View source for Ötzi

{{Short description|Natural mummy of a man who lived c. 3300 BC}}
{{Other uses}}
{{protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Bots|deny=InternetArchiveBot}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox person
| name               = 
| pronunciation      = {{IPA|de|ˈœtsi|lang|De-Oetzi-pronunciation.ogg}}
| image              = Otzi museo.jpg
| caption            = A reconstruction of how Ötzi may have looked
| birth_date         = {{circa|3275 BC}}
| birth_place        = Near the present village of [[Feldthurns]] (Velturno), north of [[Bolzano]], Italy
| death_date         = {{circa|3230 BC}} (aged about 45)
| death_place        = [[Ötztal Alps]], near Tisenjoch on the border between Austria and Italy
| other_names        = Ötzi the Iceman
 
| known_for          = Oldest [[natural mummy]] of a [[Chalcolithic]] (Copper Age) European man
| height             = {{cvt|160|cm|ftin}}
| website            = 
| footnotes          = 
}}
'''Ötzi''', also called '''The Iceman''', is the [[natural mummy]] of a man who lived between 3350 and 3105&nbsp;BC. Ötzi's remains were discovered on 19 September 1991, in the [[Ötztal Alps]] (hence the nickname "Ötzi", {{IPA|de|œtsi|lang}}) at the [[Austria–Italy border]]. He is Europe's oldest known natural human mummy, offering an unprecedented view of [[Chalcolithic]] (Copper Age) Europeans.

Because of the presence of an arrowhead embedded in his left shoulder and various other wounds, researchers believe that Ötzi was killed by another person. The nature of his life and the circumstances of his death are the subject of much investigation and speculation. His remains and personal belongings are on exhibit at the [[South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology]] in [[Bolzano]], [[South Tyrol]], Italy.

==Discovery==
{{Location map
| Alps
| width      =
| float      =
| border     =
| caption    = Discovery site marked on a map of the Alps
| alt        =
| relief     = yes
| AlternativeMap =
| overlay_image =
| label      =
| label_size =
| position   =
| background =
| mark       =
| marksize   =
| link       =
| lat_deg    = 46.779389
| lon_deg    = 10.840306
}}

Ötzi was found on 19 September 1991 by two German tourists, at an elevation of {{cvt|3210|m}} on the east ridge of the [[Fineilspitze]] in the [[Ötztal Alps]] on the Austrian–Italian border, near [[Similaun]] mountain and the Tisenjoch pass. When the tourists, Helmut and Erika Simon, first saw the body, they both believed that they had happened upon a recently deceased [[Mountaineering|mountaineer]].<ref>[http://www.iceman.it/en/node/233 Description of the Discovery] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111213024011/http://www.iceman.it/en/node/233 |date=13 December 2011 }} at the South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology web site</ref> The next day, a mountain [[Gendarmerie|gendarme]] and the keeper of the nearby Similaunhütte first attempted to remove the body, which was frozen in ice below the torso, using a pneumatic drill and ice axes, but bad weather forced them to give up. Within a short time, eight groups visited the site, among whom were mountaineers [[Hans Kammerlander]] and [[Reinhold Messner]].

The body was extracted on 22 September and salvaged the following day. It was transported to the office of the medical examiner in [[Innsbruck]], together with other objects found nearby. On 24 September, the find was examined there by [[archaeologist]] [[Konrad Spindler]] of the [[University of Innsbruck]]. He dated the find to be "at least four thousand years old" on the basis of the [[Typology (archaeology)|typology]] of an axe among the retrieved objects.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fowler |first=Brenda |title=Iceman: Uncovering the Life and Times of a Prehistoric Man Found in an Alpine Glacier |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-226-25823-2 |page=37&nbsp;''ff''}}</ref><ref name="Iceman-2013">{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=The Incredible Age of the Find |url=http://www.iceman.it/en/oetzi-age |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150624085502/http://www.iceman.it/en/oetzi-age |archive-date=2015-06-24 |access-date=2015-08-03 |publisher=[[South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology]]}}</ref> Tissue samples from the corpse and other accompanying materials were later analyzed at several scientific institutions and their results unequivocally concluded that the remains belonged to someone who had lived between 3359 and 3105 BC, or some 5,000 years ago.<ref name="Iceman-2013" /> More specific estimates find that there was a 66% chance he died between 3239 and 3105 BC, a 33% chance he died between 3359 and 3294 BC, and a 1% chance he died between 3277 and 3268 BC.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bonani |first1=Georges |last2=Ivy |first2=Susan D. |last3=Hajdas |first3=Irena |last4=Niklaus |first4=Thomas R. |last5=Suter |first5=Martin |date=1994 |title=Ams 14 C Age Determinations of Tissue, Bone and Grass Samples from the Ötztal Ice Man |journal=Radiocarbon |language=en |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=247–250 |bibcode=1994Radcb..36..247B |doi=10.1017/S0033822200040534 |issn=0033-8222 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

In the course of recovery attempts and subsequent handling, multiple mishaps occurred. The mummy and its belongings were prodded with ski poles and ice picks, and the hip area of the body was damaged with a pneumatic drill. Ötzi's longbow was snapped, with its bottom part recovered from the ice a year later. Careless handling of the body resulted in the destruction of many elements of the clothing Ötzi was wearing at the time of his death. The mummy's left arm was broken while the body was being forced into a coffin for transportation from Vent to Innsbruck. Fungus began growing on the Iceman's skin while the body was on the mortuary slab in Innsbruck. It was only after five days that scientists initiated a rigorous effort to stabilize the mummy's condition.<ref name="nationalgeo">{{cite journal |last1=Roberts |first1=David |title=The Iceman: Lone Voyager From the Copper Age |journal=National Geographic |date=June 1993 |volume=183 |issue=6 |pages=45–46}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ötzi wäre beinahe auf dem Friedhof gelandet |url=https://www.nordbayern.de/region/nuernberg/otzi-ware-beinahe-auf-dem-friedhof-gelandet-1.1763504 |website=Nordbayern |access-date=2 June 2025 |language=de}}</ref>

=== Border dispute ===
At the [[Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)|Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye of 1919]], the border between [[North Tyrol|North]] and [[South Tyrol]] was defined as the [[drainage divide|watershed]] of the rivers [[Inn (river)|Inn]] and [[Etsch]]. Near Tisenjoch, the glacier (which has since retreated) complicated establishing the watershed and the border was drawn too far north. Although Ötzi's find site drains to the Austrian side, land surveys in October 1991 ultimately proved that the body had been located {{cvt|92.56|m|yd|2}} inside Italian territory{{coord|46|46|45.8|N|10|50|25.1|E|display=text}}, which was in consonance with Italy's original 1919 ownership claim.<ref>[http://www.iceman.it/en/node/241 The Border Question] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008075754/http://www.iceman.it/en/node/241 |date=2011-10-08 }},</ref>
The province of South Tyrol claimed property rights but agreed to let Innsbruck University finish its scientific examinations. Since 1998, he has been on display at the [[South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology]] in [[Bolzano]], the capital of South Tyrol.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brida |first1=Juan Gabriel |last2=Meleddu |first2=Marta |last3=Pulina |first3=Manuela |name-list-style=and |date=2012-11-01 |title=Understanding Urban Tourism Attractiveness: The Case of the Archaeological Ötzi Museum in Bolzano |journal=Journal of Travel Research |volume=51 |issue=6 |pages=730–741 |doi=10.1177/0047287512437858 |issn=0047-2875 |s2cid=154672981}}</ref>

==Scientific analyses==
The corpse has been extensively examined, measured, [[X-ray]]ed, and dated. Tissues and intestinal contents have been examined microscopically, as have the items found with the body. In August 2004, the frozen bodies of three [[Austro-Hungarian]] soldiers killed during the [[Battle of San Matteo]] (1918) were found on the mountain [[Punta San Matteo]] in [[Trentino]]. One body was sent to a museum in the hope that research on how the environment had affected its preservation would help unravel Ötzi's past.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2004-08-23 |title=WWI bodies are found on glacier |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3592268.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060630025333/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3592268.stm |archive-date=2006-06-30 |work=BBC News}}</ref>

===Body===
[[File:OetzitheIceman-glacier-199109a.jpg|thumb|alt=Ötzi is half uncovered, facing down in a pool of water with iced banks.|Ötzi frozen in the glacier, photographed by Helmut Simon upon discovery in September 1991]]
<!--  Commented out: [[File:OetzitheIceman-glacier-199109b.jpg|thumb|250px|Another early photograph of the body before its removal from the ice|alt=Another picture of the Iceman from other side, now exposed to just below the waist with the arms partially exposed]] -->

