View source for Goddess

{{short description|Feminine or female deity}}
{{other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
[[File:Queen_Nefertari_being_led_by_Isis_MET_DP167142.jpg|thumb|Queen [[Nefertari]] being led by [[Isis]], the ancient Egyptian mother goddess of magic|312x312px]]
[[File:Mohini on a swing.jpg|thumb|A depiction of [[Hindu]] goddess [[Mohini]]|312x312px]]
A '''goddess''' is a female [[deity]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ellwood|first1=Robert S.|title=The Encyclopedia of World Religions|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo00robe|url-access=registration|date=2007|publisher=Facts on File|location=New York|isbn=978-1438110387|page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofwo00robe/page/181 181]|edition=Rev.}} Text: '''goddesses''' Female deities.</ref> In some faiths, a sacred female figure holds a central place in religious prayer and worship. For example, [[Shaktism]] (one of the three major [[Hinduism|Hindu]] sects), holds that the ultimate deity, the source of all reality, is [[Mahadevi]] (Supreme Goddess) and in some forms of Tantric [[Shaivism]], the pair of [[Shiva]] and [[Shakti]] are the ultimate principle (with the goddess representing the active, creative power of God). Meanwhile, in [[Vajrayana|Vajrayana Buddhism]], [[ultimate reality]] is often seen as being composed of two principles depicted as two deities in union ([[Yab-Yum|yab yum]], "father-mother") symbolising the non-duality of the two principles of perfect wisdom (female) and skillful compassion (male).<ref name="Simmer-Brown 2002 p. 159">{{cite book |last=Simmer-Brown |first=J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FZqiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA159 |title=Dakini's Warm Breath: The Feminine Principle in Tibetan Buddhism |publisher=Shambhala |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8348-2842-1 |page=159 |access-date=18 January 2020}}</ref> A single figure in a monotheistic faith that is female may be identified simply as '''[[god]]''' because of no need to differentiate by gender or with a diminutive. An experiment to determine the effect of psychedelics on subjects composed of leaders from diverse religious groups revealed a general experience that the divine the subjects encountered was feminine.<ref>Jocelyn, Hannah, ''[https://link.newyorker.com/view/5be9ee5d24c17c6adf0abc2cnrurr.b8rz/24e70546 Is God a Woman?]'', [[The New Yorker]], Daily, Monday, May 19, 2025</ref>

[[Polytheism|Polytheist religions]], including [[polytheistic reconstructionism|Polytheistic reconstructionists]], honour multiple goddesses and gods, and usually view them as discrete, separate beings. These deities may be part of a pantheon, or different regions may have tutelary deities. In many known cultures, goddesses are often linked with literal or metaphorical pregnancy or imagined feminine roles associated with how women and girls are perceived or expected to behave. This includes themes of [[spinning (textiles)|spinning]], [[weaving]], beauty, love, sexuality, motherhood, [[wikt:domesticity|domesticity]], creativity, and [[List of fertility deities|fertility]] (exemplified by the ancient [[mother goddess]] cult). Many major goddesses are also associated with magic, war, strategy, hunting, farming, wisdom, [[fate]], earth, sky, [[power (social and political)|power]], laws, justice, and more. Some themes, such as [[wikt:discordianism|discord]] or disease, which are considered negative within their cultural contexts also are found associated with some goddesses. There are as many differently described and understood goddesses as there are male, [[shapeshifting]], devilish, or neuter gods.

==Etymology==
The noun ''[[:wikt:goddess|goddess]]'' is a secondary formation, combining the Germanic ''[[god (word)|god]]'' with the Latinate ''[[:wikt:-ess|-ess]]'' suffix. It first appeared in [[Middle English]], from about 1350.<ref name="BARNHART323">Barnhart (1995:323).{{Incomplete short citation|date=April 2016}}</ref> The English word follows the linguistic precedent of a number of languages—including [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]], [[Classical Greek]], and several [[Semitic languages]]—that add a feminine ending to the language's word for ''god''. Occasionally, one finds the root term being applied without the secondary ending.

==Historical polytheism==
{{Further|Polytheism}}

===Ancient Near East===
====Mesopotamia====
{{Main|Assyro-Babylonian religion|Sumerian religion}}

[[Inanna]] was the most worshipped goddess in ancient [[Sumer]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wolkstein|first1=Diane|author1-link=Diane Wolkstein|last2=Kramer|first2=Samuel Noah|title=Inanna: Queen of Heaven and Earth: Her Stories and Hymns from Sumer|year=1983|publisher=Harper&Row Publishers|location=New York City, New York|isbn=0-06-090854-8|page=xviii}}</ref><ref>[[Sylvia Brinton Perera]], ''Descent to the Goddess'' (Toronto 1982) re Inanna and [[Ereshkigal]].</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Nemet-Nejat|first=Karen Rhea|author-link=Karen Rhea Nemet-Nejat|date=1998|title=Daily Life in Ancient Mesopotamia|publisher=Greenwood|isbn=978-0313294976|page=[https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie00neme/page/182 182]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinancie00neme/page/182}}
</ref> She was later [[syncretism|syncretised]] with the [[East Semitic]] goddess [[Ishtar]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Collins|first=Paul|article=The Sumerian Goddess Inanna (3400-2200 BC)|title=Papers of from the Institute of Archaeology|volume=5|publisher=UCL|date=1994|pages=110–111}}</ref> Other Mesopotamian goddesses include [[Ninhursag]], [[Ninlil]], [[Antu (goddess)|Antu]] and [[Gaga (god)|Gaga]].

