View source for Maglev

{{Short description|Train system using magnetic levitation}}
{{About|transportation|the phenomenon|Magnetic levitation|other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2014}}
{{POV|talk=POV|date=May 2023}}
[[File:Transrapid 09.jpg|thumb|[[Transrapid]] 09 at the [[Emsland test facility]] in Lower Saxony, Germany]]
[[File:Transrapid Shanghai maglev train ride.webm|thumbtime=22|thumb|right|A full trip on the [[Shanghai Transrapid]] maglev train]]
[[File:Linimo-2.jpg|thumb|right|Example of low-speed urban maglev system, [[Linimo]]]]
'''Maglev''' (derived from ''[[magnetic levitation]]'') is a system of [[rail transport]] whose [[rolling stock]] is levitated by [[electromagnet]]s rather than rolled on wheels, eliminating [[rolling resistance]].<ref>{{cite web |date=27 February 2017 |title=Japanese Maglev Train: World's Fastest Bullet Train – JRailPass |url=https://www.jrailpass.com/blog/maglev-bullet-train |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715234852/https://www.jrailpass.com/blog/maglev-bullet-train |archive-date=15 July 2022 |access-date=18 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-802314-3.00009-3 |quote=Maglev train systems use powerful electromagnets to float the trains over a guideway, instead of the old steel wheel and track system. A system called electromagnetic suspension suspends, guides, and propels the trains. A large number of magnets provide controlled tension for lift and propulsion along a track. |chapter=Emerging Green Industrial Revolution Technologies |title=The Green Industrial Revolution |date=2015 |last1=Clark |first1=Woodrow W. |last2=Cooke |first2=Grant |pages=173–190 |isbn=978-0-12-802314-3 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Qadir |first1=Zakria |last2=Munir |first2=Arslan |last3=Ashfaq |first3=Tehreem |last4=Munawar |first4=Hafiz Suliman |last5=Khan |first5=Muazzam A. |last6=Le |first6=Khoa |title=A prototype of an energy-efficient MAGLEV train: A step towards cleaner train transport |journal=Cleaner Engineering and Technology |date=2021 |volume=4 |pages=100217 |doi=10.1016/j.clet.2021.100217 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2021CEngT...400217Q }}</ref>

Compared to conventional railways, maglev trains have higher top speeds, superior acceleration and deceleration, lower maintenance costs, improved [[Grade (slope)|gradient]] handling, and lower noise. However, they are more expensive to build, cannot use existing infrastructure, and use more energy at high speeds.<ref>{{Cite web |date=17 January 2018 |title=Will maglev ever become mainstream? |url=https://www.railway-technology.com/features/will-maglev-ever-become-mainstream/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210604033721/https://www.railway-technology.com/features/will-maglev-ever-become-mainstream/ |archive-date=4 June 2021 |access-date=2021-06-04 |website=www.railway-technology.com |language=en-GB}}</ref>

Maglev trains have set [[railway speed record|several speed records]]. The train speed record of {{convert|603|km/h|0|abbr=on}} was set by the experimental Japanese [[L0 Series]] maglev in 2015.<ref name="guardian201504212">{{cite web |date=21 April 2015 |title=Japan's maglev train breaks world speed record with 600km/h test run |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/21/japans-maglev-train-notches-up-new-world-speed-record-in-test-run |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206145023/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/21/japans-maglev-train-notches-up-new-world-speed-record-in-test-run |archive-date=6 December 2019 |access-date=21 April 2015 |work=The Guardian |publisher=Guardian News and Media Limited |location=United Kingdom}}</ref> From 2002 until 2021, the record for the highest operational speed of a passenger train of {{convert|431|km/h}} was held by the [[Shanghai maglev train]], which uses German [[Transrapid]] technology.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Everything about Shanghai Maglev Train: Speed, Station, Map, Ticket & Price, Facts... |url=https://www.chinadiscovery.com/shanghai/shanghai-maglev.html |access-date=2023-11-19 |website=www.chinadiscovery.com |language=en}}</ref> The service connects [[Shanghai Pudong International Airport]] and the outskirts of central [[Pudong]], [[Shanghai]]. At its historical top speed, it covered the distance of {{convert|30.5|km|0}} in just over 8{{nbsp}}minutes.

Different maglev systems achieve levitation in different ways, which broadly fall into two categories: [[Electromagnetic suspension|electromagnetic suspension (EMS)]] and [[Electrodynamic suspension|electrodynamic suspension (EDS)]]. Propulsion is typically provided by a [[linear motor]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Yaghoubi |first=Hamid |date=2013-03-27 |title=The Most Important Maglev Applications |journal=Journal of Engineering |language=en |volume=2013 |pages=e537986 |doi=10.1155/2013/537986 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The power needed for levitation is typically not a large percentage of the overall energy consumption of a high-speed maglev system.<ref>[http://www.transrapid.de/cgi-tdb/en/basics.prg?a_no=41 Transrapid] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927190155/http://www.transrapid.de/cgi-tdb/en/basics.prg?a_no=41 |date=27 September 2013 }} uses more power for air conditioning</ref> Instead, overcoming [[Drag (physics)|drag]] takes the most energy. [[Vactrain]] technology has been proposed as a means to overcome this limitation.

Despite over a century of research and development, there are only seven operational maglev trains today — four in China, two in South Korea, and one in Japan.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Six Operational Maglev Lines in 2018|url=https://www.maglev.net/six-operational-maglev-lines-in-2018|access-date=2021-11-23|website=www.maglev.net|archive-date=28 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128221743/https://www.maglev.net/six-operational-maglev-lines-in-2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2022-10-05 |title=High-speed rail trains are stalled in the US—and that might not change for a while |url=https://www.popsci.com/technology/high-speed-trains-hyperloop-history/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221226023720/https://www.popsci.com/technology/high-speed-trains-hyperloop-history/ |archive-date=26 December 2022 |access-date=2022-12-26 |website=Popular Science |language=en-US}}</ref>

The first intercity maglev line is being built in China and will connect [[Changsha]] and [[Liuyang]] cities in Hunan Province.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.globalconstructionreview.com/china-begins-work-on-1-5bn-maglev-track/ | title=China begins work on $1.5bn maglev track | date=9 December 2024 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.railjournal.com/passenger/main-line/china-begins-construction-of-inter-city-maglev/ | title=China begins construction of inter-city maglev | date=15 November 2024 }}</ref>

== History ==

=== Development ===
In the late 1940s, the British electrical engineer [[Eric Laithwaite]], a professor at [[Imperial College London]], developed the first full-size working model of the [[linear motor|linear induction motor]]. He became professor of heavy electrical engineering at Imperial College in 1964, where he continued his successful development of the linear motor.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/1999/oct/11/timradford |title=Nasa takes up idea pioneered by Briton – Magnetic levitation technology was abandoned by government |date=11 October 1999 |work=The Guardian |first=Tim |last=Radford |access-date=15 December 2016 |archive-date=21 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221110116/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/1999/oct/11/timradford |url-status=live}}</ref> Since linear motors do not require physical contact between the vehicle and guideway, they became a common fixture on advanced transportation systems in the 1960s and 1970s. Laithwaite joined one such project, the [[Tracked Hovercraft]] RTV-31, based near Cambridge, UK, although the project was cancelled in 1973.<ref>[http://keelynet.com/gravity/laithobi.htm "Obituary for the late Professor Eric Laithwaite"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825091816/http://www.keelynet.com/gravity/laithobi.htm |date=25 August 2010}}, ''Daily Telegraph'', 6 December 1997.</ref>

The linear motor was naturally suited to use with maglev systems as well. In the early 1970s, Laithwaite discovered a new arrangement of magnets, the [[magnetic river]], that allowed a single linear motor to produce both lift and forward thrust, allowing a maglev system to be built with a single set of magnets. Working at the [[British Rail Research Division]] in [[Derby]], along with teams at several civil engineering firms, the "transverse-flux" system was developed into a working system.

The first commercial maglev [[people mover]] was simply called "[[Air-Rail Link#Maglev|MAGLEV]]" and officially opened in 1984 near [[Birmingham]], England. It operated on an elevated {{convert|600|m}} section of monorail track between [[Birmingham Airport, West Midlands|Birmingham Airport]] and [[Birmingham International railway station]], running at speeds up to {{convert|42|km/h}}. The system was closed in 1995 due to reliability problems.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/488394.stm|title=The magnetic attraction of trains|work=BBC News|date=9 November 1999|access-date=28 November 2010|archive-date=6 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706104829/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/488394.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== First maglev patent ===
High-speed transportation patents were granted to various inventors throughout the world.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{US patent|3736880}}, 21 January 1972. Page 10, Column 1 Line 15 to Column 2 Line 25.</ref> The first relevant patent, {{US patent|714851}} (2 December 1902), issued to Albert C. Albertson, used magnetic levitation to take part of the weight off of the wheels while using conventional propulsion.

Early United States patents for a [[linear motor]] propelled train were awarded to German inventor {{ill|Alfred Zehden|de| Alfred Zehden|vertical-align=sup}}. The inventor was awarded {{US patent|782312}} (14 February 1905) and {{US patent|RE12700}} (21 August 1907).{{refn|group=note|Zehden describes a geometry in which the linear motor is used below a steel beam, giving partial levitation of the vehicle. These patents were later cited by ''Electromagnetic apparatus generating a gliding magnetic field'' by Jean Candelas ({{US patent|4131813}}), ''Air cushion supported, omnidirectionally steerable, traveling magnetic field propulsion device'' by Harry A. Mackie ({{US patent|3357511}}) and ''Two-sided linear induction motor especially for suspended vehicles'' by Schwarzer et al. ({{US patent|3820472}})}} In 1907, another early electromagnetic transportation system was developed by F. S. Smith.<ref name="US patent|859018">{{US patent|859018}}, 2 July 1907.</ref> In 1908, [[Cleveland]] mayor [[Tom L. Johnson]] filed a patent for a wheel-less "high-speed railway" levitated by an induced magnetic field.<ref name="US patent|1090213">{{US patent|1090213}}, 17 March 1914</ref> Jokingly known as "Greased Lightning," the suspended car operated on a 90-foot test track in Johnson's basement "absolutely noiseless[ly] and without the least vibration."<ref>Johnson, Tom L.. ''My Story.'' B. W. Huebsch, 1911; reprint Kent State University Press 1993. pg. xlv-xlvi</ref> A series of German patents for magnetic levitation trains propelled by linear motors were awarded to [[Hermann Kemper]] between 1937 and 1941.{{refn|group=note|These German patents would be GR643316 (1937), GR44302 (1938), GR707032 (1941).}} An early maglev train was described in {{US patent|3158765}}, "Magnetic system of transportation", by G. R. Polgreen on 25 August 1959. The first use of "maglev" in a United States patent was in "Magnetic levitation guidance system"<ref name="US patent|3858521">{{US patent|3858521}}; 26 March 1973.</ref> by [[Canadian Patents and Development Limited]].

=== New York, United States, 1912 ===
In 1912 French-American inventor [[Émile Bachelet]] demonstrated a model train with electromagnetic levitation and propulsion in Mount Vernon, New York.<ref>{{cite web|title=Here's an Aerial Vehicle Which Darts Along Poised Above Its Roadway|url=https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1912-06-02/ed-1/seq-21/|work=[[New-York Tribune]] |date=2 June 1912 |pages=5, 7 |access-date=16 July 2023|archive-date=16 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716012839/https://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1912-06-02/ed-1/seq-21/|url-status=live}}</ref> Bachelet's first related patent, {{US patent|1020942}} was granted in 1912. The electromagnetic propulsion was by attraction of iron in the train by direct current solenoids spaced along the track. The electromagnetic levitation was due to repulsion of the aluminum base plate of the train by the pulsating current electromagnets under the track. The pulses were generated by Bachelet's own Synchronizing-interrupter {{US patent|986039}} supplied with 220 VAC. As the train moved it switched power to the section of track that it was on. Bachelet went on to demonstrate his model in London, England in 1914, which resulted in the registration of Bachelet Levitated Railway Syndicate Limited July 9 in London, just weeks before the start of WWI.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Macnair |first1=Miles |title=Emile Bachelet (1863–1946): The Showman and the Flying Train |journal=Transactions of the Newcomen Society |date=July 2008 |volume=78 |issue=2 |pages=235–260 |doi=10.1179/175035208X317693 }}</ref>

Bachelet's second related patent, {{US patent|1020943}} granted the same day as the first, had the levitation electromagnets in the train and the track was aluminum plate. In the patent he stated that this was a much cheaper construction, but he did not demonstrate it.

=== New York, United States, 1968 ===
In 1959, while delayed in traffic on the [[Throgs Neck Bridge]], [[James R. Powell (physicist)|James Powell]], a researcher at [[Brookhaven National Laboratory]] (BNL), thought of using magnetically levitated transportation.<ref name='maglevhissummary'>{{cite web |url=http://www.railserve.com/maglev.html |title=Magnetic Levitation for Transportation |publisher=railserve.com |first=Christopher |last=Muller |date=23 January 1997 |access-date=12 October 2007 |archive-date=8 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100508232905/http://www.railserve.com/maglev.html |url-status=live}}</ref> Powell and BNL colleague [[Gordon Danby]] worked out a maglev concept using static magnets mounted on a moving vehicle to induce electrodynamic lifting and stabilizing forces in specially shaped loops, such as [[Electrodynamic suspension|figure-of-8 coils]] on a guideway.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/pr/2000/bnlpr041800.html |title=Brookhaven Lab Retirees Win Benjamin Franklin Medal For Their Invention of Magnetically Levitated Trains |publisher=Brookhaven National Laboratory |date=18 April 2000 |access-date=13 June 2008 |archive-date=22 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110222194752/http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/pr/2000/bnlpr041800.html |url-status=dead}}</ref> These were patented in 1968–1969.<ref name="Powell & Danby US patent 3470828">{{cite patent | country = US | number = 3470828 | status = patent | title = Electromagnetic inductive suspension and stabilization system for a ground vehicle | pubdate = 1969-10-07 | gdate = 1969-10-07 | fdate = 1967-11-21 | pridate = 1967-11-21 | invent1 = James R Powell Jr | invent2 = Gordon T Danby | url = https://patents.google.com/patent/US3470828A/en}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220106222810/https://patents.google.com/patent/US3470828A/en |date=6 January 2022}}</ref>

=== Japan, 1969 ===
{{See also|Chūō Shinkansen}}Japan operates two independently developed maglev trains. One is [[High Speed Surface Transport|HSST]] (and its descendant, the [[Linimo]] line) by [[Japan Airlines]] and the other, which is more well known, is [[SCMaglev]] by the [[Central Japan Railway Company]].

The development of the latter started in 1969. The first successful SCMaglev run was made on a short track at the [[Japanese National Railways]]' (JNR's) Railway Technical Research Institute in 1972.<ref name="usjmaglev">{{cite web| url=http://usjmaglev.com/usjmaglev/History.html| title=History| work=USJMAGLEV| author=U.S.-Japan Maglev| date=2012| access-date=26 December 2014| archive-date=28 July 2014| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140728110724/http://usjmaglev.com/usjmaglev/History.html| url-status=live}}</ref> Maglev trains on the [[SCMaglev#Miyazaki test track|Miyazaki test track]] (a later, 7&nbsp;km long test track) regularly hit {{convert|517|km/h}} by 1979. After an accident destroyed the train, a new design was selected. In [[Okazaki, Aichi|Okazaki]], Japan (1987), the SCMaglev was used for test rides at the Okazaki exhibition. Tests in Miyazaki continued throughout the 1980s, before transferring to a far longer test track, {{convert|20|km}} long, in Yamanashi in 1997. The track has since been extended to almost {{convert|43|km}}. The {{convert|603|km/h}} world speed record for crewed trains was set there in 2015.

Development of [[High Speed Surface Transport|HSST]] started in 1974. In [[Tsukuba]], Japan (1985), the HSST-03 ([[Linimo]]) became popular at the [[Expo '85|Tsukuba World Exposition]], in spite of its low {{convert|30|km/h}} top speed. In [[Saitama, Saitama|Saitama]], Japan (1988), the HSST-04-1 was revealed at the Saitama exhibition in [[Kumagaya]]. Its fastest recorded speed was {{convert|300|km/h}}.<ref>{{cite news|last=Sanchanta|first=Mariko|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704762904575024611266446690|title=High-Speed Rail Approaches Station|date=26 January 2010|publisher=WSJ|access-date=8 August 2017|archive-date=13 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813144109/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704762904575024611266446690|url-status=live}}</ref>

Construction of a new high-speed maglev line, the [[Chuo Shinkansen]], started in 2014. It is being built by extending the SCMaglev test track in Yamanashi in both directions. The completion date is unknown, with the estimate of 2027 no longer possible following a local governmental rejection of a construction permit.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2020/07/a97dfd2524f6-shizuoka-says-no-to-construction-for-new-maglev-train-service.html|title=JR Central gives up on opening new maglev train service in 2027|date=3 July 2020|publisher=Kyodo News|access-date=3 October 2020|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930144839/https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2020/07/a97dfd2524f6-shizuoka-says-no-to-construction-for-new-maglev-train-service.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Hamburg, Germany, 1979 ===
[[Transrapid]] 05 was the first maglev train with longstator propulsion licensed for passenger transportation. In 1979, a {{convert|908|m}} track was opened in [[Hamburg]] for the first {{ill|International Transportation Exhibition|de|Internationale Verkehrsausstellung|vertical-align=sup}} (IVA 79). Interest was sufficient that operations were extended three months after the exhibition finished, having carried more than 50,000 passengers. It was reassembled in [[Kassel]] in 1980.

=== Ramenskoye, Moscow, USSR, 1979 ===

In 1979 the [[USSR]] town of [[Ramenskoye, Moscow Oblast|Ramenskoye]] ([[Moscow oblast]]) built an experimental test site for running experiments with cars on magnetic suspension. The test site consisted of a 60-metre ramp which was later extended to 980 metres.<ref>[http://guryevandrey.narod.ru/artikals/Maglev.pdf "Дорога на магнитном подвесе: второе дыхание в России?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810143835/http://guryevandrey.narod.ru/artikals/Maglev.pdf |date=10 August 2013}}, ''РЖД-Партнёр'', 2009-10-01</ref> From the late 1970s to the 1980s five prototypes of cars were built that received designations from TP-01 (ТП-01) to TP-05 (ТП-05).<ref name=Skorenko2015>{{Cite web|url=https://www.popmech.ru/technologies/58629-sovetskiy-maglev-25-let-pod-tsellofanom/|title=Советский маглев: 25 лет под целлофаном|website=Популярная механика|access-date=14 June 2021|archive-date=14 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614021901/https://www.popmech.ru/technologies/58629-sovetskiy-maglev-25-let-pod-tsellofanom/|url-status=live}}</ref> The early cars were supposed to reach the speed up to {{convert|100|km/h}}.