By the most recent estimates, at the time of his death, Ötzi was {{cvt|160|cm|ftin}} tall, weighed about {{cvt|50|kg}}, and was about 45 years of age.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Carroll |first=Rory |date=2000-09-26 |title=Iceman is defrosted for gene tests: New techniques may link Copper Age shepherd to present-day relatives |url=https://www.theguardian.com/international/story/0,,373487,00.html |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=9 November 2012 |title=Mummy Melodrama: Top 9 Secrets About Otzi the Iceman |url=https://www.livescience.com/24666-otzi-iceman-mummy-life-death.html |access-date=30 May 2023 |website=[[Live Science]] |publisher=[[Future plc]]}}</ref> When his body was found, it weighed {{cvt|13.750|kg|lboz}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=transcript |date=17 February 2016 |title=Iceman Reborn |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/video/iceman-reborn/ |access-date=2018-09-13 |website=PBS}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Egarter-Vigl |first=Eduard |title=The Chalcolithic Mummy, Volume 3, In Search of Immortality |publisher=Folio Verlag |year=2006 |isbn=978-3-85256-337-4 |editor-last=Marco Samadelli |page=54 |chapter=The Preservation of the Iceman Mummy}}</ref> Because the body was covered in ice shortly after his death, it had only partially deteriorated. Initial reports claimed that his [[Human penis|penis]] and most of his [[scrotum]] were missing, but this was later shown to be unfounded. Analysis of pollen, dust grains and the [[isotope|isotopic]] composition of his [[tooth enamel]] indicates that he spent his childhood near what is now the South Tyrol village of [[Feldthurns]], north of Bolzano, but later went to live in valleys about {{convert|50|km}} farther north.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Müller |first1=Wolfgang |title=Origin and Migration of the Alpine Iceman |date=2003-10-31 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=302 |issue=5646 |pages=862–866  |bibcode=2003Sci...302..862M |doi=10.1126/science.1089837 |pmid=14593178 |s2cid=21923588 |name-list-style=vanc |display-authors=1 |last2=Fricke |first2=H |last3=Halliday |first3=AN |last4=McCulloch |first4=MT |last5=Wartho |first5=JA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Who was Ötzi the Iceman? |url=http://www.mummytombs.com/otzi/identity.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071217203826/http://www.mummytombs.com/otzi/identity.htm |archive-date=2007-12-17 |website=Mummy Tombs}}</ref>

In 2009, a [[X-ray computed tomography|CAT]] scan revealed that the stomach had shifted upward to where his lower lung area would normally be. Analysis of the contents revealed the partly digested remains of [[Alpine ibex|ibex]] meat, confirmed by [[DNA analysis]], suggesting he had had a meal less than two hours before his death. Wheat grains were also found.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Than |first=Ker |date=2011-06-23 |title=Iceman's Stomach Sampled – Filled With Goat Meat |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/06/110623-iceman-mummy-otzi-meal-goat-stomach-science/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110626140019/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2011/06/110623-iceman-mummy-otzi-meal-goat-stomach-science |archive-date=2011-06-26 |access-date=2011-06-24 |publisher=[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]]}}</ref> It is believed that he most likely had a few slices of a dried, fatty meat, which came from a [[wild goat]] in South Tyrol, Italy.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Iceman Oetzi's last meal was 'Stone Age bacon' |url=https://phys.org/news/2017-01-iceman-oetzi-meal-stone-age.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107024811/https://phys.org/news/2017-01-iceman-oetzi-meal-stone-age.html |archive-date=2017-11-07 |access-date=2017-11-02}}</ref> Analysis of his intestinal contents showed two meals (the last one consumed about eight hours before his death), one of [[chamois]] meat, the other of [[red deer]] and herb bread; both were eaten with roots and fruits. The grain also eaten with both meals was a highly processed [[einkorn]] wheat bran,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Holden |first=T.G. |title=Bones and the Man: Studies in Honour of Don Brothwell |publisher=Oxbow Books |year=2002 |isbn=978-1-84217-060-1 |editor-last=Dobney |editor-first=Keith |editor-link=Keith Dobney |location=Oxford |pages=35–40 |chapter=The Food Remains from the Colon of the Tyrolean Ice Man |editor-last2=O'Connor |editor-first2=Terry}}</ref> possibly bread. In the proximity of the body, and thus possibly originating from the Iceman's provisions, chaff and grains of einkorn and [[barley]], and seeds of [[flax]] and [[poppy]] were discovered, as well as kernels of [[Prunus spinosa|sloes]] (small plum-like fruits of the blackthorn tree) and various wild berry seeds.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=A.G. Heiss & K. Oeggl |date=2008-02-19 |title=The plant macro-remains from the Iceman site (Tisenjoch, Italian-Austrian border, eastern Alps): new results on the glacier mummy's environment |url=http://www.erbsenzaehler.at/download/papers/Heiss%20AG,%20Oeggl%20K%202008b.pdf |journal=Veget Hist Archaeobot |volume=18 |pages=23–35 |doi=10.1007/s00334-007-0140-8 |s2cid=14519658 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20170705115059/http://www.erbsenzaehler.at/download/papers/Heiss%20AG,%20Oeggl%20K%202008b.pdf |archive-date=5 July 2017}}</ref>

[[Hair analysis]] was used to examine his diet in the months preceding his death. Pollen in the first meal showed that it had been consumed in a mid-altitude [[conifer]] forest. Other pollens indicated the presence of wheat and [[legume]]s, which may have been domesticated crops. Pollen grains of [[Ostrya|hop-hornbeam]] were also discovered. The pollen was very well preserved, with the cells inside remaining intact, indicating that it had been fresh (estimated about two hours old) at the time of Ötzi's death, which places the event in the spring or early summer. Einkorn wheat is harvested in the late summer, and [[sloe]]s in the autumn; these must have been stored from the previous year.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bortenschlager |first1=Sigmar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=roEsBAAAQBAJ&q=Einkorn+wheat+is+harvested+in+the+late+summer,+and+sloes+in+the+autumn;+these+must+have+been+stored+from+the+previous+yea&pg=PA104 |title=The Iceman and his Natural Environment: Palaeobotanical Results |last2=Oeggl |first2=Klaus |date=2012 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-3-7091-6758-8 |language=en}}</ref>

High levels of [[copper]] and [[arsenic]] were found in his hair. This, along with his copper axe blade, which is 99.7% copper, has led scientists to speculate that he was involved in copper [[smelting]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=<Please add first missing authors to populate metadata.> |date=2002-09-16 |title=Iceman's final meal |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2262615.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150330095330/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2262615.stm |archive-date=2015-03-30 |work=BBC News}}</ref>

By examining the proportions of his [[tibia]], [[femur]] and [[Human pelvis|pelvis]], it was postulated that his lifestyle included long walks over hilly terrain. This degree of mobility is not characteristic of other Copper Age Europeans. This may indicate that he was a high-altitude shepherd.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ruff |first1=Christopher |last2=Holt |first2=BM |last3=Sládek |first3=V |last4=Berner |first4=M |last5=Murphy |first5=WA Jr |last6=Zur Nedden |first6=D |last7=Seidler |first7=H |last8=Recheis |first8=W |date=July 2006 |title=Body size, body proportions, and mobility in the Tyrolean "Iceman" |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=91–101 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2006.02.001 |pmid=16549104 |bibcode=2006JHumE..51...91R }}</ref>

Using modern [[3D scanning]] technology, a facial reconstruction has been created for the [[South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology]]. It shows the Iceman looking old for his 45 years, with deep-set brown eyes, a beard, a furrowed face, and sunken cheeks. He is depicted as tired and ungroomed.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Lorenzi |first=Rossella |date=2011-02-25 |title=The Iceman Mummy: Finally Face to Face |url=http://news.discovery.com/history/otzi-face-reconstruction-110225.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110619001445/http://news.discovery.com/history/otzi-face-reconstruction-110225.html |archive-date=2011-06-19 |access-date=2011-06-24 |publisher=[[Discovery News]]}}</ref>

===Health===
Ötzi had ''[[Trichuris trichiura]]'' (whipworm), an intestinal [[parasite]]. During CT scans, it was observed that three or four of his right ribs had been cracked when he had been lying face down after death, or where the ice had crushed his body. One of his fingernails (of the two found) shows three [[Beau's lines]], indicating he was sick three times in the six months before he died. The last incident, two months before he died, lasted about two weeks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dickson |first1=James H. |last2=Oeggl |first2=Klaus |last3=Handly |first3=Linda L. |date=May 2003 |title=The Iceman Reconsidered |url=http://students.washington.edu/mastyles/eng198spring06/iceman_reconsidered.pdf |journal=[[Scientific American]] |volume=288 |issue=5 |pages=70–79 |bibcode=2003SciAm.288e..70D |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0503-70 |pmid=12701332 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012023432/http://students.washington.edu/mastyles/eng198spring06/iceman_reconsidered.pdf |archive-date=2008-10-12}}</ref> It was also found that his [[epidermis]], the outer skin layer, was missing, a natural process from his mummification in ice.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deem |first=James M. |date=2008-01-03 |title=Ötzi: Iceman of the Alps: His health |url=http://www.mummytombs.com/otzi/health.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061113232822/http://www.mummytombs.com/otzi/health.htm |archive-date=2006-11-13 |access-date=2008-01-06 |publisher=Mummy Tombs}}</ref> Ötzi's teeth showed considerable internal deterioration from cavities. These oral pathologies may have been brought about by his grain-heavy, high-carbohydrate diet.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-06-15 |title=Iceman Had Bad Teeth: Discovery News |work=Discovery News |url=http://news.discovery.com/history/oetzi-iceman-bad-teeth-110615.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110925182225/http://news.discovery.com/history/oetzi-iceman-bad-teeth-110615.html |archive-date=2011-09-25 |access-date=2011-09-15 |publisher=News.discovery.com}}</ref> DNA analysis in February 2012 revealed that Ötzi was [[lactose intolerance|lactose intolerant]], supporting the theory that lactose intolerance was still common at that time, despite the increasing spread of agriculture and dairying.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-05-10 |title=Iceman Lived a While After Arrow Wound |url=http://news.discovery.com/history/oetzi-iceman-mummy-blood-120502.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120819212358/http://news.discovery.com/history/oetzi-iceman-mummy-blood-120502.html |archive-date=2012-08-19 |website=DNews}}</ref> Ötzi's lungs were examined endoscopically and were found to be blackened by soot, probably due to his frequent proximity to open fires for warmth and cooking.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ötzi the Iceman, Museum of Archaeology Bolzano |url=https://www.iceman.it/en/the-mummy/ |access-date=31 August 2023 |website=Museo archeologico dell'Alto Adige (South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Garlinghouse |first1=Tom |last2=Leggett |first2=Jessica |date=14 December 2021 |title=Ötzi the Iceman: The famous frozen mummy |url=https://www.livescience.com/otzi-the-iceman |access-date=31 August 2023 |website=Live Science}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hrodey |first=Matt |date=23 August 2023 |title=A DNA Analysis Upends What We Thought Ötzi the Iceman Looked Like |url=https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/a-dna-analysis-upends-what-we-thought-oetzi-the-iceman-looked-like |access-date=31 August 2023 |website=Discover Magazine}}</ref>

