View source for Max Stirner

{{Short description|German philosopher (1806–1856)}}
{{Redirect|Stirner|others with said surname|Stirner (surname)}}
{{Lead too short|date=January 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| name             = Max Stirner
| image            = Max Stirner-k.jpg
| image_size       = 150
| caption          = Max Stirner sketches by [[Friedrich Engels]]
| birth_name       = Johann Kaspar Schmidt
| birth_date       = {{birth date|1806|10|25|df=yes}}
| birth_place      = [[Bayreuth]], [[Kingdom of Bavaria|Bavaria]]
| death_date       = {{death date and age|1856|6|26|1806|10|25|df=yes}}
| death_place      = [[Berlin]], [[Prussia]], [[German Confederation]]
| education        = {{plainlist|
* {{interlanguage link multi|Gymnasium Christian-Ernestinum|de|3=Gymnasium Christian-Ernestinum|lt=Gymnasium illustre zu Bayreuth}}
* [[University of Berlin]] (no degree)
* [[University of Erlangen]] (no degree)
}}
| era              = [[19th-century philosophy]]
| region           = [[Western philosophy]]
| school_tradition = {{plainlist|
* [[Continental philosophy]]
* [[Egoism]]
* [[Anti-foundationalism]]
* [[The Ego and Its Own|Dialectical egoism]]<ref>{{cite book|title=Max Stirner's Dialectical Egoism|first=John F.|last=Welsh|year=2010|publisher=Lexington Books}}</ref>
* [[Egoist anarchism]] (post-mortem)
* [[Post-Hegelianism]]
* [[Young Hegelians]] (early)
}}
| main_interests   = [[Egoism]], [[ethics]], [[ontology]], [[pedagogy]], [[philosophy of history]], [[philosophy of religion]], [[philosophy of education]],<ref name ="FalsePrinciple">https://archive.org/details/sparrowsnest-10358/mode/2up [[The False Principle of our Education]]
by Stirner, Max; Publication date 1967</ref> [[property theory]], [[psychology]], [[value theory]], [[philosophy of love]], [[dialectic]]
| notable_ideas    = {{plainlist|
* [[Personalism]] in education<ref name='FalsePrinciple' />
* {{lang|de|Eigenheit}} ({{translation|ownness}})
* creative nothing
* self-forgetfulness
* insurrection
* Der Einzige (The Unique)
* "Property-worlds"
* [[Union of egoists]]
}}
}}

'''Johann Kaspar Schmidt''' ({{IPA|de|ʃmɪt|lang}}; 25 October 1806 – 26 June 1856), known professionally as '''Max Stirner''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|t|ɜr|n|ər}}; {{IPA|de|ˈʃtɪʁnɐ|lang}}), was a German [[post-Hegelian]] philosopher, dealing mainly with the [[Hegelian]] notion of [[social alienation]] and [[self-consciousness]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Stepelevich|first=Lawrence|date=1985|title=Max Stirner as Hegelian|url=https://consciousegoism.6te.net/pdfs/academia/StirnerAsHegelian.pdf|access-date=2 October 2020|archive-date=27 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027162935/http://consciousegoism.6te.net/pdfs/academia/StirnerAsHegelian.pdf|url-status=live|journal=Journal of the History of Ideas|volume=46|issue=4|pages=597–614|doi=10.2307/2709548|jstor=2709548}}</ref> Stirner is often seen as one of the forerunners of [[nihilism]], [[existentialism]], [[psychoanalytic theory]], [[postmodernism]], [[individualist anarchism]], and [[egoism]].<ref name="SEP-Stirner">{{cite SEP|url-id=max-stirner|title=Max Stirner|last=Leopold|first=David|date=4 August 2006}}</ref><ref name="Goodway, David 2006, p. 99">Goodway, David. [[Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow]]. Liverpool University Press, 2006, p. 99.</ref>