The construction of a maglev track using the technology from Ramenskoye started in [[Armenian SSR]] in 1987<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.izmerov.narod.ru/monor/monor5.html|title=The unknown russian monorail|website=www.izmerov.narod.ru|access-date=15 October 2018|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428032833/http://www.izmerov.narod.ru/monor/monor5.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and was planned to be completed in 1991. The track was supposed to connect the cities of [[Yerevan]] and [[Sevan, Armenia|Sevan]] via the city of [[Abovyan]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://newslab.ru/news/626312|title=Юные красноярские железнодорожники разработали модель поезда на&nbsp;магнитной подушке|website=newslab.ru|access-date=2018-10-15|archive-date=15 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015192521/http://newslab.ru/news/626312|url-status=live |language=ru}}</ref> The original design speed was {{convert|250|km/h}} which was later lowered to {{convert|180|km/h}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://habr.com/ru/company/mailru/blog/410545/|title=Советский маглев: будущее, которое не случилось|website=habr.com|date=2 March 2018 |access-date=14 June 2021|archive-date=9 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109023144/https://habr.com/ru/company/mailru/blog/410545/|url-status=live |language=ru}}</ref> However, the [[Spitak earthquake]] in 1988 and the [[First Nagorno-Karabakh War]] caused the project to freeze. In the end the overpass was only partially constructed.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://russia-armenia.info/node/35882|title=Как маглев до Еревана не "доехал". Армения могла стать первой в СССР республикой с магнитным монорельсом|date=2017-02-19|work=Центр поддержки русско-армянских стратегических и общественных инициатив|access-date=2018-10-15|archive-date=15 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181015192418/http://russia-armenia.info/node/35882|url-status=live |language=ru}}</ref>

In the early 1990s, the maglev theme was continued by the Engineering Research Center "TEMP" (ИНЦ "ТЭМП")<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://erc-temp.ru/|title=ОАО Инженерно-научный центр "ТЭМП"|access-date=11 December 2018|archive-date=19 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219150450/http://erc-temp.ru/|url-status=dead |language=ru}}</ref> this time by the order from the [[Government of Moscow|Moscow government]]. The project was named V250 (В250). The idea was to build a high-speed maglev train to connect [[Moscow]] to the [[Sheremetyevo airport]]. The train would consist of 64-seater cars and run at speeds up to {{convert|250|km/h}}.<ref name=Skorenko2015/> In 1993, due to the [[Economic history of the Russian Federation#1993|financial crisis]], the project was abandoned. However, from 1999 the "TEMP" research center had been participating as a co-developer in the creation of the linear motors for the [[Moscow Monorail]] system.

=== Birmingham, United Kingdom, 1984–1995 ===
[[File:Birmingham International Maglev.jpg|thumb|The Birmingham International Maglev shuttle]]
The world's first commercial maglev system was a [[AirRail Link#Maglev|low-speed maglev shuttle]] that ran between the airport terminal of [[Birmingham Airport|Birmingham International Airport]] and the nearby [[Birmingham International railway station]] between 1984 and 1995.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/488394.stm|title=The magnetic attraction of trains|work=BBC News|date=9 November 1999|access-date=9 September 2009|archive-date=6 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070706104829/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/488394.stm|url-status=live}}</ref> Its track length was {{convert|600|m}}, and trains levitated at an altitude of {{convert|15|mm|disp=sqbr}}, levitated by electromagnets, and propelled with linear induction motors.<ref>Maglev, A film for The People Mover Group</ref> It operated for 11 years and was initially very popular with passengers,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The World's First Maglev Lines That No Longer Operate |url=https://www.maglev.net/worlds-first-maglev-lines-no-longer-operate |access-date=2022-06-10 |website=www.maglev.net |archive-date=28 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128220252/https://www.maglev.net/worlds-first-maglev-lines-no-longer-operate |url-status=live }}</ref> but obsolescence problems with the electronic systems made it progressively unreliable<ref>{{cite web|last1=Goodall|first1=Roger|title=Maglev – an unfulfilled dream?|date=2012|page=6|url=https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/conference_contribution/Maglev_an_unfulfilled_dream_/9552941|access-date=26 July 2021|archive-date=26 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726050823/https://repository.lboro.ac.uk/articles/conference_contribution/Maglev_an_unfulfilled_dream_/9552941|url-status=live}}</ref> as years passed, leading to its closure in 1995. One of the original cars is now on display at [[Railworld]] in Peterborough, together with the [[Research Test Vehicle 31|RTV31]] hover train vehicle. Another is on display at the National Railway Museum in York.

Several favourable conditions existed when the link was built:{{citation needed|date=December 2022}}
* The British Rail Research vehicle was 3 tonnes and extension to the 8-tonne vehicle was easy.
* Electrical power was available.
* The airport and rail buildings were suitable for terminal platforms.
* Only one crossing over a public road was required and no steep gradients were involved.
* Land was owned by the railway or airport.
* Local industries and councils were supportive.
* Some government finance was provided and because of sharing work, the cost per organization was low.

After the system closed in 1995, the original guideway lay dormant<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[Birmingham Mail]] |url=http://www.birminghammail.net/news/solihull-news/tm_objectid=17662730&method=full&siteid=50002&headline=new-plan-aims-to-bring-the-maglev-back-name_page.html |title=New plan aims to bring the Maglev back |access-date=1 September 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110522011843/http://www.birminghammail.net/news/solihull-news/tm_objectid%3D17662730%26method%3Dfull%26siteid%3D50002%26headline%3Dnew-plan-aims-to-bring-the-maglev-back-name_page.html |archive-date=22 May 2011}}</ref> until 2003, when a replacement [[funicular|cable-hauled]] system, the [[AirRail Link]] Cable Liner people mover, was opened.<ref name="dcc-bhx">{{cite web |url=http://www.dcc.at/doppelmayr/references/en/tmp_1_1762145202/Birmingham,_UK_detail.aspx |title=AirRail Shuttle Birmingham International Airport |publisher=DCC Doppelmayr |access-date=16 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110531203650/http://www.dcc.at/doppelmayr/references/en/tmp_1_1762145202/Birmingham,_UK_detail.aspx |archive-date=31 May 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arup.com/rail/project.cfm?pageid=2529 |title=Birmingham International Airport People Mover |publisher=[[Arup Group Limited|Arup]] |access-date=11 July 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071129092006/http://www.arup.com/rail/project.cfm?pageid=2529 |archive-date=29 November 2007}}</ref>

=== Emsland, Germany, 1984–2011 ===
[[File:Transrapid.jpg|thumb|[[Transrapid]] at the [[Emsland test facility]]]]
{{Main|Emsland test facility}}
Transrapid, a German maglev company, had a test track in [[Emsland]] with a total length of {{convert|31.5|km}}. The single-track line ran between [[Dörpen]] and [[Lathen]] with turning loops at each end. The trains regularly ran at up to {{convert|420|km/h}}. Paying passengers were carried as part of the testing process. The construction of the test facility began in 1980 and finished in 1984.

In 2006, a [[Lathen train collision|maglev train accident]] occurred in Lathen, killing 23 people. It was found to have been caused by human error in implementing safety checks. From 2006 no passengers were carried. At the end of 2011 the operation licence expired and was not renewed, and in early 2012 demolition permission was given for its facilities, including the track and factory.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ndr.de/regional/niedersachsen/emsland/transrapid295.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120706235158/http://www.ndr.de/regional/niedersachsen/emsland/transrapid295.html|url-status=dead|title=Transrapid-Teststrecke vor dem Abriss, NDR (in German)|archivedate=6 July 2012}}</ref>

In March 2021 it was reported the [[CRRC]]  was investigating reviving the Emsland test track.<ref>{{cite news |title=German maglev test track set for revival? |url=https://www.railjournal.com/passenger/high-speed/german-maglev-test-track-set-for-revival/ |access-date=30 June 2021 |publisher=IRJ |date=6 April 2021 |archive-date=7 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210407073656/https://www.railjournal.com/passenger/high-speed/german-maglev-test-track-set-for-revival/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In May 2019 CRRC had unveiled its "CRRC 600" prototype which is designed to reach {{convert|600|km/h}}.

=== Vancouver, Canada, and Hamburg, Germany, 1986–1988 ===
[[File:HSST-03 in okazaki minami park.jpg|right|thumb|HSST-03 at Okazaki Minami Park]]
{{Main|High Speed Surface Transport}}

In Vancouver, Canada, the HSST-03 by HSST Development Corporation ([[Japan Airlines]] and [[Sumitomo Corporation]]) was exhibited at [[Expo 86]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.washington.edu/jbs/itrans/hsst_his.htm|title=Japanese Maglev System – HSST – History of Development|access-date=23 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017224436/http://faculty.washington.edu/jbs/itrans/hsst_his.htm|archive-date=17 October 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> and ran on a {{convert|0.25|mi|m|order=flip|adj=on}} test track that provided guests with a ride in a single car along a short section of track at the fairgrounds.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.trainweb.org/chris/expo86.html |title=A Few Views of Expo 86 in Vancouver, BC. |access-date=23 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150527193228/http://www.trainweb.org/chris/expo86.html |archive-date=27 May 2015 |url-status=dead}}</ref> It was removed after the fair. It was shown at the Aoi Expo in 1987 and is now on static display at Okazaki Minami Park.

=== South Korea, 1993–2023 ===

{{See also|Incheon Airport Maglev}}
[[File:ECOBEE.jpg|thumb|South Korea's [[Incheon Airport Maglev]], the world's fourth commercially operating maglev<ref name="The Korea Times">{{Cite web|url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2021/06/113_197061.html|title=S. Korea launches maglev train service at main airport|date=2 February 2016|website=koreatimes|access-date=14 June 2021|archive-date=14 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614021850/https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/nation/2021/06/113_197061.html|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

In 1993, South Korea completed the development of its own maglev train, shown off at the [[Expo '93|Daejeon Expo '93]], which was developed further into a full-fledged maglev [[UTM-02]] capable of travelling up to {{convert|110|km/h}} in 2006. This final model was incorporated in the [[Incheon Airport Maglev]] which opened on 3 February 2016, making South Korea the world's fourth country to operate its own self-developed maglev after the United Kingdom's Birmingham International Airport,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yfGfrY6BMUQC&pg=PA25 |title=Birmingham maglev off to flying start |last=Hamer |first=Mick |date=1984-03-15 |work=New Scientist |pages=25–27 |access-date=2016-06-14}}</ref> Germany's Berlin [[M-Bahn]],<ref>{{cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qP9fvo9OLIwC&pg=PA97 |title=Magnetic train |last=Sponseller |first=Michael |date=December 1988 |work=Popular Science |pages=97–98 |access-date=2016-06-14}}</ref> and [[Japan]]'s [[Linimo]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.mk.co.kr/news/realestate/view/2016/02/94104/|title=도시형 자기부상철도 3일 개통…세계 두번째|date=2 February 2016|website=매일경제|access-date=14 June 2021|archive-date=14 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614021853/https://www.mk.co.kr/news/realestate/view/2016/02/94104/|url-status=live}}</ref> It links [[Incheon International Airport]] to the Yongyu Station and Leisure Complex on [[Yeongjongdo|Yeongjong island]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://rki.kbs.co.kr/english/economynit/econit_issue_detail.htm?No=2402 |access-date=2010-09-26 |title=KBS WORLD}}</ref> It offers a transfer to the [[Seoul Metropolitan Subway]] at [[AREX]]'s [[Incheon International Airport Station]] and is offered free of charge to anyone to ride, operating between 9{{nbsp}}am and 6{{nbsp}}pm with 15-minute intervals.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2016/02/01/0200000000AKR20160201203400003.HTML|title = 인천공항 자기부상철도 3일 개통…무료로 운행한다| work=연합뉴스 |date = 2 February 2016|access-date = 2 February 2016|archive-date = 5 February 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160205051155/http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2016/02/01/0200000000AKR20160201203400003.HTML|url-status = live | author1=성혜미 }}</ref>

The maglev system was co-developed by the South Korea Institute of Machinery and Materials (KIMM) and [[Hyundai Rotem]].<ref name=":3">{{cite web |url=https://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2009/07/113_5419.html |access-date=2010-09-26 |title=Maglev Train to Debut at Incheon in 2012 |date=26 June 2007 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303212438/http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/nation/2009/07/113_5419.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hyundai-rotem.co.kr/Common/uFileDownload.asp?Idx=13&Fgbn=1&Brd=EngWebzine |title=Webzine |publisher=[[Hyundai Rotem]] |access-date=2 February 2016 |archive-date=22 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722135634/http://www.hyundai-rotem.co.kr/Common/uFileDownload.asp?Idx=13&Fgbn=1&Brd=EngWebzine |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2989159&cloc=rss%7Cnews%7Cjoongangdaily |title=Magnetic levitation train to operate in July |date=14 May 2014 |access-date=3 October 2014 |archive-date=6 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006115721/http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2989159&cloc=rss%7Cnews%7Cjoongangdaily |url-status=live}}</ref> It is {{convert|6.1|km}} long, with six stations and a {{convert|110|km/h}} operating speed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.railwaygazette.com/nc/news/single-view/view/airport-maglev-demonstration-line.html |access-date=2010-09-26 |title=Railway Gazette: Airport maglev demonstration line |archive-date=15 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110615143432/http://www.railwaygazette.com/nc/news/single-view/view/airport-maglev-demonstration-line.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

Two more stages are planned of {{convert|9.7|km|0}} and {{convert|37.4|km}}. Once completed it will become a circular line. It was shut down in September 2023.

=== Germany/China, 2010–present ===
[[Transport System Bögl]] (TSB) is a driverless maglev system developed by the German construction company [[Max Bögl]] since 2010. Its primary intended use is for short to medium distances (up to 30&nbsp;km) and speeds up to 150&nbsp;km/h for uses such as [[airport shuttle]]s. The company has been doing test runs on an 820-meter-long test track at their headquarters in [[Sengenthal]], [[Upper Palatinate]], [[Germany]], since 2012 clocking over 100,000 tests covering a distance of over 65,000&nbsp;km as of 2018.

In 2018 Max Bögl signed a joint venture with the Chinese company Chengdu Xinzhu Road & Bridge Machinery Co. with the Chinese partner given exclusive rights of production and marketing for the system in China. The joint venture constructed a {{convert|3.5|km|mi|abbr=on}} demonstration line near [[Chengdu]], China, and two vehicles were airlifted there in June, 2020.<ref name="EVEN TRAINS CAN FLY">{{cite news |title=EVEN TRAINS CAN FLY |url=https://www.airlineratings.com/news/industry-news/even-trains-can-fly/ |access-date=30 June 2021 |publisher=Airline Ratings |date=1 July 2020 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182110/https://www.airlineratings.com/news/industry-news/even-trains-can-fly/ |url-status=live}}</ref> In February 2021 a vehicle on the Chinese test track hit a top speed of {{convert|169|kph|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-02-11 |title=TSB knackt 169 km/h – MagnetBahn |url=https://magnetbahn.org/news/tsb-knackt-169-km-h/ |access-date=2023-11-23 |language=de-DE}}</ref>

=== China, since 2000 ===
According to the International Maglev Board there are at least four maglev research programmes underway in China at: [[Southwest Jiaotong University]] (Chengdu), [[Tongji University]] (Shanghai), [[CRRC Tangshan|CRRC Tangshan-Changchun Railway Vehicle Co.]], and [[Chengdu Aircraft Industry Group]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Maglev Research Programmes |url=https://www.maglevboard.net/en/facts/20-maglev-research-programmes |access-date=21 July 2021 |archive-date=21 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721052729/https://www.maglevboard.net/en/facts/20-maglev-research-programmes |url-status=live}}</ref> The latest [[CRRC Maglev|high-speed prototype]], unveiled in July 2021, was manufactured by [[CRRC Qingdao Sifang]].<ref>{{cite news |title=1st high-speed maglev train rolls off production line |url=http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202107/20/WS60f6d11fa310efa1bd6632dd_3.html |access-date=21 July 2021 |work=[[China Daily]] |date=20 July 2021 |archive-date=21 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721032426/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202107/20/WS60f6d11fa310efa1bd6632dd_3.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Low-to-medium speed ====
Development of the low-to-medium speed systems, that is, {{convert|100-200|kph|mph|abbr=on}},<ref>{{cite web |title=Green Locomotive Global Network |url=https://www.crrcgc.cc/Portals/22/Uploads/Files/2014/5-8/635351369890628619.pdf |access-date=21 July 2021 |archive-date=21 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721034550/https://www.crrcgc.cc/Portals/22/Uploads/Files/2014/5-8/635351369890628619.pdf |url-status=live}}</ref> by the [[CRRC]] has led to opening lines such as the [[Changsha Maglev Express]] in 2016 and the [[Line S1 (Beijing Subway)|Line S1]] in Beijing in 2017. In April 2020 a new model capable of {{convert|160|kph|mph|abbr=on}} and compatible with the Changsha line completed testing. The vehicle, under development since 2018, has a 30 percent increase in traction efficiency and a 60 percent increase in speed over the stock in use on the line since.<ref name="160TestPassed">{{cite news |title=China's new maglev train passes speed test at 160 kph |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202004/28/WS5ea7e4d2a310a8b241152614.html |access-date=21 July 2021 |work=China Daily |date=28 April 2018 |archive-date=21 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721034550/https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202004/28/WS5ea7e4d2a310a8b241152614.html |url-status=live}}</ref>  The vehicles entered service in July 2021 with a top speed of {{convert|140|kph|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite news |title=New maglev train improves service in Hunan |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202107/02/WS60deca0da310efa1bd65f702.html |access-date=21 July 2021 |work=China Daily |date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=21 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721034550/https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202107/02/WS60deca0da310efa1bd65f702.html |url-status=live}}</ref>
CRRC Zhuzhou Locomotive said in April 2020 it is developing a model capable of {{convert|200|kph|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref name="160TestPassed"/>