===Skeletal details and tattooing===
Ötzi had a total of 61 [[tattoo]]s. They consisted of 19 groups of black lines ranging from {{cvt|1|-|3|mm}} in width and {{cvt|7|-|40|mm}} in length.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Samadelli |first1=M |last2=M Melis |last3=M Miccoli |last4=E Egarter-Vigl |last5=AR Zink |date=2015 |title=Complete Mapping of the Tattoos of the 5300-year-old Tyrolean Iceman |journal=Journal of Cultural Heritage |volume=16 |pages=753–758 |doi=10.1016/j.culher.2014.12.005 |number=5}}</ref> These include groups of parallel lines along the longitudinal axis of his body and to both sides of the [[Lumbar vertebrae|lumbar spine]], as well as a [[cruciform]] mark behind the right knee and on the right ankle, and parallel lines around the left wrist. The greatest concentration of markings is found on his legs, which together exhibit 12 groups of lines.<ref name="Deter-Wolf-2015">{{Cite web |last=Deter-Wolf |first=Aaron |date=2015-01-22 |title=Scan finds new tattoos on 5300-year-old Iceman |url=http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1113319184/scan-finds-new-tattoos-on-5300-year-old-iceman-012215/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117033016/http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1113319184/scan-finds-new-tattoos-on-5300-year-old-iceman-012215/ |archive-date=2015-11-17 |access-date=2015-11-16}}</ref> A microscopic examination of samples collected from these tattoos revealed that they were created from pigment manufactured out of fireplace ash or soot.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pabst |first1=M.A. |last2=I Letofsky-Papst |last3=E Bock |last4=M Moser |last5=L Dorfer |last6=E Egarter-Vigl |last7=F Hoffer |date=2009 |title=The Tattoos of the Tyrolean Iceman: A Light Microscopical, Ultrastructural and Element Analytical Study |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=36 |issue=10 |pages=2335–2341 |bibcode=2009JArSc..36.2335P |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2009.06.016}}</ref> This pigment was rubbed into small linear incisions or punctures.<ref name="Piombino-Mascali-2020">{{Cite book |last1=Piombino-Mascali |first1=Dario |last2=Krutak |first2=Lars |name-list-style=amp |date=2020 |editor-last=Sheridan |editor-first=Susan Guise |editor2-last=Gregoricka |editor2-first=Lesley A. |title=Therapeutic Tattoos and Ancient Mummies: The Case of the Iceman |series=Bioarchaeology and Social Theory |language=en |publisher=Springer International Publishing |pages=119–136 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-32181-9_6 |isbn=978-3-030-32181-9 |s2cid=213402907 |work=Purposeful Pain: The Bioarchaeology of Intentional Suffering |place=Cham}}</ref> It has been suggested that he was repeatedly tattooed in the same locations, since the majority of them are quite dark.<ref name="Piombino-Mascali-2020" />

[[Radiology|Radiological]] examination of his bones showed "age-conditioned or strain-induced degeneration" corresponding to many tattooed areas, including [[osteochondrosis]] and slight [[spondylosis]] in the lumbar spine and wear-and-tear degeneration in the knee and especially in the ankle joints.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Spindler |first=Konrad |title=The man in the ice |publisher=Phoenix |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-7538-1260-0 |pages=178–184}}</ref> These tattoos may have been part of pain relief treatments similar to [[acupressure]] or [[acupuncture]],<ref name="Deter-Wolf-2015" /> though Ötzi lived at least 2,000 years before their earliest use in China ({{c.}} 1000 BC).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dorfer |first1=L |last2=M Moser |last3=F Bahr |last4=K Spindler |last5=E Egarter-Vigl |last6=S Giullén |last7=G Dohr |last8=T Kenner |date=September 1999 |title=A medical report from the stone age? |journal=The Lancet |volume=354 |issue=9183 |pages=1023–1025 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(98)12242-0 |pmid=10501382 |s2cid=29084491}}</ref> Of the 19 groups of tattoos present, nine are located next to, or directly on, acupunctural areas used today, and most of the others are on [[meridian (Chinese medicine)|meridians]] and other acupunctural regions and over arthritic joints. Ötzi's abdominal tattoos may have assuaged the intestinal pain caused by his whipworm infection.<ref name="Piombino-Mascali-2020" /><ref name="Zink-2019">{{Cite journal |last1=Zink |first1=Albert |last2=Samadelli |first2=Marco |last3=Gostner |first3=Paul |last4=Piombino-Mascali |first4=Dario |date=2019-06-01 |title=Possible evidence for care and treatment in the Tyrolean Iceman |url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1879981718300883 |journal=International Journal of Paleopathology |language=en |volume=25 |pages=110–117 |doi=10.1016/j.ijpp.2018.07.006 |issn=1879-9817 |pmid=30098946 |bibcode=2019IJPal..25..110Z |s2cid=51969447|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

At one point, it was thought that Ötzi was the oldest tattooed human mummy yet discovered.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Deter-Wolf |first=Aaron |date=2015-11-11 |title=It's official: Ötzi the Iceman has the oldest tattoos in the world |url=http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1113410697/its-official-otzi-the-iceman-has-the-oldest-tattoos-in-the-world-111115/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151115131532/http://www.redorbit.com/news/science/1113410697/its-official-otzi-the-iceman-has-the-oldest-tattoos-in-the-world-111115/ |archive-date=2015-11-15 |access-date=2015-11-16}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Deter-Wolf |first1=Aaron |last2=Robitaille |first2=Benoît |last3=Krutak |first3=Lars |last4=Galliot |first4=Sébastien |date=February 2016 |title=The World's Oldest Tattoos |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01227846 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports |volume=5 |pages=19–24 |bibcode=2016JArSR...5...19D |doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2015.11.007 |s2cid=162580662}}</ref> In 2018, however, tattoos were discovered on nearly contemporaneous Egyptian mummies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Daley |first=Jason |date=2019-12-05 |title=Infrared Reveals Egyptian Mummies' Hidden Tattoos |url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/infrared-reveals-egyptian-mummies-hidden-tattoos-180973700/ |access-date=2020-06-20 |website=Smithsonian Magazine |language=en}}</ref>

Many of Ötzi's tattoos originally went unnoticed, since they are difficult to see with the naked eye. In 2015, researchers photographed the body using noninvasive [[Multispectral image|multispectral]] techniques to capture images on light wavelengths imperceptible to humans, revealing the remainder of his tattoos.<ref name="Piombino-Mascali-2020" /><ref name="Zink-2019" />

===Clothes and shoes===
[[File:Archeoparc - Museum Ötzi Kleidung.jpg|thumb|upright|Reconstruction of the neolithic clothes worn by Ötzi at the Archeoparc Museum]]

Ötzi wore a cloak made of woven grass{{efn|In the book ''Cookwise'' by Shirley Corriher, the point is made (in relation to cooking) that plant leaves have a waterproof, waxy [[cuticle]] which makes raindrops roll off, with the comment "it was interesting that the 5,000-year-old Alpine traveler&nbsp;... had a grass raincoat".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shirley O. Corriher |author-link=Shirley Corriher |title=Cookwise: The Hows and Whys of Successful Cooking |publisher=[[William Morrow and Company]] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-688-10229-6 |location=New York |page=312}}</ref>}} and a coat, a belt, a pair of leggings, a loincloth, and shoes, all made of leather of different skins. He also wore a bearskin cap with a leather chin strap. The shoes were waterproof and wide, seemingly designed for walking across the snow. They were constructed using bearskin for the soles, deer hide for the top panels, and a netting made of tree bark. Soft grass went around the foot and in the shoe, functioning like modern socks. The coat, belt, leggings and loincloth were constructed of vertical strips of leather sewn together with [[sinew]]. His belt had a pouch sewn to it that contained a cache of useful items: a scraper, a drill, a flint flake, a bone awl and a dried fungus (see [[#Tools and equipment]] below).<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Belt and Pouch |url=http://www.iceman.it/en/node/275 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090311083938/http://www.iceman.it/en/node/275 |archive-date=2009-03-11 |access-date=2016-04-23 |publisher=South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology}}</ref>

[[File:OtzishoesS1340065.jpg|thumb|left|A replica of Ötzi's shoe at the [[Bata Shoe Museum]]]]

The shoes have since been reproduced by a Czech academic, who said that "because the shoes are actually quite complex, I'm convinced that even 5,300 years ago, people had the equivalent of a [[Shoemaker|cobbler]] who made shoes for other people". The reproductions were found to constitute such excellent footwear that a Czech company reportedly offered to purchase the rights to sell them.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Krosnar |first=Katka |date=2005-07-17 |title=Now you can walk in footsteps of 5,000-year-old Iceman – wearing his boots |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/1494238/Now-you-can-walk-in-footsteps-of-5000-year-old-Iceman-wearing-his-boots.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629175118/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/1494238/Now-you-can-walk-in-footsteps-of-5000-year-old-Iceman-wearing-his-boots.html |archive-date=2011-06-29 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]}}</ref> However, a more recent hypothesis by British archaeologist [[Jacqui Wood]] posits that Ötzi's shoes were actually the upper part of [[snowshoe]]s. According to this theory, the item currently interpreted as part of a backpack is actually the wood frame and netting of one snowshoe and animal hide to cover the face.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hammond, Norman |date=2005-02-21 |title=Iceman was wearing 'earliest snowshoes' |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/life/courtsocial/article1814891.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129034417/http://www.stonepages.com/news/archives/001167.html |archive-date=2014-11-29 |access-date=2013-11-24 |url-status=live |work=[[The Times]]}}</ref>