Stirner's main work, ''[[The Ego and Its Own|The Unique and Its Property]]''<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blumenfeld |first=Jacob |title=All Things Are Nothing To Me |publisher=[[Zero Books]] |year=2018 |isbn=9781785358951 |edition=1st |pages=17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Swain |first1=Dan |title=Unchaining Solidarity: On Mutual Aid and Anarchism with Catherine Malabou |last2=Urban |first2=Petr |last3=Malabou |first3=Catherine |last4=Kouba |first4=Petr |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield International |year=2021 |isbn=9781538157954 |edition=1st |pages=83–103}}</ref> ({{langx|de|Der Einzige und sein Eigentum}}), was first published in 1844 in [[Leipzig]] and has since appeared in numerous editions and translations.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=34cjS0M1rFIC&dq=%22the+individual+and+his+property%22+stirner&pg=PA88 ''A Ready Reference to Philosophy East and West''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191230222119/https://books.google.com/books?id=34cjS0M1rFIC&pg=PA88&lpg=PA88&dq=%22the+individual+and+his+property%22+stirner&source=bl&ots=ysWNPk51wR&sig=v7xrZOygfQAYZ9l2QSHROmGumyk&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjDgLHUopLRAhXDSyYKHfsPCaQQ6AEIMTAD#v=onepage&q=%22the%20individual%20and%20his%20property%22%20stirner&f=false |date=30 December 2019 }}.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=rB0XAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22the+individual+and+his+property%22+stirner&pg=PA85 ''Anarchism: A Criticism and History of the Anarchist Theory''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229172353/https://books.google.com/books?id=rB0XAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA85&lpg=PA85&dq=%22the+individual+and+his+property%22+stirner&source=bl&ots=UQyJnGjV3O&sig=PLocaJE6MPrd2bOmoLucxkPPHcY&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwjDgLHUopLRAhXDSyYKHfsPCaQQ6AEINDAE#v=onepage&q=%22the%20individual%20and%20his%20property%22%20stirner&f=false |date=29 December 2019 }}.</ref>

== Biography ==
[[File:MaxStirner'sbirthplace.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Stirner's birthplace in Bayreuth]]
Stirner was born in [[Bayreuth]], [[Kingdom of Bavaria|Bavaria]]. What little is known of his life is mostly due to the Scottish-born German writer [[John Henry Mackay]], who wrote a biography of Stirner (''Max Stirner – sein Leben und sein Werk''), published in German in 1898 (enlarged 1910, 1914) and translated into English in 2005. Stirner was the only child of Albert Christian Heinrich Schmidt (1769–1807) and Sophia Elenora Reinlein (1778–1839), who were [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Leopold|first=David|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wdXLCgAAQBAJ&dq=max+stirner+lutheran&pg=PR12|title=Stirner: The Ego and Its Own, 1995|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1316583654}}</ref> His father died of [[tuberculosis]] on 19 April 1807 at the age of 37.<ref name="seinleben">[http://www.nonserviam.com/stirner/bio/sein_leben/ "John Henry Mackay: Max Stirner – Sein Leben und sein Werk"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109232842/http://www.nonserviam.com/stirner/bio/sein_leben/ |date=9 November 2016 }}. p. 28.</ref> In 1809, his mother remarried to Heinrich Ballerstedt (a [[pharmacist]]) and settled in [[West Prussia]]n Kulm (now [[Chełmno]], Poland). When Stirner turned 20, he attended the [[University of Berlin]],<ref name="seinleben"/> where he studied [[philology]]. He attended the lectures of [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], who was to become a source of inspiration for his thinking.<ref>''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', volume 8, The Macmillan Company and The Free Press, New York 1967.</ref> He attended Hegel's lectures on the history of philosophy, the philosophy of [[religion]] and the subjective spirit. Stirner then moved to the [[University of Erlangen]], which he attended at the same time as [[Ludwig Feuerbach]].{{sfn|Stepelevich|1985|p=602}}