==== High speed ====
[[File:Maglev on Tongji Apr. 2014.jpg|thumb|right|Maglev on the Tongji University test track]]
There are two competing efforts for high-speed maglev systems, i.e., {{convert|300-620|kph|mph|abbr=on}}.
* The first is based on the [[Transrapid]] technology used in the [[Shanghai maglev train]] and is developed by the [[CRRC]] under license from Thyssen-Krupp.<ref name="ReOpenEmsland">{{cite news |title=German maglev test track set for revival? CRRC could use the Transrapid Emsland track to test maglev vehicles. |url=https://www.railjournal.com/passenger/high-speed/german-maglev-test-track-set-for-revival/ |work=International Railway Journal |date=6 April 2021 |access-date=30 June 2021 |archive-date=7 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210407073656/https://www.railjournal.com/passenger/high-speed/german-maglev-test-track-set-for-revival/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
** In 2006 the {{convert|500|kph|mph|abbr=on}} CM1 Dolphin prototype was unveiled<ref>{{cite news |title=1st High-speed Maglev to Take a Trial Run |url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/scitech/157842.htm |access-date=21 July 2021 |website=china.org.cn |date=13 February 2006 |archive-date=27 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527220917/http://www.china.org.cn/english/scitech/157842.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> and began testing on a new {{convert|1.5|km|mi|adj=on}} test track at [[Tongji University]], northwest of Shanghai.
** A prototype vehicle of the {{convert|600|kph|mph|abbr=on}} CRRC 600 was developed in 2019 and tested from June 2020.<ref>{{cite news |title=China's super fast 600km/h maglev train performs its first test run |url=https://www.scmp.com/abacus/news-bites/article/3090079/chinas-super-fast-600km/h-maglev-train-performs-its-first-test |access-date=21 July 2021 |website=SCMP |date=22 June 2020 |archive-date=23 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623171732/https://www.scmp.com/abacus/news-bites/article/3090079/chinas-super-fast-600km/h-maglev-train-performs-its-first-test |url-status=live}}</ref>
** In March 2021 a {{convert|300|kph|mph|abbr=on}} model began trials.<ref>{{cite web |title=The medium-speed maglev prototype is out of the warehouse for the first time |url=https://nmtc.tongji.edu.cn/index.php?classid=6802&newsid=10524&t=show |website=National Maglev Transportation Engineering Technology Research Center |access-date=21 July 2021 |date=8 March 2021 |archive-date=21 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721123537/https://nmtc.tongji.edu.cn/index.php?classid=6802&newsid=10524&t=show |url-status=dead}}</ref>
** In July 2021, the [[CRRC Maglev|CRRC 600 maglev]], planned to travel at up to {{convert|600|kph|mph|abbr=on}}, was unveiled in Qingdao.<ref>{{cite web |title=China gets rolling on new superfast maglev train |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3141769/superfast-maglev-train-key-chinas-smart-transport-network-rolls |website=South China Morning Post |access-date=24 July 2021 |date=20 July 2021 |archive-date=15 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221115192833/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3141769/superfast-maglev-train-key-chinas-smart-transport-network-rolls |url-status=live}}</ref> It was reported to be the world's fastest ground vehicle.<ref>{{cite web |title=China unveils 600 kph maglev train – state media |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-unveils-600-kph-maglev-train-state-media-2021-07-20/ |website=Reuters |access-date=24 July 2021 |date=20 July 2021 |archive-date=24 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210724093833/https://www.reuters.com/world/china/china-unveils-600-kph-maglev-train-state-media-2021-07-20/ |url-status=live}}</ref>
** A high-speed test track is under development in China and also, in April 2021, there was consideration given to re-opening the Emsland test facility in Germany.<ref name="ReOpenEmsland"/>
* A second, incompatible high-speed prototype was constructed by [[Max Bögl]] and Chengdu Xinzhu Road & Bridge Machinery Co. Ltd. and unveiled in January 2021. Developed at [[Southwest Jiaotong University]] in Chengdu, the [[Super Bullet Maglev]] design uses high-temperature superconducting magnets, is designed for {{convert|620|kph|mph|abbr=on}} and was demonstrated on a {{convert|165|m|yd|adj=on}} test track.<ref>{{cite news |title=China reveals 620km/hr high-temp electric maglev train |url=https://thedriven.io/2021/01/21/china-reveals-620km-hr-high-temp-electric-maglev-train/ |access-date=21 July 2021 |work=The Driven |date=21 January 2021 |archive-date=21 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121015733/https://thedriven.io/2021/01/21/china-reveals-620km-hr-high-temp-electric-maglev-train/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Technology ==
<!-- This section is linked from [[Transrapid]] -->
{{See also|SCMaglev#Technology|Transrapid#Technology|Magnetic levitation}}

In the public imagination, ''maglev'' often evokes the concept of an elevated [[monorail]] track with a [[linear motor]]. Maglev systems may be monorail or dual rail—the [[SCMaglev]] MLX01 for instance uses a trench-like track—and not all monorail trains are maglevs. Some railway transport systems incorporate linear motors but use electromagnetism only for [[propulsion]], without levitating the vehicle. Such trains have wheels and are not maglevs.{{refn|group=note|This is the case with the [[Moscow Monorail]]—currently the only non-maglev linear motor-propelled monorail train in active service.}} Maglev tracks, monorail or not, can also be constructed at grade or underground in tunnels. Conversely, non-maglev tracks, monorail or not, can be elevated or underground too. Some maglev trains do incorporate wheels and function like linear motor-propelled wheeled vehicles at slower speeds but levitate at higher speeds. This is typically the case with [[electrodynamic suspension]] maglev trains. [[Aerodynamic]] factors may also play a role in the levitation of such trains.

[[File:JR Maglev-Model-truck.JPG|thumb|MLX01 Maglev train [[superconducting magnet]] [[bogie]]]]
The two main types of maglev technology are:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Hyung-Woo |last2=Kim |first2=Ki-Chan |last3=Lee |first3=Ju |title=Review of maglev train technologies |journal=[[IEEE Transactions on Magnetics]] |date=2006 |volume=42 |issue=7 |pages=1917–1925 |doi=10.1109/TMAG.2006.875842|bibcode=2006ITM....42.1917L }}</ref>
* [[Electromagnetic suspension]] (EMS), electronically controlled electromagnets in the train attract it to a magnetically conductive (usually steel) track.
* [[Electrodynamic suspension]] (EDS) uses superconducting electromagnets or strong permanent magnets that create a magnetic field, which induces currents in nearby metallic conductors when there is relative movement, which pushes and pulls the train towards the designed levitation position on the guide way.

=== Electromagnetic suspension (EMS) ===
{{Main|Electromagnetic suspension}}
[[File:Magnetschwebebahn.svg|thumb|Electromagnetic suspension (EMS) is used to levitate the [[Transrapid]] on the track, so that the train can be faster than wheeled mass transit systems.<ref>{{cite web|title=High-Tech for 'Flying on the Ground' |url=http://www.thyssenkrupp.com/documents/transrapid/TRI_Flug_Hoehe_e_5_021.pdf |access-date=28 December 2014 |publisher=Transrapid International |journal= |archive-date=29 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229021017/http://www.thyssenkrupp.com/documents/transrapid/TRI_Flug_Hoehe_e_5_021.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hk-phy.org/articles/maglev/maglev_e.html |title=Hong Kong Physics World – Maglev |publisher=Hong Kong Physics World |access-date=28 December 2014 |archive-date=5 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305152247/http://www.hk-phy.org/articles/maglev/maglev_e.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>]]

In electromagnetic suspension (EMS) systems, the train levitates by attraction to a ferromagnetic (usually steel) rail while [[electromagnet]]s, attached to the train, are oriented toward the rail from below. The system is typically arranged on a series of C-shaped arms, with the upper portion of the arm attached to the vehicle, and the lower inside edge containing the magnets. The rail is situated inside the C, between the upper and lower edges.

Magnetic attraction varies inversely with the square of distance, so minor changes in distance between the magnets and the rail produce greatly varying forces. These changes in force are dynamically unstable—a slight divergence from the optimum position tends to grow, requiring sophisticated feedback systems to maintain a constant distance from the track, (approximately {{convert|15|mm|disp=sqbr}}).<ref>{{cite journal |title=Characteristics of electromagnetic force of EMS-type maglev vehicle using bulk superconductors |journal=IEEE Transactions on Magnetics|date=September 2000 |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=3683–3685 |author1=Tsuchiya, M.|author2=Ohsaki, H. |doi=10.1109/20.908940|bibcode=2000ITM....36.3683T}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=The theory of electromagnetic levitation |journal=Physics in Technology |author=R. Goodall |date=September 1985 |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=207–213 |doi=10.1088/0305-4624/16/5/I02 |bibcode=1985PhTec..16..207G}}</ref>

The major advantage to suspended maglev systems is that they work at all speeds, unlike electrodynamic systems, which only work at a minimum speed of about {{convert|30|km/h}}. This eliminates the need for a separate low-speed suspension system, and can simplify track layout. On the downside, the dynamic instability demands fine track tolerances, which can offset this advantage. [[Eric Laithwaite]] was concerned that to meet required tolerances, the gap between magnets and rail would have to be increased to the point where the magnets would be unreasonably large.<ref name=pslaith/> In practice, this problem was addressed through improved feedback systems, which support the required tolerances. Air gap and energy efficiency can be improved by using the so-called "Hybrid Electromagnetic Suspension (H-EMS)", where the main levitation force is generated by permanent magnets, while the electromagnet controls the air gap,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Groom |first=Nelson J. |date=1991-03-01 |title=Permanent magnet flux-biased magnetic actuator with flux feedback |journal=National Aeronautics and Space Administration Report |bibcode=1991nasa.reptQ....G |url=https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991nasa.reptQ....G |access-date=12 June 2023 |archive-date=12 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612084713/https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1991nasa.reptQ....G |url-status=live }}</ref> what is called [[electropermanent magnet]]s. Ideally it would take negligible power to stabilize the suspension and in practice the power requirement is less than it would be if the entire suspension force were provided by electromagnets alone.<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Design and Optimisation of a Virtual Prototype of a Ground Transportation System at Very High-Speeds in Conditions Close to Vacuum |url=https://riunet.upv.es/handle/10251/191409 |publisher=Universitat Politècnica de València |date=2023-01-20 |degree=Tesis doctoral |first=Federico |last=Lluesma Rodríguez |access-date=12 June 2023 |archive-date=12 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612084715/https://riunet.upv.es/handle/10251/191409 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Electrodynamic suspension (EDS) ===

{{Main|Electrodynamic suspension}}
[[File:JR Maglev-Lev.png|thumb|The Japanese SCMaglev's EDS suspension is powered by the magnetic fields induced either side of the vehicle by the passage of the vehicle's superconducting magnets.]]
[[File:Maglev Propulsion.svg|thumb|EDS maglev propulsion via propulsion coils]]

In electrodynamic suspension (EDS), both the guideway and the train exert a magnetic field, and the train is levitated by the repulsive and attractive force between these magnetic fields.<ref name=RTRI>{{cite web |url=http://www.rtri.or.jp/rd/division/rd79/yamanashi/english/principle_E.html |title=Principle of Maglev |publisher=Railway Technical Research Institute |access-date=25 May 2012 |archive-date=13 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130213183443/http://www.rtri.or.jp/rd/division/rd79/yamanashi/english/principle_E.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In some configurations, the train can be levitated only by repulsive force. In the early stages of maglev development at the Miyazaki test track, a purely repulsive system was used instead of the later repulsive and attractive EDS system.<ref name=osti>{{cite journal |url=http://www.osti.gov/bridge/product.biblio.jsp?query_id=0&page=0&osti_id=10150166 |title=Study of Japanese Electrodynamic-Suspension Maglev Systems |doi=10.2172/10150166 |osti=10150166 |publisher=Osti.gov |date=31 August 2012 |access-date=2012-11-04 |last1=He |first1=J.L. |last2=Rote |first2=D.M. |last3=Coffey |first3=H.T. |archive-date=5 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205182321/http://www.osti.gov/bridge/product.biblio.jsp?query_id=0&page=0&osti_id=10150166 |url-status=live }}</ref> The magnetic field is produced either by superconducting magnets (as in JR–Maglev) or by an array of permanent magnets (as in [[Inductrack]]). The repulsive and attractive force in the track is created by an [[Electromagnetic induction|induced magnetic field]] in wires or other conducting strips in the track.

A major advantage of EDS maglev systems is that they are dynamically stable—changes in distance between the track and the magnets creates strong forces to return the system to its original position.<ref name=pslaith/> In addition, the attractive force varies in the opposite manner, providing the same adjustment effects. No active feedback control is needed.

However, at slow speeds, the current induced in these coils and the resultant magnetic flux is not large enough to levitate the train. For this reason, the train must have wheels or some other form of landing gear to support the train until it reaches take-off speed. Since a train may stop at any location, due to equipment problems for instance, the entire track must be able to support both low- and high-speed operation.

Another downside is that the EDS system naturally creates a field in the track in front and to the rear of the lift magnets, which acts against the magnets and creates magnetic drag. This is generally only a concern at low speeds, and is one of the reasons why JR abandoned a purely repulsive system and adopted the sidewall levitation system.<ref name="osti"/> At higher speeds other modes of drag dominate.<ref name="pslaith"/>

The drag force can be used to the electrodynamic system's advantage, however, as it creates a varying force in the rails that can be used as a reactionary system to drive the train, without the need for a separate reaction plate, as in most linear motor systems. Laithwaite led development of such "traverse-flux" systems at his Imperial College laboratory.<ref name=pslaith/> Alternatively, propulsion coils on the guideway are used to exert a force on the magnets in the train and make the train move forward. The propulsion coils that exert a force on the train are effectively a linear motor: an alternating current through the coils generates a continuously varying magnetic field that moves forward along the track. The frequency of the alternating current is synchronized to match the speed of the train. The offset between the field exerted by magnets on the train and the applied field creates a force moving the train forward.

=== Tracks ===
The term ''maglev'' refers not only to the vehicles, but to the railway system as well, specifically designed for magnetic levitation and propulsion. All operational implementations of maglev technology make minimal use of wheeled train technology and are not compatible with conventional [[rail track]]s. Because they cannot share existing infrastructure, maglev systems must be designed as standalone systems. The SPM maglev system is inter-operable with steel rail tracks and would permit maglev vehicles and conventional trains to operate on the same tracks.<ref name="pslaith">[https://books.google.com/books?id=pdvMRoDOTbMC "Maglev: How they're Getting Trains off the Ground"], ''Popular Science'', December 1973 p. 135.</ref>
[[MAN SE|MAN]] in Germany also designed a maglev system that worked with conventional rails, but it was never fully developed.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

=== Evaluation ===
Each implementation of the magnetic levitation principle for train-type travel involves advantages and disadvantages.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prasad |first1=Nisha |last2=Jain |first2=Shailendra |last3=Gupta |first3=Sushma |title=Electrical Components of Maglev Systems: Emerging Trends |journal=Urban Rail Transit |date=2019 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=67–79 |doi=10.1007/s40864-019-0104-1 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Technology
! Pros
! Cons
|-
| EMS<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.motorauthority.com/blog/1030815_dutch-university-working-on-affordable-electromagnetic-suspension |title=Dutch university working on affordable electromagnetic suspension |first=Nelson |last=Ireson |publisher=MotorAuthority.com |date=14 November 2008 |access-date=7 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090929043111/http://www.motorauthority.com/blog/1030815_dutch-university-working-on-affordable-electromagnetic-suspension |archive-date=29 September 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/english/NEWS_EN/20061030/122929/ |first=Keisuke |last=Ogawa |title=Hitachi Exhibits Electromagnetic Suspension System |publisher=techon.nikkeibp.co.jp |date=30 October 2006 |access-date=7 September 2009 |archive-date=13 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813145737/http://techon.nikkeibp.co.jp/english/NEWS_EN/20061030/122929/ |url-status=live }}</ref> ([[electromagnetic suspension]])
| Magnetic fields inside and outside the vehicle are less than EDS; proven, commercially available technology; high speeds ({{convert|500|km/h|disp=or}}); no wheels or secondary propulsion system needed.
| The separation between the vehicle and the guideway must be constantly monitored and corrected due to the unstable nature of electromagnetic attraction; the system's inherent instability and the required constant corrections by outside systems may induce vibration.
|-
| EDS<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.thompsonrd.com/ieee_maglev_part2.pdf |title=Flux-Canceling Electrodynamic Maglev Suspension: Part II Test Results and Scaling Laws |author=Marc T. Thompson |author2=Richard D. Thornton |journal=IEEE Transactions on Magnetics |volume=35 |issue=3 |date=May 1999 |doi=10.1109/20.764894 |pages=1964–1975 |access-date=7 September 2009 |archive-date=17 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717051625/http://www.thompsonrd.com/ieee_maglev_part2.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/06/04/nyregion/it-floats-it-speeds-it-s-a-train.html |first=Valerie |last=Cotsalas |title=It Floats! It Speeds! It's a Train! |work=The New York Times |date=4 June 2000 |access-date=19 February 2017 |archive-date=13 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813231900/http://www.nytimes.com/2000/06/04/nyregion/it-floats-it-speeds-it-s-a-train.html |url-status=live }}</ref><br/>([[electrodynamic suspension]])
|| Onboard magnets and large margin between rail and train enable highest-recorded speeds ({{convert|603|km/h|disp=or}}) and heavy load capacity; demonstrated successful operations using [[High-temperature superconductivity|high-temperature superconductors]] in its onboard magnets, cooled with inexpensive liquid [[nitrogen]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}
|| Strong magnetic fields on the train would make the train unsafe for passengers with [[artificial pacemaker|pacemakers]] or magnetic data storage media such as hard drives and credit cards, necessitating the use of [[magnetic shielding]]; limitations on guideway inductivity limit maximum speed;{{Citation needed|reason=No mention elsewhere on page|date=April 2020}} vehicle must be [[wheeled]] for travel at low speeds.
|-
| [[Inductrack]] system<ref name=anew>{{cite web |url=http://www.llnl.gov/str/Post.html |title=''A New Approach for Magnetically Levitating Trains – and Rockets'' |publisher=llnl.gov |access-date=7 September 2009 |archive-date=28 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528141314/https://www.llnl.gov/str//Post.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.skytran.net/press/sciam01.htm |author=Richard F. Post |title=MagLev: A New Approach |work=Scientific American |date=January 2000 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050309114627/http://www.skytran.net/press/sciam01.htm |archive-date= 9 March 2005}}</ref> (permanent magnet passive suspension)
|| Failsafe [[suspension (vehicle)|suspension]]—no power required to activate magnets; Magnetic field is localized below the car; can generate enough force at low speeds (around {{convert|5|km/h|disp=or}}) for levitation; given power failure cars stop safely; [[Halbach array]]s of permanent magnets may prove more cost-effective than electromagnets.
|| Requires either wheels or track segments that move for when the vehicle is stopped. Under development {{as of|2008|lc=y}}; no commercial version or full-scale prototype.
|}

Neither [[Inductrack]] nor the Superconducting EDS are able to levitate vehicles at a standstill, although [[Inductrack]] provides levitation at much lower speed; wheels are required for these systems. EMS systems are wheel-free.

The German Transrapid, Japanese [[High Speed Surface Transport|HSST]] (Linimo), and Korean [[Hyundai Rotem|Rotem]] EMS maglevs levitate at a standstill, with electricity extracted from guideway using power rails for the latter two, and wirelessly for Transrapid. If guideway power is lost on the move, the Transrapid is still able to generate levitation down to {{convert|10|km/h}} speed,{{citation needed|reason=statistics need citations|date=August 2013}} using the power from onboard batteries. This is not the case with the HSST and Rotem systems.