The leather loincloth and hide coat were made from sheepskin. Genetic analysis showed that the sheep species was nearer to modern domestic European sheep than to wild sheep; the items were made from the skins of at least four animals. Part of the coat was made from a domesticated goat belonging to a mitochondrial [[haplogroup]] (a common female ancestor) that inhabits central Europe today. The coat was made from several animals from two different species and was stitched together using hides. The leggings were made from domesticated goat leather.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Netburn |first=Deborah |date=2016-08-18 |title=How Otzi the Iceman outfitted himself: Fur from brown bears and leather from roe deer |url=https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-otzi-iceman-garments-quiver-20160818-snap-story.html |access-date=2022-10-31 |work=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}</ref> A similar set of 5,000-year-old leggings discovered in [[Schnidejoch]], [[Switzerland]], were made from goat leather as well.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bechtel |first=Dale |date=2008-08-21 |title=New details emerge about Neolithic age in Alps |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/new-details-emerge-about-neolithic-age-in-alps/1014380 |access-date=2022-10-31 |website=swissinfo.ch |language=en}}</ref>

Irish and Italian researchers were able to undertake an analysis of the mitochondrial DNA from six different items of the body's clothing and published their findings in the journal ''[[Scientific Reports]]''. These showed that the shoelaces were made from the European genetic population of cattle. The quiver was made from wild [[roe deer]], and the fur hat was made from a genetic lineage of [[brown bear]] which lives in the region today.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Davis |first=Nicola |date=2016-08-30 |title=It becometh the iceman: clothing study reveals stylish secrets of leather-loving ancient |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/aug/18/it-becometh-the-iceman-otzi-clothing-study-reveals-stylish-secrets-of-leather-loving-ancient |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160830164637/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2016/aug/18/it-becometh-the-iceman-otzi-clothing-study-reveals-stylish-secrets-of-leather-loving-ancient |archive-date=2016-08-30 |access-date=2016-08-30 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Romey |first=Kristin |date=18 August 2016 |title=Here's What the Iceman Was Wearing When He Died 5,300 Years Ago |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/08/otzi-iceman-european-alps-mummy-clothing-dna-leather-fur-archaeology |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819105927/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/08/otzi-iceman-european-alps-mummy-clothing-dna-leather-fur-archaeology/ |archive-date=2016-08-19 |access-date=2016-08-18 |magazine=[[National Geographic]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=O'Sullivan |first1=Niall J. |last2=Teasdale |first2=Matthew D. |last3=Mattiangeli |first3=Valeria |last4=Maixner |first4=Frank |last5=Pinhasi |first5=Ron |last6=Bradley |first6=Daniel G. |last7=Zink |first7=Albert |date=2016-08-18 |title=A whole mitochondria analysis of the Tyrolean Iceman's leather provides insights into the animal sources of Copper Age clothing |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |language=en |volume=6 |article-number=31279 |bibcode=2016NatSR...631279O |doi=10.1038/srep31279 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=4989873 |pmid=27537861}}</ref>

===Tools and equipment===
[[File:Ötzi the Iceman - Lithic assemblage.png|thumb|Lineup of Ötzi's lithic assemblage: {{olist|list_style_type=lower-alpha
  | Dagger
  | Endscraper
  | Small flake
  | Arrowhead 14
  | Arrowhead 12
  | Borer<ref>Wierer, U., Arrighi, S., Bertola, S., Kaufmann, G., Baumgarten, B., Pedrotti, A., Pernter, P. and Pelegrin, J. (2018) "The Iceman's lithic toolkit: Raw material, technology, typology and use". ''PLOS ONE'', '''13'''(6): e0198292. {{doi|10.1371/journal.pone.0198292|doi-access=free}} The original caption in Wierer et al. read "The Iceman lithic assemblage. a) Dagger, b) Endscraper, c) Borer, d) Arrowhead 14, e) Arrowhead 12, f) Small flake." The text of Wierer et al.'s paper makes it clear that this a typo and the labels for the borer and small flake have been swapped. e.g.: "The 48.5 mm long artefact known as a borer has its maximum thickness at its maximum width (7.8 x 13.5 mm) (Fig 1F)" and "The smallest item contained in the belt poach is a small flake of 19 x 12.5 x 1.6 mm size (Fig 1C)".</ref>}}]]

Other items found with the Iceman were a copper axe with a [[Taxus baccata|yew]] handle, a [[chert]]-bladed [[knife]] with an [[ash tree|ash]] handle and a [[quiver]] of 14 arrows with [[viburnum]] and [[dogwood]] shafts.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Fleur |first=Nicholas St |date=2018-06-21 |title=The Final Hours of the Iceman's Tools |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/21/science/otzi-iceman-tools.html?rref=collection/column/trilobites |access-date=2018-07-04 |work=The New York Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Petraglia |first1=Michael D. |last2=Wierer |first2=Ursula |last3=Arrighi |first3=Simona |last4=Bertola |first4=Stefano |last5=Kaufmann |first5=Günther |last6=Baumgarten |first6=Benno |last7=Pedrotti |first7=Annaluisa |last8=Pernter |first8=Patrizia |last9=Pelegrin |first9=Jacques |year=2018 |editor-last=Petraglia |editor-first=Michael D. |title=The Iceman's lithic toolkit: Raw material, technology, typology and use |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=13 |issue=6 |article-number=e0198292 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1398292W |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0198292 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=6010222 |pmid=29924811 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Two of the arrows, which were broken, were tipped with flint and had [[fletching]] (stabilizing fins), while the other 12 were unfinished and untipped. The arrows were found in a [[quiver]] with what is presumed to be a [[bow string]], an unidentified tool, and an [[antler]] tool which might have been used for sharpening arrow points.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fowler |first=Brenda |title=Iceman: Uncovering the Life and Times of a Prehistoric Man found in an Alpine Glacier |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-226-25823-2 |location=Chicago, Ill. |pages=105–106}}</ref> There was also an unfinished yew [[longbow]] that was {{cvt|1.82|m|in}} long.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Norman |author-link=Norman Davies |title=Europe: A History |title-link=Europe: A History |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-19-820171-7 |location=Oxford}}</ref>

[[File:ReconstructedOetziAxe.jpg|thumb|upright|A replica of Ötzi's copper axe]]

Among Ötzi's possessions were [[berries]], two [[birch bark]] baskets, and two species of [[polypore]] [[mushroom]]s with leather strings through them. One of these, the [[birch bracket|birch fungus]], is known to have [[anthelmintic]] properties, and was probably used for medicinal purposes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Capasso |first=Luigi |date=December 1998 |title=5300 years ago, the Ice Man used natural laxatives and antibiotics |journal=Lancet |volume=352 |issue=9143 |page=1864 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(05)79939-6 |pmid=9851424 |s2cid=40027370 |doi-access=free}}<!-- note: title of this letter is not relevant to its content --></ref> The other was a type of [[tinder fungus]], included with part of what appeared to be a complex [[firelighting]] kit. The kit featured pieces of over a dozen different plants, in addition to flint and [[pyrite]] for creating sparks.

Ötzi's copper [[axe]] was of particular interest. His axe's [[Axe#Parts of the axe|haft]] is {{cvt|60|cm|in}} long and made from carefully worked [[Taxus#Uses and traditions|yew]] with a right-angled crook at the shoulder, leading to the blade. The {{convert|9.5|cm|in|-long|adj=mid}} axe head is almost pure copper.<ref name="Axe">{{Cite web |title=The Axe – Ötzi – South Tyrol Museum of Archaeology |url=http://www.iceman.it/en/node/277 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116010012/http://www.iceman.it/en/node/277 |archive-date=2010-11-16 |access-date=2010-09-12 |website=iceman.it}}</ref> It was produced through [[casting]] and did not undergo mechanical hardening. Though copper ore sources in the Alpines are known to have been exploited in Ötzi's time, a 2017 study indicated that the copper in the axe came from southern [[Tuscany]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Artioli |first1=Gilberto |last2=Angelini |first2=Ivana |last3=Kaufmann |first3=Günther |last4=Canovaro |first4=Caterina |last5=Dal Sasso |first5=Gregorio |last6=Villa |first6=Igor Maria |date=2017 |title=Long-distance connections in the Copper Age: New evidence from the Alpine Iceman's copper axe |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/318218710 |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=12 |issue=7 |article-number=e0179263 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1279263A |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0179263 |pmc=5497943 |pmid=28678801 |access-date=29 December 2023 |doi-access=free}}</ref> It was let into the forked end of the crook and fixed there using [[birch-tar]] and tight leather [[Lashing (ropework)|lashing]]. The blade part of the head extends out of the lashing and shows clear signs of having been used to chop and cut. Such an axe would have been a valuable possession, important both as a tool and as a [[status symbol]].<ref name="Axe" />

