View source for Forced displacement

{{short description|Coerced movement of a person or persons away from their home or home region}}
{{Immigration sidebar}}
{{Infobox ethnic group
| group            = Forcibly displaced people
| population       = 108.4 million<ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Trends Report 2022 |url=https://www.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/2023-06/global-trends-report-2022.pdf |website=UNHCR global}}</ref>
| total_year       = 2022
| region1          = [[Refugee]]s
| pop1             = 34.6 million
| region2          = [[Internally displaced people]]
| pop2             = 57.3 million
| region3          = [[Asylum seeker]]s
| pop3             = 2.9 million
}}

'''Forced displacement''' (also '''forced migration''' or '''forced relocation''') is an involuntary or coerced movement of a person or people away from their home or home region. The [[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]] defines ''''forced displacement'''' as follows: displaced "as a result of persecution, conflict, generalized violence or [[human rights]] violations".<ref name="UNHCRtrends">{{cite web |url=http://unhcr.org/556725e69.html |title=UNHCR Global Trends –Forced Displacement in 2014 |publisher=UNHCR |date=18 June 2013
|access-date=25 May 2020}}</ref>

A forcibly displaced person may also be referred to as a "'''forced migrant'''", a "'''displaced person'''" ('''DP'''), or, if displaced within the home country, an "[[internally displaced person]]" (IDP). While some displaced persons may be considered [[refugee]]s, the latter term specifically refers to such displaced persons who are receiving legally-defined protection and are recognized as such by their country of residence and/or [[international organization]]s.

[[File:20151030_Syrians_and_Iraq_refugees_arrive_at_Skala_Sykamias_Lesvos_Greece_2.jpg|alt=Syrian and Iraqi migrants arriving in [[Lesbos]], [[Greece]], in 2015 seeking refuge.|thumb|Syrian and Iraqi migrants arriving in Lesbos, Greece, in 2015 seeking refuge.]]

Forced displacement has gained attention in international discussions and policy making since the [[European migrant crisis]]. This has since resulted in a greater consideration of the impacts of forced migration on affected regions outside Europe. Various international, regional, and local organizations are developing and implementing approaches to both prevent and mitigate the impact of forced migration in the home regions as well as the receiving or destination regions.<ref name=":82">{{Cite report|title=High Commissioner's Dialogue on the Root Causes of Forced Displacement| date=2018 | publisher=Brill |doi = 10.1163/2210-7975_hrd-9811-2015004}}</ref><ref name=":72">Cone, Jason, And Marc Bosch Bonacasa. 2018. “Invisible War: Central America’s Forgotten Humanitarian Crisis.” Brown Journal of World Affairs 24 (2): 225–39.</ref><ref name="USAID">{{Cite web|url=https://www.usaid.gov/who-we-are/mission-vision-values|title=Mission, Vision and Values|date=2018-02-16|website=[[USAID]]|access-date=2019-10-24|archive-date=2020-02-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200202235759/https://www.usaid.gov/who-we-are/mission-vision-values|url-status=dead}}</ref> Additionally, some collaboration efforts are made to gather evidence in order to seek prosecution of those involved in causing events of human-made forced migration.<ref name="UNHCR2">{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/4e0344b344.pdf|title=Legal and Protection Policy Research Series: Forced Displacement and International Crimes|author=Guido Acquaviva|date=June 2011|publisher=UNHCR|access-date=11 April 2018}}</ref> An estimated 100 million people around the world were forcibly displaced by the end of 2022, with the majority coming from the [[Global South]].<ref>{{cite news |title=UNHCR: A record 100 million people forcibly displaced worldwide |url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/05/1118772 |work=UN News |date=23 May 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Number of displaced people passes 100m for the first time, says UN |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2022/may/23/total-displaced-people-now-at-staggering-milestone-of-100m-says-un |work=The Guardian |date=23 May 2022}}</ref>

[[File:Karte Entkulakisierung.png|thumb|General deportation currents of the [[dekulakization]] the Soviet Union, 1930–1931]]

== Definitions ==
[[Government]]s, [[Non-governmental organization|NGOs]], other [[international organization]]s and social scientists have defined forced displacement in a variety of ways. They have generally agreed that it is the forced removal or relocation of a person from their environment and associated connections. It can involve different types of movements, such as flight (from fleeing), [[Emergency evacuation|evacuation]], and [[population transfer]].

* The [[International Organization for Migration]] defines a forced migrant as any person migrating to "escape persecution, conflict, repression, natural and human-made disasters, ecological degradation, or other situations that endanger their lives, freedom or livelihood".<ref name="forcedmigration.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.forcedmigration.org/about/whatisfm/what-is-forced-migration|title=What is forced migration? – Forced Migration Online|website=www.forcedmigration.org|access-date=2017-01-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801223932/http://www.forcedmigration.org/about/whatisfm/what-is-forced-migration|archive-date=2017-08-01|url-status=dead}}</ref> 
* According to [[UNESCO]], forced displacement is "the forced movement of people from their locality or environment and occupational activities," with its leading cause being [[armed conflict]].<ref name=":62">{{Cite web|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/displaced-person-displacement/|title=Displaced Person / Displacement {{!}} United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization|website=www.unesco.org|access-date=2019-10-24|archive-date=October 24, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024020537/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/social-and-human-sciences/themes/international-migration/glossary/displaced-person-displacement/}}</ref>
* According to researcher Alden Speare, even movement under immediate threat to life contains a voluntary element as long as an option exists going into hiding, or attempting to avoid persecution. According to him "migration can be considered to be involuntary only when a person is physically transported from a country and has no opportunity to escape from those transporting him [or her]." This viewpoint has come under scrutiny when considering direct and indirect factors which may leave migrants with little to no choice in their decisions, such as imminent threats to life and livelihood.<ref>{{Citation|last=Martin|first=Susan F.|s2cid=158545246|chapter=Forced Migration and Refugee Policy|date=2017-12-20|pages=271–303|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=9783319671451|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-67147-5_14|title=Demography of Refugee and Forced Migration}}</ref>

=== Distinctions between the different concepts ===
{{further|Refugee law|Refugee}}