==== Propulsion ====
EMS systems such as HSST/[[Linimo]] can provide both levitation and [[Ground propulsion|propulsion]] using an onboard linear motor. But EDS systems and some EMS systems such as Transrapid levitate but do not propel. Such systems need some other technology for propulsion. A linear motor (propulsion coils) mounted in the track is one solution. Over long distances coil costs could be prohibitive.

==== Stability ====
[[Earnshaw's theorem]] shows that no combination of static magnets can be in a stable equilibrium.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.hfml.ru.nl/levitation-possible.html |title=Is Magnetic Levitation Possible? |publisher=High Field Magnet Laboratory |author1=Gibbs, Philip |author2=Geim, Andre |name-list-style=amp |access-date=8 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070530010339/http://www.hfml.ru.nl/levitation-possible.html |archive-date=30 May 2007}}</ref> Therefore a dynamic (time varying) magnetic field is required to achieve stabilization. EMS systems rely on active electronic [[Voltage regulator|stabilization]] that constantly measures the bearing distance and adjusts the electromagnet current accordingly. EDS systems rely on changing magnetic fields to create currents, which can give passive stability.

Because maglev vehicles essentially fly, stabilisation of pitch, roll, and yaw is required. In addition to rotation, surge (forward and backward motions), sway (sideways motion), or heave (up and down motions) can be problematic.

Superconducting magnets on a train above a track made out of a permanent magnet lock the train into its lateral position. It can move linearly along the track, but not off the track. This is due to the [[Meissner effect]] and [[flux pinning]].

==== Guidance system ====
Some systems use Null Current systems (also sometimes called Null Flux systems).<ref name=RTRI/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maglev2000.com/works/how-03-c.html |title=How maglev works: Learning to levitate |publisher=Maglev 2000 |access-date=7 September 2009 |archive-date=7 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100707085714/http://www.maglev2000.com/works/how-03-c.html |url-status=live }}</ref> These use a coil that is wound so that it enters two opposing, alternating fields, so that the average flux in the loop is zero. When the vehicle is in the straight ahead position, no current flows, but any moves off-line create flux that generates a field that naturally pushes/pulls it back into line.

=== Proposed technology enhancements ===
==== Evacuated tubes ====
{{Main|Vactrain}}
Some systems (notably the [[Swissmetro]] system and the [[Hyperloop]]) propose the use of vactrains—maglev train technology used in evacuated (airless) tubes, which removes [[air drag]]. This has the potential to increase speed and efficiency greatly, as most of the energy for conventional maglev trains is lost to aerodynamic drag.<ref name=popsci>{{cite web |url=http://www.popsci.com/scitech/article/2004-04/trans-atlantic-maglev |title=Trans-Atlantic MagLev |date=12 April 2004 |access-date=1 September 2009 |archive-date=26 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101126093425/http://www.popsci.com/scitech/article/2004-04/trans-atlantic-maglev |url-status=live }}</ref>

One potential risk for passengers of trains operating in evacuated tubes is that they could be exposed to the risk of cabin depressurization unless tunnel safety monitoring systems can repressurize the tube in the event of a train malfunction or accident. Since trains are likely to operate at or near the Earth's surface, emergency restoration of ambient pressure should be straightforward. The [[RAND Corporation]] has depicted a vacuum tube train that could, in theory, cross the Atlantic or the USA in around 21 minutes.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rand.org/pubs/papers/P4874.html |title=The Very High Speed Transit System |publisher=RAND |access-date=29 September 2011 |year=1972 |last1=Salter |first1=Robert M. |archive-date=26 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926200435/http://www.rand.org/pubs/papers/P4874.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Rail-maglev hybrid <span class="anchor" id="Rail-maglev hybrid"></span> ====
The Polish startup [[Nevomo]] (previously ''Hyper Poland'') is developing a system for modifying existing railway tracks into a maglev system, on which conventional wheel-rail trains, as well maglev vehicles can travel.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.maglev.net/magrail-mix-of-maglev-and-traditional-rail |title=Magrail: The Brilliant Mix of Maglev and Traditional Rail |publisher=maglev.net |date=24 March 2020 |access-date=24 August 2020 |archive-date=8 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200808195901/https://www.maglev.net/magrail-mix-of-maglev-and-traditional-rail |url-status=live }}</ref> Vehicles on this so-called 'magrail' system will be able to reach speeds of up to {{convert|300|kph|mph}} at significantly lower infrastructure costs than stand-alone maglev lines. In 2023 Nevomo conducted the first MagRail tests on Europe's longest test track for passive magnetic levitation, which the company had previously built in Poland.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.railtech.com/innovation/2022/11/25/why-develop-new-infrastructure-for-hyperloop-when-existing-rail-tracks-can-be-used/ |title=Why develop new infrastructure for hyperloop when existing rail tracks can be used? |publisher=railtech.com |date=25 November 2022 |access-date=25 August 2023 |archive-date=25 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825192519/https://www.railtech.com/innovation/2022/11/25/why-develop-new-infrastructure-for-hyperloop-when-existing-rail-tracks-can-be-used/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Energy use ===
Energy for maglev trains is used to accelerate the train. Energy may be regained when the train slows down via [[regenerative braking]]. It also levitates and stabilises the train's movement. Most of the energy is needed to overcome [[air drag]]. Some energy is used for air conditioning, heating, lighting and other miscellany.

At low speeds the percentage of power used for levitation can be significant, consuming up to 15% more power than a subway or light rail service.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maglev.net/news/beijing-maglev/ |title=Beijing Maglev |publisher=Maglev.net |access-date=2012-11-04 |archive-date=14 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414213312/http://www.maglev.net/news/beijing-maglev/ |url-status=live }}</ref> For short distances the energy used for acceleration might be considerable.

The force used to overcome air drag increases with the square of the velocity and hence dominates at high speed. The energy needed per unit distance increases by the square of the velocity and the time decreases linearly. However power increases by the cube of the velocity. For example, 2.37 times as much power is needed to travel at {{convert|400|km/h}} than {{convert|300|km/h}}, while drag increases by 1.77 times the original force.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://theconversation.com/can-magnetically-levitating-trains-run-at-3-000km-h-27615|title=Can magnetically levitating trains run at 3,000km/h?|first=Roger|last=Goodall|website=The Conversation|date=10 July 2014 |access-date=14 June 2021|archive-date=28 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210428192800/https://theconversation.com/can-magnetically-levitating-trains-run-at-3-000km-h-27615|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Aircraft]] take advantage of lower air pressure and lower temperatures by cruising at altitude to reduce energy consumption but unlike trains need to [[aviation fuel|carry fuel on board]]. This has led to the suggestion of [[vactrain|conveying maglev vehicles through partially evacuated tubes]].

=== High-speed maglev comparison with conventional high-speed trains ===
Maglev transport is non-contact and electric powered. It relies less or not at all on the wheels, bearings and axles common to wheeled rail systems.<ref name="NAMTI">{{cite news |url=http://namti.org/?page_id=9 |work=North American Maglev Transport Institute |title=-Maglev Technology Explained |date=1 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727110924/http://namti.org/?page_id=9 |archive-date=27 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

* '''Speed:''' Maglev allows higher top speeds than conventional rail. While experimental wheel-based [[High-speed rail|high-speed trains]] have demonstrated similar speeds, conventional trains will suffer from friction between wheels and track and thus elevating the maintenance cost if operating at such speed, unlike levitated maglev trains.
* '''Maintenance''': Maglev trains currently in operation have demonstrated the need for minimal guideway maintenance. Vehicle maintenance is also minimal (based on hours of operation, rather than on speed or distance traveled). Traditional rail is subject to mechanical wear and tear that increases rapidly with speed, also increasing maintenance.<ref name="NAMTI"/> For example: the wearing down of brakes and overhead wire wear have caused problems for the [[Fastech 360]] rail Shinkansen. Maglev would eliminate these issues.
* '''Weather''': In theory, maglev trains should be unaffected by snow, ice, severe cold, rain, or high winds. However, as of yet no maglev system has been installed in a location with such a harsh climate.
* '''Acceleration''': Maglev vehicles accelerate and decelerate faster than mechanical systems regardless of the slickness of the guideway or the slope of the grade, because they are non-contact systems.<ref name="NAMTI"/>
* '''Track''': Maglev trains are not compatible with conventional track, and therefore require custom infrastructure for their entire route. By contrast conventional high-speed trains such as the [[TGV]] are able to run, albeit at reduced speeds, on existing rail infrastructure, thus reducing expenditure where new infrastructure would be particularly expensive (such as the final approaches to city terminals), or on extensions where traffic does not justify new infrastructure. John Harding, former chief maglev scientist at the [[Federal Railroad Administration]], claimed that separate maglev infrastructure more than pays for itself with higher levels of all-weather operational availability and nominal maintenance costs. These claims have yet to be proven in an intense operational setting and they do not consider the increased maglev construction costs. However, in countries like China, there are discussion of building some key conventional high-speed rail tunnels/bridges to a standard that would allow them upgrading to maglev.
* '''Efficiency''': Conventional rail is probably{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}} more efficient at lower speeds. But due to the lack of physical contact between the track and the vehicle, maglev trains experience no [[rolling resistance]], leaving only [[air resistance]] and [[eddy current|electromagnetic drag]], potentially improving power efficiency.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.transrapid.de/cgi-tdb/en/basics.prg?session=9be8fa13451ed8b9&a_no=47 |title=Transrapid claims to use a quarter less power at 200 km/h than the InterCityExpress |publisher=Transrapid |access-date=7 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090722151041/http://www.transrapid.de/cgi-tdb/en/basics.prg?session=9be8fa13451ed8b9&a_no=47 |archive-date=22 July 2009 }}</ref> Some systems, however, such as the [[Central Japan Railway Company]] [[SCMaglev]] use rubber tires at low speeds, reducing efficiency gains.{{citation needed|date=May 2019}}
* '''Mass''': The electromagnets in many EMS and EDS designs require between 1 and 2 kilowatts per ton.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hochleistungsbahnen.tu-dresden.de/fachtagung_tr/trt3/18_trt3_vortrag18.pdf |title=Tagungsband.doc |access-date=29 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111002083400/http://www.hochleistungsbahnen.tu-dresden.de/fachtagung_tr/trt3/18_trt3_vortrag18.pdf |archive-date=2 October 2011 }}</ref> The use of superconductor magnets can reduce the electromagnets' energy consumption. A 50-ton Transrapid maglev vehicle can lift an additional 20 tons, for a total of 70 tons, which consumes {{convert|70|-|140|kW|hp}}.{{citation needed|reason=statistics need citations|date=August 2013}} Most energy use for the TRI is for propulsion and overcoming air resistance at speeds over {{convert|100|mph}}.{{citation needed|reason=statistics need citations|date=August 2013}}
* '''Weight loading''': High-speed rail requires more support and construction for its concentrated wheel loading. Maglev cars are lighter and distribute weight more evenly.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2014-06-25|title=Conventional High-Speed Rail Vs. Magnetically Levitated Trains: Was M…|url=http://www.californiaprogressreport.com/site/conventional-high-speed-rail-vs-magnetically-levitated-trains-was-maglev-ever-contention|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111206094748/http://www.californiaprogressreport.com/site/conventional-high-speed-rail-vs-magnetically-levitated-trains-was-maglev-ever-contention|url-status=dead|archive-date=2011-12-06|access-date=2021-03-06|website=archive.is}}</ref>
* '''Noise''': Because the major source of noise of a maglev train comes from displaced air rather than from wheels touching rails, maglev trains produce less noise than a conventional train at equivalent speeds. However, the [[psychoacoustic]] profile of the maglev may reduce this benefit: a study concluded that maglev noise should be rated like road traffic, while conventional trains experience a 5–10&nbsp;dB "bonus", as they are found less annoying at the same loudness level.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JASMAN000115000004001597000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=Yes |title=Annoyance caused by the sounds of a magnetic levitation train |author=Vos, Joos |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |date=April 2004 |volume=115 |issue=4 |pages=1597–1608 |access-date=23 May 2008 |doi=10.1121/1.1650330 |pmid=15101639 |bibcode=2004ASAJ..115.1597V |archive-date=25 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231025192438/https://pubs.aip.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JASMAN000108000005002527000002&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes |title=Maglev—A super fast train |journal=The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America |date=November 2000 |author=Gharabegian, Areq |volume=108 |issue=5 |page=2527 |access-date=23 May 2008 |doi=10.1121/1.4743350 |bibcode=2000ASAJ..108R2527G |archive-date=25 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231025192437/https://pubs.aip.org/ |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Maglev Videos">{{cite news |url=http://namti.org/?page_id=1340 |work=North American Maglev Transport Institute |title=Maglevs in Action |date=1 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727111146/http://namti.org/?page_id=1340 |archive-date=27 July 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
* '''Magnet reliability:''' Superconducting magnets are generally used to generate the powerful magnetic fields to levitate and propel the trains. These magnets must be kept below their critical temperatures (this ranges from 4.2&nbsp;K to 77&nbsp;K, depending on the material). New alloys and manufacturing techniques in superconductors and cooling systems have helped address this issue.
* '''Control systems''': No signalling systems are needed for high-speed maglev, because such systems are computer controlled.{{Citation needed|date=January 2022}} Human operators cannot react fast enough to manage high-speed trains. High-speed systems require dedicated rights of way and are usually elevated. Two maglev system microwave towers are in constant contact with trains. There is no need for train whistles or horns, either.
* '''Terrain''': Maglevs are able to ascend higher grades, offering more routing flexibility and reduced tunneling.<ref name="CaliforniaProgressReport">{{cite web|author=Alan Kandel|date=22 November 2011|title=Conventional High-Speed Rail Vs. Magnetically Levitated Trains: Was Maglev Ever In Contention?|url=http://www.californiaprogressreport.com/site/conventional-high-speed-rail-vs-magnetically-levitated-trains-was-maglev-ever-contention|access-date=25 June 2014|archive-date=6 December 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111206094748/http://www.californiaprogressreport.com/site/conventional-high-speed-rail-vs-magnetically-levitated-trains-was-maglev-ever-contention|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== High-speed maglev comparison with aircraft ===
Differences between airplane and maglev travel:

* '''Efficiency''': For maglev systems the [[lift-to-drag ratio]] can exceed that of aircraft (for example [[Inductrack]] can approach 200:1 at high speed, far higher than any aircraft). This can make maglevs more efficient per kilometer. However, at high cruising speeds, aerodynamic drag is much larger than lift-induced drag. Jet-powered aircraft take advantage of low air density at high altitudes to significantly reduce air drag. Hence despite their lift-to-drag ratio disadvantage, they can travel more efficiently at high speeds than maglev trains that operate at sea level.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}
* '''Routing''': Maglevs offer competitive journey times for distances of {{convert|800|km}} or less. Additionally, maglevs can easily serve intermediate destinations. Air routes don't require infrastructure between the origin and destination airport and therefore provide greater flexibility to modify service endpoints as needed.
* '''Availability''': Maglevs are little affected by weather.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}
* '''Travel time''': Maglevs do not face the extended security protocols faced by air travelers nor is time consumed for taxiing, or for queuing for take-off and landing.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}}

== Economics ==
{{update|date=January 2018}}<!-- Numbers in the section should state the year of the currency unit, and how much they would cost after adjustment for inflation. -->

As more maglev systems are deployed, experts expect construction costs to drop by employing new construction methods and from [[economies of scale]].<ref>{{cite web |author=pattont |url=http://namti.org/?page_id=275 |title=Cost Data – HSM vs. Existing Modes " North American Maglev Transport Institute |publisher=Namti.org |date=30 January 2011 |access-date=29 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919090834/http://namti.org/?page_id=275 |archive-date=19 September 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

=== High-Speed systems ===
The Shanghai maglev demonstration line cost US$1.2 billion to build in 2004.<ref name="Fast Tracks">{{cite web | url=http://thetransitcoalition.us/Civil%20Engineering%20Magazine%20-%20November%2020O04.htm | title=Fast Track | last1=Antlauf | first1=Walter | last2=Bernardeau | first2=François | last3=Coates | first3=Kevin | publisher=Civil Engineering Magazine | date=November 2004 | access-date=2017-12-22 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060508063634/http://thetransitcoalition.us/Civil%20Engineering%20Magazine%20-%20November%2020O04.htm | archive-date=8 May 2006 | url-status=dead }}</ref> This total includes capital costs such as right-of-way clearing, extensive pile driving, on-site guideway manufacturing, in-situ pier construction at {{convert|25|m}} intervals, a maintenance facility and vehicle yard, several switches, two stations, operations and control systems, power feed system, cables and inverters, and operational training. Ridership is not a primary focus of this demonstration line, since the [[Longyang Road station]] is on the eastern outskirts of Shanghai. Once the line is extended to South Shanghai Train station and Hongqiao Airport station, which may not happen because of economic reasons, ridership was expected to cover operation and maintenance costs and generate significant net revenue.{{According to whom|date=December 2014}}

The South Shanghai extension was expected to cost approximately US$18 million per kilometre. In 2006, the German government invested $125 million in guideway cost reduction development that produced an all-concrete modular design that is faster to build and is 30% less costly. Other new construction techniques were also developed that put maglev at or below price parity with new high-speed rail construction.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://namti.org/?page_id=3281 |title=Modular Guideway Manufacturing " North American Maglev Transport Institute |publisher=Namti.org |access-date=29 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919050405/http://namti.org/?page_id=3281 |archive-date=19 September 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

In South Korea, the operational Incheon Airport Maglev - launched in 2016 - exemplifies a lower-speed, urban application where construction costs (approximately US$65 million per kilometer) have proven more manageable, offering a model for cost-effective deployment in densely populated areas.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-06 |title=Incheon International Airport's maglev train, which was suspended seven years after its opening, wil.. - MK |url=https://www.mk.co.kr/en/society/11008272 |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=매일경제 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3" />