===Genetic analysis===
Ötzi's full genome was first sequenced in 2012.<ref name="Keller-2012">{{Cite journal |last1=Keller |first1=Andreas |last2=Graefen |first2=Angela |last3=Ball |first3=Markus |last4=Matzas |first4=Mark |last5=Boisguerin |first5=Valesca |last6=Maixner |first6=Frank |last7=Leidinger |first7=Petra |last8=Backes |first8=Christina |last9=Khairat |first9=Rabab |last10=Forster |first10=Michael |last11=Stade |first11=Björn |last12=Franke |first12=Andre |last13=Mayer |first13=Jens |last14=Spangler |first14=Jessica |last15=McLaughlin |first15=Stephen |display-authors=2 |date=2012-02-28 |title=New insights into the Tyrolean Iceman's origin and phenotype as inferred by whole-genome sequencing |journal=Nature Communications |volume=3 |article-number=698 |bibcode=2012NatCo...3..698K |doi=10.1038/ncomms1701 |pmid=22426219 |doi-access=free |last16=Shah |first16=Minita |last17=Lee |first17=Clarence |last18=Harkins |first18=Timothy T. |last19=Sartori |first19=Alexander |last20=Moreno-Estrada |first20=Andres |last21=Henn |first21=Brenna |last22=Sikora |first22=Martin |last23=Semino |first23=Ornella |last24=Chiaroni |first24=Jacques |last25=Rootsi |first25=Siiri |last26=Myres |first26=Natalie M. |last27=Cabrera |first27=Vicente M. |last28=Underhill |first28=Peter A. |last29=Bustamante |first29=Carlos D. |last30=Vigl |first30=Eduard Egarter}}</ref> A new, high-coverage genome with much less modern human contamination was published in 2023.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Ke |display-authors=etal |date=2023 |title=High-coverage genome of the Tyrolean Iceman reveals unusually high Anatolian farmer ancestry |journal=Cell Genomics |volume=3 |issue=9 |article-number=100377 |doi=10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100377 |pmc=10504632 |pmid=37719142 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

According to the 2012 study, the [[Y chromosome]] DNA of Ötzi belongs to a [[Haplogroup G (Y-DNA)|subclade of G]] defined by the SNPs M201, P287, P15, L223 and L91 (G-L91, ISOGG G2a2b, former "G2a4"). He was not typed for any of the subclades downstreaming from G-L91; however, an analysis of his [[Binary Alignment Map]] file revealed that he belongs to the L166 and FGC5672 subclades below L91.<ref>{{Cite web |title=G-FGC5672 YTree |url=https://www.yfull.com/tree/G-FGC5672/}}</ref> G-L91 is now mostly found in South [[Corsica]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Di Cristofaro |first1=Julie |last2=Mazières |first2=Stéphane |last3=Tous |first3=Audrey |last4=Di Gaetano |first4=Cornelia |last5=Lin |first5=Alice A. |last6=Nebbia |first6=Paul |last7=Piazza |first7=Alberto |last8=King |first8=Roy J. |last9=Underhill |first9=Peter |last10=Chiaroni |first10=Jacques |date=2018-08-01 |title=Prehistoric migrations through the Mediterranean basin shaped Corsican Y-chromosome diversity |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=13 |issue=8 |article-number=e0200641 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1300641D |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0200641 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=6070208 |pmid=30067762 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Analysis of his mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) showed that Ötzi belongs to the K1 subclade, but cannot be categorized into any of the three modern branches of that subclade (K1a, K1b, or K1c). The new subclade has provisionally been named ''K1ö'' for ''Ötzi''.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ermini |first1=Luca |last2=Olivieri |first2=Cristina |last3=Rizzi |first3=Ermanno |last4=Corti |first4=Giorgio |last5=Bonnal |first5=Raoul |last6=Soares |first6=Pedro |last7=Luciani |first7=Stefania |last8=Marota |first8=Isolina |last9=De Bellis |first9=Gianluca |last10=Richards |first10=Martin B. |last11=Rollo |first11=Franco |year=2008 |title=Complete Mitochondrial Genome Sequence of the Tyrolean Iceman |journal=Current Biology |volume=18 |issue=21 |pages=1687–1693 |bibcode=2008CBio...18.1687E |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2008.09.028 |pmid=18976917 |s2cid=13983702 |doi-access=free|hdl=11581/489003 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A multiplex assay study was able to confirm that the Iceman's mtDNA belongs to a previously unknown European mtDNA clade with a very limited distribution among modern data sets.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Endicott |first1=Phillip |last2=Sanchez |first2=Juan J |last3=Pichler |first3=Irene |last4=Brotherton |first4=Paul |last5=Brooks |first5=Jerome |last6=Egarter-Vigl |first6=Eduard |last7=Cooper |first7=Alan |last8=Pramstaller |first8=Peter |year=2009 |title=Genotyping human ancient mtDNA control and coding region polymorphisms with a multiplexed Single-Base-Extension assay: The singular maternal history of the Tyrolean Iceman |journal=BMC Genetics |volume=10 |article-number=29 |doi=10.1186/1471-2156-10-29 |pmc=2717998 |pmid=19545382 |doi-access=free}}</ref> By [[autosomal DNA]], Ötzi is most closely related to [[Indigenous peoples of Europe|Southern Europeans]], especially geographically isolated populations like [[Corsicans]] and [[Genetic history of Sardinia|Sardinians]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2015-11-19 |title=Ancient DNA reveals genetic relationship between today's Sardinians and Neolithic Europeans – HudsonAlpha Institute for Biotechnology |url=http://hudsonalpha.org/ancient-dna-reveals-genetic-relationship-between-todays-sardinians-and-neolithic-europeans |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161008061113/http://hudsonalpha.org/ancient-dna-reveals-genetic-relationship-between-todays-sardinians-and-neolithic-europeans |archive-date=2016-10-08 |access-date=2016-08-30}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Keller |first1=Andreas |last2=Graefen |first2=Angela |last3=Ball |first3=Markus |last4=Matzas |first4=Mark |last5=Boisguerin |first5=Valesca |last6=Maixner |first6=Frank |last7=Leidinger |first7=Petra |last8=Backes |first8=Christina |last9=Khairat |first9=Rabab |last10=Forster |first10=Michael |last11=Stade |first11=Björn |last12=Franke |first12=Andre |last13=Mayer |first13=Jens |last14=Spangler |first14=Jessica |last15=McLaughlin |first15=Stephen |display-authors=29 |year=2012 |title=New insights into the Tyrolean Iceman's origin and phenotype as inferred by whole-genome sequencing |journal=Nature Communications |volume=3 |article-number=698 |bibcode=2012NatCo...3..698K |doi=10.1038/ncomms1701 |pmid=22426219 |doi-access=free |last16=Shah |first16=Minita |last17=Lee |first17=Clarence |last18=Harkins |first18=Timothy T. |last19=Sartori |first19=Alexander |last20=Moreno-Estrada |first20=Andres |last21=Henn |first21=Brenna |last22=Sikora |first22=Martin |last23=Semino |first23=Ornella |last24=Chiaroni |first24=Jacques |last25=Rootsi |first25=Siiri |last26=Myres |first26=Natalie M. |last27=Cabrera |first27=Vicente M. |last28=Underhill |first28=Peter A. |last29=Bustamante |first29=Carlos D. |last30=Vigl |first30=Eduard Egarter}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Callaway |first=Ewen |year=2012 |title=Iceman's DNA reveals health risks and relations |url=http://www.nature.com/news/iceman-s-dna-reveals-health-risks-and-relations-1.10130 |url-status=live |journal=Nature |doi=10.1038/nature.2012.10130 |s2cid=85055245 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911110500/http://www.nature.com/news/iceman-s-dna-reveals-health-risks-and-relations-1.10130 |archive-date=2016-09-11 |access-date=2016-08-30|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2012-02-28 |title=Tratti genetici comuni tra la mummia Oetzi e gli attuali abitanti di Sardegna e Corsica |url=http://notizie.tiscali.it/articoli/scienza/12/02/tratti-genetici-oetzi-abitanti-sardegna-corsica.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302190033/http://notizie.tiscali.it/articoli/scienza/12/02/tratti-genetici-oetzi-abitanti-sardegna-corsica.html |archive-date=2012-03-02 |publisher=Tiscali |language=it}}</ref> Ötzi traced the majority of his ancestry to the Neolithic [[Early European Farmers|early European farmers]] who [[Pre-modern human migration|migrated]] from Anatolia to Europe beginning during the 7th millennium BC, replacing earlier [[Western Hunter-Gatherer|European hunter-gatherers]] as dominant population.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pinkowski |first=Jennifer |date=2021-09-15 |title=Ötzi the Iceman: What we know 30 years after his discovery |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/tzi-the-iceman-what-we-know-30-years-after-his-discovery |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210915193800/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/tzi-the-iceman-what-we-know-30-years-after-his-discovery |archive-date=15 September 2021 |work=National Geographic}}</ref> DNA analysis also showed him at high risk of [[atherosclerosis]] and [[lactose intolerance]], with the presence of the [[DNA sequencing|DNA sequence]] of ''[[Borrelia burgdorferi]]'', possibly making him the earliest known human with [[Lyme disease]].<ref name="Keller-2012" /><ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Hall |first=Stephen S. |date=November 2011 |title=Iceman Autopsy |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/11/iceman-autopsy/hall-text |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019172457/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/11/iceman-autopsy/hall-text |archive-date=2011-10-19 |access-date=2011-10-17 |magazine=[[National Geographic Magazine|National Geographic]]}}</ref> A later analysis suggested the sequence may have been a different ''[[Borrelia]]'' species.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ames |first1=S. K. |last2=Hysom |first2=D. A. |last3=Gardner |first3=S. N. |last4=Lloyd |first4=G. S. |last5=Gokhale |first5=M. B. |last6=Allen |first6=J. E. |date=2013-07-04 |title=Scalable metagenomic taxonomy classification using a reference genome database |journal=Bioinformatics |volume=29 |issue=18 |pages=2253–2260 |doi=10.1093/bioinformatics/btt389 |pmc=3753567 |pmid=23828782}}</ref>