* A migrant who fled their home because of economic hardship is an [[economic migrant]], and strictly speaking, not a displaced person.
* If the displaced person was forced out of their home because of economically driven projects, such as the [[Three Gorges Dam]] in China, the situation is referred to as ''[[development-induced displacement]]''.
* A displaced person who left their home region because of political persecution or violence, but did not cross an international border, commonly falls into the looser category of ''[[internally displaced person]]'' (IDP), subject to more tenuous international protection. In 1998, the [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights|UN Commission on Human Rights]] published the [[Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement]], defining internally displaced people as: "persons or groups of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or leave their homes or places of habitual residence in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights, or natural or human-made disasters and who have not crossed an internationally recognized State border."
* If the displaced person has crossed an international border and falls under one of the [[Refugee law|relevant international legal instruments]], they may be able to apply for asylum and can become a [[refugee]] if the application is successful.<ref>[http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/o_c_ref.htm "U.N. Convention relating to status of Refugees"]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309151637/http://www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/o_c_ref.htm|date=March 9, 2008}}. [[United Nations High Commission on Human Rights]].</ref> Although often incorrectly used as a synonym for ''displaced person'', the term ''[[refugee]]'' refers specifically to a legally-recognized status that has access to specific legal protections. Loose application of the term ''refugee'' may cause confusion between the general descriptive class of displaced persons and those who can legally be defined as refugees.
* Some forced migrants may, due to the country of residence's legal system, be unable to apply for asylum in that country. Thus, even though they meet the [[Refugee Law|international law definition of a refugee]] they are unable to claim [[Right of asylum|asylum]] and become recognised by their host country as refugees.
* A displaced person crossing an international border without permission from the country they are entering or without subsequently applying for asylum may be considered an [[illegal immigrant]].
* Forced migrants are always either IDPs or displaced people, as both of these terms do not require a legal framework and the fact that they left their homes is sufficient. The distinction between the terms ''displaced person'' and ''forced migrant'' is minor; however, the term ''displaced person'' has an important historic context (e.g. [[World War II]]).

==== History of the term ''displaced person'' ====

The term ''displaced person'' (DP) was first widely used during [[World War II]], following the subsequent refugee outflows from [[Eastern Europe]].<ref>Mark Wyman (1998). ''DPs: Europe's Displaced Persons, 1945–1951''. Cornell University Press (reprint). {{ISBN|0-8014-8542-8}}.</ref> In this context, ''DP'' specifically referred to an individual removed from their native country as a [[refugee]], [[prison]]er or a [[unfree labour|slave laborer]]. Most war victims, political refugees, and DPs of the immediate post-[[Second World]] War period were Ukrainians, Poles, other [[Slavs]], and citizens of the Baltic states (Lithuanians, Latvians, and Estonians) who refused to return to Soviet-dominated Eastern Europe.
A. J. Jaffe claimed that the term was originally coined by [[Eugene M. Kulischer]].<ref>A. J. Jaffe (April 1962). [https://www.jstor.org/pss/3348648 "Notes on the Population Theory of Eugene M. Kulischer". In: ''The Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly'', Vol. 40, No. 2. pp. 187–206.]</ref> The meaning has significantly broadened in the past half-century.

==Causes and examples==
Bogumil Terminski distinguishes two general categories of displacement:

* Displacement of risk: mostly conflict-induced displacement, deportations and disaster-induced displacement.
* Displacement of adaptation: associated with voluntary migration, development-induced displacement and environmentally-induced displacement.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Risks and rights : the causes, consequences, and challenges of development-induced displacement|last=Robinson, W. Courtland|date=2003|publisher=The Brookings Institution|oclc=474499753}}</ref>

=== Natural causes ===
Forced displacement may directly result from [[natural disaster]]s and indirectly from the subsequent impact on [[infrastructure]], food and water access, and local/regional economies. Displacement may be temporary or permanent, depending on the scope of the disaster and the area's recovery capabilities. [[Climate change]] is increasing the frequency of major natural disasters, possibly placing a greater number of populations in situations of forced displacement.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Jayawardhan|first=Shweta|date=2017|title=Vulnerability and Climate Change Induced Human Displacement|journal=Consilience|issue=17|pages=103–142|issn=1948-3074|jstor=26188784}}</ref><ref name=":02">{{Citation|last=McAdam|first=Jane|title=Climate Change, Forced Migration, and International Law|date=2012-02-01|pages=237–266|chapter=Overarching Normative Principles|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199587087.003.0010|isbn=9780199587087|author-link=Jane McAdam}}</ref> Also [[crop failure]]s due to [[blight]] and/or [[Pest (organism)|pests]] fall within this category by affecting people's access to food. Additionally, the term [[environmental refugee]] represents people who are forced to leave their traditional habitat because of environmental factors which negatively impact their livelihood, or even environmental disruption i.e. biological, physical or chemical change in ecosystem.<ref name=":22">Terminski, Bogumil. Environmentally-Induced Displacement: Theoretical Frameworks and Current Challenges, University de Liege, 2012</ref> Migration can also occur as a result of slow-onset [[climate change]], such as [[desertification]] or [[sea-level rise]], of deforestation or [[land degradation]].