==== Ancient Africa (Egypt) ====
{{Main|Netjeret}}
* Goddesses of the [[Ennead]] of [[Heliopolis (Ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]]: [[Tefnut]], [[Nut (goddess)|Nut]], [[Nephthys]], [[Isis]]
* Goddesses of the [[Ogdoad (Egyptian)|Ogdoad]] of [[Hermopolis]]: [[Naunet]], [[Amaunet]], [[Kauket]], [[Hauhet]]; originally a cult of [[Hathor]]
* [[Satet|Satis]] and [[Anuket]] of the triad of [[Elephantine]]

====Canaan====
{{Further|The Hebrew Goddess}}
Goddesses of the [[Canaanite religion]]: [[Ba`alat Gebal]], [[Astarte]], [[Anat]].

====Anatolia====
* [[Cybele]]: Her Hittite name was Kubaba, but her name changed to Cybele in [[Phrygia]]n and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] culture. Her effect can be also seen on [[Artemis]] as the Lady of Ephesus.
* [[Hebat]]: Mother Goddess of the Hittite pantheon and wife of the leader sky god, [[Teshub]]. She was the origin of the [[Hurrians|Hurrian]] cult.
* [[Arinniti]]: Hittite Goddess of the sun. She became patron of the [[Hittite Empire]] and monarchy.
* [[Leto]]: A mother Goddess figure in [[Lykia]]. She was also the main goddess of the capital city of Lykia League ([[Letoon]])

====Pre-Islamic Arabia====
In pre-Islamic [[Mecca]] the goddesses [[Al-Uzza|Uzza]], [[Manāt]] and [[Al-Lat|al-Lāt]] were known as "the daughters of god". Uzzā was worshipped by the [[Nabataean]]s, who equated her with the Graeco-Roman goddesses [[Aphrodite]], [[Urania]], [[Venus (mythology)|Venus]] and Caelestis. Each of the three goddesses had a separate shrine near [[Mecca]]. Uzzā, was called upon for protection by the pre-Islamic [[Quraysh (tribe)|Quraysh]]. In 624 AD, during the [[Battle of Uhud]], the war cry of the Qurayshites was, "O people of Uzzā, people of [[Hubal]]!" (Tawil 1993).

According to [[Ibn Ishaq]]'s controversial account of the [[Satanic Verses]] (''q.v.''), these verses had previously endorsed them as intercessors for [[Muslims]], but were abrogated. Most Muslim scholars have regarded the story as historically implausible, while opinion is divided among western scholars such as [[Leone Caetani]] and John Burton, who argue against, and [[William Muir]] and [[William Montgomery Watt]], who argue for its plausibility.

The Quran ([[Q53:19-31]]) warns of the vanity of trusting to the intercession of female deities, in particular "the daughters of god".<ref>{{citation-attribution|1=[[Quran 53:19-31]] {{cite book |last1=Wherry |first1=Elwood Morris |author1-link=Elwood Morris Wherry |title=A Complete Index to [[Sale's Text]], Preliminary Discourse, and Notes |date=1896 |publisher=Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, and Co |location=London}} }}</ref>

===Indo-European traditions===
{{See also|Proto-Indo-European religion}}
Pre-Christian and pre-Islamic goddesses in cultures that spoke Indo-European languages.

====Indian====
{{Further|Proto-Indo-Iranian religion|Rigvedic deities}}
* [[Ushas]]: is the main goddess of the [[Rigveda]] and is the goddess of the [[dawn]]. 
* [[Prithivi]]: the Earth, also appears as a goddess. [[Rigvedic rivers|Rivers]] are also deified as goddesses. 
* [[Agneya]]: or Aagneya is the Hindu Goddess of Fire. 
* [[Varuni]]: is the Hindu Goddess of Water. Bhumi, Janani, Buvana, and Prithvi are names of the Hindu Goddess of Earth.

====Iranian====
* [[Anahita]]: or [[Anahit]], or Nahid, or Arədvī Sūrā Anāhitā, or Aban: the divinity of "the Waters" and hence associated with fertility, healing, beauty and wisdom.
* [[Daena]]: a divinity, counted among the [[yazatas]], representing insight and revelation, hence "conscience" or "religion".
* [[Spenta Armaiti]]: or [[Sandaramet]], one of the [[Amesha Spentas]], a female divinity associated with earth and Mother Nature. She is also associated with the female virtue of devotion (to family, husband, and child). In the Iranian calendar, her name is on the twelfth month and also the fifth day of the month.
* [[Ashi]]: a divinity of fertility and fortune in the [[Zoroastrian]] hierarchy of [[yazatas]].<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://roshangaran-pub.ir/bookshow/B968846641|title = Goddesses in Iranian Culture and Mythology|date = 2014|publisher = Tehran: Roshangaran va Motale’at-e Zanan Publications|last = Taheri|first = Sadreddin}}</ref>

====Greco-Roman====
[[File:Ceres statue.jpg|thumb|Portrait-Statue of an unknown woman as [[Ceres (mythology)|Ceres]], Roman goddess of agriculture and motherly relationships]]
{{Main|Religion in ancient Greece|Religion in ancient Rome}}
* [[Eleusinian Mysteries]]: [[Baubo]] (goddess of mirth), [[Demeter]] (goddess of the harvest) and [[Persephone]] (goddess of spring, queen of the Underworld as the wife of Hades).
* [[Muses|Greek muses]]: [[Calliope]] (goddess of [[epic poetry]]), [[Clio]] (history), [[Erato]] (love poetry), [[Euterpe]] (music, song, and [[lyric poetry]]), [[Melpomene]] (tragedy), [[Polyhymnia]] (sacred poetry), [[Terpsichore]] (dance), [[Thalia (Muse)|Thalia]] (comedy and pastoral poetry), and [[Urania]] (astronomy).
* [[Aphrodite]]: Goddess of love and beauty.
* [[Artemis]]: Virgin goddess of the wilderness and the hunt.
* [[Athena]]: Virgin goddess of strategy, warfare, and crafts.
* [[Eris (mythology)|Eris]]: Goddess of chaos.
* [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]: Primordial goddess of the Earth. Most gods descend from her.
* [[Hecate]]: Goddess of sorcery and crossroads. Often considered a [[chthonic]] or lunar goddess. She is either portrayed as a single goddess or a triple goddess (maiden, mother, crone).
* [[Hera]]: Goddess of womanhood, marriage and childbirth, queen of Olympus as the wife of Zeus.
* [[Hestia]]: Virgin goddess of the hearth, domesticity and family.
* [[Iris (mythology)|Iris]]: Goddess of rainbows.
* [[Leto]]: Titan goddess of childhood.
* [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]]: Goddess of victory. She is predominantly pictured with Zeus or Athena and sometimes Ares.
* [[Selene]]: Titan goddess of the Moon.
* [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]]: Titan goddess of motherhood.