Because maglev trains eliminate mechanical friction through magnetic levitation, their maintenance requirements tend to be lower than those for conventional high-speed rail. Advanced systems - such as those using superconducting magnets or adaptive control for energy management - further reduce operating costs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Qadir |first1=Zakria |last2=Munir |first2=Arslan |last3=Ashfaq |first3=Tehreem |last4=Munawar |first4=Hafiz Suliman |last5=Khan |first5=Muazzam A. |last6=Le |first6=Khoa |date=2021-10-01 |title=A prototype of an energy-efficient MAGLEV train: A step towards cleaner train transport |journal=Cleaner Engineering and Technology |volume=4 |pages=100217 |doi=10.1016/j.clet.2021.100217 |issn=2666-7908|doi-access=free |bibcode=2021CEngT...400217Q }}</ref> For instance, some designs claim energy consumption reductions of up to 30% compared with earlier maglev systems, with lower long-term maintenance expenses owing to reduced wear.<ref name=":4">{{Citation |title=CRRC Maglev |date=2025-02-28 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRRC_Maglev |access-date=2025-03-17 |language=en}}</ref> U.S. studies on proposed corridors (e.g. the Baltimore-Washington Rapid Rail project) have estimated construction costs in the range of US$50-100 million per mile, while also highlighting potential benefits such as job creation during both the construction and operation phases.<ref name=":6">https://mde.maryland.gov/programs/water/WetlandsandWaterways/SiteAssets/Lists/SCMAGLEV/NewForm/UMCES%20Review%20of%20MAGLEV%20Economic%20Benefits%20Analysis_Final.pdf</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Project – Baltimore-Washington Rapid Rail |url=https://bwrapidrail.com/project/ |access-date=2025-03-17 |language=en-US}}</ref>

The primary economic rationale for maglev is the dramatic reduction in travel times, which could result in substantial productivity gains and drive regional economic integration. In Japan, the time savings offered by the Chuo Shinkansen are projected to generate benefits on the order of several trillion yen over its operational lifetime.<ref name=":5">{{Citation |title=Chūō Shinkansen |date=2025-03-10 |work=Wikipedia |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C5%AB%C5%8D_Shinkansen |access-date=2025-03-17 |language=en}}</ref> Similarly, proposals in the United States emphasize the dual benefits of rapid intercity connectivity and reduced highway congestion, despite the need to overcome political and funding challenges. German research into the Transrapid system - which, although not deployed commercially, led to innovations in modular guideway manufacturing that reduced costs by up to 30% - further supports the potential for maglev systems to achieve price parity with new high-speed rail lines under the right conditions.<ref>https://www.osti.gov/servlets/purl/656864</ref><ref name=":6" /> In Switzerland, while full-scale commercial maglev has not yet been implemented, ongoing R&D (including Hyperloop inspired tests) indicates that similar cost-saving measures could eventually be applied in European markets.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Swissmetro |url=https://geste.group/en/swissmetro-en/swissmetro |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=GESTE Engineering SA |language=en-gb}}</ref><ref>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/255792073_Swissmetro_-_Project_Development_Status</ref>

=== Low-Speed systems ===
The Japanese [[Linimo]] HSST, cost approximately US$100 million/km to build.<ref name="irj">''[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BQQ/is_5_44/ai_n6054072 Nagoya builds Maglev Metro] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070129162842/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BQQ/is_5_44/ai_n6054072 |date=29 January 2007 }}'', International Railway Journal, May 2004.</ref> Besides offering improved operation and maintenance costs over other transit systems, these low-speed maglevs provide ultra-high levels of operational reliability and introduce little noise and generate zero air pollution into [[Area density|dense]] urban settings.

== Records ==
The highest-recorded maglev speed is {{convert|603|km/h}}, achieved in Japan by [[Central Japan Railway Company|JR Central]]'s [[L0 Series|L0]] superconducting maglev on 21 April 2015,<ref name="guardian20150421">{{cite web |url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/21/japans-maglev-train-notches-up-new-world-speed-record-in-test-run |title= Japan's maglev train breaks world speed record with 600 km/h test run |date= 21 April 2015 |work= The Guardian |publisher= Guardian News and Media Limited |location= United Kingdom |access-date= 21 April 2015 |archive-date= 6 December 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191206145023/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/21/japans-maglev-train-notches-up-new-world-speed-record-in-test-run |url-status= live }}</ref> {{convert|28|km/h}} faster than the conventional [[TGV]] wheel-rail speed record. However, the operational and performance differences between these two very different technologies is far greater. The TGV record was achieved accelerating down a {{convert|72.4|km|0}} slight decline, requiring 13 minutes. It then took another {{convert|77.25|km|0}} for the TGV to stop, requiring a total distance of {{convert|149.65|km|0}} for the test.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://namti.org/editorials-2/tgvs-357-mph-demo-proves-maglevs-superiority/ |title=TGV's 357Mph Demo Proves HSM's Superiority " North American Maglev Transport Institute |publisher=Namti.org |access-date=29 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151211140434/http://namti.org/editorials-2/tgvs-357-mph-demo-proves-maglevs-superiority/ |archive-date=11 December 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The L0 record, however, was achieved on the {{convert|42.8|km}} Yamanashi test track – less than one-third the distance.<ref name="jrc-data2012">{{cite book| chapter-url=http://english.jr-central.co.jp/company/company/others/data-book/_pdf/2012.pdf| author=Central Japan Railway Company| title=Data Book 2012| chapter=The Chuo Shinkansen Using the Superconducting Maglev System| pages=24–25| date=2012| access-date=14 June 2023| archive-date=4 March 2016| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000946/http://english.jr-central.co.jp/company/company/others/data-book/_pdf/2012.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref> No maglev or wheel-rail commercial operation has actually been attempted at speeds over {{convert|500|km/h}}.

=== History of maglev speed records ===
{{more citations needed section|date=January 2018}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+List of speed records set by maglev vehicles, by date, sortable
|-
!scope="col"| Year
!scope="col"| Country
!scope="col"| Train
!scope="col"| Speed
!scope="col"| Notes
|-
!scope="row"| 1971
| [[West Germany]] || Prinzipfahrzeug|| {{convert|90|km/h}} ||
|-
!scope="row"| 1971
| West Germany || TR-02 ([[Toshiba Samsung Storage Technology|TSST]]) ||{{convert|164|km/h}} ||
|-
!scope="row"| 1972
| [[Japan]] || ML100 || {{convert|60|km/h}} || crewed
|-
!scope="row"| 1973
| West Germany || TR04 || {{convert|250|km/h}} || crewed
|-
!scope="row"| 1974
| West Germany || EET-01 || {{convert|230|km/h}} || uncrewed
|-
!scope="row"| 1975
| West Germany || Komet || {{convert|401|km/h}} || by steam rocket propulsion, uncrewed
|-
!scope="row"| 1978
| Japan || [[High Speed Surface Transport|HSST]]-01 || {{convert|308|km/h}} || by supporting rockets propulsion, made in [[Nissan]]<!-- Which disambiguation meaning is correct??? -->, uncrewed
|-
!scope="row"| 1978
| Japan || HSST-02 || {{convert|110|km/h}} || crewed
|-
!scope="row"| 1979-12-12
| Japan || ML-500R || {{convert|504|km/h}} || (uncrewed) It succeeds in operation over {{convert|500|km/h}} for the first time in the world.
|-
!scope="row"| 1979-12-21
| Japan || ML-500R || {{convert|517|km/h}} || (uncrewed)
|-
!scope="row"| 1987
| West Germany || TR-06 || {{convert|406|km/h}} || (crewed)
|-
!scope="row"| 1987
| Japan || MLU001 || {{convert|401|km/h}} || (crewed)
|-
!scope="row"| 1988
| West Germany || TR-06 || {{convert|413|km/h}} || (crewed)
|-
!scope="row"| 1989
| West Germany || TR-07 || {{convert|436|km/h}} || (crewed)
|-
!scope="row"| 1993
| [[Germany]] || TR-07 || {{convert|450|km/h}} || (crewed)
|-
!scope="row"| 1994
| Japan || MLU002N || {{convert|431|km/h}} || (uncrewed)
|-
!scope="row"| 1997
| Japan || MLX01 || {{convert|531|km/h}} || (crewed)
|-
!scope="row"| 1997
| Japan || MLX01 || {{convert|550|km/h}} || (uncrewed)
|-
!scope="row"| 1999
| Japan || MLX01 || {{convert|552|km/h}} || (crewed/five-car formation) [[Guinness World Records|Guinness]] authorization.
|-
!scope="row"| 2003
| Japan || MLX01 || {{convert|581|km/h}} || (crewed/three formation) Guinness authorization.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.jr-central.co.jp/news/n20040301/index.html |title=The Superconducting Maglev Sets a Guinness World Record for Attaining 581 km/h in a Manned Test Run |publisher=Central Japan Railway Company |date=1 March 2004 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090625225317/http://english.jr-central.co.jp/news/n20040301/index.html |archive-date=25 June 2009}}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"| 2015
| Japan || [[L0 Series Shinkansen|L0]] || {{convert|590|km/h}} || (crewed/seven-car formation)<ref>{{cite web |title=Japan breaks maglev speed record |url=http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/high-speed/japan-breaks-maglev-speed-record.html |date=17 April 2015 |work=IRJ |author=Barrow, Keith |access-date=20 July 2016 |archive-date=8 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808060600/http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/high-speed/japan-breaks-maglev-speed-record.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
!scope="row"| 2015
| Japan || L0 || {{convert|603|km/h}} || (crewed/seven-car formation)<ref name="guardian20150421"/>
|-
!2025
|China 
|
|650 kilometres per hour in 7 seconds
|(Uncrewed)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Varma |first=Anupam |date=2025-06-18 |title=Vehicle hits 650kmph in 7 seconds on maglev track |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/asia/vehicle-hits-650kmph-in-7-seconds-on-maglev-track-in-china-1.500168197 |access-date=2025-06-18 |website=Gulf News: Latest UAE news, Dubai news, Business, travel news, Dubai Gold rate, prayer time, cinema |language=en}}</ref>
|}

== Systems ==
{{Split|List of Maglev systems|date=December 2024}}
=== Operational systems ===
==== High speed ====
===== Shanghai Maglev (2003) =====
[[File:A maglev train coming out, Pudong International Airport, Shanghai.jpg|thumb|A maglev train coming out of the Pudong International Airport]]
{{Main|Shanghai Maglev Train}}

The [[Shanghai Maglev Train]], an implementation of the German [[Transrapid]] system, has a top speed of {{convert|300|km/h}}.<ref name=":1" /> The line is the fastest and first commercially operational high speed maglev. It connects [[Shanghai Pudong International Airport]] and the outskirts of central [[Pudong]], [[Shanghai]]. The service covers a distance of {{convert|30.5|km}} in just 8 minutes.<ref name="Stuff.co.nz">{{cite news |last1=Michael |first1=Gebicki |date=27 November 2014 |title=What's the world's fastest passenger train |work=Stuff.co.nz |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/travel/news/63558825/whats-the-worlds-fastest-passenger-train |url-status=live |access-date=24 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224030420/http://www.stuff.co.nz/travel/news/63558825/whats-the-worlds-fastest-passenger-train |archive-date=24 December 2014}}</ref>

In January 2001, the Chinese signed an agreement with [[Transrapid]] to build an EMS high-speed maglev line to link Pudong International Airport with Longyang Road Metro station on the southeastern edge of Shanghai. This [[Shanghai Maglev Train]] demonstration line, or Initial Operating Segment (IOS), has been in commercial operations since April 2004<ref>[http://www.smtdc.com/en/gycf2.asp] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809150428/http://www.smtdc.com/en/gycf2.asp|date=9 August 2012}}</ref> and now operates 115 daily trips (up from 110 in 2010) that traverse the {{convert|30|km}} between the two stations in 8 minutes, achieving a top speed of {{convert|300|km/h}} and averaging {{convert|224|km/h}}. Prior to May 2021 services operated at up to {{convert|431|km/h}}, taking only 7 minutes to complete the trip.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://shanghaichina.ca/video/maglevtrain.html|title=Shanghai Maglev Train (431 km/h) – High Definition Video|work=shanghaichina.ca|access-date=17 July 2013|archive-date=27 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220127082930/https://shanghaichina.ca/video/maglevtrain.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On a 12 November 2003 system commissioning test run, it achieved {{convert|501|km/h}}, its designed top cruising speed. The Shanghai maglev is faster than Birmingham technology and comes with on-time—to the second—reliability greater than 99.97%.<ref>([https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CqshoQyqBeA 7-minute real time video of the maglev reaching {{convert|432|km/h}} in only 3 minutes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160809094830/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CqshoQyqBeA |date=9 August 2016 }})</ref>

Plans to extend the line to [[Shanghai South Railway Station station|Shanghai South Railway Station]] and [[Hongqiao Airport]] on the northwestern edge of Shanghai are on hold. After the [[Shanghai–Hangzhou Passenger Railway]] became operational in late 2010, the maglev extension became somewhat redundant and may be cancelled.

==== Low speed ====
===== Linimo (Tobu Kyuryo Line, Japan) (2005) =====
[[File:Linimo approaching Banpaku Kinen Koen, towards Fujigaoka Station.jpg|thumb|Linimo train approaching Banpaku Kinen Koen, towards Fujigaoka Station in March 2005]]
{{Main|Linimo}}
The commercial [[automation|automated]] "Urban Maglev" system commenced operation in March 2005 in [[Aichi]], Japan. The Tobu Kyuryo Line, otherwise known as the [[Linimo]] line, covers {{convert|9|km}}. It has a minimum operating radius of {{convert|75|m}} and a maximum gradient of 6%. The linear-motor magnetically levitated train has a top speed of {{convert|100|km/h}}. More than 10 million passengers used this "urban maglev" line in its first three months of operation. At {{convert|100|km/h}}, it is sufficiently fast for frequent stops, has little or no noise impact on surrounding communities, can navigate short radius rights of way, and operates during inclement weather. The trains were designed by the Chubu HSST Development Corporation, which also operates a test track in Nagoya.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BQQ/is_5_44/ai_n6054072 |title=Nagoya builds Maglev Metro |magazine=International Railway Journal |date=May 2004 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070129162842/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BQQ/is_5_44/ai_n6054072 |archive-date=29 January 2007 }}</ref>

===== Daejeon Expo Maglev (2008) =====
[[File:Maglev in Daejeon 03.jpg|thumb|The rolling stock of the Daejeon Expo Maglev [[UTM-02]]]]
{{Main|National Science Museum Maglev}}
The first maglev test trials using electromagnetic suspension opened to public was HML-03, made by Hyundai Heavy Industries for the [[Taejŏn Expo '93|Daejeon Expo in 1993]], after five years of research and manufacturing two prototypes, HML-01 and HML-02.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ppp.org.pk/dfc/mush_relative_lands.html|title=Musharraf's Relative Lands Another Super Duper Project of the Future|date=12 May 2005|publisher=The South Asia Tribune|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080116112317/http://www.ppp.org.pk/dfc/mush_relative_lands.html|archive-date=16 January 2008|access-date=27 October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|date=5 September 2008|title=Urban maglev opportunity|url=http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/10/urban-maglev-opportunity.html|magazine=[[Railway Gazette International]]|access-date=27 October 2008|archive-date=7 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507012210/http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/10/urban-maglev-opportunity.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="rotem">{{cite web|url=http://www.rotem.co.kr/Eng/Business/Rail/Railroad/Product/rail_car05.asp|title=Rotem Business Activities, Maglev|date=27 October 2008|publisher=Rotem-Hyundai|access-date=27 October 2008|archive-date=7 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507090138/http://www.rotem.co.kr/Eng/Business/Rail/Railroad/Product/rail_car05.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> Government research on urban maglev using electromagnetic suspension began in 1994.<ref name="rotem"/> The first operating urban maglev was [[UTM-02]] in Daejeon beginning on 21 April 2008 after 14 years of development and one prototype; [[UTM-01]]. The train runs on a {{convert|1|km|1}} track between [[Expo Science Park|Expo Park]] and [[National Science Museum, South Korea|National Science Museum]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.korea.net/news/news/newsView.asp?serial_no=20080421028&part=107&SearchDay=&source=|title=Korea launches maglev train|date=21 April 2008|publisher=Korea.net|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090725073920/http://www.korea.net/news/news/newsView.asp?serial_no=20080421028&part=107&SearchDay=&source=|archive-date=25 July 2009|access-date=27 October 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_entertainment/283379.html|title=First run of the Maglev|date=21 April 2008|newspaper=Hankyoreh|access-date=27 October 2008|archive-date=7 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507012231/http://english.hani.co.kr/arti/english_edition/e_entertainment/283379.html|url-status=live}}</ref> which has been shortened with the redevelopment of Expo Park. The track currently ends at the street parallel to the science museum. Meanwhile, UTM-02 conducted the world's first-ever maglev simulation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientific-computing.com/news/news_story.php?news_id=584|title=Maglev train simulation hits the tracks|date=20 August 2008|publisher=Scientific Computing World|access-date=27 October 2008|archive-date=28 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728051202/http://www.scientific-computing.com/news/news_story.php?news_id=584|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.engineeringtalk.com/news/lms/lms207.html|title=Simulation speeds maglev to early launch: News from LMS International|url-status=unfit|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090126231353/http://www.engineeringtalk.com/news/lms/lms207.html|archive-date=26 January 2009|access-date=27 October 2008}}</ref> However, UTM-02 is still the second prototype of a final model. The final UTM model of Rotem's urban maglev, UTM-03, was used for a new line that opened in 2016 on Incheon's Yeongjong island connecting [[Incheon International Airport]] (see below).<ref>{{cite magazine|date=1 July 2008|title=Exports surge ahead|url=http://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/sb/irj0708/index.php?startid=30#/30|magazine=International Railway Journal|access-date=27 October 2008|archive-date=10 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090710001828/http://www.nxtbook.com/nxtbooks/sb/irj0708/index.php?startid=30#/30|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===== Changsha Maglev (2016) =====
[[File:Changsha Maglev Express Train.jpg|thumb|Changsha Maglev Train arriving at Langli Station]]
{{Main|Changsha Maglev}}
The [[Hunan]] provincial government launched the construction of a maglev line between [[Changsha Huanghua International Airport]] and [[Changsha South Railway Station]], covering a distance of 18.55&nbsp;km. Construction started in May 2014 and was completed by the end of 2015.<ref>{{cite news |title=Changsha Maglev Line Completes Investment over 490 Million Yuan |url=http://english.rednet.cn/c/2014/11/21/3528574.htm |access-date=29 December 2014 |archive-date=30 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230005522/http://english.rednet.cn/c/2014/11/21/3528574.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>[http://en.changsha.gov.cn/About/Local/201401/t20140109_538177.html Changsha to Construct Maglev Train] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116080757/http://en.changsha.gov.cn/About/Local/201401/t20140109_538177.html |date=16 January 2014 }}, 2014-01-09</ref> Trial runs began on 26 December 2015 and trial operations started on 6 May 2016.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Long |first1=Hongtao |title=Trial operation of magnetic levitation line in Changsha to start |url=http://en.people.cn/n3/2016/0505/c90000-9053671.html |access-date=6 May 2016 |publisher=People's Daily Online |date=6 May 2016 |archive-date=6 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160506151729/http://en.people.cn/n3/2016/0505/c90000-9053671.html |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 13 June 2018 the Changsha maglev had covered a distance of 1.7 million km and carried nearly 6 million passengers. A second generation of these vehicles has been produced which have a top speed of {{convert|160|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite news |title=CRRC unit delivers 160 km/h maglev train for commuters |url=http://europe.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201806/14/WS5b21be2ba31001b825721d83.html |access-date=23 July 2018 |archive-date=24 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180724032459/http://europe.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201806/14/WS5b21be2ba31001b825721d83.html |url-status=live }}</ref> In July 2021 the new model entered service operating at a top speed of {{convert|140|km/h|mph|abbr=on}},  which reduced the travel time by 3 minutes.<ref>{{cite news |title=New maglev train improves service in Hunan |url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202107/02/WS60deca0da310efa1bd65f702.html |access-date=21 July 2021 |publisher=China Daily |date=2 July 2021 |archive-date=21 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721034550/https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202107/02/WS60deca0da310efa1bd65f702.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===== Beijing Line S1 (2017) =====
{{Main|Line S1 (Beijing Subway)}}
Beijing has built China's second low-speed maglev line, [[Line S1, Beijing Subway]], using technology developed by [[National University of Defense Technology]]. The line was opened on 30 December 2017.
The line operates at speeds up to {{convert|100|km/h}}.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://heb.chinadaily.com.cn/2018-11/07/content_37218624.htm | title=唐车造北京S1线磁浮列车开始以100km/H载客运行 – 中国日报网 | access-date=9 November 2018 | archive-date=16 June 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616165926/http://heb.chinadaily.com.cn/2018-11/07/content_37218624.htm | url-status=live }}</ref>