==== Examples of forced displacement caused by natural disasters ====

[[File:Damage in Nias from the December 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. Indonesia 2005. Photo- AusAID (10691224953).jpg|thumb|Damage to residence in Nias, Indonesia from the December 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami]]
* [[2024 LA Fires]]: LA Fires displacing approximately 200,000 people.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.worldvision.org/disaster-relief-news-stories/california-fires-facts-faqs-how-to-help | title=California fires: Facts, FAQs, and how to help | date=3 February 2025 }}</ref>
* [[2004 Indian Ocean tsunami]]: Resulting from a 9.1 earthquake off the coast of North Sumatra, the Indian Ocean Tsunami claimed over 227,898 lives, heavily damaging coastlines throughout the Indian Ocean.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nctr.pmel.noaa.gov/indo_1204.html|publisher=NOAA Center for Tsunami Research |title=Tsunami Event - December 26, 2004 The Indian Ocean Tsunami|access-date=2019-10-23}}</ref> As a result, over 1.7 million people were displaced, mostly from Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and India.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Internationally displaced people|url=https://www2.gwu.edu/~sigur/assets/docs/scap/SCAP25-Tsunami2.pdf|access-date=2022-01-03}}</ref>
*[[Hurricane Katrina]] (2005): Striking New Orleans, Louisiana, in late August 2005, Hurricane Katrina inflicted approximately US$125 billion in damages, standing as one of the costliest storms in United States history.<ref>Blake, Eric S, and Landsea, Christopher W. (August 2011). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110929015606/http://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/nws-nhc-6.pdf https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/pdf/nws-nhc-6.pdf "The Deadliest, Costliest, and Most Intense United  States Tropical Cyclones from 1851 to 2010 (And Other Frequently Requested Hurricane Facts)"].{{Dead link|date=January 2022}} ''NOAA Technical Memorandum''.</ref> As a result of the damage inflicted by Katrina, over one million people were internally displaced. One month after the disaster, over 600,000 remained displaced. Immediately following the disaster, New Orleans lost approximately half of its population, with many residents displaced to cities such as Houston, Dallas, Baton Rouge, and Atlanta. According to numerous studies, displacement disproportionally impacted Louisiana's poorer populations, specifically African Americans.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Camprubí|first=Alejandra Torres|date=November 2013|title=Climate Change, Forced Displacement and International Law, by Jane McAdam, published by Oxford University Press, 2012, 344pp., £74.00, hardback |type=book review|journal=Review of European, Comparative & International Environmental Law|volume=22|issue=3|pages=373–375|doi=10.1111/reel.12036_2|bibcode=2013RECIE..22..373C }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Sastry|first1=Narayan|last2=Gregory|first2=Jesse|date=2014-06-01|title=The Location of Displaced New Orleans Residents in the Year After Hurricane Katrina|journal=Demography|volume=51|issue=3|pages=753–775|doi=10.1007/s13524-014-0284-y|issn=1533-7790|pmc=4048822|pmid=24599750}}</ref>
*[[2011 East Africa drought]]: Failed rains in Somalia, Kenya, and Ethiopia led to high livestock and crop losses, driving majority pastoralist populations to surrounding areas in search of accessible food and water.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Famine thresholds surpassed in three new areas of southern Somalia|url=https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/FSNAU_FEWSNET_020811press%20release_030811_final.pdf|access-date=2022-01-03}}</ref> In addition to seeking food and water, local populations' migration was motivated by an inability to maintain traditional lifestyles.<ref name=":13"/> According to researchers,{{which|date=October 2023}} although partly influenced by local armed conflict, the East African drought stands as an example of climate change impacts.

=== Human-made causes ===
Human-made displacement describes forced displacement caused by political entities, criminal organizations, conflicts, human-made environmental disasters, development, etc. Although impacts of natural disasters and blights/pests may be exacerbated by human mismanagement, human-made causes refer specifically to those initiated by humans. According to [[UNESCO]], armed conflict stands as the most common cause behind forced displacement, reinforced by regional studies citing political and armed conflict as the largest attributing factors to migrant outflows from Latin America, Africa, and Asia.<ref name=":62"/><ref>{{Cite web|title=NOW WHAT? THE INTERNATIONAL RESPONSE TO INTERNAL DISPLACEMENT IN THE DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO|url=https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/The-International-Response-to-Internal-Displacement-in-the-DRC-December-2014.pdf|access-date=2022-01-03}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Fiddian-Qasmiyeh|first1=Elena|title=Forced Migration in South-East Asia and East Asia|date=2014-06-01|work=The Oxford Handbook of Refugee and Forced Migration Studies|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=9780199652433|last2=Loescher|first2=Gil|last3=Long|first3=Katy|last4=Sigona|first4=Nando|last5=McConnahie|first5=Kirsten|doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199652433.013.0048}}</ref><ref name=":42">Salazar, Luz María, and José Antonio Álvarez Lobato. 2018. “Violencia y Desplazamientos Forzados En México.” Revista Cuicuilco 25 (73): 19–37.</ref>

==== Examples of forced displacement caused by criminal activity ====

* Displacement in [[Mexico]] due to [[Drug cartel|cartel]] violence: Throughout Mexico, drug cartel, paramilitary, and self-defense group violence drives internal and external displacement.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.refugeesinternational.org/reports/2015/10/13/mexicos-unseen-victims|title=Mexico's Unseen Victims|website=Refugees International|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref><ref name=":42"/> According to a comprehensive, mixed methodology study by Salazar and Álvarez Lobato, families fled their homes as a means of survival, hoping to escape homicide, extortion, and potential kidnapping. Using a collection of available data and existing studies, the total number of displaced persons between 2006 and 2012 was approximately 740 thousands.<ref name=":42"/>
*Displacement in [[Central America]] due to cartel/gang violence: A major factor behind US immigrant crises in the early 21st century (such as the [[2014 American immigration crisis|2014 immigrant crisis]]), rampant gang violence in the [[Northern Triangle of Central America|Northern Triangle]], combined with corruption and low economic opportunities, has forced many to flee their country in pursuit of stability and greater opportunity. Homicide rates in countries such as [[El Salvador]] and [[Honduras]] reached some of the highest in the world, with El Salvador peaking at [[List of countries by intentional homicide rate|103 homicides per 100,000 people]].<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal|last=Cantor|first=David James|date=2016|title=As deadly as armed conflict? Gang violence and forced displacement in the Northern Triangle of Central America|journal=Agenda Internacional|volume=23|issue=34|pages=77–97|doi=10.18800/agenda.201601.003|doi-access=free}}</ref> Contributing factors include extortion, territorial disputes, and forced gang recruitment, resulting in some estimates of approximately 500,000 people displaced annually.<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":72"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Jiménez|first=Everardo Víctor|date=2017-01-18|title=La violencia en el Triángulo Norte de Centroamérica: una realidad que genera desplazamiento|journal=Papel Político|volume=21|issue=1|pages=167|doi=10.11144/javeriana.papo21-1.vtnc|issn=2145-0617|doi-access=free}}</ref>
*Displacement in [[Colombia]] due to conflict and drug-related violence: According to researchers Mojica and Eugenia, Medellín, Colombia around 2013 exemplified crime and violence-induced forced displacement, standing as one of the most popular destinations for [[IDPs]] while also producing IDPs of its own. Rural citizens fled from organized criminal violence, with the majority pointing to direct threats as the main driving force, settling in Medellín in pursuit of safety and greater opportunity. Within Medellín, various armed groups battled for territorial control, forcing perceived opponents from their homes and pressuring residents to abandon their livelihoods, among other methods. All in all, criminal violence forced Colombians to abandon their possessions, way of life, and social ties in pursuit of safety.<ref>Sánchez Mojica, Beatriz Eugenia. 2013. “A City Torn Apart: Forced Displacement in Medellín, Colombia.” International Law, no. 22 (January): 179–210.</ref>