Stirner returned to Berlin and obtained a teaching certificate, but he was unable to obtain a full-time teaching post from the Prussian government.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marshall|first=Peter|title=Demanding the Impossible|title-link=Demanding the Impossible|year=1992|publisher=Harper Collins|isbn=0002178559|page=221}}</ref> While in Berlin in 1841, Stirner participated in discussions with a group of young philosophers called ''[[Die Freien]]'' (The Free Ones), whom historians have subsequently categorized as the [[Young Hegelians]]. Some of the best known names in 19th-century literature and [[19th-century philosophy|philosophy]] were involved with this group, including [[Karl Marx]], [[Friedrich Engels]], [[Bruno Bauer]] and [[Arnold Ruge]]. While some of the Young Hegelians were eager subscribers to Hegel's [[dialectical]] method and attempted to apply dialectical approaches to Hegel's conclusions, the left-wing members of the group broke with Hegel. Feuerbach and Bauer led this charge.
[[File:Die_Freien_by_Friedrich_Engels.jpg|300px|right|thumb|Stirner, here depicted by Engels in 1842 standing, smoking and laying a hand on a table, was a member of the short-lived [[Young Hegelians|Young Hegelian]] group known as ''Die Freien''.]]
Frequently the debates would take place at Hippel's, a [[wine bar]] in [[Friedrichstraße]], attended by among others Marx and Engels, who were both adherents of Feuerbach at the time. Stirner met with Engels many times and Engels even recalled that they were "great friends,"<ref name="autogenerated2">Lawrence L Stepelevich. ''The Revival of Max Stirner''.</ref> but it is still unclear whether Marx and Stirner ever met. It does not appear that Stirner contributed much to the discussions, but he was a faithful member of the club and an attentive listener.<ref>Gide, Charles and Rist, Charles. ''A History of Economic Doctrines from the Time of the Physiocrats to the Present Day''. Harrap 1956, p. 612.</ref> The most-often reproduced portrait of Stirner is a cartoon by Engels, drawn forty years later from memory at biographer Mackay's request. It is highly likely that this and the group sketch of ''Die Freien'' at Hippel's are the only firsthand images of Stirner. Stirner worked as a teacher in a school for young girls owned by Madame Gropius<ref>''The Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', vol. 8, The Macmillan Company and The Free Press, New York 1967.</ref> when he wrote his major work, ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]''.

Stirner married twice. His first wife was Agnes Burtz (1815–1838), the daughter of his landlady, whom he married on 12 December 1837. However, she died from complications with pregnancy in 1838. In 1843, he married [[Marie Dähnhardt]], an intellectual associated with ''Die Freien''. Their ''[[ad hoc]]'' wedding took place at Stirner's apartment, during which the participants were notably [[Casual wear|dressed casually]], used copper rings as they had forgotten to buy [[wedding rings]], and needed to search the whole neighborhood for a [[Bible]] as they did not have their own. In 1844, ''The Unique and Its Property'' was dedicated "to my sweetheart Marie Dähnhardt." Afterward, using Marie's inheritance, Stirner opened a [[Dairy (store)|dairy shop]] that handled the distribution of [[milk]] from [[Dairy farming|dairy farmers]] into the city, but was unable to solicit the customers needed to keep the business afloat. It quickly failed and drove a wedge between him and Marie, leading to their separation in 1847.<ref>{{cite book|title=Anarchism in Germany. Volume I: The Early Movement|first=Andrew R.|last=Carlson|chapter=II: Max Stirner (1806–1856)|title-link=Anarchism in Germany (book)|chapter-url=https://libcom.org/library/chapter-ii-max-stirner-1806-1856|pages=55–56|year=1972|publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield|Scarecrow Press]]|location=[[Metuchen, New Jersey]]|isbn=0-8108-0484-0|oclc=490643062}}</ref> Marie later converted to [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholicism]] and died in 1902 in London.

After ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]'', Stirner wrote ''Stirner's Critics'' and translated [[Adam Smith]]'s ''[[The Wealth of Nations]]'' and [[Jean-Baptiste Say]]'s ''[[Say's Political Economy|Traité d'economie politique]]'' into German to little financial gain. He also wrote a compilation of texts titled ''History of Reaction'' in 1852. Stirner died in 1856 in Berlin from a tumor, alleged to be due to an infected insect bite.<ref name="SEP-Stirner" /> Only Bruno Bauer and Ludwig Buhl represented the Young Hegelians present at his funeral,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Stepelevich |first1=Lawrence S. |title=Max Stirner and Ludwig Feuerbach |journal=Journal of the History of Ideas |date=1978 |volume=39 |issue=3 |page=452 |doi=10.2307/2709388 |jstor=2709388 |url=http://www.jstor.com/stable/2709388 |access-date=1 July 2021 |issn=0022-5037 |quote=Only Bruno Bauer and Ludwig Buhl represented the Young Hegelians at his funeral.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> held at the [[Friedhof II der Sophiengemeinde Berlin]].