The 2023 study on Ötzi's genome found a very high proportion (90%) of [[Early European Farmers|Anatolian farmer-related]] ancestry – in fact, the highest among European populations of the same time—with a lesser contribution from  [[Western Hunter-Gatherer|European hunter-gatherer-related]] ancestry, but (in contrast to the 2012 research) no evidence of [[Western Steppe Herders|Steppe-related]] ancestry,<ref name="Wang-2023">{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Ke |last2=Prüfer |first2=Kay |last3=Krause-Kyora |first3=Ben |last4=Childebayeva |first4=Ainash |last5=Schuenemann |first5=Verena J. |last6=Coia |first6=Valentina |last7=Maixner |first7=Frank |last8=Zink |first8=Albert |last9=Schiffels |first9=Stephan |last10=Krause |first10=Johannes |date=2023-08-16 |title=High-coverage genome of the Tyrolean Iceman reveals unusually high Anatolian farmer ancestry |journal=Cell Genomics |volume=3 |issue=9 |article-number=100377 |doi=10.1016/j.xgen.2023.100377 |issn=2666-979X |pmc=10504632 |pmid=37719142 |quote=The weighted genetic score of dark pigmentation in the Iceman is estimated to be 0.591, higher than the score of present-day southern European populations taking Sardinians as an example (Table S11), which the Iceman shares closest genetic affinity to (Figure S1) and which represent the highest level of pigmentation among modern-day European groups,29 although it is lower than the score of ancient LBK farmers and the Luxembourg_Loschbour.DG hunter-gatherer. |doi-access=free}}</ref> the disagreement with previous results being attributed to modern human contamination. 
While the absence in Ötzi's genome of genetic components from Western Steppe Herders (WSH) is not surprising because these [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|"Proto-Indo-European"]] populations [[Western Steppe Herders#Steppe Early to Middle Bronze Age|did not arrive in Europe until about 2900 BC]], the unusually low contribution from the [[Western Hunter Gatherer]]s was explained by positing that the genetic mixing between neolithic farmers originating from Anatolia and WHG was still an ongoing process. Examining the genetic sites involved in phenotypical traits, the authors concluded that the Iceman likely had darker skin than present-day Europeans (though not as dark as the Mesolithic Western Hunter-Gatherers), was likely affected by baldness, and may have suffered from obesity-related metabolic disorders. The article also leaves room for environmental factors as indicative of their darker skin complexion, so more studies will be necessary in the future.<ref name="Wang-2023" />

In October 2013, it was reported that 19 modern [[Tyrol (state)|Tyrolean]] men belong to the same paternal lineage (Y-DNA haplogroup G-L91) as Ötzi, and may share a common ancestor with, and/or descend from close relatives of Ötzi. Scientists from the Institute of Legal Medicine at [[Innsbruck Medical University]] had analysed the DNA of over 3,700 Tyrolean male blood donors and found 19 (c. 0.5%) who shared the same paternal haplogroup with the 5,300-year-old man.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2013-10-10 |title=Link to Oetzi the Iceman found in living Austrians |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24477038 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012043826/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-24477038 |archive-date=2013-10-12 |access-date=2013-10-12 |work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bettinger |first=Blaine |date=2013-10-16 |title=Identifying Ötzi the Iceman's Relatives |url=https://thegeneticgenealogist.com/2013/10/16/identifying-otzi-the-icemans-relatives/ |access-date=2023-07-20 |website=The Genetic Genealogist |language=en-US}}</ref>

===Blood===
In May 2012, scientists announced the discovery that Ötzi still had intact [[blood cell]]s. These are the oldest complete human blood cells ever identified. In most bodies this old, the blood cells are either shrunken or mere remnants, but Ötzi's have the same dimensions as living red blood cells and resemble a modern-day sample.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Owen |first=James |date=2012-05-02 |title=World's Oldest Blood Found in Famed "Iceman" Mummy |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/05/120502-oldest-blood-otzi-iceman-mummy-oetzi-zink-science/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304062603/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/05/120502-oldest-blood-otzi-iceman-mummy-oetzi-zink-science/ |archive-date=2016-03-04 |access-date=2016-03-04 |work=National Geographic}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Janko |first1=Marek |last2=Stark |first2=Robert W. |last3=Zink |first3=Albert |name-list-style=and |date=2012-10-07 |title=Preservation of 5300 year old red blood cells in the Iceman |journal=Journal of the Royal Society, Interface |volume=9 |issue=75 |pages=2581–2590 |doi=10.1098/rsif.2012.0174 |issn=1742-5662 |pmc=3427508 |pmid=22552923}}</ref>

===''H. pylori'' analysis===
In 2016, researchers reported on a study from the extraction of twelve samples from the [[gastrointestinal tract]] of Ötzi to analyze the origins of the ''[[Helicobacter pylori]]'' in his gut.<ref name="Maixner-2016" /> The ''H. pylori'' strain found in his gastrointestinal tract was, surprisingly, the hpAsia2 strain, a strain today found primarily in South Asian and Central Asian populations, with extremely rare occurrences in modern European populations.<ref name="Maixner-2016" />  The strain found in Ötzi's gut is most similar to three modern individuals from Northern India; the strain itself is, of course, older than the modern Northern Indian strain.<ref name="Maixner-2016">{{Cite journal |last1=Maixner |first1=Frank |last2=Krause-Kyora |first2=Ben |name-list-style=vanc |date=2016-01-08 |title=The 5300-year-old Helicobacter pylori genome of the Iceman |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=351 |issue=6269 |pages=162–165 |bibcode=2016Sci...351..162M |doi=10.1126/science.aad2545 |pmc=4775254 |pmid=26744403}}</ref>

=== Stomach ===
Ötzi's stomach was completely full and its contents were mostly undigested. In 2018, researchers thoroughly analysed his stomach and intestines to gain insights on Chalcolithic meal composition and dietary habits. [[Biopsies]] were performed on the stomach to obtain dietary information in the time leading up to his death, and the contents themselves were also analyzed. Previously, Ötzi was believed to be vegetarian, but during this study, it was revealed that his diet was omnivorous. The presence of certain compounds suggests what kinds of food he generally ate, such as [[gamma-terpinene]], implying the intake of herbs, and several nutritious minerals indicating red meat or dairy consumption. Through analysis of DNA and protein traces, the researchers were able to identify the contents of Ötzi's last meal, composed of fat and meat from [[ibex]] and red deer as well as [[einkorn wheat]]. The results of [[atomic force microscopy]] and [[Raman spectroscopy]] analysis reveal that he consumed fresh or dried wild meat. A previous study detected charcoal particles in his lower intestine, which indicate that fire was present during some part of the food preparation process, but it was likely used in drying out the meat or smoking it.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Maixner |first1=Frank |last2=Turaev |first2=Dmitrij |last3=Cazenave-Gassiot |first3=Amaury |last4=Janko |first4=Marek |last5=Krause-Kyora |first5=Ben |last6=Hoopmann |first6=Michael R. |last7=Kusebauch |first7=Ulrike |last8=Sartain |first8=Mark |last9=Guerriero |first9=Gea |last10=o'Sullivan |first10=Niall |last11=Teasdale |first11=Matthew |last12=Cipollini |first12=Giovanna |last13=Paladin |first13=Alice |last14=Mattiangeli |first14=Valeria |last15=Samadelli |first15=Marco |display-authors=29 |date=2018-07-23 |title=The Iceman's Last Meal Consisted of Fat, Wild Meat, and Cereals |journal=Current Biology |language=en |volume=28 |issue=14 |pages=2348–2355.e9 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2018.05.067 |issn=0960-9822 |pmc=6065529 |pmid=30017480 |last16=Tecchiati |first16=Umberto |last17=Putzer |first17=Andreas |last18=Palazoglu |first18=Mine |last19=Meissen |first19=John |last20=Lösch |first20=Sandra |last21=Rausch |first21=Philipp |last22=Baines |first22=John F. |last23=Kim |first23=Bum Jin |last24=An |first24=Hyun-Joo |last25=Gostner |first25=Paul |last26=Egarter-Vigl |first26=Eduard |last27=Malfertheiner |first27=Peter |last28=Keller |first28=Andreas |last29=Stark |first29=Robert W. |last30=Wenk |first30=Markus |bibcode=2018CBio...28E2348M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zink |first1=Albert R. |last2=Maixner |first2=Frank |date=2019 |title=The Current Situation of the Tyrolean Iceman |url=https://www.karger.com/Article/FullText/501878 |journal=Gerontology |language=en |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=699–706 |doi=10.1159/000501878 |issn=0304-324X |pmid=31505504 |s2cid=202555446|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

===After death===
Analysis shows that the tissues had converted to [[adipocere]], a mixture of [[fatty acid]]s, before desiccation.
Rather than ice, the body had been in water for months over several seasons.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Fowler |first=Brenda |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/icemanuncovering00fowl/page/270/mode/1up |title=Iceman: uncovering the life and times of a prehistoric man found in an alpine glacier |date=2000 |publisher=New York : Random House |isbn=978-0-679-43167-1 |page=268 |language=en |chapter=The place he came to lie |access-date=14 February 2025}}</ref>

==Cause of death==
[[File:Ötzi‘s last days.png|thumb|upright=2|Reconstructions of Ötzi's last days, based on his last itinerary and meals, the state of his wounds, the causes of his death and the damaged and insufficient equipment, following multiple studies]]