====Celtic====
{{Main|Celtic pantheon}}
Goddesses and Otherworldly Women in [[Celtic polytheism]] include:
* Celtic antiquity: [[Brigantia (goddess)|Brigantia]]
* [[Gallo-Roman]] goddesses: [[Epona]], [[Dea Matrona]]
* Irish mythology: [[Áine]], [[Boann]], [[Brigid]], [[Cailleach|The Cailleach]], [[Danu (Irish goddess)|Danu]], [[Ériu]], [[Fand]] and [[The Morrígan]] ([[Nemain]], [[Macha]], and [[Badb]]) among others.
 
The Celts honoured goddesses of nature and natural forces, as well as those connected with skills and professions such as healing, warfare and poetry. The Celtic goddesses have diverse qualities such as abundance, creation and beauty, as well as harshness, slaughter and vengeance. They have been depicted as beautiful or hideous, old [[Cailleach|hags]] or young women, and at times may transform their appearance from one state to another, or into their associated creatures such as crows, cows, wolves or eels, to name but a few. In [[Irish mythology]] in particular, tutelary goddesses are often associated with [[sovereignty]] and various features of the land, notably mountains, rivers, forests and [[holy well]]s.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wood|first1=Juliette|title=The Celts: Life, Myth, and Art|url=https://archive.org/details/celtslifemythart0000wood_j3t9|url-access=registration|date=2001|publisher=Duncard Baird Publishers|location=London|isbn=9781903296264|page=[https://archive.org/details/celtslifemythart0000wood_j3t9/page/42 42]|edition=New}}</ref>

====Germanic====
[[File:Freia Gestures to Hyndla by Frølich.jpg|thumb|The goddess [[Freyja]] is nuzzled by the boar [[Hildisvíni]] while gesturing to [[Hyndla]] (1895) by [[Lorenz Frølich]].]]
{{Further|List of Germanic deities and heroes#Goddesses}}

Surviving accounts of [[Continental Germanic mythology|Germanic mythology]] and [[Norse mythology]] contain numerous tales of female goddesses, [[Jötunn|giantesses]], and divine female figures in their scriptures. The [[Germanic peoples]] had altars erected to the [[Matres and Matrones|"Mothers and Matrons"]] and held celebrations specific to these goddesses (such as the Anglo-Saxon [[Mōdraniht|"Mothers-night"]]). Various other female deities are attested among the Germanic peoples, such as [[Nerthus]] attested in an early account of the Germanic peoples, [[Ēostre]] attested among the [[Anglo-Saxon paganism|pagan Anglo-Saxons]], and [[Sinthgunt]] attested among the pagan continental Germanic peoples. Examples of goddesses attested in Norse mythology include [[Frigg]] (wife of [[Odin]], and the Anglo-Saxon version of whom is namesake of the modern English weekday [[Friday]]), [[Skaði]] (one time wife of [[Njörðr]]), Njerda (Scandinavian name of [[Nerthus]]), that also was married to [[Njörðr]] during Bronze Age, [[Freyja]] (wife of [[Óðr]]), [[Sif]] (wife of [[Thor]]), [[Gerðr]] (wife of [[Freyr]]), and personifications such as [[Jörð]] (earth), [[Sól (Sun)|Sól]] (the sun), and [[Nótt]] (night). Female deities also play heavily into the Norse concept of death, where half of those slain in battle enter Freyja's field [[Fólkvangr]], [[Hel (being)|Hel]]'s realm [[Hel (location)|of the same name]], and [[Rán]] who receives those who die at sea. Other female deities such as the [[valkyries]], the [[norns]], and the [[dís]]ir are associated with a Germanic concept of [[destiny|fate]] (Old Norse ''[[Wyrd|Ørlög]]'', Old English ''[[Wyrd]]''), and celebrations were held in their honour, such as the [[Dísablót]] and [[Disting]].

===Pre-Columbian America===

====Aztec====
{{Main|Aztec religion}}
[[File:Toci and Xochiquetzal, Two Aztec Goddesses WDL6731.png|thumb|[[Xochiquetzal]] (left) and [[Chalchiuhtlicue]] (right) as depicted in the [[Tovar Codex]].]]
* [[Chalchiuhtlicue]]: goddess of water (rivers, seas, storms, etc.)
* [[Chantico]]: goddess of the [[hearth]], flames
* [[Coyolxauhqui]]: warrior goddess associated with the moon
* Duality Earth Goddesses: [[Cihuacoatl]] (childbirth and [[maternal death]]), [[Coatlicue]] (earth as the womb and grave), [[Tlazolteotl]] (filth and purification)
* [[Itzpapalotl]]: monstrous ruler of [[Tamoanchan]] (a paradise realm)
* [[Mictecacihuatl]]: queen of [[Mictlan]] (the underworld)
* [[Xochiquetzal]]: goddess of fertility, beauty, and female sexuality

====Maya====
{{Main|Maya religion}}
*[[Ixchel]]: mother goddess
*[[Maya moon goddess]]
*[[Goddess I]]: eroticism, human procreation, and marriage