== Philosophy ==
{{see also|Egoism|Egoist anarchism}}
Stirner, whose main philosophical work was ''The Unique and Its Property'', is credited as a major influence in the development of [[nihilism]], [[existentialism]] and [[post-modernism]] as well as [[individualist anarchism]], [[post-anarchism]] and [[post-left anarchy]].<ref name="SEP-Stirner"/><ref name="Goodway, David 2006, p. 99"/> He also influenced [[Illegalism|illegalists]], [[Feminism|feminists]], [[Nihilism|nihilists]] and [[Bohemianism|bohemians]], as well as [[Fascism|fascists]], [[Right-libertarianism|right-libertarians]] and [[Anarcho-capitalism|anarcho-capitalists]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blumenfeld |first=Jacob |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=52-1tQEACAAJ |title=All Things Are Nothing To Me: The Unique Philosophy of Max Stirner |date=2018 |publisher=Zero Books |isbn=978-1-78099-663-9 |location=Winchester, UK |pages=1, 8 |oclc=1029858436}}</ref> Stirner was opposed to [[communism]] for the same reasons he opposed [[christianity]], [[capitalism]], [[humanism]], [[liberalism]], [[property rights]] and [[nationalism]], seeing them as forms of unacceptable authority over the individual. Stirner also influenced [[anarcho-communists]] and [[post-left anarchists]]. The writers of ''An Anarchist FAQ'' report that "many in the anarchist movement in Glasgow, Scotland, took Stirner's '[[Union of egoists]]' literally as the basis for their [[anarcho-syndicalist]] organising in the 1940s and beyond." Similarly, the noted anarchist historian [[Max Nettlau]] states that "[o]n reading Stirner, I maintain that he cannot be interpreted except in a socialist sense." Stirner was [[anti-capitalist]] and [[pro-labour]], attacking "the division of labour resulting from private property for its deadening effects on the ego and individuality of the worker" and writing that free competition "is not 'free,' because I lack the things for competition. [...] Under the regime of the commonality the labourers always fall into the hands of the possessors of the capitalists [...]. The labourer cannot realise on his labour to the extent of the value that it has for the customer. [...] The state rests on the slavery of labour. If labour becomes free, the state is lost."<ref name="McKay 2012">{{cite book |title=An Anarchist FAQ |publisher=AK Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1849351225 |editor-last=McKay |editor-first=Iain |volume=II |location=Stirling |pages=1561–1573 |chapter=What are the ideas of Max Stirner?}}</ref> For Stirner, "Labor has an egoistic character; the laborer is the egoist."<ref name="Paul 1975">Thomas, Paul (May 1975). "Karl Marx and Max Stirner". ''Political Theory''. Sage Publications. '''3''' (2): 159–179. {{JSTOR|190930}}.</ref>

=== Egoism ===
{{individualism sidebar}}
Stirner's [[Egoist anarchism|egoism]] argues that individuals are impossible to fully comprehend, as no understanding of [[the self]] can adequately describe the fullness of experience. Stirner has been broadly understood as containing traits of both [[psychological egoism]] and [[rational egoism]]. Unlike the self-interest described by [[Ayn Rand]], Stirner did not address individual self-interest, selfishness, or prescriptions for how one should act. He urged individuals to decide for themselves and fulfill their own egoism.<ref name="McKay 2012"/>

He believed that everyone was propelled by their own egoism and desires and that those who accepted this—as willing egoists—could freely live their individual desires, while those who did not—as unwilling egoists—will falsely believe they are fulfilling another cause while they are secretly fulfilling their own desires for happiness and security. The willing egoist would see that they could act freely, unbound from obedience to sacred but artificial truths like law, rights, morality, and religion. Power is the method of Stirner's egoism and the only justified method of gaining [[Property (philosophy)|philosophical property]]. Stirner did not believe in the one-track pursuit of greed, which as only one aspect of the ego would lead to being possessed by a cause other than the full ego. He did not believe in [[natural rights]] to property and encouraged insurrection against all forms of authority, including disrespect for property.<ref name="McKay 2012"/>