==== Examples of forced displacement caused by political conflict ====
* [[1949–1956 Palestinian exodus]]<ref>Ghada Karmi (Editor), Eugene Cotran (Editor) (28 Jan 1999) "The Palestinian Exodus: 1948-1998" Ithaca Press {{ISBN|0-86372-244-X}}</ref>
* [[Exodus of Turks from Bulgaria (1950-1951)|1950-1951 exodus of Turks from Bulgaria]]: according to some, caused because the Turkish support of the USA during the [[Korean War]]. Communist ideologies, Islamophobia and Anti-Turkism also played a role.
*[[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world]]
* [[Vietnam War]]: Throughout the Vietnam War and in the years preceding it, many populations were forced out of Vietnam and the surrounding countries as a result of armed conflict and/or persecution by their governments, such as the [[Socialist Republic of Vietnam]]. This event is referred to as the [[Indochina refugee crisis]], with millions displaced across Asia, Australia, Europe, and North America.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wain|first=Barry|date=1979|title=The Indochina Refugee Crisis|journal=Foreign Affairs|volume=58|issue=1|pages=160–180|doi=10.2307/20040344|issn=0015-7120|jstor=20040344}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hein|first=Jeremy|date=1993-08-01|title=Refugees, Immigrants, and the State|journal=Annual Review of Sociology|volume=19|issue=1|pages=43–59|doi=10.1146/annurev.so.19.080193.000355|issn=0360-0572}}</ref>
*[[Salvadoran Civil War]]: Throughout and after the 12-year conflict between the Salvadoran government and the [[Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front|FMLN]], Salvadorans faced forced displacement as a result of combat, persecution, and deteriorating quality of life/access to socioeconomic opportunities. Overall, one in four Salvadorans were internally and externally displaced (over one million people).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Truth Commission: El Salvador|url=https://www.usip.org/publications/1992/07/truth-commission-el-salvador|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223015049/https://www.usip.org/publications/1992/07/truth-commission-el-salvador|url-status=dead|archive-date=February 23, 2017|access-date=2022-01-03|website=United States Institute of Peace|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Annual Report 1989–1990 – Table of Contents|url=http://www.cidh.org/annualrep/89.90eng/TOC.htm|access-date=2022-01-03|publisher=[[Inter-American Commission on Human Rights]] }}</ref>
* [[2021 Myanmar coup d'état]]: Since the coup d’état of 1 February 2021, the Burmese military's ascendancy into power has resulted in widespread chaos and violence, aggravated by the refusal of large sections of the public to accept a military regime given the country's experiences during the second half of the 20th and early years of the 21st century. As a result, many in the public sector have initiated strikes,<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-04-09|title=Myanmar on the Brink of State Failure|url=https://www.crisisgroup.org/asia/south-east-asia/myanmar/myanmar-brink-state-failure|access-date=2022-01-03|website=Crisis Group|language=en}}</ref> and the country has seen elevated levels of forced displacement, both internally displaced persons (IDPs) (208,000 since 1 February 2021) and refugees fleeing abroad (an estimated 22,000 since 1 February 2021).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Myanmar Emergency Update (as of 15 September 2021) – Myanmar|url=https://reliefweb.int/report/myanmar/myanmar-emergency-update-15-september-2021|access-date=2022-01-03|website=ReliefWeb|date=21 September 2021 |language=en}}</ref> The particular political conflict causing the displacement has been flagged as symptomatic of that of a state on the brink of collapse. Two key indicators of this that have been highlighted are firstly, that levels of security have been severely reduced to the point where citizens are no longer protected from violence by the state; and secondly, goods and services are not being reliably supplied to citizens either by the ousted government or by the new military leadership, primarily as a result of the instability created and the strikes triggered.<ref>Cojanu, V. and Popescu, A. I. (2007). "Analysis of Failed States: Some Problems of Definition and Measurement". ''The Romanian Economic Journal'' 25. pp.113–132.</ref> These internal problems are further reflected by the withdrawal of international recognition by both governmental and non-governmental bodies.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-06-19|title=Myanmar coup: UN calls for arms embargo against military|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-57536032|access-date=2022-01-03}}</ref>
*[[Gaza Strip evacuations]], since the start of the [[Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip]] on 27 October 2023, over   85% of the population has been displaced.<ref>{{Cite web |last=International |first=Miyamoto |date=2024-04-30 |title=Structural Damage Assessment & Shelter Needs in Gaza Strip |url=https://miyamotointernational.com/report-remote-sensing-structural-damage-assessment-to-determine-probable-shelter-needs-in-the-gaza-strip/ |access-date=2025-03-29 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Examples of forced displacement caused by human-made environmental disasters ====

* [[2019 Amazon rainforest wildfires]]: Although human-made fires are a normal part of Amazonian agriculture, the 2019 dry season saw an internationally noted increase in their rate of occurrence. The rapidly spreading fires, combined with efforts from agricultural and logging companies, has forced Brazil's indigenous populations off their native lands.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://theintercept.com/2019/07/06/brazil-amazon-rainforest-indigenous-conservation-agribusiness-ranching/|title=Rainforest on Fire: On the Front Lines of Bolsonaro's War on the Amazon, Brazil's Forest Communities Fight Against Climate Catastrophe|last=Zaitchik|first=Alexander|date=2019-07-06|website=The Intercept|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/08/amazon-fires-indigenous-lands/596908/|title=The Land Battle Behind the Fires in the Amazon|last=Sims|first=Shannon|date=2019-08-27|website=The Atlantic|access-date=2019-10-24}}</ref>
*[[Chernobyl disaster]]: A nuclear meltdown on April 26, 1986, near [[Pripyat|Pripyat, Ukraine]] contaminated the city and surrounding areas with harmful levels of radiation, forcing the displacement of over 100,000 people.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Nuclear Disasters & The Built Environment : a Report to the Royal Institute of British Architects.|last=Steadman, Philip.|date=2014|publisher=Elsevier Science|isbn=9781483106229|oclc=1040599457}}</ref>
* [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine of Ireland]]: Between 1845 and 1849, potato blight, exacerbated by policy decisions and mismanagement by the U.K. government, caused millions of Irish people, largely potato-dependent tenant farmers, to starve or eventually flee the country. Over one million perished from subsequent famine and disease, and another million fled the country, reducing the overall Irish population by at least a quarter.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Kelly|first1=M.|last2=Fotheringham|first2=A. Stewart|date=2011-07-01|title=The online atlas of Irish population change 1841–2002: A new resource for analysing national trends and local variations in Irish population dynamics|journal=Irish Geography|volume=44|issue=2–3|pages=215–244|doi=10.1080/00750778.2011.664806|issn=0075-0778}}</ref>