====Inca====
{{Main|Religion in the Inca Empire}}
* [[Pachamama]]: the supreme Mother Earth
* [[Mama Killa]]: moon goddess
* [[Mama Ocllo]]: fertility goddess
* [[Mama Cocha]]: goddess of the sea and lakes

====Native North America====
Goddesses of various Native North American peoples include:
* [[Spider Grandmother]]: Creator goddess of the Southwestern United States
* [[Atahensic]]: [[Iroquois]] sky goddess
* [[Atira (goddess)|Atira]]: [[Pawnee people|Pawnee]] earth and corn goddess
* [[Tia (goddess)|Tia]]: [[Haida mythology|Haida]] goddess of peaceful death
* [[Sedna (mythology)|Sedna]]: [[Inuit mythology|Inuit]] goddess of the sea and underworld
* [[Atabey (goddess)|Atabey]]: [[Taino]] mother goddess

==Folk religion and animism==
{{Further|Folk religion|Marian devotion}}

===African religions===
{{Further|Traditional African religions|African diasporic religions}}
{{Further|Mami Wata|Ala (mythology)|Asase Ya|Oshun|Oya|Yemaja}}
In African and African diasporic religions, goddesses are often syncretised with [[Marian devotion]], as in [[Ezili Dantor]] ([[Black Madonna of Częstochowa]]) and [[Erzulie Freda]] ([[Mater Dolorosa]]). There is also Buk, a Sudanese and Ethiopian goddess still worshipped in the southern regions. She represents the fertile aspect of women. She is related to the deity of a similar name, Abuk.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Relke |first=RJ |date=2001 |title=CHAPTER 4: THE AFRICAN NILOTIC PEOPLES AS ETHNOGRAPHIC PARALLELS: FINDING THE RIGHT "FIT": AN APPROPRIATE ETHNOGRAPHIC PARALLEL |url=https://rune.une.edu.au/web/retrieve/b3811fcd-608f-4f43-97ce-e08c90084902 |access-date=January 2, 2024 |website=UNE |at=25-32}}</ref> Another Ethiopian goddess is [[Atete]], the goddess of spring and fertility. Farmers traditionally leave some of their products at the end of each harvesting season as an offering while women sing traditional songs.

A rare example of henotheism focused on a single Goddess is found among the [[Nuba|Southern Nuba]] of Sudan. The Nuba conceive of the creator Goddess as the "Great Mother" who gave birth to earth and to mankind.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Mbiti|first1=John S.|title=Introduction to African Religion|url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoaf0000mbit|url-access=registration|date=1991|publisher=Heinemann Educational Books|location=Oxford, England|isbn=9780435940027|page=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontoaf0000mbit/page/53 53]|edition=2nd rev.}}</ref>

===Chinese folk religion===
{{Main|Chinese folk religion}}
{{Further|Queen Mother of the West}}
* [[Mazu (goddess)|Mazu]] is the goddess of the sea who protects fishermen and sailors, widely worshipped in the south-eastern coastal areas of China and neighbouring areas in Southeast Asia.
* The Goddess Weaver Zhinü, daughter of the Celestial Mother, wove the [[stars]] and their light, known as "the Silver River" (what Westerners call "The Milky Way Galaxy"), for heaven and earth. She was identified with the star Westerners know as [[Vega]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Chang|first1=Jung|title=Wild Swans: Three Daughters of China|date=2003|publisher=Simon and Schuster|location=New York|isbn=1439106495|page=429|edition=reprint|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=unM5hd_V13MC&pg=PA429 |access-date=22 April 2016}}</ref>

===Shinto===
[[File:Origin_of_Iwato_Kagura_Dance_Amaterasu_by_Toyokuni_III_(Kunisada)_1856.png|thumb|390x390px|[[Amaterasu]], goddess of the sun, emerges from the [[Ama-no-Iwato|Heavenly Rock Cave]], triptych by [[Utagawa Kunisada]]]]
Goddess [[Amaterasu]] is the chief among the [[Kami|Shinto gods]] (''kami''), while there are important female deities [[Ame-no-Uzume-no-Mikoto]], Inari and [[Konohanasakuya-hime]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Amaterasu/|title=Amaterasu|website=[[World History Encyclopedia]]|access-date=2019-02-21}}</ref>

== Indian religions==
In the [[Indian religions]] (mainly [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]]), there are many goddesses that are widely venerated. The earliest source for several of these goddesses is the [[Vedas]].<ref name="kinsley">Kinsley, David (1988). ''Hindu Goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions.'' University of California Press, {{ISBN|0-520-06339-2}}.</ref> However, goddesses can also be found in the art of the even more ancient [[Indus Valley civilisation]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thomaskutty |first=Johnson |title=&quot;Glimpses of the 'Feminine' in Indian Religion and Society: A Christian Perspective&quot; by Johnson Thomaskutty |url=https://www.academia.edu/830821 |language=en |page=81}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bhattacharji |first1=Sukumari |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2UszWGeqkZcC&pg=PP11 |title=Legends of Devi |last2=Sukumari |date=1998 |publisher=Orient Blackswan |isbn=978-81-250-1438-6 |language=en}}</ref>

===Hinduism===
{{Main|God and gender in Hinduism}}
{{Further|Devi|Shakti}}
[[File:Statues of Vaishnavi, Varahi, Indrani and Camunda, National Museum, New Delhi.jpg|thumb|A relief depicting [[Hindu goddess]]es (from left to right) [[Vaishnavi (Matrika goddess)|Vaishnavi]], [[Varahi]], [[Indrani]], and [[Chamunda]]; [[National Museum of India]]]]
[[Hinduism]] is a diverse complex of many belief systems which includes numerous gods and goddesses. The earliest Hindu source, the ''Rigveda'', contains many goddesses such as [[Prithvi]] (earth), [[Aditi]] (cosmic moral order), [[Vāc]] (sound), [[Nirṛti (goddess)|Nirṛti]] (destruction) and [[Saraswati]]. The ''[[Devīsūkta]]m'' is an important source for the goddess idea in [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]]. Important Hindu goddesses today include [[Lakshmi]], [[Saraswati]], [[Durga]], [[Kali]], [[Tripura Sundari|Tripurasundari]], [[Parvati]], and [[Radha]].