=== Anarchism ===
[[File:Benjamin R Tucker.jpg|thumb|180px|[[Benjamin Tucker]], pioneer of [[individualist anarchism]]]] Stirner proposes that most commonly accepted social institutions—including the notion of [[State (polity)|state]], [[Property#Property in philosophy|property as a right]], [[natural rights]] in general and the very notion of [[society]]—were mere illusions, "spooks" or ghosts in the mind.<ref>Heider, Ulrike. ''Anarchism: Left, Right and Green'', San Francisco: City Lights Books, 1994, pp. 95–96.</ref> He advocated egoism and a form of [[Amorality|amoralism]] in which individuals would unite in Unions of egoists only when it was in their self-interest to do so. For him, property simply comes about through might, saying: "Whoever knows how to take and to defend the thing, to him belongs [property]. [...] What I have in my power, that is my own. So long as I assert myself as holder, I am the proprietor of the thing." He adds that "I do not step shyly back from your property, but look upon it always as my property, in which I respect nothing. Pray do the like with what you call my property!"<ref name="Stirner, Max p. 248">Stirner, Max. ''The Ego and Its Own'', p. 248.</ref> Stirner considers the world and everything in it, including other persons, available to one's taking or use without moral constraint and that rights do not exist in regard to objects and people at all. He sees no rationality in taking the interests of others into account unless doing so furthers one's self-interest, which he believes is the only legitimate reason for acting. He denies society as being an actual entity, calling society a "spook" and that "the individuals are its reality."<ref name="Moggach, Douglas p. 194">Moggach, Douglas. ''The New Hegelians''. Cambridge University Press, 2006 p. 194.</ref>

Despite being labeled as anarchist, Stirner was not necessarily one. Separation of Stirner and egoism from anarchism was first done in 1914 by [[Dora Marsden]] in her debate with [[Benjamin Tucker]] in her journals ''The New Freewoman'' and ''The Egoist''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sidparker.com/essays/dora-marsden-benjamin-r-tucker/|title=Dora Marsden & Benjamin R. Tucker – Sidney E. Parker Archives|access-date=28 November 2019|archive-date=28 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128180445/http://www.sidparker.com/essays/dora-marsden-benjamin-r-tucker/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Communism ====
Stirner suggested that communism was tainted with the same idealism as [[Christianity]] and infused with superstitious ideas like morality and justice.<ref>Newman, S. (2013). ''[https://research.gold.ac.uk/17024/1/Stirner%20Political%20Theology.pdf Stirner's Radical Atheism and the Critique of Political Theology]''. p. 10, [[Goldsmiths, University of London|Goldsmiths: University of London]]</ref> Stirner's principal critique of socialism and communism was that they ignored the individual; they aimed to hand ownership over to the abstraction society, which meant that no existing person actually owned anything.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Thomas |first=Matty |date=10 January 2017 |title=The Relevance of Max Stirner to Anarcho-Communists |url=https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/matty-thomas-the-relevance-of-max-stirner-to-anarcho-communists |access-date= |website=The Anarchist Library |language=en}}</ref>

The Anarchist FAQ writes that "[w]hile some may object to our attempt to place egoism and communism together, it is worth pointing out that Stirner rejected 'communism'. Stirner did not subscribe to libertarian communism, because it did not exist when he was writing and so he was directing his critique against the various forms of state communism which did. Moreover, this does not mean that anarcho-communists and others may not find his work of use to them. And Stirner would have approved, for nothing could be more foreign to his ideas than to limit what an individual considers to be in their best interest."<ref name="McKay 2012"/> In summarizing Stirner's main arguments, the writers "indicate why social anarchists have been, and should be, interested in his ideas, saying that, John P. Clark presents a sympathetic and useful social anarchist critique of his work in ''Max Stirner's Egoism''."<ref name="McKay 2012"/>