===== Fenghuang Maglev (2022) =====
{{Main|Fenghuang Maglev}}
Fenghuang Maglev ({{Lang|zh|凤凰磁浮}}) is a medium- to low-speed maglev line in [[Fenghuang County]], [[Xiangxi Tujia and Miao Autonomous Prefecture|Xiangxi]], [[Hunan]] province, China. The line operates at speeds up to {{convert|100|km/h}}. The first phase is {{convert|9.12|km}} with 4 stations (and 2 more future infill stations). The first phase opened on 30 July 2022<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202208/09/WS62f1c36aa310fd2b29e71203.html | title=Maglev line opens to tourists in Fenghuang | access-date=16 October 2022 | archive-date=29 November 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221129222925/http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202208/09/WS62f1c36aa310fd2b29e71203.html | url-status=live }}</ref> and connects the [[Fenghuanggucheng railway station]] on the [[Zhangjiajie–Jishou–Huaihua high-speed railway]] with the [[Fenghuang Folklore Garden]].<ref name=Fenghuang201908>{{cite web|url=https://finance.sina.cn/2019-08-07/detail-ihytcitm7387773.d.html|title=凤凰磁浮线开工建设|date=2019-08-07|access-date=7 August 2019|archive-date=7 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190807161854/https://finance.sina.cn/2019-08-07/detail-ihytcitm7387773.d.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

===== Qingyuan Maglev (2025) =====
{{main|Qingyuan Maglev Tourist Line}}
[[File:QY03 entering Maglev Yinzhan Station, Qingyuan Maglev 20240206.jpg|thumb|Qingyuan Maglev arriving at Maglev Yinzhan Station]]
Qingyuan Maglev Tourist Line ({{Lang|zh|清远磁浮旅游专线}}) is a medium- to low-speed maglev line in [[Qingyuan]], [[Guangdong]] province, China. The line will operate at speeds up to {{convert|100|km/h}}.<ref name=nf201712/> The first phase is 8.1&nbsp;km with three stations (and one more future infill station).<ref name=nf201712>{{cite web|url=http://static.nfapp.southcn.com/content/201712/30/c879848.html|title=清远市磁浮旅游专线正式开工建设，为国内首条中低速磁浮旅游专线！|date=2017-12-30|access-date=28 January 2019|archive-date=28 January 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190128191411/http://static.nfapp.southcn.com/content/201712/30/c879848.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The first phase was originally scheduled to open in October 2020<ref>{{cite web|url=https://finance.sina.cn/2019-06-21/detail-ihytcitk6675956.d.html|title=清远磁浮旅游专线预计于2020年10月全线通车|date=2019-06-21|access-date=3 August 2019|archive-date=3 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190803173717/https://finance.sina.cn/2019-06-21/detail-ihytcitk6675956.d.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and will connect the [[Yinzhan railway station]] on the [[Guangzhou–Qingyuan intercity railway]] with the Qingyuan [[Chimelong]] Theme Park.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://epaper.oeeee.com/epaper/G/html/2017-04/17/content_22834.htm|title=清远磁浮旅游专线进行预可行性评估|date=2017-04-17|access-date=3 August 2019|archive-date=3 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190803175651/http://epaper.oeeee.com/epaper/G/html/2017-04/17/content_22834.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> In the long term the line will be 38.5&nbsp;km.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.guancha.cn/internation/2019_03_14_493554.shtml|title=中国自主研发设计，全球首条智能化磁浮轨排生产线实现量产|date=2019-03-14|access-date=27 May 2019|archive-date=6 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190406115512/https://www.guancha.cn/internation/2019_03_14_493554.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Maglevs under construction ===

==== Chūō Shinkansen (Japan) ====
{{Main|Chūō Shinkansen}}
[[File:Chūō Shinkansen map.png|thumb|300px|The Chūō Shinkansen route (bold yellow and red line) and existing Tōkaidō Shinkansen route (thin blue line)]] The [[Chuo Shinkansen]] is a high-speed maglev line in Japan. Construction began in 2014, with commercial operations expected to start by 2027.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/12/18/business/jr-tokai-begins-building-maglev-train-stations/#.VKcXj9zF98E|title=JR Tokai begins building maglev stations|newspaper=The Japan Times|access-date=2 January 2015|archive-date=3 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103021823/http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/12/18/business/jr-tokai-begins-building-maglev-train-stations/#.VKcXj9zF98E|url-status=live}}</ref> The 2027 target was given up in July 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2020/07/a97dfd2524f6-shizuoka-says-no-to-construction-for-new-maglev-train-service.html|title=JR Central gives up on opening new maglev train service in 2027|date=3 July 2020|publisher=Kyodo|access-date=20 December 2020|archive-date=16 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116120037/https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2020/07/a97dfd2524f6-shizuoka-says-no-to-construction-for-new-maglev-train-service.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The Linear Chuo Shinkansen Project aims to connect Tokyo and [[Osaka]] by way of [[Nagoya]], the capital city of [[Aichi Prefecture|Aichi]], in approximately one hour, less than half the travel time of the fastest existing bullet trains connecting the three metropolises.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nb20090619a1.html|title=JR Tokai gives maglev estimates to LDP; in favor of shortest route|date=19 June 2009|work=The Japan Times|access-date=8 July 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090712125512/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nb20090619a1.html|archive-date=12 July 2009}}</ref> The full track between Tokyo and Osaka was originally expected to be completed in 2045, but the operator is now aiming for 2037.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/mail/nb20070427a8.html|title=25 Tokyo-Nagoya maglev debut eyed|date=27 April 2007|work=The Japan Times|access-date=27 April 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929124908/http://search.japantimes.co.jp/mail/nb20070427a8.html|archive-date=29 September 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maglev.net/news/go-ahead-for-japanese-maglev/|title=Go Ahead for Japanese Maglev|publisher=Maglev.net|access-date=28 June 2011|archive-date=8 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308233745/http://www.maglev.net/news/go-ahead-for-japanese-maglev/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2017/01/09/national/10-year-countdown-begins-launch-tokyo-nagoya-maglev-service/#.WhkRO0qWaHs|title=10-year countdown begins for launch of Tokyo-Nagoya maglev service|date=9 January 2017|work=The Japan Times Online|access-date=25 November 2017|archive-date=19 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171119151308/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2017/01/09/national/10-year-countdown-begins-launch-tokyo-nagoya-maglev-service/#.WhkRO0qWaHs|url-status=live}}</ref>

The [[L0 Series]] train type is undergoing testing by the [[Central Japan Railway Company]] (JR Central) for eventual use on the Chūō Shinkansen line. It set a crewed [[Land speed record for rail vehicles|world speed record]] of {{convert|603|km/h}} on 21 April 2015.<ref name="guardian20150421"/> The trains are planned to run at a maximum speed of {{convert|505|km/h}},<ref name="bloomberg2013">{{cite web|url=http://www.bloomberg.co.jp/news/123-MS4JM56K50Y001.html|date=29 August 2013|work=Bloomberg|publisher=Bloomberg LP|location=Japan|language=ja|script-title=ja: ＪＲ東海：リニア時速500キロ、試験再開－通勤圏拡大で激変も|trans-title=JR Central: Maglev testing at 500 km/h resumes – Expanded commuter area to create major upheavals|access-date=12 February 2015|archive-date=3 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303183115/http://www.bloomberg.co.jp/news/123-MS4JM56K50Y001.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> offering journey times of 40 minutes between Tokyo ([[Shinagawa Station]]) and {{STN|Nagoya|x}}, and 1 hour 7 minutes between Tokyo and Osaka ([[Shin-Ōsaka Station]]).<ref name="Onigiri">{{cite web|url=http://www.dailyonigiri.com/2010/11/jr-tokai-unveils-a-model-for-the-new-high-speed-maglev-train-l0/|title=JR Tokai unveils a model for the new high-speed maglev train 'L0′|date=4 November 2010|work=Daily Onigiri|publisher=DailyOnigiri.com|access-date=17 January 2013|archive-date=4 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804214157/http://www.dailyonigiri.com/2010/11/jr-tokai-unveils-a-model-for-the-new-high-speed-maglev-train-l0/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Test tracks ===

==== AMT test track – Powder Springs, Georgia, USA ====
A second prototype system in [[Powder Springs]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], USA, was built by American Maglev Technology, Inc. The test track is {{convert|610|m}} long with a {{convert|168.6|m}} curve. Vehicles are operated up to {{convert|60|km/h}}, below the proposed operational maximum of {{convert|97|km/h}}. A June 2013 review of the technology called for an extensive testing program to be carried out to ensure the system complies with various regulatory requirements including the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) People Mover Standard. The review noted that the test track is too short to assess the vehicles' dynamics at the maximum proposed speeds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metroplanorlando.com/files/view/maglev-technology-assessment-by-fdot-june-2013.pdf|title=American Maglev Technology (AMT) Assessment|date=5 June 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140319191531/http://www.metroplanorlando.com/files/view/maglev-technology-assessment-by-fdot-june-2013.pdf|archive-date=19 March 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

==== FTA's UMTD program, USA ====
In the US, the [[Federal Transit Administration]] (FTA) Urban Maglev Technology Demonstration program funded the design of several low-speed urban maglev demonstration projects. It assessed HSST for the [[Maryland Department of Transportation]] and maglev technology for the Colorado Department of Transportation. The FTA also funded work by [[General Atomics]] at [[California University of Pennsylvania]] to evaluate the MagneMotion M3 and of the Maglev2000 of Florida superconducting EDS system. Other US urban maglev demonstration projects of note are the LEVX in Washington State and the Massachusetts-based Magplane.

==== San Diego, California USA ====
[[General Atomics]] has a {{convert|120|m|adj=on}} test facility in San Diego, that is used to test Union Pacific's {{convert|8|km|0}} freight shuttle in Los Angeles. The technology is "passive" (or "permanent"), using permanent magnets in a [[Halbach array]] for lift and requiring no electromagnets for either levitation or propulsion. General Atomics received US$90&nbsp;million in research funding from the federal government. They are also considering their technology for high-speed passenger services.<ref name=rgi20090209>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view//freight-maglev-on-test.html |title=Freight maglev on test |date=9 February 2009 |magazine=[[Railway Gazette International]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100520125933/http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/freight-maglev-on-test.html |archive-date=20 May 2010 }}</ref>

==== SCMaglev, Yamanashi Japan ====
{{Main|SCMaglev}}
Japan has a demonstration line in [[Yamanashi prefecture]] where test train SCMaglev [[L0 Series Shinkansen]] reached {{convert|603|km/h}}, faster than any wheeled trains.<ref name="guardian20150421"/> The demonstration line will become part of the [[Chūō Shinkansen]] linking Tokyo and Nagoya which, is currently under construction.

These trains use [[superconducting magnet]]s, which allow for a larger gap, and [[repulsive force (magnetism)|repulsive]]/[[attractive (force)|attractive]]-type electrodynamic suspension (EDS).<ref name=RTRI/><ref>{{cite web |url=http://english.jr-central.co.jp/company/company/others/data-book/_pdf/2011.pdf |title=Central Japan Railway Company Data Book 2011 |publisher=Central Japan Railway Company |page=24 |access-date=25 May 2012 |archive-date=22 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722101753/http://english.jr-central.co.jp/company/company/others/data-book/_pdf/2011.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In comparison, Transrapid uses conventional electromagnets and [[attractive (force)|attractive]]-type electromagnetic suspension (EMS).<ref name="speedrecord">{{cite news |url=http://www.globetechnology.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20031202.gtmaglevdec2/BNStory/Technology/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031206011747/http://www.globetechnology.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20031202.gtmaglevdec2/BNStory/Technology/ |archive-date=6 December 2003 |title=Japan's maglev train sets speed record |access-date=16 February 2009 |date=2 December 2003 |publisher=CTVglobemedia Publishing Inc.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rtri.or.jp/rd/maglev/html/english/maglev_frame_E.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305140148/http://www.rtri.or.jp/rd/maglev/html/english/maglev_frame_E.html |archive-date=5 March 2009 |title=Overview of Maglev R&D |publisher=Railway Technical Research Institute |access-date=2 November 2009}}</ref>

On 15 November 2014, The Central Japan Railway Company ran eight days of testing for the experimental maglev Shinkansen train on its test track in Yamanashi Prefecture. One hundred passengers covered a {{convert|42.8|km|adj=on}} route between the cities of Uenohara and Fuefuki, reaching speeds of up to {{convert|500|km/h}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/|title=BBC – Homepage|work=bbc.com|access-date=25 November 2014|archive-date=9 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209001526/http://www.bbc.com/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Sengenthal, Germany and Chengdu, China ====
[[Transport System Bögl]], a division of German construction company Max Bögl, has built a test track in [[Sengenthal]], Bavaria, Germany. In appearance, it's more like the German [[M-Bahn]] than the [[Transrapid]] system.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nordbayern.de/region/neumarkt/schwebebahn-gleitet-am-baggersee-in-greisselbach-entlang-1.5279225|title=Schwebebahn gleitet am Baggersee in Greißelbach entlang|website=nordbayern.de|access-date=14 June 2021|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624195110/https://www.nordbayern.de/region/neumarkt/schwebebahn-gleitet-am-baggersee-in-greisselbach-entlang-1.5279225|url-status=live}}</ref>
The vehicle tested on the track is patented in the US by Max Bögl.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US20150040791A1/en|title=Vehicle for a Magnetic Levitation Track|access-date=14 June 2021|archive-date=14 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210614021851/https://patents.google.com/patent/US20150040791A1/en|url-status=live}}</ref> The company is also in a [[Transport System Bögl#Chinese joint venture|joint venture with a Chinese firm]].  A {{convert|3.5|km|mi|abbr=on}} demonstration line has been built near [[Chengdu]], China and two vehicles were airlifted there in June, 2000.<ref name="EVEN TRAINS CAN FLY"/>  In April 2021 a vehicle on the Chinese test track hit a top speed of {{convert|169|kph|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref name="TSB cracks top speed in China">{{cite web |date=29 April 2021 |title=TSB cracks top speed in China |url=https://transportsystemboegl.com/en/tsb-cracks-top-speed-in-china/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182753/https://transportsystemboegl.com/en/tsb-cracks-top-speed-in-china/ |archive-date=9 July 2021 |access-date=30 June 2021 |website=Transport System Bögl}}</ref>

==== Southwest Jiaotong University, China ====
On 31 December 2000, the first crewed high-temperature superconducting maglev was tested successfully at [[Southwest Jiaotong University]], Chengdu, China. This system is based on the principle that bulk high-temperature superconductors can be levitated stably above or below a permanent magnet. The load was over {{convert|530|kg}} and the levitation gap over {{convert|20|mm}}. The system uses [[liquid nitrogen]] to cool the [[superconductor]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Jiasu |last2=Wang |first2=Suyu |last3=Zheng |first3=Jun |title=Recent Development of High Temperature Superconducting Maglev System in China |journal=IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity |date=June 2009 |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=2142–2147 |doi=10.1109/TASC.2009.2018110 |bibcode=2009ITAS...19.2142W }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Jiasu |last2=Wang |first2=Suyu |last3=Zeng |first3=Youwen |last4=Huang |first4=Haiyu |last5=Luo |first5=Fang |last6=Xu |first6=Zhipei |last7=Tang |first7=Qixue |last8=Lin |first8=Guobin |last9=Zhang |first9=Cuifang |last10=Ren |first10=Zhongyou |last11=Zhao |first11=Guomin |last12=Zhu |first12=Degui |last13=Wang |first13=Shaohua |last14=Jiang |first14=He |last15=Zhu |first15=Min |last16=Deng |first16=Changyan |last17=Hu |first17=Pengfei |last18=Li |first18=Chaoyong |last19=Liu |first19=Fang |last20=Lian |first20=Jisan |last21=Wang |first21=Xiaorong |last22=Wang |first22=Lianghui |last23=Shen |first23=Xuming |last24=Dong |first24=Xiaogang |title=The first man-loading high temperature superconducting Maglev test vehicle in the world |journal=Physica C: Superconductivity |date=October 2002 |volume=378-381 |pages=809–814 |doi=10.1016/S0921-4534(02)01548-4 |bibcode=2002PhyC..378..809W }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1515/9783110538434 |title=High Temperature Superconducting Magnetic Levitation |date=2017 |last1=Wang |first1=Jia-Su |last2=Wang |first2=Su-Yu |isbn=978-3-11-053843-4 |url=http://d-nb.info/1129274624/04 }}{{pn|date=January 2025}}</ref>

==== Jiading Campus of Tongji University, China ====
{{main|CRRC Maglev}}
A {{convert|1.5|km|mi|abbr=on}} maglev {{ill|lt=test track|CM1 Dolphin#test track|de|vertical-align=sup}} has been operating since 2006 at the Jiading Campus of [[Tongji University]], northwest of Shanghai.  The track uses the same design as the operating Shanghai Maglev.  Top speed is restricted to {{convert|120|kph|mph|abbr=on}} due to the length of track and its topology.