There is much diversity in the [[theology]] of the various traditions of Hinduism. Some theologies (e.g. [[Advaita]]) see all gods and goddesses as emanations of a single formless impersonal source called [[Brahman]]. Other theologies are more personal regarding the ultimate deity.

Some traditions posit a dual deity in the form of [[Lakshmi]]-[[Vishnu]], [[Radha]]-[[Krishna]], [[Brahma]]-[[Saraswati]], or [[Shiva]]-[[Parvati]]. These are presented as a pair with a male god (Shaktiman, "possessor of power") and his consort, a female "power" (Shakti), and their relationship is interpreted in different ways depending on the tradition's theology.

In [[Shaktism]], the supreme deity is the Great Goddess ([[Mahadevi]]), called by different names such as Shakti or [[Shakti|Adi Parashakti]] (Primordial Supreme Power). [[Shaktas]] consider the Goddess to be the ultimate source of all things and the mother of all gods and goddesses. She is considered to have ten main avatars called the ten [[mahavidya]]s in some traditions. Another important concept is the Shakta trinity, the [[tridevi]], which sees Mahadevi as manifesting in three main goddesses: [[Saraswati|Mahasaraswati]], [[Lakshmi|Mahalakshmi]], and [[Mahakali]].[[File:Durga Mahisasuramardini.JPG|thumb|right|The Hindu warrior goddess [[Durga]] killing the buffalo-demon [[Mahishasura]].]]In the great Shakta scripture known as the ''[[Devi Mahatmya]]'' (Glory of the Goddess), all the goddesses are aspects of one presiding female force—one in truth and many in expression, which also is the creative power of the cosmos. It expresses through philosophical tracts and metaphor, that the potentiality of masculine being is actuated by the feminine divine.

Local deities of different village regions in [[India]] were often identified with "mainstream" Hindu deities, a process that has been called ''Sanskritisation''. Others attribute it to the influence of [[monism]] or ''Advaita'', which discounts polytheist or monotheist categorisation. While the monist forces have led to a fusion between some of the goddesses (108 names are common for many goddesses), centrifugal forces have also resulted in new goddesses and rituals gaining ascendance among the laity in different parts of Hindu world. Thus, the immensely popular goddess [[Durga]] was a pre-Vedic goddess who was later fused with Parvati, a process that can be traced through texts such as Kalika Purana (10th century), Durgabhaktitarangini ([[Vidyapati]] 15th century), Chandimangal (16th century) etc.

Widely celebrated [[Hindu festival]] [[Navaratri]] is in the honour of the divine feminine [[Devi]] ([[Durga]]) and spans nine nights of prayer in the autumn, also referred as Sharada Navratri.

=== Buddhism ===
[[File:准提菩萨像轴.明代.纸本设色描金.台北故宫博物院藏.jpg|thumb|[[Cundi (Buddhism)|Cundī]] Buddha Mother (also known as Cundā), [[Ming dynasty|Ming Dynasty]] (1368–1644).]]

[[File:Tara statue near Kulu.jpg|thumb|Statue of [[Tara (Buddhism)|Tara]], Urgyen Sanag Choling Gompa near [[Kullu district|Kulu]], [[Himachal Pradesh|Himchal Pradesh]]]]

There are numerous female deities in the various Buddhist traditions.<ref name=":1">for a full overview and list of goddesses see: Shaw, Miranda (2006). ''Buddhist Goddesses of India,'' Princeton University Press.</ref> Buddhist goddesses are widely depicted in [[Buddhist art]].<ref name=":0" /> [[Early Buddhist schools|Early Buddhism]] in India venerated various female goddesses. These were mostly considered to be [[Deva (Buddhism)|devas]] or spirits (such as [[yakshini]]s). They include [[Prithvi|Prthivi]] (earth goddess), [[Hariti]], [[Lakshmi]] and [[Maya (mother of the Buddha)|Mayadevi]] (the mother of the Buddha).<ref>Shaw, Miranda (2006). ''Buddhist Goddesses of India,'' pp. 5-6. Princeton University Press.</ref> Some of these figures remain important in [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhism]] today, including Maya and Prthivi (known as [[Phra Mae Thorani]] in [[Southeast Asia]]).

Indian [[Mahayana|Mahayana Buddhism]] revered several female deities, including [[Prajñāpāramitā Devi]], [[Cundi (Buddhism)|Cunda]], [[Marici (Buddhism)|Marici]], [[Sitatapatra|Sitātapatra]], [[Tara (Buddhism)|Tārā]], [[Usnisavijaya|Uṣṇīṣavijayā]] and [[Vasudhara|Vasudhārā]].<ref name=":2">Shaw, Miranda (2006). ''Buddhist Goddesses of India,'' pp. 6-7. Princeton University Press.</ref> In the Mahayana, female deities grew in importance, becoming powerful bodhisattva savior figures, liberators associated with powerful mantras (which are also termed ''[[Vidya (philosophy)|vidyās]]'' when a mantra is seen as a feminine power) and [[dharani]]s.<ref name=":2" /> In some cases, such as with [[Prajñāpāramitā Devi]], these goddesses were even called "mother of Buddhas" (Sanskrit: buddhamatr) and bhagavati, indicating they were seen as fully awakened Buddhas themselves.