==== Other human-made displacement ====
* [[Human trafficking]]/[[Human smuggling|smuggling]]: Migrants displaced through deception or coercion with purpose of their exploitation fall under this category. Due to its clandestine nature, the data on such type of forced migration are limited. A disparity also exists between the data for male trafficking (such as for labor in agriculture, construction etc.) and female trafficking (such as for sex work or domestic service), with more data available for males. The [[International Labour Organization]] considers trafficking an offense against labor protection, denying companies from leveraging migrants as a labor resource. ILO's Multilateral Framework includes principle no. 11, recommending that "Governments should formulate and implement, in consultation with the social partners, measures to prevent abusive practices, migrant smuggling and people trafficking; they should also work towards preventing irregular labor migration."[[File:Umschlagplatz_in_Warsaw_August_1942.jpg|thumb|Jews forcibly displaced by the Nazi regime during Germany's WWII occupation of Poland, loaded onto trains for transport to concentration camps.]]
*[[Slavery]]: Historically, [[slavery]] has led to the displacement of individuals for [[Forced labour|forced labor]], with the [[Middle Passage]] of the 15th through 19th century [[Atlantic slave trade]] standing as a notable example. Of the 20 million Africans captured for the trade, half died in their forced march to the African coast, and another ten to twenty percent died on slave ships carrying them from Africa to the Americas.<ref name=":3">{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part1/1p277.html|title=The Middle Passage|author=PBS-WGBH|date=1999|work=Africans in America|access-date=7 November 2016}}</ref>
*[[Ethnic cleansing]]: The systematic removal of ethnic or religious groups from a territory with the intent of making it ethnically homogeneous. Examples include the Catholic removal of [[Salzburg Protestants]], the removal of Jewish people during the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]], and the deportation of North American indigenous peoples (e.g., [[Trail of Tears]]). 
* Suppressing political opposition: For example, the [[forced settlements in the Soviet Union]] and [[population transfer in the Soviet Union]] including [[deportation of the Crimean Tatars]], [[deportation of the Chechens and Ingush]], [[deportation of Koreans in the Soviet Union]], [[deportation of the Soviet Greeks]], and [[deportations of the Ingrian Finns]]
* Aligning ethnic composition with artificial political border: For example [[flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)]], [[Polish population transfers (1944–1946)]], and [[Operation Vistula]]
* [[Colonization]]: For example, the British governments transportation of [[Convicts in Australia]], [[American Colonization Society]] and others' attempt to create a country for [[African Americans]] in [[Africa]] as [[Liberia]], Japanese settlers in [[Manchukuo]] following [[Japanese invasion of Manchuria]], and the Chinese military settlement of [[Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps]] in [[Xinjiang]].

== Conditions faced by displaced persons ==
[[File:Ursula (detention_center) 180617-H-BP911-641 (41979746295).jpg|thumb|Children of undocumented immigrants from Latin America to the United States detained in the Ursula Detention Center, [[McAllen, Texas]], June 2017]]
Displaced persons face adverse conditions when taking the decision to leave, traveling to a destination, and sometimes upon reaching their destination.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Living Conditions of displaced persons and host communities in urban Goma, DRC|url=https://www.nrc.no/globalassets/pdf/reports/living-conditions-of-displaced-persons-and-host-communities-in-urban-goma-drc.pdf|access-date=2022-01-03}}</ref><ref name=":102">{{Cite journal|last1=von Werthern|first1=M.|last2=Robjant|first2=K.|last3=Chui|first3=Z.|last4=Schon|first4=R.|last5=Ottisova|first5=L.|last6=Mason|first6=C.|last7=Katona|first7=C.|date=2018-12-06|title=The impact of immigration detention on mental health: a systematic review|journal=BMC Psychiatry|volume=18|issue=1|pages=382|doi=10.1186/s12888-018-1945-y|issn=1471-244X|pmc=6282296|pmid=30522460 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":112">{{Cite journal|last1=Hoschl|first1=C.|last2=Ruiz|first2=P.|last3=Casas|first3=M.|last4=Musalek|first4=M.|last5=Gaebel|first5=W.|last6=Vavrusova|first6=L.|date=2008-04-01|title=The impact of migration on mental health and mental illness|url=https://www.europsy-journal.com/article/S0924-9338(08)00160-0/abstract|journal=European Psychiatry|language=en|volume=23|pages=S42|doi=10.1016/j.eurpsy.2008.01.154|s2cid=145557963|issn=0924-9338|url-access=subscription}}{{Dead link|date=July 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> Displaced persons are often forced to place their lives at risk, travel in inhumane conditions, and may be exposed to exploitation and abuse. These risk factors may increase through the involvement of smugglers and human traffickers, who may exploit them for illegal activities such as drug/weapons trafficking, forced labor, or sex work. The states where migrants seek protection may consider them a threat to national security.<ref name="unhcr.org">{{Cite web |title=UNHCR Resettlement Handbook |url=http://www.unhcr.org/46f7c0ee2.pdf |access-date=16 October 2023 |website=www.unhcr.org}}</ref> Displaced persons may also seek the assistance of [[human smugglers]] (such as [[Coyote (person)|coyotes]] in Latin America) throughout their journey.<ref name=":132">https://www.clingendael.org/pub/2018/caught-in-the-middle/1-migrants-journeys/ "Migrants' Journeys – Increased Hardship and Incremental Human Rights Abuses: Caught in the Middle". Accessed November 15, 2019.</ref>{{full citation needed|date=October 2023}}<ref name=":142">{{Cite book|title=Global human smuggling : comparative perspectives|last1=Kyle |first1=David |last2=Koslowski |first2=Rey|date=2011|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|isbn=978-1-4214-0198-0|oclc=810545259}}</ref> Given the illegal nature of smuggling, smugglers may take use dangerous methods to reach their destination without capture, exposing displaced persons to harm and sometimes resulting in deaths.<ref name=":132"/> Examples include abandonment, exposure to exploitation, dangerous transportation conditions, and death from exposure to harsh environments.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-37163217|title=Austria's migrant disaster: Why did 71 die?|last1=Bell|first1=Bethany|date=2016-08-25|access-date=2019-11-21|last2=Thorpe|first2=Nick|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":142"/><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2018/oct/11/migrants-abandoned-desert-smugglers-arizona-desert|title=Smugglers abandon more than 1,400 migrants in Arizona desert since August|agency=Associated Press|date=2018-10-12|work=The Guardian|access-date=2019-11-21|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/04/world/europe/scores-die-in-shipwreck-off-sicily.html|title=Migrants Die as Burning Boat Capsizes Off Italy|last1=Yardley|first1=Jim|date=2013-10-03|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-11-21|last2=Povoledo|first2=Elisabetta|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