[[Daniel Guérin]] wrote that "Stirner accepted many of the premises of communism but with the following qualification: the profession of communist faith is a first step toward total emancipation of the victims of our society, but they will become completely 'disalienated,' and truly able to develop their individuality, only by advancing beyond communism."<ref>Guérin, Daniel (1970). ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice''. Monthly Review Press. pp. 70–71. {{ISBN|978-0853451280}}.</ref>

==== Revolution ====
Stirner criticizes conventional notions of [[revolution]], arguing that [[social movement]]s aimed at overturning established ideals are tacitly idealist because they are implicitly aimed at the establishment of a new ideal thereafter. "Revolution and insurrection must not be looked upon as synonymous. The former consists in an overturning of conditions, of the established condition or status, the State or society, and is accordingly a political or social act; the latter has indeed for its unavoidable consequence a transformation of circumstances, yet does not start from it but from men's discontent with themselves, is not an armed rising, but a rising of individuals, a getting up, without regard to the arrangements that spring from it. The Revolution aimed at new arrangements; insurrection leads us no longer to let ourselves be arranged, but to arrange ourselves, and sets no glittering hopes on 'institutions'. It is not a fight against the established, since, if it prospers, the established collapses of itself; it is only a working forth of me out of the established. If I leave the established, it is dead and passes into decay."

==== Union of egoists ====
{{main|Union of egoists}}
Stirner's idea of the Union of egoists was first expounded in ''The Unique and Its Property''. The Union is understood as a non-systematic association, which Stirner proposed in contradistinction to the [[Sovereign state|state]].<ref name=karl>{{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Paul|author-link=Paul Thomas (Marx scholar) |title=[[Karl Marx and the Anarchists]] |publisher=[[Routledge]]/[[Kegan Paul]]|location=London|year=1985|isbn=0-7102-0685-2|page=142}}</ref> Unlike a "community" in which individuals are obliged to participate, Stirner's suggested Union would be voluntary and instrumental under which individuals would freely associate insofar as others within the Union remain useful to each constituent individual.<ref name=Cohn>{{Cite journal |last1=Cohn |first1=Jesse |title=What is Postanarchism 'Post'? |journal=[[Postmodern Culture]] |volume=13 |issue=1 |date=September 2002 |url=http://pmc.iath.virginia.edu/issue.902/13.1cohn.html |language=en |doi=10.1353/pmc.2002.0028 |s2cid=145475500 |issn=1053-1920 |via=[[Project MUSE]] |access-date=2 December 2018 |archive-date=25 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160925231231/http://pmc.iath.virginia.edu/issue.902/13.1cohn.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> The Union relation between egoists is continually renewed by all parties' support through an act of will.<ref name="nonserviam">{{cite journal|url=http://i-studies.com/journal/n/pdf/nsi-17.pdf#page=13|title=The union of egoists|journal=Non Serviam|volume=1|first=Svein Olav|last=Nyberg|pages=13–14|location=Oslo, Norway|oclc=47758413|access-date=1 September 2012|publisher=Svein Olav Nyberg|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101207042220/http://i-studies.com/journal/n/pdf/nsi-17.pdf|archive-date=7 December 2010}}</ref> Some such as Svein Olav Nyberg argue that the Union requires that all parties participate out of a [[Selfishness|conscious egoism]] while others such as [[Sidney Parker (anarchist)|Sydney E. Parker]] regard the union as a "change of attitude," rejecting its previous conception as an institution.<ref>{{cite web|title=Non Serviam, No. 18, page 6, "Union of Egoists – Comment" by S.E. Parker.|url=http://consciousegoism.6te.net/pdfs/nonserviam/18.pdf|access-date=8 May 2020|archive-date=20 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420153648/http://consciousegoism.6te.net/pdfs/nonserviam/18.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Response to Hegelianism ===
[[File:Stirner02.jpg|thumb|150px|Caricature of Max Stirner taken from a sketch by [[Friedrich Engels]] (1820–1895) of the meetings of ''[[Die Freien]]'']]
Scholar [[Lawrence Stepelevich]] states that G. W. F. Hegel was a major influence on ''The Unique and Its Property''. While the latter has an "un-Hegelian structure and tone" on the whole and is hostile to Hegel's conclusions about the self and the world, Stepelevich states that Stirner's work is best understood as answering Hegel's question of the role of consciousness after it has contemplated "untrue knowledge" and become "absolute knowledge." Stepelevich concludes that Stirner presents the consequences of the rediscovering one's self-consciousness after realizing self-determination.{{sfn|Stepelevich|1985}}