In the Mahayana traditions, some are considered to be [[bodhisattva]]s (beings advancing on the path to Buddhahood) or full [[Buddhahood|Buddhas]], while others are just [[Deva (Buddhism)|devas]] (worldly deities).<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title={{!}} Wisdom, Compassion and Wrath: The Many Faces of Female Buddhist Deities – Intern Exhibition OnlineRuth Chandler Williamson Gallery |url=https://rcwg.scrippscollege.edu/blog/acquisition-essays/collection-highlights/wisdom-compassion-and-wrath-the-many-faces-of-female-buddhist-deities-intern-exhibition-online/ |access-date=2023-11-16 |website=rcwg.scrippscollege.edu}}</ref> The most important Buddhist female deities in [[East Asian Buddhism]] are the bodhisattva [[Guanyin]] and the "mother of Buddhas" [[Cundi (Buddhism)|Cundi]]. In [[Tibetan Buddhism]], [[Tara (Buddhism)|Tara]] is the most important female deity (often considered to be a full Buddha).<ref name=":3">Shaw, Miranda (2006). ''Buddhist Goddesses of India,'' p. 8. Princeton University Press.</ref>

The tantric ''[[dakini]]'' [[Vajrayogini]] is an important tantric meditation deity ([[yidam]]) in Tibetan [[Vajrayana]], and is also considered to be a female Buddha in her own right.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Female Power in the Himalayas {{!}} Rubin Museum of Art |url=https://rubinmuseum.org/blog/female-power-in-the-himalayas |access-date=2023-11-16 |website=rubinmuseum.org |language=english}}</ref><ref name=":3" /> Tantric Buddhist goddesses were often considered to be fully awakened Buddhas and sometimes are depicted with unique tantric elements, such as skullcups and flaying knives. These tantric deities include [[Simhamukha]], [[Mahāmāyā Tantra|Mahamaya]], [[Vajrayogini]], [[Chinnamunda]] and [[Kurukullā|Kurukulla]].<ref name=":3" />

Mahayana goddesses are often termed "devis" (Sanskrit: devi, "female deity", "goddess", Tibetan: lhamo) or even bhagavani (the female version of [[bhagavan]], indicating Buddhahood).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Subject: Goddess Terminology (Devi) |url=https://www.himalayanart.org/search/set.cfm?setID=6330 |access-date=2023-11-16 |website=www.himalayanart.org}}</ref>

==Abrahamic religions==

===Judaism===
{{Further|The Hebrew Goddess|Shekhinah}}
According to [[Zohar]], [[Lilith]] is the name of [[Adam]]'s first wife, who was created at the same time as Adam. She left [[Adam]] and refused to return to the [[Garden of Eden]] after she mated with [[archangel]] [[Samael]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://istina.rin.ru/eng/ufo/text/663.html|title=Samael & Lilith - Unexplained - IN SEARCH FOR TRUTH|work=rin.ru}}</ref> Her story was greatly developed during the [[Middle Ages]] in the tradition of [[Aggadic midrashim]], the [[Zohar]] and [[Jewish mysticism]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Schwartz|first1=Howard|title=Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism|date=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=0195358708|page=218}}</ref>

The Zohar tradition has influenced [[Jewish mythology|Jewish folklore]], which postulates God created Adam to marry a woman named [[Lilith]]. Outside of Jewish tradition, Lilith was associated with the [[Mother Goddess]], [[Inanna]] – later known as both [[Ishtar]] and [[Asherah]]. In The [[Epic of Gilgamesh]], Gilgamesh was said to have destroyed a tree that was in a sacred grove dedicated to the goddess Ishtar/Inanna/[[Asherah]]. Lilith ran into the wilderness in despair. She then is depicted in the Talmud and [[Kabbalah]] as first wife to God's first creation of man, [[Adam]]. In time, as stated in the Old Testament, the Hebrew followers continued to worship "False Idols", like [[Asherah]], as being as powerful as God. [[Jeremiah]] speaks of his (and God's) displeasure at this behaviour to the Hebrew people about the worship of the goddess in the Old Testament. Lilith is banished from Adam and God's presence when she is discovered to be a "demon" and Eve becomes Adam's wife.

The following female deities are mentioned in prominent Hebrew texts:
* [[Agrat bat Mahlat]]
* [[Anath]]
* [[Asherah]]
* [[Ashima]]
* [[Astarte]]
* [[Eisheth]]
More commonly, modern Judaism acknowledges ''[[Shekhinah]]'' as the feminine aspect of God.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shekhinah: The Divine Feminine |url=https://www.myjewishlearning.com/beliefs/Theology/Kabbalah_and_Mysticism/Modern_Times/Mysticism_Renewed/Jewish_Renewal.shtml |access-date=2024-01-02 |website=My Jewish Learning |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Shekhina {{!}} Divine Presence, Feminine Aspect, Holiness {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Shekhina |access-date=2024-01-02 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> ''Shekhinah'' is considered to be the presence of God on Earth and/or the spirit of the Jewish people, forever trying to reunite with the other elements of God through ''[[tikkun olam]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Freeman |first=Tzvi |date=2014 |title=Who Is Shechinah, And What Does She Want from My Life? |url=https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/2438527/jewish/The-Shechina.htm |access-date=January 2, 2024 |website=Chabad}}</ref> She is also associated with the [[Lunar deity|moon]], the earth, [[David]], and [[Rachel]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ten Sefirot: Shekhinah, Malkhut |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/ten-sefirot-shekhinah-malkhut |access-date=2024-01-02 |website=www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The Shekhinah {{!}} telshemesh.org |url=https://www.telshemesh.org/shekhinah/ |access-date=2024-01-02 |website=www.telshemesh.org}}</ref>

===Christianity===
{{Main|Veneration of Mary in the Catholic Church}}
[[File:Sophia design.jpg|thumb|[[Sophia (wisdom)|Virgin Sophia]] design on a [[Harmony Society]] doorway in [[Harmony, Pennsylvania]], carved by [[Frederick Reichert Rapp]] (1775–1834)]]
The veneration of [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary, the mother of Jesus]], as an especially privileged [[saint]] has continued since the beginning of the [[Catholic Church|Catholic faith]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Redemptoris Mater (25 March 1987) {{!}} John Paul II |url=https://www.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_jp-ii_enc_25031987_redemptoris-mater.html |access-date=2024-01-02 |website=www.vatican.va}}</ref> Mary is venerated as the [[Mother of God]], [[Queen of Heaven]], [[Mother of the Church]], the Blessed Virgin Mary, [[Our Lady, Star of the Sea|Star of the Sea]], and other lofty titles.