==== MagRail test track, Poland{{anchor|MagRail}} ====
In the first quarter of 2022, Polish technology startup [[Nevomo]] completed the construction of Europe's longest test track for passive magnetic levitation. The 700 meter-long railway track in [[Subcarpathian Voivodeship]] in [[Poland]] allows vehicles utilizing the company's ''MagRail'' system to travel at speeds of up to 160 kph.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://railmarket.com/news/technology-innovation/1156-nevomo-is-ready-to-start-testing-magrail-technology-on-a-test-track-in-poland|title=Nevomo is ready to start testing MagRail technology on a test track in Poland|access-date=25 August 2023|archive-date=25 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825195731/https://railmarket.com/news/technology-innovation/1156-nevomo-is-ready-to-start-testing-magrail-technology-on-a-test-track-in-poland|url-status=live}}</ref> The installation of all necessary wayside equipment was completed in December 2022 and tests began in spring 2023.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.railfreight.com/specials/2023/02/15/nevomo-hyperloop-inspired-rail-freight-could-be-soon-a-reality/|title=Nevomo: hyperloop-inspired rail freight could be soon a reality|date=15 February 2023|access-date=25 August 2023|archive-date=25 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825192520/https://www.railfreight.com/specials/2023/02/15/nevomo-hyperloop-inspired-rail-freight-could-be-soon-a-reality/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Proposed maglev systems ==
{{Main|List of maglev train proposals}}
Many maglev systems have been proposed in North America, Asia, Europe and on the Moon.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-31906943_ITM |title=Maglev is ready. Are we? |magazine=Railway Age |date =1 July 1994 |last=Vantuono |first=William}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> Many are in the early planning stages or were explicitly rejected.

=== Australia ===

;Sydney-Illawarra
A maglev route was proposed between Sydney and [[Wollongong]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.illawarramercury.com.au/news/local/news/general/maglev-train-reappears-on-agenda/1233197.aspx |title=Maglev train reappears on agenda |publisher=Illawara Mercury |date=2 August 2008 |first=Mario |last=Christodoulou |newspaper=Illawarra Mercury |access-date=7 May 2009 |archive-date=7 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101107031121/http://www.illawarramercury.com.au/news/local/news/general/maglev-train-reappears-on-agenda/1233197.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> The proposal came to prominence in the mid-1990s. The Sydney–Wollongong commuter corridor is the largest in Australia, with upwards of 20,000 people commuting each day. Existing trains use the [[Eastern Suburbs & Illawarra railway line|Illawarra line]], between the cliff face of the [[Illawarra escarpment]] and the Pacific Ocean, with travel times about 2 hours. The proposal would cut travel times to 20 minutes.

;Melbourne
[[File:Melbourne maglev.png|thumb|The proposed Melbourne maglev connecting the city of [[Geelong]] through Metropolitan Melbourne's outer suburban growth corridors, Tullamarine and Avalon domestic in and international terminals in under 20 min. and on to [[Frankston, Victoria]], in under 30 min.]]
In late 2008, a proposal was put forward to the [[Government of Victoria]] to build a privately funded and operated maglev line to service the [[Greater Melbourne]] metropolitan area in response to the [[Eddington Transport Report, Victoria|Eddington Transport Report]] that did not investigate above-ground transport options.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.news.com.au/heraldsun/story/0,21985,24100590-2862,00.html |title=Plans to build Geelong-Melbourne-Frankston monorail |work=Herald Sun |location=Australia |first=Martin |last=Watters |date=30 July 2008 |access-date=7 May 2009 |archive-date=8 September 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120908141423/http://www.heraldsun.com.au/bay-monorail-mooted/story-fna7dq6e-1111117057088 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.windana.com/access/melbourne/e3.html |title=Melbourne Concepts – Maglev's relevance |publisher=Windana Research |access-date=7 September 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512223734/http://www.windana.com/access/melbourne/e3.html |archive-date=12 May 2013 }}</ref> The maglev would service a population of over 4 million{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} and the proposal was costed at A$8 billion.

However, despite road congestion and Australia's highest roadspace per capita,{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} the government dismissed the proposal in favour of road expansion including an A$8.5 billion road tunnel, $6 billion extension of the [[EastLink (Melbourne)|Eastlink]] to the [[Western Ring Road]] and a $700 million Frankston Bypass.

=== Canada ===
'''Toronto Zoo''': Edmonton-based [[Magnovate]] proposed a new ride and transportation system at the [[Toronto Zoo]] reviving the [[Toronto Zoo Domain Ride]] system, which was closed following two severe accidents in 1994. The Zoo's board unanimously approved the proposal on 29 November 2018.

The company plans to construct and operate the $25 million system on the former route of the Domain Ride (known locally as the Monorail, despite not being considered one) at zero cost to the Zoo and operate it for 15 years, splitting the profits with the Zoo. The ride will serve a single-directional loop around Zoo grounds, serving five stations and likely replacing the current Zoomobile tour tram service. Planned to be operational by 2022 at the earliest, this would be the first commercial maglev system in North America should it be approved.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2018/11/29/toronto-zoo-maglev-train-floats-closer-to-reality-as-board-approves-proposal.html|title=Toronto Zoo meglev train floats closer to reality as board approves proposal|date=29 November 2018|newspaper=Toronto Star|access-date=30 November 2018|archive-date=30 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130151511/https://www.thestar.com/news/gta/2018/11/29/toronto-zoo-maglev-train-floats-closer-to-reality-as-board-approves-proposal.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== China ===
====Beijing – Guangzhou line====
A maglev test line linking [[Xianning]] in [[Hubei]] Province and [[Changsha]] in [[Hunan]] Province will start construction in 2020. The test line is about {{convert|200|km}} in length and might be part of Beijing – Guangzhou maglev in long-term planning.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://new.qq.com/rain/a/20190928A0NTTM|title=时速600公里的京广磁悬浮高铁，明年将要开建了|access-date=2019-10-07|quote=该条磁悬浮试验线长度约200公里，连接湖北省咸宁市和湖南省长沙市 (The maglev test line is about 200 km in length and will link Xianning city in Hubei Province with Changsha city in Hunan Province)|archive-date=7 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007045516/https://new.qq.com/rain/a/20190928A0NTTM|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.guancha.cn/politics/2019_09_27_519502.shtml|title=时速600公里！"超级列车"或落地湖北！武汉2小时到广州|date=2019-09-27|access-date=7 October 2019|archive-date=7 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191007053140/https://www.guancha.cn/politics/2019_09_27_519502.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2021, the Guangdong government proposed a Maglev line between [[Hong Kong]] and [[Guangzhou]] via [[Shenzhen]] and beyond to Beijing.<ref>{{Cite web|title=2 New Routes Proposed for Maglev Trains in China|url=https://www.businesstraveller.com/business-travel/2021/02/24/china-lays-out-maglev-plans-from-beijing-and-shanghai-to-guangzhou/|access-date=27 February 2021|archive-date=4 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304095115/https://www.businesstraveller.com/business-travel/2021/02/24/china-lays-out-maglev-plans-from-beijing-and-shanghai-to-guangzhou/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=China lays out maglev plans from Beijing and Shanghai to Guangzhou|url=https://www.businesstraveller.com/business-travel/2021/02/24/china-lays-out-maglev-plans-from-beijing-and-shanghai-to-guangzhou/|access-date=27 February 2021|archive-date=4 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304095115/https://www.businesstraveller.com/business-travel/2021/02/24/china-lays-out-maglev-plans-from-beijing-and-shanghai-to-guangzhou/|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Other proposed lines====
;Shanghai – Hangzhou

China planned to extend the existing [[Shanghai Maglev Train]],<ref>{{cite magazine|last=McGrath|first=Dermot|date=20 January 2003|title=China Awaits High-Speed 'Maglev'|url=https://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2003/01/57163|magazine=Wired|access-date=8 March 2017|archive-date=5 January 2013|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130105092132/http://www.wired.com/science/discoveries/news/2003/01/57163|url-status=live}}</ref> initially by around {{convert|35|km}} to [[Shanghai Hongqiao Airport]] and then {{convert|200|km}} to the city of Hangzhou ([[Shanghai-Hangzhou Maglev Train]]). If built, this would be the first [[Inter-city rail|inter-city]] maglev rail line in commercial service.

The project was controversial and repeatedly delayed. In May 2007 the project was suspended by officials, reportedly due to public concerns about radiation from the system.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-05/26/content_6155201.htm|title=China maglev project suspended amid radiation concerns |date=26 May 2007 |work=[[Xinhua News Agency|Xinhua]] |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121104182742/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-05/26/content_6155201.htm|archive-date=4 November 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> In January and February 2008 hundreds of residents demonstrated in downtown Shanghai that the line route came too close to their homes, citing concerns about [[electromagnetic pollution|sickness due to exposure to the strong magnetic field]], noise, pollution and devaluation of property near to the lines.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSPEK32757920080112|title=Hundreds protest Shanghai maglev rail extension|date=12 January 2008|work=Reuters|access-date=1 July 2017|archive-date=26 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026081934/https://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSPEK32757920080112|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Kurtenbach|first=Elaine|url=http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2008Jan14/0,4670,ChinaShanghaiProtest,00.html|title=Shanghai Residents Protest Maglev Train|date=14 January 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090913175244/http://www.foxnews.com/wires/2008Jan14/0%2C4670%2CChinaShanghaiProtest%2C00.html|archive-date=13 September 2009|publisher=Fox News}}</ref> Final approval to build the line was granted on 18 August 2008. Originally scheduled to be ready by [[Expo 2010]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-03/06/content_4263586.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070312155810/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2006-03/06/content_4263586.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 March 2007|title=Maglev railway to link Hangzhou, Shanghai|date=6 April 2006|publisher=Xinhua}}</ref> plans called for completion by 2014. The Shanghai municipal government considered multiple options, including building the line underground to allay public fears. This same report stated that the final decision had to be approved by the National Development and Reform Commission.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.china.org.cn/china/national/2008-08/18/content_16258686.htm|title=Maglev finally given approval|date=18 August 2008|newspaper=Shanghai Daily|access-date=26 December 2008|archive-date=12 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100812092108/http://www.china.org.cn/china/national/2008-08/18/content_16258686.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2007 the Shanghai municipal government was considering building a factory in [[Nanhui]] district to produce low-speed maglev trains for urban use.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.china.org.cn/english/government/232696.htm|title=Green light for maglev factory|date=22 November 2007|newspaper=Shanghai Daily|access-date=6 December 2007|archive-date=22 October 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101022234643/http://china.org.cn/english/government/232696.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

;Shanghai – Beijing

A proposed line would have connected Shanghai to Beijing, over a distance of {{convert|800|mi|order=flip}}, at an estimated cost of £15.5 billion.<ref name="TG">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jan/01/china.johngittings|title=China claims train blue riband|access-date=27 December 2014|archive-date=10 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140910134946/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/jan/01/china.johngittings|url-status=live}}</ref> No projects had been revealed as of 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2002/BUSINESS/asia/12/31/china.maglev.biz/|title=Shanghai welcomes high speed train|access-date=27 December 2014|publisher=CNN business|archive-date=27 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227180820/http://edition.cnn.com/2002/BUSINESS/asia/12/31/china.maglev.biz/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Germany ===
On 25 September 2007, [[Bavaria]] announced a high-speed maglev-rail service from [[Munich]] to its [[Munich International Airport|airport]]. The Bavarian government signed contracts with [[Deutsche Bahn]] and Transrapid with [[Siemens]] and [[ThyssenKrupp]] for the €1.85 billion project.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7011932.stm|title=Germany to build maglev railway|date=25 September 2007|work=BBC News|access-date=25 September 2007|archive-date=12 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111112152756/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7011932.stm|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 27 March 2008, the [[Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Affairs (Germany)|German Transport minister]] announced the project had been cancelled due to rising costs associated with constructing the track. A new estimate put the project between €3.2–3.4 billion.<ref>{{cite news|last=Heller|first=Gernot|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/rbssIndustryMaterialsUtilitiesNews/idUSL2777056820080327?sp=true|title=Germany scraps Munich Transrapid as cost spirals|date=27 March 2008|work=Reuters|access-date=1 July 2017|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308210948/https://www.reuters.com/article/rbssIndustryMaterialsUtilitiesNews/idUSL2777056820080327?sp=true|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Hong Kong ===
In March 2021 a government official said Hong Kong would be included in a planned maglev network across China, planned to operate at {{convert|600|kph|mph|abbr=on}} and begin opening by 2030.<ref>{{cite news |title=Hong Kong is part of national plan for high-speed maglev train network, transport ministry says |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3126810/hong-kong-part-national-plan-high-speed-maglev-train-network |access-date=30 June 2021 |publisher=SCMP |date=24 March 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181621/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3126810/hong-kong-part-national-plan-high-speed-maglev-train-network |url-status=live }}</ref>

Hong Kong is already connected to the Chinese high-speed rail network by the [[Guangzhou–Shenzhen–Hong Kong Express Rail Link]], which opened on Sunday 23 September 2018.

=== India ===
'''Mumbai – Delhi''': A project was presented to then Indian railway minister ([[Mamata Banerjee]]) by an American company to connect [[Mumbai]] and [[Delhi]]. Then Prime Minister [[Manmohan Singh]] said that if the line project was successful the Indian government would build lines between other cities and also between Mumbai Central and Chhatrapati Shivaji International Airport.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.expressindia.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=48769|title=Mumbai to Delhi: 3 hours by train|date=14 June 2005|newspaper=Express India|access-date=24 January 2009|archive-date=11 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100211175912/http://www.expressindia.com/news/fullstory.php?newsid=48769|url-status=dead}}</ref>

'''Mumbai – Nagpur''': The State of Maharashtra approved a feasibility study for a maglev train between Mumbai and Nagpur, some {{convert|1000|km}} apart.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Mumbai/6_routes_identified_for_MagLev/articleshow/2140367.cms|title=6 routes identified for MagLev|date=22 June 2007|work=[[The Times of India]]|location=India|access-date=24 January 2009|archive-date=9 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151109214818/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Mumbai/6_routes_identified_for_MagLev/articleshow/2140367.cms|url-status=live}}</ref>

'''Chennai – Bangalore – Mysore''': A detailed report was to be prepared and submitted by December 2012 for a line to connect [[Chennai]] to [[Mysore]] via [[Bangalore]] at a cost $26 million per kilometre, reaching speeds of {{convert|350|km/h}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://in.finance.yahoo.com/photos/bullet-train-may-connect-mysore-bangalore-in-30-mins-slideshow/|title=Bullet train may connect Mysore-Bangalore in 1hr 30 mins Photos|date=20 April 2012|publisher=Yahoo! India Finance|access-date=2012-11-04|archive-date=23 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523173750/http://in.finance.yahoo.com/photos/bullet-train-may-connect-mysore-bangalore-in-30-mins-slideshow/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Iran ===
In May 2009, [[Iran]] and a German company signed an agreement to use maglev to link [[Tehran]] and [[Mashhad]]. The agreement was signed at the Mashhad International Fair site between Iranian Ministry of Roads and Transportation and the German company. The {{convert|900|km}} line possibly could reduce travel time between Tehran and Mashhad to about 2.5 hours.{{citation needed|date=July 2021}} Munich-based Schlegel Consulting Engineers said they had signed the contract with the Iranian ministry of transport and the governor of Mashad. "We have been mandated to lead a German consortium in this project," a spokesman said. "We are in a preparatory phase." The project could be worth between €10&nbsp;billion and €12&nbsp;billion, the Schlegel spokesman said.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.alibaba.com/article/detail/technology/100109815-1-update-2-thyssenkrupp%252C-siemens-unaware-iran.html|title=UPDATE 2-ThyssenKrupp, Siemens unaware of Iran train deal|date=30 May 2009|publisher=News.alibaba.com|access-date=29 September 2011|archive-date=7 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707111607/http://news.alibaba.com/article/detail/technology/100109815-1-update-2-thyssenkrupp%2C-siemens-unaware-iran.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Italy ===
A first proposal was formalized in April 2008, in [[Brescia]], by journalist Andrew Spannaus who recommended a high-speed connection between [[Milan Malpensa Airport|Malpensa Airport]] to the cities of [[Milan]], [[Bergamo]], and [[Brescia]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.movisol.org/08news092.htm |title=L'EIR propone un "Maglev lombardo" per Milano Expo |work=movisol.org |access-date=14 November 2014 |archive-date=29 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129013142/http://www.movisol.org/08news092.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In March 2011, Nicola Oliva proposed a maglev connection between [[Pisa International Airport]] and the cities of [[Prato]] and [[Florence]] ([[Firenze Santa Maria Novella railway station|Santa Maria Novella station]] and [[Florence Airport]]).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://iltirreno.gelocal.it/prato/cronaca/2011/03/05/news/un-maglev-toscano-per-avvicinare-pisa-3606598 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129144213/http://iltirreno.gelocal.it/prato/cronaca/2011/03/05/news/un-maglev-toscano-per-avvicinare-pisa-3606598 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2014-11-29 |title=Un Maglev toscano per avvicinare Pisa |author=Mar.Lar. |work=il Tirreno }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://nicolaoliva.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/maglev-toscano-per-pisa-5-marzo-20111.jpg |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-11-14 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20160518081753/http%3A//nicolaoliva.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/maglev%2Dtoscano%2Dper%2Dpisa%2D5%2Dmarzo%2D20111.jpg |archive-date=18 May 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The travelling time would be reduced from the typical 1 hour 15 minutes to around 20 minutes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.movisol.org/pix/Metropoli_Prato_Maglev_collage.jpg|title=Per Peretola spunta una soluzione: il trena a levitazione magnetica|access-date=14 November 2014|archive-date=22 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110822103232/http://movisol.org/pix/Metropoli_Prato_Maglev_collage.jpg|url-status=dead}}</ref> The second part of the line would be a connection to [[Livorno]], to integrate maritime, aerial and terrestrial transport systems.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.movisol.org/11news044.htm|title=Prato chiede il Maglev per la Toscana|access-date=14 November 2014|archive-date=9 August 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809031451/http://movisol.org/11news044.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.regione.toscana.it/regione/opencms/RT/sito-RT/Contenuti/notiziari/fonti_esterne/ansa/notiziario/visualizza_asset.html?id=253471&pagename=503|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120318073613/http://www.regione.toscana.it/regione/opencms/RT/sito-RT/Contenuti/notiziari/fonti_esterne/ansa/notiziario/visualizza_asset.html?id=253471&pagename=503|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-03-18|title=Regione Toscana: AEROPORTI: FIRENZE; OLIVA(PD), MAGLEV PER SUPERARE STALLO|date=18 March 2012}}</ref>

=== Malaysia/Singapore ===
A consortium led by UEM Group Bhd and ARA Group proposed maglev technology to link Malaysian cities to Singapore. The idea was first mooted by YTL Group. Its technology partner then was said to be Siemens. High costs sank the proposal. The concept of a high-speed rail link from Kuala Lumpur to Singapore resurfaced. It was cited as a proposed "high impact" project in the Economic Transformation Programme (ETP) that was unveiled in 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thesundaily.my/news/764721|title=At what cost high-speed rail|work=thesundaily.my|access-date=24 January 2015|archive-date=28 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128171034/http://www.thesundaily.my/news/764721|url-status=dead}}</ref> Approval has been given for the [[Kuala Lumpur–Singapore high-speed rail]] project, but not using maglev technology.{{citation needed|date=February 2021}}