Scholars such as [[Douglas Moggach]] and Widukind De Ridder have stated that Stirner was obviously a student of Hegel, like his contemporaries [[Ludwig Feuerbach]] and Bruno Bauer, but this does not necessarily make him an Hegelian. Contrary to the Young Hegelians, Stirner scorned all attempts at an immanent critique of Hegel and the Enlightenment and renounced Bauer and Feuerbach's emancipatory claims as well. Contrary to Hegel, who considered the given as an inadequate embodiment of rational, Stirner leaves the given intact by considering it a mere object, not of transformation, but of enjoyment and consumption ("His Own").<ref name="Moggach, Douglas & De Ridder, Widukind pp. 82–83">Moggach, Douglas and De Ridder, Widukind. "Hegelianism in Restoration Prussia, 1841–1848: Freedom, Humanism and 'Anti-Humanism' in Young Hegelian Thought". In: ''Hegel's Thought in Europe: Currents, Crosscurrents and Undercurrents'', ed. Lisa Herzog (pp. 71–92). Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013, pp. 82–83.</ref>

According to Moggach, Stirner does not go beyond Hegel, but he in fact leaves the domain of philosophy in its entirety, stating:
{{blockquote|Stirner refused to conceptualize the human self, and rendered it devoid of any reference to rationality or universal standards. The self was moreover considered a field of action, a "never-being I." The "I" had no essence to realize and life itself was a process of self-dissolution. Far from accepting, like the humanist Hegelians, a construal of subjectivity endowed with a universal and ethical mission, Stirner's notion of "the Unique" (''Der Einzige'') distances itself from any conceptualization whatsoever: "There is no development of the concept of the Unique. No philosophical system can be built out of it, as it can out of Being, or Thinking, or the I. Rather, with it, all development of the concept ceases. The person who views it as a principle thinks that he can treat it philosophically or theoretically and necessarily wastes his breath arguing against it."<ref>"Hegelianism in Restoration Prussia, 1841–1848: Freedom, Humanism and 'Anti-Humanism' in Young Hegelian Thought.", In: ''Hegel's Thought in Europe: Currents, Crosscurrents and Undercurrents'', ed. Lisa Herzog (pp. 71–92). Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013, p. 75.</ref>}}

== Works ==
=== ''The False Principle of Our Education'' ===
<!-- False Principle of Our Education redirects here-->
{{related|[[Humanities]]}}
In 1842, ''The False Principle of Our Education'' (''Das unwahre Prinzip unserer Erziehung'') was published in ''[[Rheinische Zeitung]]'', which was edited by Marx at the time.<ref>''Encyclopaedia of Philosophy'' (1967). The Macmillan Company and The Free Press: New York.</ref> Written as a reaction to the treatise ''Humanism vs. Realism'', written by {{ill|Otto Friedrich Theodor Heinsius|de|Theodor Heinsius}}. Stirner explains that education in either the classical humanist method or the practical realist method still lacks true value. He states that "the final goal of education can no longer be knowledge". Asserting that "only the spirit which understands itself is eternal", Stirner calls for a shift in the principle of education from making us "masters of things" to making us "free natures", naming his educational principle "[[personalist]]".

=== ''Art and Religion'' ===
''Art and Religion'' (''Kunst und Religion'') was also published in ''Rheinische Zeitung'' on 14 June 1842. It addresses Bruno Bauer and his publication against Hegel called ''Hegel's Doctrine of Religion and Art Judged From the Standpoint of Faith''. Bauer had inverted Hegel's relation between "Art" and "Religion" by claiming that "Art" was much more closely related to "Philosophy" than to "Religion", based on their shared determinacy and clarity, and a common ethical root. However, Stirner went beyond both Hegel and Bauer's criticism by asserting that "Art" rather created an object for "Religion" and could thus by no means be related to what Stirner considered—in opposition with Hegel and Bauer—to be "Philosophy", stating:
{{blockquote|[Philosophy] neither stands opposed to an Object, as Religion, nor makes one, as Art, but rather places its pulverizing hand upon all the business of making Objects as well as the whole of objectivity itself, and so breathes the air of freedom. Reason, the spirit of Philosophy, concerns itself only with itself, and troubles itself over no Object.<ref>''Art and Religion'', p. 110.</ref>}}