In most instances of forced migration across borders, migrants do not possess the required documentation for legal travel. The states where migrants seek protection may consider them a threat to national security.<ref name="unhcr.org"/> As a result, displaced persons may face [[Detention (confinement)|detainment]] and [[Criminal justice|criminal punishment]], as well as physical and [[psychological trauma]]. Various studies focusing on migrant health have specifically linked migration to increased likelihood of depression, anxiety, and other psychological troubles.<ref name=":102"/><ref name=":112"/> For example, the United States has faced criticism for its recent policies regarding migrant detention, specifically the detention of children. Critics point to poor detention conditions, unstable contact with parents, and high potential for long-term trauma as reasons for seeking policy changes.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apnews.com/015702afdb4d4fbf85cf5070cd2c6824|title=US held record number of migrant children in custody in 2019|date=2019-11-12|website=AP NEWS|access-date=2019-11-21}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/07/1041991|title=UN rights chief 'appalled' by US border detention conditions, says holding migrant children may violate international law|date=2019-07-08|website=UN News|language=en|access-date=2019-11-21}}</ref> Displaced persons risk greater poverty than before displacement, financial vulnerability, and potential social disintegration, in addition to other risks related to human rights, culture, and quality of life.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book|title=Refugees and Forced Displacement: International Security, Human Vulnerability and the State|editor-last=Newman |editor-first=Edward |date=January 2005|publisher=United Nations Publications|isbn=9789280810868|oclc=697762571}}</ref> Forced displacement has varying impacts, dependent on the means through which one was forcibly displaced, their geographic location, their protected status, and their ability to personally recover. Under the most common form of displacement, armed conflict, individuals often lose possession of their assets upon fleeing and possible upon arrival to a new country, where they can also face cultural, social, and economic discontinuity.<ref name=":62" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fiala|first=Nathan|s2cid=1559276|date=2015-09-18|title=Economic Consequences of Forced Displacement|journal=The Journal of Development Studies|volume=51|issue=10|pages=1275–1293|doi=10.1080/00220388.2015.1046446|issn=0022-0388|url=http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/record/290083/files/working_papers_3_1248973232.pdf}}</ref>

== Responses to forced displacement ==

=== International response ===
Responses to situations of forced displacement vary across regional and international levels, with each type of forced displacement demonstrating unique characteristics and the need for a considerate approach. At the international level, international organizations (e.g. the [[UNHCR]]), NGOs ([[Médecins Sans Frontières|Doctors without Borders]]), and country governments ([[United States Agency for International Development|USAID]]) may work towards directly or indirectly ameliorating these situations.<ref name=":82"/> Means may include establishing internationally recognized protections, providing clinics to migrant camps, and supplying resources to populations.<ref name=":72"/><ref name="USAID"/> According to researchers such as Francis Deng, as well as international organizations such as the [[United Nations|UN]], an increase in [[Internally displaced person|IDPs]] compounds the difficulty of international responses, posing issues of incomplete information and questions regarding state sovereignty.<ref>{{Cite web|title=International Response to Internal Displacement: A Revolution in the Making|url=https://digitalcommons.wcl.american.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1372&context=hrbrief|access-date=2022-01-03}}</ref><ref name=":82"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=Global report on internal displacement|last=Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre Herausgebendes Organ.|oclc=1089711735}}</ref> State sovereignty especially becomes of concern when discussing protections for IDPs, who are within the borders of a sovereign state, placing reluctance in the international community's ability to respond.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|date=2012-06-30|title=Conflict, International Response, and Forced Migration in Sub-Saharan Africa, 1980-2007|journal=The Korean Journal of International Studies|doi=10.14731/kjis.2012.06.10.1.1|issn=2233-470X|doi-access=free}}</ref> Multiple landmark conventions aim at providing rights and protections to the different categories of forcibly displaced persons, including the [[1951 Refugee Convention]], the [[1967 Protocol]], the [[Kampala Convention]], and the [[Guiding Principles|1998 Guiding Principles]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Abbas|first1=Mohamed|last2=Aloudat|first2=Tammam|last3=Bartolomei|first3=Javier|last4=Carballo|first4=Manuel|last5=Durieux-Paillard|first5=Sophie|last6=Gabus|first6=Laure|last7=Jablonka|first7=Alexandra|last8=Jackson|first8=Yves|last9=Kaojaroen|first9=Kanokporn|date=December 2018|title=Migrant and refugee populations: a public health and policy perspective on a continuing global crisis|journal=Antimicrobial Resistance and Infection Control|volume=7|issue=1|pages=113|doi=10.1186/s13756-018-0403-4|issn=2047-2994|pmc=6146746|pmid=30250735 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":12"/> Despite internationally cooperation, these frameworks rely on the international system, which states may disregard. In a 2012 study, Young Hoon Song found that nations "very selectively" responded to instances of forced migration and internally displaced persons.<ref name=":9" />

World organizations such as the United Nations and the [[World Bank]], as well as individual countries, sometimes directly respond to the challenges faced by displaced people, providing humanitarian assistance or [[Peacekeeping|forcibly intervening]] in the country of conflict. Disputes related to these organizations' neutrality and limited resources has affected the capabilities of international humanitarian action to mitigate mass displacement mass displacement's causes.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Castles|first=Stephen|s2cid=84460606|date=2003-09-01|title=The International Politics of Forced Migration|journal=Development|volume=46|issue=3|pages=11–20|doi=10.1177/10116370030463003|doi-broken-date=20 January 2025 }}</ref> These broad forms of assistance sometimes do not fully address the multidimensional needs of displaced persons. Regardless, calls for multilateral responses echo across organizations in the face of falling international cooperation. These organizations propose more comprehensive approaches, calling for improved conflict resolution and capacity-building in order to reduce instances of forced displacement.<ref>Grandi, Filippo. 2018. “Forced Displacement Today: Why Multilateralism Matters.” Brown Journal of World Affairs 24 (2): 179–89.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Forced Displacement|last1=Christensen|first1=Asger|last2=Harild|first2=Niels|s2cid=153942656|date=December 2009|publisher=World Bank|doi = 10.1596/27717|url=http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/book/10.1596/27717 }}</ref>