=== The Moon ===
The Flexible Levitation on a Track (FLOAT) project, announced by [[NASA]], plans to build a maglev train on the [[Moon]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |date=2024-05-10 |title=Nasa funds project to develop a floating robot railway on the Moon |url=https://www.bbc.com/newsround/68979367 |access-date=2024-05-23 |work=BBC Newsround |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nasa.gov/general/float-flexible-levitation-on-a-track/|title=FLOAT - Flexible Levitation on a Track – NASA|date=25 February 2021}}</ref>

=== Philippines ===
[[Udenna Corporation|Philtram Consortium's]] [[Cebu Monorail]] project will be initially built as a [[monorail]] system. In the future, it will be upgraded to a patented maglev technology named Spin-Induced Lenz's Law Magnetic Levitation Train.<ref name="jg">{{Cite web |first=Jose |last=Guardo |title=Philtram monorail PPT |date=24 August 2017 |url=https://www.slideshare.net/JoseGuardo2/philtram-monorail-ppt-for-slideshare |access-date=5 May 2021 |archive-date=8 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220808043916/https://www.slideshare.net/JoseGuardo2/philtram-monorail-ppt-for-slideshare |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Switzerland ===
'''SwissRapide''': The SwissRapide AG together with the SwissRapide Consortium was planning and developing the first maglev monorail system for intercity traffic between the country's major cities. SwissRapide was to be financed by private investors. In the long-term, the SwissRapide Express was to connect the major cities north of the Alps between [[Geneva]] and [[St. Gallen]], including [[Lucerne]] and [[Basel]]. The first projects were [[Bern]]–[[Zürich]], [[Lausanne]]–Geneva as well as Zürich–[[Winterthur]]. The first line (Lausanne–Geneva or Zürich–Winterthur) could go into service as early as 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swissrapide.com/upload/dokumente/2011.03.03%20Artikel%20SwissRapide%20GHI.pdf|title=Lausanne en 10 minutes|date=3 March 2011|publisher=GHI|language=fr|access-date=20 May 2011|archive-date=2 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202203354/http://www.swissrapide.com/upload/dokumente/2011.03.03%20Artikel%20SwissRapide%20GHI.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.swissrapide.com/upload/dokumente/NZZ_SwissRapide_Express_20_06_2009.pdf|title=In 20 Minuten von Zürich nach Bern|date=20 June 2009|newspaper=Neue Zürcher Zeitung|access-date=20 May 2011|language=de|archive-date=2 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202191538/http://www.swissrapide.com/upload/dokumente/NZZ_SwissRapide_Express_20_06_2009.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

'''[[Swissmetro]]''': An earlier project, Swissmetro AG envisioned a partially evacuated underground maglev (a [[vactrain]]). As with SwissRapide, Swissmetro envisioned connecting the major cities in Switzerland with one another. In 2011, Swissmetro AG was dissolved and the IPRs from the organisation were passed onto the [[École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne|EPFL]] in Lausanne.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.swissmetro.ch/|title=Swissmetro.ch|publisher=Swissmetro.ch|access-date=29 September 2011|archive-date=1 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140901210839/http://www.swissmetro.ch/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== United Kingdom ===
{{Main|UK Ultraspeed}}
'''London – Glasgow''': A line<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.500kmh.com/UKU_Factbook2.pdf |title=Factbook |publisher=500kmh |date=October 2007 |access-date=2012-12-13 |archive-date=11 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150811234649/http://www.500kmh.com/UKU_Factbook2.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> was proposed in the United Kingdom from London to [[Glasgow]] with several route options through the Midlands, Northwest and Northeast of England. It was reported to be under favourable consideration by the government.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2005-06/07/content_3053025.htm |title=Shanghai-style Maglev train may fly on London line |work=China View |date=7 June 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090616022859/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2005-06/07/content_3053025.htm |archive-date=16 June 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The approach was rejected in the Government [[White paper#In government|white paper]] ''Delivering a Sustainable Railway'' published on 24 July 2007.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Government's five-year plan |magazine=Railway Magazine |volume=153 |issue=1277 |date=September 2007 |pages=6–7}}</ref> Another high-speed link was planned between Glasgow and Edinburgh but the technology remained unsettled.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.500kmh.com/ |title=UK Ultraspeed |access-date=23 May 2008 |archive-date=13 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100813050523/http://www.500kmh.com/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/transport/Story/0,2763,1545279,00.html |title=Hovertrain to cut London-Glasgow time to two hours |work=The Guardian |location=UK |date=9 August 2005 |author=Wainwright, Martin |access-date=23 May 2008 |archive-date=25 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231025192940/https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2005/aug/09/transport.world |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/65cc4456-388c-11db-ae2c-0000779e2340.html |title=Japan inspires Tories' land of rising green tax |work=Financial Times |author=Blitz, James |date=31 August 2006 |access-date=23 May 2008 |archive-date=2 March 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070302074201/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/65cc4456-388c-11db-ae2c-0000779e2340.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== United States ===
'''Washington, D.C. to New York City:''' Using [[SCMaglev|Superconducting Maglev (SCMAGLEV)]] technology developed by the [[Central Japan Railway Company]], the [[Northeast Maglev]] would ultimately connect major Northeast metropolitan hubs and airports traveling more than {{convert|480|km/h|mph|abbr=off|sp=us}},<ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uu62PLbvneY |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/uu62PLbvneY |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|last=Zakrzewski |first=Cat|date=11 July 2019 |title=Northeast Maglev's Ian Rainey describes how high-speed rail would transform the Northeast region |medium=News |time=1:41 |work=[[The Washington Post]] |access-date=9 September 2020}}{{cbignore}}</ref> with a goal of one-hour service between [[Washington, D.C.]] and [[New York City]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Greenwood|first=Arin|date=2012-07-16|title=High Speed 'Maglev' Rail Has Billionaire Supporter|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/maglev-northeast-corridor_n_1676335|access-date=2020-06-26|website=HuffPost|language=en|archive-date=26 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200626144929/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/maglev-northeast-corridor_n_1676335|url-status=live}}</ref> {{as of|2019}} the [[Federal Railroad Administration]] and [[Maryland Department of Transportation]] were preparing an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) to evaluate the potential impacts of constructing and operating the system's [[Baltimore–Washington Superconducting Maglev Project|first leg between Washington, DC and Baltimore, Maryland]] with an intermediate stop at [[Baltimore/Washington International Airport|BWI Airport]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wusa9.com/article/news/local/dc/what-could-dc-to-baltimore-bullet-train-look-like-we-went-to-japan-to-find-out-scmaglev/65-e5852fe0-fa8a-4a56-a962-96b4d44c6529 |last=Valerio |first=Mike |title=A 311 MPH floating train could link DC & Baltimore – neighbors, the NSA & a nation in gridlock take notice |work=[[WUSA (TV)|WUSA]] |date=21 November 2019 |access-date=9 September 2020 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902210245/https://www.wusa9.com/article/news/local/dc/what-could-dc-to-baltimore-bullet-train-look-like-we-went-to-japan-to-find-out-scmaglev/65-e5852fe0-fa8a-4a56-a962-96b4d44c6529 |archive-date=2 September 2020}}</ref>

'''Union Pacific freight conveyor''': Plans are under way by American railroad [[Union Pacific]] to build a {{convert|7.9|km|mi|adj=on}} container shuttle between the Ports of [[Port of Los Angeles|Los Angeles]] and [[Port of Long Beach|Long Beach]], with UP's [[intermodal container]] transfer facility. The system would be based on "passive" technology, especially well-suited to freight transfer as no power is needed on board. The vehicle is a [[chassis]] that glides to its destination. The system is being designed by [[General Atomics]].<ref name="rgi20090209" />

'''California-Nevada Interstate Maglev''': High-speed maglev lines between major cities of southern California and [[Las Vegas, Nevada|Las Vegas]] are under study via the [[California-Nevada Interstate Maglev]] Project.<ref name=msnbc1>{{cite news |first=Jasmin Aline |last=Persch |title=America's fastest train moves ahead |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna25265682 |publisher=[[NBC News]] |date=25 June 2008 |access-date=31 July 2008 |archive-date=4 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204020212/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/25265682/ |url-status=live }}</ref> This plan was originally proposed as part of an [[Interstate 5|I-5]] or [[Interstate 15|I-15]] expansion plan, but the federal government ruled that it must be separated from interstate public work projects.

After the decision, private groups from Nevada proposed a line running from Las Vegas to Los Angeles with stops in [[Primm, Nevada]]; [[Baker, California]]; and other points throughout [[San Bernardino County, California|San Bernardino County]] into Los Angeles. Politicians expressed concern that a high-speed rail line out of state would carry spending out of state along with travelers.

'''The Pennsylvania Project''': The Pennsylvania High-Speed Maglev Project corridor extends from the [[Pittsburgh International Airport]] to [[Greensburg, Pennsylvania|Greensburg]], with intermediate stops in [[Downtown Pittsburgh]] and [[Monroeville, Pennsylvania|Monroeville]]. This initial project was claimed to serve approximately 2.4 million people in the [[Pittsburgh metropolitan area]]. The Baltimore proposal competed with the Pittsburgh proposal for a US$90 million federal grant.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.maglevpa.com/index.html |title=The Pennsylvania Project |access-date=25 September 2007 |archive-date=25 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100625023101/http://www.maglevpa.com/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

'''San Diego-Imperial County airport''': In 2006, San Diego commissioned a study for a maglev line to a proposed airport located in [[Imperial County Airport|Imperial County]]. [[SANDAG]] claimed that the concept would be an "airports [sic] without terminals", allowing passengers to check in at a terminal in San Diego ("satellite terminals"), take the train to the airport and directly board the airplane. In addition, the train would have the potential to carry freight. Further studies were requested although no funding was agreed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sandag.org/index.asp?projectid=291&fuseaction=projects.detail |title=SANDAG: San Diego Maglev project |access-date=23 May 2008 |archive-date=12 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612223147/http://sandag.org/index.asp?projectid=291&fuseaction=projects.detail |url-status=dead }}</ref>

'''Orlando International Airport to Orange County Convention Center''': In December 2012, the Florida Department of Transportation gave conditional approval to a proposal by American Maglev to build a privately run {{convert|14.9|mi|0}}, [[Orlando maglev|5-station line]] from [[Orlando International Airport]] to [[Orange County Convention Center]]. The Department requested a technical assessment and said there would be a [[request for proposals]] issued to reveal any competing plans. The route requires the use of a public right of way.<ref>{{cite news |title=Orlando MagLev Plan Gets Tentative Approval |url=http://www.wnyc.org/story/283384-orlando-maglev-plan-gets-tentative-approval/ |date=17 December 2012 |journal=WYNC |access-date=17 November 2013 |archive-date=14 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214084406/http://www.wnyc.org/story/283384-orlando-maglev-plan-gets-tentative-approval/ |url-status=live }}</ref> If the first phase succeeded American Maglev would propose two further phases (of {{convert|4.9|and|19.4|mi|disp=sqbr}}) to carry the line to [[Walt Disney World]].<ref>{{cite web |title=American Maglev Technology (AMT) Assessment Phase I: Data Collection, Data Development, Meetings and Recommendations |url=http://www.dot.state.fl.us/transit/pages/FinalAMTDocument.pdf |date=December 2011 |access-date=17 November 2013 |archive-date=17 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517165637/http://www.dot.state.fl.us/transit/pages/FinalAMTDocument.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

'''San Juan – Caguas''': A {{convert|16.7|mile|adj=on}} maglev project was proposed linking [[Tren Urbano]]'s Cupey Station in San Juan with two proposed stations in the city of Caguas, south of San Juan. The maglev line would run along Highway [[Puerto Rico Highway 52|PR-52]], connecting both cities. According to American Maglev project cost would be approximately US$380 million.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalatlanta.com/article/24607/ |title=Marietta Company Ready to Send Maglev Technology Abroad |publisher=Globalatlanta.com |access-date=29 September 2011 |archive-date=30 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111030005428/http://www.globalatlanta.com/article/24607/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.primerahora.com/williammirandatorrespideapoyoparafinanciartrenencaguas-557104.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120914142253/http://www.primerahora.com/williammirandatorrespideapoyoparafinanciartrenencaguas-557104.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 September 2012 |title=William Miranda Torres pide apoyo para financiar tren en Caguas |publisher=Primerahora.com |access-date=29 September 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=casiano communications |url=http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news03.php?nt_id=57523&ct_id=1 |title=Inteco looks at 'maglev' train system |publisher=caribbeanbusiness.pr |date=19 May 2011 |access-date=29 September 2011 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406204652/http://www.caribbeanbusinesspr.com/news03.php?nt_id=57523&ct_id=1 |archive-date=6 April 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

== Incidents ==
Two incidents involved fires. A Japanese test train in Miyazaki, MLU002, was completely consumed by a fire in 1991.<ref>{{cite magazine |url = http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-31942113_ITM |title = High speed hopes soar |magazine=Railway Age |date =1 May 1992 |last = Vranich |first = Joseph}}</ref>

On 11 August 2006, a fire broke out on the commercial Shanghai Transrapid shortly after arriving at the Longyang terminal. People were evacuated without incident before the vehicle was moved about 1 kilometre to keep smoke from filling the station. NAMTI officials toured the SMT maintenance facility in November 2010 and learned that the cause of the fire was "[[thermal runaway]]" in a battery tray. As a result, SMT secured a new battery vendor, installed new temperature sensors and insulators and redesigned the trays.{{citation needed|date=October 2012}}

On 22 September 2006, a [[Lathen train collision|Transrapid train collided with a maintenance vehicle]] on a test/publicity run in Lathen (Lower Saxony / north-western Germany).<ref>{{cite web |url = http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,438657,00.html |title = Several Dead in Transrapid Accident |work = Spiegel Online |date = 22 September 2006 |access-date = 7 September 2009 |archive-date = 25 March 2010 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100325213014/http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,438657,00.html |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.monstersandcritics.com/europe/news/article_1204030.php/23_dead_in_German_maglev_train_accident__Roundup_ |title=23 dead in German maglev train accident |publisher=M&C Europe |date=22 September 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071011192600/http://news.monstersandcritics.com/europe/news/article_1204030.php/23_dead_in_German_maglev_train_accident__Roundup_ |archive-date=11 October 2007 }}</ref> Twenty-three people were killed and ten were injured; these were the first maglev crash fatalities. The accident was caused by human error. Charges were brought against three Transrapid employees after a year-long investigation.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2007/08/30/afx4067784.html |title=German prosecutor charges three Transrapid employees over year-old disaster |publisher=AFX News |date=30 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604033627/http://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2007/08/30/afx4067784.html |archive-date=4 June 2011 }}</ref>

Safety is a greater concern with high-speed public transport due to the potential for high impact force and large number of casualties. In the case of maglev trains as well as conventional high-speed rails, an incident could result from human error, including loss of power, or factors outside human control, such as ground movement caused by an earthquake.

== See also ==
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
* [[Bombardier Advanced Rapid Transit]] – transit systems using [[linear induction motor]]s
* [[Electromagnetic suspension]]
* [[Ground-effect train]]
* [[Hyperloop]]
* [[Land speed record for rail vehicles]]
* [[Launch loop]] would be a maglev system for launching to orbit or escape velocity.
* [[Mass driver]]
* [[Nagahori Tsurumi-ryokuchi Line]]
* [[Oleg Tozoni]] worked on a published non-linearly stabilised maglev design.
* [[StarTram]] – a maglev launch system
* [[Transfer table]]

{{Portal|Energy|Trains}}

{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=note}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite news | last=Heller | first=Arnie | title=A New Approach for Magnetically Levitating Trains—and Rockets | publisher=Science & Technology Review | date=June 1998 | url=http://www.llnl.gov/str/Post.html | access-date=8 June 2005 | archive-date=28 May 2010 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528141314/https://www.llnl.gov/str//Post.html | url-status=live }}
* {{cite journal |author=Henry H. Kolm |author2=Richard D. Thornton |date=October 1973 |title=Electromagnetic Flight |journal=[[Scientific American]] |publisher=Springer Nature |volume=229 |issue=4 |pages=17–25 |author-link=Henry Kolm |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican1073-17 |bibcode=1973SciAm.229d..17K }}
* {{cite book | first=Christopher P. | last=Hood | year=2006 | title=Shinkansen – From Bullet Train to Symbol of Modern Japan | publisher=Routledge | isbn=0-415-32052-6 }}
*  {{cite book |first=Zhigang |last=Liu |year=2015 |title=Maglev Trains: Key Underlying Technologies |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-662-45672-9 }}
* {{cite book |author1-link=Francis C. Moon | first=Francis C. | last=Moon | year=1994|title=Superconducting Levitation Applications to Bearings and Magnetic Transportation | publisher=Wiley-VCH |isbn=0-471-55925-3 }}
* {{cite book | first=Ralf Roman | last=Rossberg | year=1983 | title=Radlos in die Zukunft? Die Entwicklung neuer Bahnsysteme | publisher=Orell Füssli Verlag|asin=B002ROWD5M }}
* {{cite book | first=Ralf Roman | last=Rossberg | year=1993 | title=Radlos in die Zukunft? Die Entwicklung neuer Bahnsysteme | publisher=Orell Fuessli Verlag | isbn=978-3-280-01503-2 }}
* {{cite book | first=Jack | last=Simmons |author2=Biddle, Gordon | year=1997 | title=The Oxford Companion to British Railway History: From 1603 to the 1990s|page=303|publisher=Oxford University Press | location=Oxford | isbn=0-19-211697-5}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
*{{Commons category-inline|Magnetic levitation trains}}
*{{Wiktionary-inline}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050404190644/http://www.fra.dot.gov/us/content/200 United States Federal Railroad Administration]
*[http://www.magneticglide.com/ US MagneticGlide]
*[http://www.maglevboard.net/ The International Maglev Board] Maglev professionals' info platform for all maglev transport systems and related technologies.
*[http://www.maglev.net/ Maglev Net – Maglev News and Information]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20051102050249/http://www.rtri.or.jp/index.html Japanese Railway Technical Research Institute (RTRI)]
*[http://www.railserve.com/maglev.html Magnetic Levitation for Transportation]

{{Maglev}}
{{Public transport}}
{{High-speed rail}}
{{Emerging technologies|transport=yes}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Maglev| ]]
[[Category:Electrodynamics]]
[[Category:Experimental and prototype high-speed trains]]
[[Category:Magnetic propulsion devices]]