translated by David Louvish. New York: Continuum, 2002, p. 171</ref> a name restricted to the Temple Mount. The rest of the city was called ''Ilyā'', reflecting the Roman name ''Aelia''.<ref>Linquist, J.M., ''The Temple of Jerusalem'', Praeger, London, 2008, p. 184</ref>{{efn|"Till the time of Constantine, and for at least two centuries later, Aelia remained the official name and usual geographical designation; was still longer continued in Christian writings; and even passed over into Arabic as 'Iliyā'."<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.cwru.edu/UL/preserve/Etana/SMITH.JERUv1/SMITH.JERUv1.250.273.pdf|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20031212012636/http://www.cwru.edu/UL/preserve/Etana/SMITH.JERUv1/SMITH.JERUv1.250.273.pdf |url-status= dead |archive-date= 2003-12-12 |title= The Name Jerusalem and its History }}</ref>}}

==See also==
{{Portal|History|Roman Empire|Judaism
}}

* [[Alexander of Jerusalem]] (died 251), bishop of Jerusalem
* [[Caesarea Maritima]], Roman provincial capital after 6 CE
* [[Gabbatha]], biblical name of the place where Pilate tried Jesus
* [[Names of Jerusalem]]

==References==
'''Footnotes'''
<references group="lower-alpha" responsive="1"></references>
'''Citations'''
<references responsive="0"></references>

==Bibliography==
'''Main sources'''
* {{Cite book |last=Eshel |first=Hanan |url= |title=The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |volume=4th |location= |pages= |chapter=The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132–135}}
* {{Cite book |last=Friedman |first=Mark |title=City of the Great King: Jerusalem from David to the Present |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-674-36708-1 |editor-last=Rosovsky |editor-first=Nitza |location= |pages=136–147 |chapter=Jewish Pilgrimage after the Destruction of the Second Temple}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Goodman |first=Martin |year=2004 |title=Trajan and the Origins of Roman Hostility to the Jews |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3600803 |journal=[[Past & Present (journal)|Past & Present]] |volume= |issue=182 |pages=3–29 |doi= 10.1093/past/182.1.3|jstor=3600803 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book |last=Magness |first=Jodi |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/jerusalem-through-the-ages-9780190937805 |title=Jerusalem Through The Ages: From Its Beginnings To The Crusades |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2024 |isbn=978-0-19-093780-5 |series= |volume= |location=New York, NY |pages= |chapter=}}
* {{cite journal |last=Millar |first=Fergus |year=2010 |title=Jerome and Palestine |journal=Scripta Classica Israelica |volume=29 |pages=59–79}}
* {{Cite book |last=Smallwood |first=E. Mary |url=https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004502048_023 |title=The Jews under Roman Rule from Pompey to Diocletian |publisher=Brill |year=1976 |isbn=978-90-04-50204-8 |series= |volume= |location= |pages= |chapter= |doi=10.1163/9789004502048_023}}

'''Further reading'''
* Leo Kadman, '''The Coins of Aelia Capitolina''', Jerusalem, 1956
* Benjamin H. Isaac, ''Roman Colonies in Judaea: the Foundation of Aelia Capitolina'', '''Talanta''' XII/XIII (1980/81), pp.&nbsp;31–54
* Ritti, T., ''Documenti adrianei da Hierapolis di Frigia: le epistole di Adriano alla città'', ''L’Hellénisme d’époque romaine. Nouveaux documents, nouvelles approches (ier s. a.C.–iiie s. p.C.)'', Paris, 2014, pp.&nbsp;297–340
* Yaron Z. Eliav, [https://books.google.com/books?id=1TA-Fg4wBnUC&dq=Ecce%20Homo%20blomme&pg=PA244 The Urban Layout of Aelia Capitolina: A New View from the Perspective of the Temple Mount], '''The Bar Kokhba war reconsidered: new perspectives on the second Jewish Revolt''', Peter Schäfer (ed.), 2003, pp.&nbsp;241–277
* Zissu, B., Klein, E., Kloner, A. ''Settlement Processes in the territorium of Roman Jerusalem (Aelia Capitolina)'', J. M. Alvarez, T. Nogales, I. Roda (hg.), XVIII CIAC: Centre and Periphery in the Ancient World, Mérida, 2014, pp.&nbsp;219–223.
* S. Weksler-Bdolah, ''The Foundation of Aelia Capitolina in Light of New Excavations along the Eastern Cardo'', '''IEJ''' 64, 2014, pp.&nbsp;38–62
* B. Isaac,''Caesarea-on-the-Sea and Aelia Capitolina: Two Ambiguous Roman Colonies'', ''L’héritage Grec des colonies Romaines d’Orient. Interactions culturelles dans les provinces hellénophones de l’empire romain'', C. Brélaz (hg.), Paris, 2017, pp.&nbsp;331–343.
* Kloner, A., Klein, E., Zissu, B., ''The Rural Hinterland (territorium) of Aelia Capitolina'', G. Avni, G. D. Stiebel (hg.), Roman Jerusalem: A New Old City, Portsmouth, RI, 2017, pp.&nbsp;131–141.
* Newman, H. I., ''The Temple Mount of Jerusalem and the Capitolium of Aelia Capitolina'', '''Knowledge and Wisdom: Archaeological and Historical Essays in Honour of Leah Di Segni''', G. C. Bottini, L. D. Chrupcała, J. Patrich (hg.), Jerusalem, 2017, pp.&nbsp;35–42
* A. Bernini, ''Un riconoscimento di debito redatto a Colonia Aelia Capitolina'', '''Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik''' 206, 2018, pp.&nbsp;183–193
* A. Bernini, ''New Evidence for Colonia Aelia Capitolina (P. Mich. VII 445 + inv. 3888c + inv. 3944k'', '''Proceedings of the 28th International Congress of Papyrology''', Barcelona, 2019, pp.&nbsp;557–562.
* Werner Eck, [https://www.ejournals.eu/pliki/art/15014/ Die Colonia Aelia Capitolina: Überlegungen zur Anfangsphase der zweiten römischen Kolonie in der Provinz Iudaea-Syria Palaestina], '''ELECTRUM''', Vol. 26 (2019), pp.&nbsp;129–139
* Miriam Ben Zeev Hofman, ''Eusebius and Hadrian's Founding of Aelia Capitolina in Jerusalem'', '''ELECTRUM''', Vol. 26 (2019), pp.&nbsp;119–128
* Shlomit Weksler-Bdolah, '''Aelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman Period - In Light of Archaeological Research''', Mnemosyne, Supplements, History and Archaeology of Classical Antiquity, Volume: 432, Brill, 2020

==External links==
* [http://www.jesusneverexisted.com/aelia.htm Detailed description (including map) of the city of Aelia Capitolina] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711103045/http://www.jesusneverexisted.com/aelia.htm|date=2021-07-11}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090907043901/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/jhs/TSsptemp.html Pictures of the cave where it is believed by Christians that Jesus was buried and from which it is believed he resurrected and a picture of the remains of the walls of the Temple of Venus previously constructed on that site by the emperor Hadrian]
* [https://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/features/archaeologists-bringing-jerusalem-s-ancient-roman-city-back-to-life-1.413874 "Archaeologists bringing Jerusalem's ancient Roman city back to life"  by Nir Hasson, Ha'aretz, February 21, 2012]
* [https://www.manar-al-athar.ox.ac.uk/pages/search.php?search=%21collection542 Photos of the Ecco Homo Arch] at the [[Manar al-Athar]] photo archive

{{coord|31.775689|N|35.231040|E|display=title}}{{Roman colonies in ancient Levant}}{{Bar Kokhba revolt}}

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