=== Local response ===
Responses at multiple levels<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Szkudlarek|first1=Betina|last2=Nardon|first2=Luciara|last3=Osland|first3=Joyce S.|last4=Adler|first4=Nancy J.|last5=Lee|first5=Eun Su|date=August 2021|title=When Context Matters: What Happens to International Theory When Researchers Study Refugees|url=http://journals.aom.org/doi/10.5465/amp.2018.0150|journal=Academy of Management Perspectives|language=en|volume=35|issue=3|pages=461–484|doi=10.5465/amp.2018.0150|issn=1558-9080|url-access=subscription}}</ref> and across sectors is vital.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Lee|first1=Eun Su|date=2021-08-16|url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/978-1-83982-826-320211011/full/html|work=Intercultural Management in Practice|pages=121–129|editor-last=Chavan|editor-first=Meena|publisher=Emerald Publishing Limited|doi=10.1108/978-1-83982-826-320211011|isbn=978-1-83982-827-0|access-date=2021-09-27|last2=Roy|first2=Priya A.|last3=Szkudlarek|first3=Betina|title=Integrating Refugees into the Workplace – A Collaborative Approach |s2cid=238706123|editor2-last=Taksa|editor2-first=Lucy|url-access=subscription}}</ref> A research has for instance highlighted the importance of collaboration between businesses and non-governmental organizations to tackle resettlement and employment issues.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Eun Su|last2=Szkudlarek|first2=Betina|date=2021-04-14|title=Refugee employment support: The HRM–CSR nexus and stakeholder co-dependency|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1748-8583.12352|journal=Human Resource Management Journal|volume=31|issue=4|language=en|pages=1748–8583.12352|doi=10.1111/1748-8583.12352|s2cid=234855263|issn=0954-5395|url-access=subscription}}</ref>

Lived in experiences of displaced persons will vary according to the state and local policies of their country of relocation. Policies reflecting national exclusion of displaced persons may be undone by inclusive urban policies. Sanctuary cities are an example of spaces that regulate their cooperation or participation with immigration law enforcement.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Houston|first=Serin|s2cid=166602825|date=2019-02-06|title=Conceptualizing sanctuary as a process in the United States|journal=Geographical Review|volume=109 |issue=4 |pages=562–579 |doi=10.1111/gere.12338|bibcode=2019GeoRv.109..562H |issn=0016-7428}}</ref> The practice of urban membership upon residence allows displaced persons to have access to city services and benefits, regardless of their legal status.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaufmann|first=David|date=2019-02-11|title=Comparing Urban Citizenship, Sanctuary Cities, Local Bureaucratic Membership, and Regularizations|journal=Public Administration Review|volume=79|issue=3|pages=443–446|doi=10.1111/puar.13029|s2cid=159209267|issn=0033-3352|url=https://boris.unibe.ch/131145/}}</ref> Sanctuary cities have been able to provide migrants with greater mobility and participation in activities limiting the collection of personal information, issuing identification cards to all residents, and providing access to crucial services such as health care.<ref name=":2" /> Access to these services can ease the hardships of displaced people by allowing them to healthily adjust to life after displacement .

===Criminal prosecution===
Forced displacement has been the subject of several trials in local and international courts. For an offense to classify as a [[war crime]], the civilian victim must be a "[[Protected persons|protected person]]" under [[international humanitarian law]]. Originally referring only categories of individuals explicitly protected under one of the four [[Geneva Conventions of 1949]], "protected person" now refers to any category of individuals entitled to protection under specific [[law of war]] treaties.<ref name="UNHCR">{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/4e0344b344.pdf|title=Legal and Protection Policy Research Series: Forced Displacement and International Crimes|author=Guido Acquaviva|date=June 2011|publisher=UNHCR|access-date=11 April 2018}}</ref>

In Article 49, the [[Fourth Geneva Convention]], adopted on 12 August 1949, specifically forbade forced displacement{{quote3|Individual or mass forcible transfers, as well as deportations of protected persons from occupied territory to the territory of the Occupying Power or to that of any other country, occupied or not, are prohibited, regardless of their motive.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/ihl/WebART/380-600056 |publisher=[[International Committee of the Red Cross|ICRC]] |title=Convention (IV) relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War. Geneva, 12 August 1949 – DEPORTATIONS, TRANSFERS, EVACUATIONS |access-date=8 May 2018}}</ref>}}The [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court]] defines forced displacement as a crime within the jurisdiction of the court:{{quote3|"Deportation or forcible transfer of population" means forced displacement of the people concerned by expulsion or other coercive acts from the area in which they are lawfully present, without grounds permitted under international law.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/ADD16852-AEE9-4757-ABE7-9CDC7CF02886/283503/RomeStatutEng1.pdf |publisher=International Criminal Court |title=Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court |year=2011 |page=7|access-date=8 May 2018}}</ref>}}