[[Marian devotions|Marian devotion]] similar to this kind is also found in [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]] and sometimes in [[Anglicanism]], although not in the majority of denominations of [[Protestantism]].
In some Christian traditions (like the Orthodox tradition), [[Sophia (wisdom)|Sophia]] is the personification of either divine wisdom (or of an archangel) that takes female form. She is mentioned in the first chapter of the [[Book of Proverbs]]. Sophia is identified by some as the wisdom imparting [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]] of the [[Christian Trinity]], whose names in Hebrew—[[Ruach]] and [[Shekhinah]]—are both feminine, and whose symbol of the [[dove]] was commonly associated in the [[Ancient Near East]] with the figure of the [[Mother Goddess]].

In [[mysticism]], [[Gnosticism]], as well as some [[Hellenistic religion]]s, there is a female spirit or goddess named Sophia who is said to embody [[wisdom]] and who is sometimes described as a [[Virginity|virgin]]. In [[Roman Catholicism|Roman Catholic]] [[mysticism]], Saint [[Hildegard of Bingen|Hildegard]] celebrated Sophia as a cosmic figure both in her writing and art. Within the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] tradition in [[England]], the 17th-century mystic [[Universalism|universalist]] and founder of the Philadelphian Society [[Jane Leade]] wrote copious descriptions of her visions and dialogues with the "Virgin Sophia" who, she said, revealed to her the spiritual workings of the universe. Leade was hugely influenced by the theosophical writings of 16th-century [[Germany|German]] Christian mystic [[Jakob Böhme]], who also speaks of Sophia in works such as ''The Way to Christ''.<ref name="Way">{{cite book | title=The Way to Christ| url=http://www.passtheword.org/DIALOGS-FROM-THE-PAST/waychrst.htm| last=Böhme| first=Jacob| author-link=Jacob Böhme|others=William Law (trans.)| date=1622 <!--(1764)-->| publisher=M. Richardson| location=Pater-noster Row, London}}</ref> Jakob Böhme was very influential to a number of [[Christian mysticism|Christian mystics]] and religious leaders, including [[George Rapp]] and the [[Harmony Society]].

==== Latter Day Saint movement ====
The members of most denominations in the [[Latter Day Saint movement]] believe in, although they do not directly worship, a [[Heavenly Mother (Mormonism)|Heavenly Mother]] who is the female counterpart of the [[God in Mormonism|Heavenly Father]]. Together they are referred to as [[Heavenly Parents]]. Adherents also believe that all humans, both women and men, have the potential to become gods through a process known as [[exaltation (Mormonism)|exaltation]].

==Neopaganism==
{{Main|Goddess movement}}
Most [[Modern Paganism|Modern Pagan]] traditions honour one or more goddesses. While some who follow [[Wicca]] believe in a [[Dualistic cosmology|duotheistic]] belief system, consisting of a single goddess and a single god, who in [[hieros gamos]] represent a united whole, others recognise only one or more goddesses.

===Wicca===
{{Further|Goddess (Wicca)|Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)}}
[[File:Triple Goddess Symbol.svg|thumb|The lunar [[Triple Goddess (Neopaganism)|Triple Goddess]] symbol.]]

In [[Wicca]] "the Goddess" is the deity of prime importance, along with her consort the [[Horned God]].
Within many forms of Wicca the Goddess has come to be considered as a universal deity, more in line with her description in the [[Charge of the Goddess]], a key Wiccan text. In this guise she is the "Queen of Heaven", similar to [[Isis]]. She also encompasses and conceives (creates) all life, much like [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]]. Similarly to Isis and certain late Classical conceptions of [[Selene]], she is the summation of all other goddesses, who represent her different names and aspects across the different cultures. The Goddess is often portrayed with strong lunar symbolism, drawing on various cultures and deities such as [[Diana (mythology)|Diana]], [[Hecate]], and [[Isis]], and is often depicted as the Maiden, Mother, and Crone triad popularised by [[Robert Graves]] (see [[#Triple Goddess|Triple Goddess]] below). Many depictions of her also draw strongly on [[Celtic mythology|Celtic]] goddesses. Some Wiccans, or Witches, believe there are many goddesses, and in some forms of Wicca, notably [[Dianic Wicca]], the Goddess alone is worshipped, and the [[Horned God|God]] plays very little (or no) part in their worship and ritual. The first history of Wiccans or Witches (nature based religion) appear on cave paintings that show early humans worshipping a feminine nature deity for luck and harvest (BCE). Later Celtics form a more formal form of Witches (Wiccans) with the triquetra (maiden mother crone), pentagram etc. They have evolved into the strong, nature based, animal rights loving and women rights religion of today.

Goddesses or demi-goddesses appear in sets of three in a number of ancient European pagan mythologies; these include the Greek ''[[Erinyes]]'' (Furies) and ''[[Moirai]]'' (Fates); the Norse ''[[Norns]]''; [[Brighid]] and her two sisters, also called Brighid, from Irish or [[Celtic mythology]].