The cause of death remained uncertain until 10 years after the discovery of the body.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2017-03-26 |title=Who Killed the Iceman? Clues Emerge in a Very Cold Case |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/26/world/europe/bolzano-italy-iceman-south-tyrol-museum-of-archaeology.html?em_pos=medium&emc=edit_sc_20170327&nl=science-times&nl_art=4&nlid=76811190&ref=headline&te=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926041602/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/26/world/europe/bolzano-italy-iceman-south-tyrol-museum-of-archaeology.html?em_pos=medium&emc=edit_sc_20170327&nl=science-times&nl_art=4&nlid=76811190&ref=headline&te=1 |archive-date=2017-09-26 |access-date=2017-03-28 |work=The New York Times}}</ref> It was initially believed that Ötzi died from exposure during a winter storm. Later it was speculated that he may have been a victim of a [[ritual]] [[human sacrifice|sacrifice]], perhaps for being a [[tribal chief|chieftain]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ives |first=Sarah |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/10/1030_031030_icemandeath.html |title=Was ancient alpine "Iceman" killed in battle? |date=2003-10-30 |publisher=[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic News]] |access-date=2007-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071015063145/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/10/1030_031030_icemandeath.html |archive-date=2007-10-15 }}</ref><ref name="Rollo-2002">{{Cite journal |last1=Rollo |first1=Franco |last2=Ubaldi |first2=M |last3=Ermini |first3=L |last4=Marota |first4=I |display-authors=1 |name-list-style=vanc |year=2002 |title=Ötzi's last meals: DNA analysis of the intestinal content of the Neolithic glacier mummy from the Alps |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=99 |issue=20 |pages=12594–12599 |bibcode=2002PNAS...9912594R |doi=10.1073/pnas.192184599 |pmc=130505 |pmid=12244211 |doi-access=free}}</ref> This explanation was inspired by theories previously advanced for [[bog body|bodies]] recovered from [[bog|peat bogs]] such as [[Tollund Man]] and [[Lindow Man]].<ref name="Rollo-2002" />

=== Arrowhead and blood analyses ===
In 2001, X-rays and a CT scan revealed that Ötzi had an arrowhead lodged in his left shoulder when he died<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pain |first=Stephanie |date=2001-07-26 |title=Arrow points to foul play in ancient iceman's death |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn1080 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140823042935/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn1080 |archive-date=2014-08-23 |publisher=[[New Scientist|NewScientistTech]]}}</ref> and a small, matching tear in his coat.<ref name="Deem-2008a">{{Cite web |last=Deem |first=James M. |date=2008-01-03 |title=Ötzi: Iceman of the Alps: Scientific studies |url=http://www.mummytombs.com/otzi/studies.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150902231211/http://www.mummytombs.com/otzi/studies.html |archive-date=2015-09-02 |access-date=2008-01-06}}</ref> Researchers theorized that Ötzi died of [[bleeding|blood loss]] from the wound, which likely would have been fatal even if modern medical techniques had been available.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Jha |first=Alok |date=2007-06-07 |title=Iceman bled to death, scientists say |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2007/jun/07/archaeology.internationalnews |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313233825/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2007/jun/07/archaeology.internationalnews |archive-date=2016-03-13 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref> Further research found that the arrow's shaft had been removed before death, and close examination of the body found [[bruise]]s and cuts to the hands, wrists and chest and [[head injury|cerebral trauma]] indicative of a blow to the head. One of the cuts, to the base of his thumb, reached down to the bone but had no time to heal before his death. Currently, it is believed that Ötzi [[Exsanguination|bled to death]] after the arrow shattered the [[scapula]] and damaged nerves and blood vessels before lodging near his lung.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Carroll |first=Rory |date=2002-03-21 |title=How Oetzi the Iceman was stabbed in the back and lost his fight for life |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2002/mar/21/humanities.research1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071209193136/http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/humanities/story/0,,671346,00.html |archive-date=2007-12-09 |work=[[The Guardian]]}}</ref>

DNA analyses taken in 2003 are claimed to have revealed traces of blood from at least four other people on his gear: one from his knife, two from a single arrowhead in his quiver, and a fourth from his coat.<ref>{{Cite web |title=USATODAY.com – 'Iceman' was murdered, science sleuths say |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2003-08-11-iceman-murder_x.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120627042824/http://www.usatoday.com/news/health/2003-08-11-iceman-murder_x.htm |archive-date=2012-06-27 |website=USA Today}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Fagan |first1=Brian M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rNOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA303 |title=In the Beginning: An Introduction to Archaeology |last2=Durrani |first2=Nadia |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-34643-2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170205093054/https://books.google.com/books?id=rNOPCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA303 |archive-date=2017-02-05 |url-status=live}}</ref> Interpretations of these findings are that Ötzi killed two people with the same arrow and was able to retrieve it on both occasions, and the blood on his coat was from a wounded comrade he may have carried over his back.<ref name="Deem-2008a" /> Ötzi's posture (frozen body, face down, left arm bent across the chest) could support a hypothesis that, before death occurred and [[rigor mortis]] set in, the Iceman was turned onto his belly in the effort to remove the arrow shaft.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lorenzi |first=Rossella |date=2007-08-31 |title=Blow to head, not arrow, killed Otzi the iceman |url=http://abc.net.au/science/news/stories/2007/2020609.htm?health |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011190231/http://abc.net.au/science/news/stories/2007/2020609.htm?health |archive-date=2007-10-11 |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Winfield |first=Nicole |date=2007-08-30 |title=Ancient murder mystery takes new turn |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/20495781 |publisher=[[NBC News]]}}</ref> ''The Cambridge World History of Violence'' (2020) cited Ötzi as evidence of [[prehistoric warfare]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=LeBlanc |first=Steven |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/cambridge-world-history-of-violence/origins-of-warfare-and-violence/955437C42DE2BD373787AB6AB36DF6EE |title=The Cambridge World History of Violence |date=March 2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-34124-7}}</ref>

==== Alternative theory of death location ====
Most research has assumed that Ötzi died at roughly the spot where he was found.<ref name="Vanzetti-2010" /> In 2010, it was proposed that Ötzi died at a much lower altitude and was buried higher in the mountains, as posited by archaeologist Alessandro Vanzetti of the [[Sapienza University of Rome]] and his colleagues.<ref name="Vanzetti-2010">A. Vanzetti, M. Vidale, M. Gallinaro, D.W. Frayer, and L. Bondioli. "[http://antiquity.ac.uk/ant/084/ant0840681.htm The iceman as a burial] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100906094420/http://www.antiquity.ac.uk/Ant/084/ant0840681.htm |date=2010-09-06}}." [[Antiquity (journal)|''Antiquity'']]. Volume: 84 Number: 325 Page: 681–692. September 2010</ref> According to their study of the items found near Ötzi and their locations, the Iceman may have been placed above what has been interpreted as a stone burial mound, but his body subsequently moved with each thaw cycle that created a flowing watery mixture driven by gravity before being re-frozen.<ref name="Bower-2010">"[http://sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/62670/description/Prehistoric_%E2%80%98Iceman%E2%80%99_gets_ceremonial_twist Prehistoric 'Iceman' gets ceremonial twist] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100830181108/http://www.sciencenews.org/view/generic/id/62670/description/Prehistoric_%E2%80%98Iceman%E2%80%99_gets_ceremonial_twist |date=2010-08-30}}", ''[[Science News]]'', 25 September 2010. (Retrieved 19 September 2010)</ref> While archaeobotanist [[Klaus Oeggl]] of the University of Innsbruck agrees that the natural process described probably caused the body to move from the ridge that includes the stone formation, he pointed out that the paper provided no compelling evidence to demonstrate that the scattered stones constituted a burial platform.<ref name="Bower-2010"/> Moreover, biological anthropologist Albert Zink argues that the Iceman's bones display no dislocations that would have resulted from a downhill slide and that the intact blood clots in his arrow wound would show damage if the body had been moved up the mountain.<ref name="Bower-2010"/>

==Legal dispute==
[[File:Oetzi Memorial.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The Ötzi memorial near Tisenjoch. Ötzi was found about {{cvt|70
|m}} northeast, a place indicated with a red mark (not pictured).]]

Italian law entitled the Simons to a finders' fee from the [[Government of South Tyrol|South Tyrolean provincial government]] of 25% of the value of Ötzi. In 1994 the authorities offered a "symbolic" reward of 10 million [[Italian lira|lire]] (€5,200), which the Simons declined.<ref name="BBC News-2008">{{Cite news |last=<!--No byline--> |date=2008-09-29 |title='Iceman' row ends after 17 years |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7643286.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930070344/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7643286.stm |archive-date=2008-09-30 |work=BBC News}}</ref> In 2003, the Simons filed a [[lawsuit]] which asked a court in Bolzano to recognize their role in Ötzi's discovery and declare them his "official discoverers". The court decided in the Simons' favour in November 2003, and at the end of December that year the Simons announced that they were seeking US$300,000 as their fee. The provincial government decided to appeal.<ref name="Deem-2008b">{{Cite web |last=Deem |first=James M. |date=September 2008 |title=Ötzi: Iceman of the Alps: Finder's fee lawsuits |url=http://mummytombs.com/otzi/lawsuit.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081102055614/http://www.mummytombs.com/otzi/lawsuit.htm |archive-date=2008-11-02 |access-date=2008-10-01 |publisher=Mummy Tombs}}</ref>

In addition, two people came forward, each with a claim of being part of the same mountaineering party that had come across Ötzi and of discovering the body first:
* Magdalena Mohar Jarc, a retired [[Slovenia]]n climber, who alleged that she discovered the corpse first after falling into a crevice, and, shortly after returning to a mountain hut, asked Helmut Simon to take photographs of Ötzi. She cited [[Reinhold Messner]], who was also present in the mountain hut, as the witness to this.<ref name="Jerman-2008">{{Cite web |date=2008-10-09 |title=Magdaleni ne bodo plačali za Ötzija |trans-title=Magdalena Won't Get Paid for Ötzi |url=http://www.gore-ljudje.net/novosti/39391/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518064420/http://www.gore-ljudje.net/novosti/39391/ |archive-date=2015-05-18 |language=sl |newspaper=Slovenske novice}}</ref>
* Sandra Nemeth, from Switzerland, who contended that she had found the corpse before Helmut and Erika Simon and spat on it to make sure that her [[DNA]] would be found there later. She asked for a DNA test on the remains, but experts believed that there was little chance of finding any trace.<ref name="Pisa-2005">{{Cite news |last=Pisa |first=Nick |date=2005-10-22 |title=Cold case comes to court – After 5,300 years |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/1501326/Cold-case-comes-to-court---after-5300-years.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206113514/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/1501326/Cold-case-comes-to-court---after-5300-years.html |archive-date=2008-12-06 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]}}</ref>