* Following the end of [[World War II]], the [[Krupp trial]] was held with a specific charge to the forced displacement of enemy civilian populations for the purpose of [[Forced labour|forced labor]]. The US Military [[Tribunal]] concluded that "[t]here is no [[international law]] that permits the [[deportation]] or the use of civilians against their will for other than on reasonable requisitions for the need of the army, either within the area of the army or after deportation to rear areas or to the homeland of the occupying power".<ref name="UNHCR" />
* At the [[Nuremberg trials]], [[Hans Frank]], chief jurist in [[occupied Poland]], was found guilty, among others for forced displacement of the civilian population.
* Several people were tried and convicted by the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia]] (ICTY) for connection to forced displacement during the [[Yugoslav Wars]] in the 1990s. On 11 April 2018, the Appeals Chamber sentenced [[Vojislav Šešelj]] 10 years in prison under Counts 1, 10, and 11 of the indictment for instigating [[deportation]], [[persecution]] (forcible displacement), and other inhumane acts (forcible transfer) as [[crimes against humanity]] due to his speech in Hrtkovci on 6 May 1992, in which he called for the [[expulsion of Croats from Vojvodina]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unmict.org/en/news/appeals-chamber-reverses-%C5%A1e%C5%A1elj%E2%80%99s-acquittal-part-and-convicts-him-crimes-against-humanity|title=APPEALS CHAMBER REVERSES ŠEŠELJ'S ACQUITTAL, IN PART, AND CONVICTS HIM OF CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY|work=United Nations International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals |date=11 April 2018|publisher=United Nations Mechanism for International Criminal Tribunals|access-date=11 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.trtworld.com/europe/un-court-sentences-ultranationalist-serb-leader-to-10-years-16638|title=UN court sentences ultranationalist Serb leader to 10 years|publisher=[[TRT World]]|access-date=11 April 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2018/04/serbia-conviction-of-war-criminal-delivers-long-overdue-justice-to-victims/|title=Serbia: Conviction of war criminal delivers long overdue justice to victims|date=11 April 2018|publisher=Amnesty International|access-date=11 April 2018}}</ref> Other convictions for forced displacement included ex-Bosnian Serb politician [[Momčilo Krajišnik]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2009/09/311692-un-tribunal-transfers-former-bosnian-serb-leader-uk-prison|title=UN tribunal transfers former Bosnian Serb leader to UK prison|date=8 September 2009|publisher=UN News|access-date=15 April 2018}}</ref> ex-Croatian Serb leader [[Milan Martić]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2008/10/277112-un-tribunal-upholds-35-year-jail-term-leader-breakaway-croatian-serb-state|title=UN tribunal upholds 35-year jail term for leader of breakaway Croatian Serb state|date=8 October 2008|publisher=UN News|access-date=15 April 2018}}</ref> former Bosnian Croat paramilitary commander [[Mladen Naletilić]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2008/04/257282-bosnian-croat-commander-convicted-un-tribunal-serve-jail-term-italy|title=Bosnian Croat commander convicted by UN tribunal to serve jail term in Italy|date=25 April 2008|publisher=UN News|access-date=4 May 2018}}</ref> and Bosnian Serb politician [[Radoslav Brđanin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2008/03/251232-bosnian-serb-politician-convicted-un-tribunal-serve-jail-term-denmark|title=Bosnian Serb politician convicted by UN tribunal to serve jail term in Denmark|date=4 March 2008|publisher=UN News|access-date=8 May 2018}}</ref>
* On 17 March 2023, the [[International Criminal Court]] (ICC) issued arrest warrants for [[Vladimir Putin]] and Russia's Commissioner for Children's Rights [[Maria Lvova-Belova]] for war crimes of [[Child abductions in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|deportation and illegal transfer of children]] from [[Russian-occupied territories of Ukraine|occupied Ukraine]] to Russia.<ref>{{cite news| date=17 March 2023| work=UN News| title=Russia: International Criminal Court issues arrest warrant for Putin| url=https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/03/1134732}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Asylum seeker]]s
* [[Climate migrant]]
* [[Development-induced displacement]]
* [[Deportation]]
* [[Displaced persons camps in post-World War II Europe]]
* [[Divided family]]
* [[Ethnic cleansing]]
* [[Forced displacement in popular culture]]
* [[International Association for the Study of Forced Migration]]
* [[Kampala Convention]]
* [[Population cleansing]]
* [[Population transfer]]
* [[Refugee]]s
* [[Refugee employment]]
* [[Refugee women]]
* [[Refugee roulette]]
* [[List of areas depopulated due to climate change]]
* [[List of diasporas]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Betts, Alexander: ''Forced Migration and Global Politics''. Wiley-Blackwell.
* {{Cite journal | year= 2014 | last1= James| first1= Paul | s2cid= 144816686| author-link1= Paul James (academic) | title= Faces of Globalization and the Borders of States: From Asylum Seekers to Citizens | url= https://www.academia.edu/7773440 | journal= Citizenship Studies | volume=  18 | issue=  2 | pages= 208–23| doi= 10.1080/13621025.2014.886440}}
* Luciuk, Lubomyr Y.: "Ukrainian Displaced Persons, Canada, and the Migration of Memory," University of Toronto Press, 2000. Migration of people from Mirpur(AJK) for construction of Mangla Dam
* {{cite book |last=Sundhaussen |first=Holm |title=Forced Ethnic Migration |url=http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-20100921728 |work=[[European History Online]], [[Institute of European History]] |year=2012 |access-date=June 13, 2012}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Forced migration}}
*[http://indr.org/ International Network on Displacement and Resettlement]
*[http://www.jmclajot.net Pictures of Refugees in Europe] – Features by Jean-Michel Clajot, Belgian photographer
*[https://oukloof.riebeeklegacy.org Oukloof forced removals in the Western Cape of South Africa] – A community web site documenting the known history of the forced removal of the residents of Oukloof in the 1960s
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080812234652/http://www.forcedmigration.org/ Forced Migration Online] provides access to a diverse range of relevant information resources on forced migration, including a searchable digital library consisting of full-text documents.
*[http://repository.forcedmigration.org/journals/ Back issues of migration journals] (Disasters, Forced Migration Review, [[International Journal of Refugee Law]], International Migration Review and Journal of Refugee Studies)
*[http://www.eurasylum.org Eurasylum] Many relevant documents on asylum and refugee policy, immigration and human trafficking/smuggling internationally
*[http://www.idpvoices.org/ IDP Voices] Forced migrants tell their life stories
*[http://www.internal-displacement.org/ Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), Norwegian Refugee Council] The leading international body monitoring conflict-induced internal displacement worldwide.
*[http://www.iasfm.org/ The International Association for the Study of Forced Migration] brings together academics, practitioners and decision-makers working on forced migration issues.
*[http://www.iom.int/ The International Organization for Migration] is a [[non-governmental organization]] with a major role mediating modern migration.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041127181733/http://www.jrs.oupjournals.org/ The Journal of Refugee Studies] from [[Oxford University]] provides a forum for exploration of the complex problems of forced migration and national, regional and international responses.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120101192422/http://graduateinstitute.ch/globalmigration Program for the Study of Global Migration], Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Geneva.
*[http://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/ The Refugee Studies Centre], University of Oxford: a leading multidisciplinary centre for research and teaching on the causes and consequences of forced migration.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110726061654/http://www.forcedmigration.org/whatisfm.htm What is Forced Migration?], an introductory guide for those who are new to the subject.
*[http://migration.org.za Wits Forced Migration Studies Programme], Africa's leading centre for teaching and research on displacement, migration, and social transformation.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070307160735/http://www.womenscommission.org/ Women's Commission for Refugee Women and Children]

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