[[Robert Graves]] popularised the triad of "Maiden" (or "Virgin"), "Mother" and "Crone", and while this idea did not rest on sound scholarship, his poetic inspiration has gained a tenacious hold. Considerable variation in the precise conceptions of these figures exists, as typically occurs in Neopaganism and indeed in pagan religions in general. Some choose to interpret them as three stages in a woman's life, separated by [[menarche]] and [[menopause]]. Others find this too biologically based and rigid, and prefer a freer interpretation, with the Maiden as birth (independent, self-centred, seeking), the Mother as giving birth (interrelated, compassionate nurturing, creating), and the Crone as death and renewal (holistic, remote, unknowable)&nbsp;— and all three erotic and wise.

== Feminism ==
{{Main|Feminist theology}}
[[File:Isis Musei Capitolini MC744.jpg|thumb|Roman, [[Hadrian|Hadrianic period]], statue of [[Isis]] in marble from the [[Musei Capitolini]]]]

===Goddess movement===
{{Main|Goddess movement}}
At least since [[first-wave feminism]] in the United States, there has been interest in analysing religion to see if and how doctrines and practices treat women unfairly, as in [[Elizabeth Cady Stanton]]'s ''[[The Woman's Bible]]''. Again in [[second-wave feminism]] in the U.S., as well as in many European and other countries, religion became the focus of some feminist analysis in Judaism, Christianity, and other religions, and some women turned to ancient goddess religions as an alternative to Abrahamic religions (''Womanspirit Rising'' 1979; ''Weaving the Visions'' 1989). Today both women and men continue to be involved in the [[Goddess movement]] (Christ 1997). The popularity of organisations such as the [[Fellowship of Isis]] attest to the continuing growth of the religion of the Goddess throughout the world.

While much of the attempt at gender equity in mainstream Christianity (Judaism never recognised any gender for God) is aimed at reinterpreting scripture and degenderising language used to name and describe the divine (Ruether, 1984; Plaskow, 1991), there are a growing number of people who identify as Christians or Jews who are trying to integrate goddess imagery into their religions (Kien, 2000; Kidd 1996,"Goddess Christians Yahoo Group").

===Sacred feminine===
{{Main|Thealogy}}
{{Redirect|Divine Feminine|the Mac Miller album|The Divine Feminine}}
The term "sacred feminine" was first coined in the 1970s, in [[New Age]] popularisations of the Hindu [[Shakti]]. Hinduism also worships multitude of goddesses that have their important role and thus in all came to interest for the New Age, feminist, and lesbian feminist movements.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kinsley|first1=David|title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition|date=1988|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=9780520908833|page=[https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins/page/1 1]|edition=1st|url=https://archive.org/details/hindugoddessesvi0000kins|url-access=registration|quote=goddess.|access-date=22 April 2016}}</ref>

==Metaphorical use==
The term "goddess" has also been adapted to poetic and secular use as a complimentary description of a non-mythological woman.<ref>[[OED]]: "Applied to a woman. one's goddess: the woman whom one 'worships' or devotedly admires."{{Incomplete short citation|date=April 2016}}</ref> The [[OED]] notes 1579 as the date of the earliest attestation of such figurative use, in ''[[Laura de Noves|Lauretta]] the diuine [[Petrarch]]es Goddesse''.

[[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] had several of his male characters address female characters as goddesses, including Demetrius to [[Helena (A Midsummer Night's Dream)|Helena]] in ''[[A Midsummer Night's Dream]]'' ("O Helen, goddess, nymph, perfect, divine!"), Berowne to Rosaline in ''[[Love's Labour's Lost]]'' ("A woman I forswore; but I will prove, Thou being a goddess, I forswore not thee"), and Bertram to Diana in ''[[All's Well That Ends Well]]''. Pisanio also compares Imogen to a goddess to describe her composure under duress in ''[[Cymbeline]]''.

==See also==
{{portal|Religion}}
{{Div col|colwidth=}}
* [[Anima (Jung)]]
* [[Gavari]]
* [[Gender of God]]
* [[Goddess movement]]
* [[Heavenly Mother]]
* [[List of goddesses]]
* [[Matriarchy]]
* [[Mother goddess]]
* [[Ochre]]
* [[Oshun]]
* [[Sophia (wisdom)|Sophia]]
* ''[[The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory]]''
* ''[[The White Goddess]]''
* [[Tree deity]]
* [[Venus figurines]]
{{Div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*Beavis, Mary Ann and Helen Hye-Sook Hwang (eds). [https://www.magobooks.com/textbooks/goddesses-in-myth-history-and-culture/ ''Goddesses in Myth, History and Culture''], Mago Books, 2018. {{ISBN| 1976331021}}
* Dexter, Miriam Robbins, and [[Victor Mair]] (2010). ''Sacred Display: Divine and Magical Female Figures of Eurasia''. [[Cambria Press]].
* Barnhart, Robert K (1995). ''The Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology: the Origins of American English Words''. [[HarperCollins]]. {{ISBN|0-06-270084-7}}
* Gorshunova . Olga V.(2008), ''Svjashennye derevja Khodzhi Barora…'', ('' Sacred Trees of Khodzhi Baror: Phytolatry and the Cult of Female Deity in Central Asia'') in Etnoragraficheskoe Obozrenie, n° 1, pp.&nbsp;71–82. {{ISSN|0869-5415}}. {{in lang|ru}}.
* {{Cite book|url = http://roshangaran-pub.ir/bookshow/B968846641|title = Goddesses in Iranian Culture and Mythology|date = 2014|publisher = Tehran: Roshangaran va Motale’at-e Zanan Publications|last = Taheri|first = Sadreddin|isbn = 9789641940821}}

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{{Theology}}
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[[Category:Deities]]
[[Category:Goddesses| ]]
[[Category:Gender and religion]]
[[Category:Jungian archetypes]]
[[Category:Pantheism]]