In 2005, the rival claims were heard by a Bolzano court. The legal case angered Mrs. Simon, who alleged that neither woman was present on the mountain that day.<ref name="Pisa-2005" /> In 2005, Mrs. Simon's lawyer said: "Mrs. Simon is very upset by all this and by the fact that these two new claimants have decided to appear 14 years after Ötzi was found."<ref name="Pisa-2005" /> In 2008, however, Jarc stated for a Slovene newspaper that she had written twice to the Bolzano court in regard to her claim but received no reply whatsoever.<ref name="Jerman-2008"/>

In 2004, Helmut Simon died. Two years later, in June 2006, an appeals court affirmed that the Simons had indeed discovered the Iceman and were therefore entitled to a finder's fee. It also ruled that the provincial government had to pay the Simons' legal costs. After this ruling, Mrs. Erika Simon reduced her claim to €150,000. The provincial government's response was that the expenses it had incurred to establish a museum and the costs of preserving the Iceman should be considered in determining the finder's fee. It insisted it would pay no more than €50,000. In September 2006, the authorities appealed the case to Italy's highest court, the [[Court of Cassation (Italy)|Court of Cassation]].<ref name="Deem-2008b" />

On 29 September 2008, it was announced that the provincial government and Mrs. Simon had reached a settlement of the dispute, under which she would receive €150,000 in recognition of Ötzi's discovery by her and her late husband and the tourist income that it attracts.<ref name="BBC News-2008"/><ref>{{Cite news |last=Squires |first=Nick |date=2008-09-29 |title=Oetzi The Iceman's discoverers finally compensated |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/austria/3105153/Oetzi-the-icemans-discoverers-finally-compensated.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002035714/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/austria/3105153/Oetzi-the-icemans-discoverers-finally-compensated.html |archive-date=2008-10-02 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Iceman (2017 film)|''Iceman'']] – a 2017 fictional film about the life of Ötzi
* Similar archaeological finds:
** [[Children of Llullaillaco]] and [[Mummy Juanita]] – high-altitude Incan mummies
** [[Gebelein predynastic mummies]] – roughly contemporaneous Egyptian mummies
** [[Saltmen]] – well-preserved Iranian mummies
** [[Tarim Basin mummies]] – well-preserved Central Asian mummies

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==

===Articles===
* {{Cite web |last=Dickson |first=James Holms |date=28 June 2005 |title=Plants and the Iceman: Ötzi's last journey |url=http://www.gla.ac.uk/ibls/DEEB/jd/otzi.htm |access-date=2007-03-17 |publisher=Division of Environmental and Evolutionary Biology, Institute of Biomedical and Life Sciences, [[University of Glasgow]]}}.
* {{Cite web |last=Fowler |first=Brenda |date=November 2002 |title=The Iceman's last meal |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/icemummies/iceman.html |access-date=2007-03-17 |publisher=[[Nova (American TV program)|NOVA]] Online, [[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]}}.
* {{Cite journal |last=Keller |first=Andreas |date=2012-02-28 |title=New insights into the Tyrolean Iceman's origin and phenotype as inferred by whole-genome sequencing |url=http://isogg.org/tree/Keller%202012%20Oetzi%20Iceman.pdf |journal=Nature Communications |publisher=nature.com |volume=3 |article-number=698 |bibcode=2012NatCo...3..698K |doi=10.1038/ncomms1701 |pmid=22426219 |access-date=2012-04-25 |doi-access=free}}.
* {{Cite journal |last=Kennedy |first=Frances |date=2001-07-26 |title=Oetzi the Neolithic Iceman was killed by an arrow, say scientists |url=http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/article324955.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070518151436/http://news.independent.co.uk/europe/article324955.ece |archive-date=2007-05-18 |access-date=2007-03-17 |newspaper=[[The Independent]]}}.
* {{Cite journal |last=Macintyre |first=Ben |date=2003-11-01 |title=We know Oetzi had fleas, his last supper was steak&nbsp;... and he died 5,300 years ago |url=https://www.thetimes.com/article/we-know-oetzi-had-fleas-his-last-supper-was-steak-and-he-died-5-300-years-ago-fp52wkv73jc |newspaper=[[The Times]]}}.
* {{Cite journal |last1=Murphy |first1=William A. Jr. |last2=zur Nedden |first2=Dieter |last3=Gostner |first3=Paul |last4=Knapp |first4=Rudolf |last5=Recheis |first5=Wolfgang |last6=Seidler |first6=Horst |date=2003-01-24 |title=The Iceman: Discovery and imaging |journal=Radiology |volume=226 |issue=3 |pages=614–629 |doi=10.1148/radiol.2263020338 |issn=0033-8419 |pmid=12601185}}. Online pre-publication version.

===Books===
* {{Cite book |last=Deem |first=James |url=http://www.houghtonmifflinbooks.com/catalog/titledetail.cfm?titleNumber=552123 |title=Bodies from the Ice |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-618-80045-2 |location=Boston |page=64}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Iceman and His Natural Environment: Palaeobotanical Results |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-3-211-82660-7 |editor-last=Bortenschlager |editor-first=Sigmar |location=Wien; New York |editor-last2=Oeggl |editor-first2=Klaus}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Fowler |first=Brenda |title=Iceman: Uncovering the Life and Times of a Prehistoric Man Found in an Alpine Glacier |publisher=[[Random House]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-679-43167-1 |location=New York}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Spindler |first=Konrad |title=The Man in the Ice: The Preserved Body of a Neolithic Man Reveals the Secrets of the Stone Age |publisher=Phoenix |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7538-1260-0 |location=London |translator-last=Ewald Osers}}.
* {{Cite book |last1=De Marinis |first1=Raffaele C. |title=La Mummia del Similaun: Ötzi, l'uomo venuto dal ghiaccio [The Mummy of the Similaun: Ötzi, the Man who Came from the Ice] |last2=Brillante |first2=Giuseppe |publisher=Marsilio |year=1998 |isbn=978-88-317-7073-6 |location=Venice, Italy}} {{in lang|it}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Fleckinger |first1=Angelika |title=L'uomo venuto dal ghiaccio [The Man who Came from the Ice] |last2=Steiner |first2=Hubert |publisher=Folio |year=2000 |isbn=978-88-86857-03-1 |location=Bolzano, Italy |orig-date=1998}} {{in lang|it}}

== External links ==
{{Commons}}
{{Wikibooks|Planet Earth|8a. Otzi'<!-- DO NOT straighten the quotation mark -->s World or What Sustainably Looks Like|A reflection on sustainability comparing Ötzi's and Simon's deaths, by Benjamin Burger.}}

* [https://www.iceman.it/ Official website about Ötzi] by the South Tyrol Museum of Archeology
* [http://www.isogg.org/tree/Keller%202012%20Oetzi%20Iceman.pdf New insights into the Tyrolean Iceman's origin and phenotype as inferred by whole-genome sequencing]
* [http://www.icemanphotoscan.eu Iceman Photoscan, published by EURAC Research, Institute for Mummies and the Iceman]
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/science/horizon/2001/iceman.shtml "Death of the Iceman" – a synopsis of a BBC Horizon TV documentary first broadcast on 7 February 2002]
* [http://home.bawue.de/~wmwerner/oetzi.html Ötzi Links&nbsp;... Der Mann aus dem Eis vom Hauslabjoch – a list of links to websites about Ötzi in English, German and Italian] (last updated 28 January 2006)
* [http://www.wilderdom.com/evolution/OtziIcemanAlpsPictures.htm Otzi, the 5,300 Year Old Iceman from the Alps: Pictures & Information] (last updated 27 October 2004)
* [https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/five-millennia-on-iceman-of-bolzano-gives-up-dna-secrets-2041236.html "Five millennia on, Iceman of Bolzano gives up DNA secrets"] Michael Day, ''[[The Independent]]'', 2 August 2010
* [http://news.discovery.com/archaeology/otzi-face-reconstruction-110225.html "The Iceman Mummy: Finally Face to Face] High definition image of a reconstruction of Ötzi's face.
* [http://www.radiolab.org/story/ice-cold-case/ "An Ice Cold Case"] RadioLab interviews Albert Zink, Head of EURAC Research and the scientist in charge of Ötzi research.
* [http://www.ancientcraft.co.uk/Projects/otzi_shoe/shoe.html "Ötzi's Shoes]

{{Prehistoric technology}}
{{Portal bar|History|Switzerland|Italy}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Otzi The Iceman}}
[[Category:Ötzi| ]]
[[Category:1991 archaeological discoveries]]
[[Category:1991 in Austria]]
[[Category:1991 in Italy]]
[[Category:1991 in science]]
[[Category:32nd-century BC people]]
[[Category:Archaeological discoveries in Italy]]
[[Category:Austria–Italy border]]
[[Category:Copper Age Europe]]
[[Category:Deaths by arrow wounds]]
[[Category:Deaths from bleeding]]
[[Category:History of the Alps]]
[[Category:Mummies]]
[[Category:Ötztal Alps]]
[[Category:People from South Tyrol]]