Stirner deliberately left "Philosophy" out of the dialectical triad (Art–Religion–Philosophy) by claiming that "Philosophy" does not "bother itself with objects" (Religion), nor does it "make an object" (Art). In Stirner's account, "Philosophy" was in fact indifferent towards both "Art" and "Religion." Stirner thus mocked and radicalised Bauer's criticism of religion.<ref name="Moggach, Douglas & De Ridder, Widukind pp. 82–83"/>

=== ''The Unique and Its Property'' ===
{{main|The Unique and Its Property}}
Stirner's main work, ''The Unique and Its Property'' (''Der Einzige und sein Eigentum''), appeared in [[Leipzig]] in October 1844, with as year of publication mentioned 1845. In ''The Unique and Its Property'', Stirner launches a radical [[anti-authoritarian]] and [[individualist]] critique of contemporary [[Prussia]]n society and modern western society as such. He offers an approach to human existence in which he depicts himself as "the unique one", a "creative nothing", beyond the ability of language to fully express, stating that "[i]f I concern myself for myself, the unique one, then my concern rests on its transitory, mortal creator, who consumes himself, and I may say: All things are nothing to me".<ref>''The Ego and Its Own'', p. 324.</ref>

The book proclaims that all religions and ideologies rest on empty concepts. The same holds true for society's institutions that claim authority over the individual, be it the state, legislation, the church, or the systems of education such as universities. Stirner's argument explores and extends the limits of criticism, aiming his critique especially at those of his contemporaries, particularly Ludwig Feuerbach and Bruno Bauer, also at popular ideologies, including communism, humanism (which he regarded as analogous to religion with the abstract Man or humanity as the supreme being), liberalism, and nationalism as well as capitalism, religion and [[statism]], arguing:
{{blockquote|In the time of spirits thoughts grew till they overtopped my head, whose offspring they yet were; they hovered about me and convulsed me like fever-phantasies—an awful power. The thoughts had become corporeal on their own account, were ghosts, e. g. God, Emperor, Pope, Fatherland, etc. If I destroy their corporeity, then I take them back into mine, and say: "I alone am corporeal." And now I take the world as what it is to me, as mine, as my property; I refer all to myself.<ref>''The Ego and Its Own'', p. 17.</ref>}}

=== ''Stirner's Critics'' ===
 
''Stirner's Critics'' (''Recensenten Stirners'') was published in September 1845 in ''Wigands Vierteljahrsschrift''. It is a response, in which Stirner refers to himself in the third-person, to three critical reviews of ''The Unique and Its Property'' by Moses Hess in ''Die letzten Philosophen'' (''The Last Philosophers''), by a certain Szeliga (alias of an adherent of Bruno Bauer) in an article in the journal ''Norddeutsche Blätter'', and by Ludwig Feuerbach anonymously in an article called ''On 'The Essence of Christianity' in Relation to Stirner's 'The Unique and Its Property''' (''Über 'Das Wesen des Christentums' in Beziehung auf Stirners 'Der Einzige und sein Eigentum{{'}}'') in ''Wigands Vierteljahrsschrift''.

=== ''The Philosophical Reactionaries'' ===
''The Philosophical Reactionaries'' (''Die Philosophischen Reactionäre'') was published in 1847 in ''Die Epigonen'', a journal edited by Otto Wigand from Leipzig. At the time, Wigand had already published ''The Unique and Its Property'' and was about to finish the publication of Stirner's translations of Adam Smith and Jean-Baptiste Say. As the subtitle indicates, ''The Philosophical Reactionaries'' was written in response to a 1847 article by [[Kuno Fischer]] (1824–1907) entitled ''The Modern Sophists'' (''Die Moderne Sophisten''). The article was signed G. Edward and its authorship has been disputed ever since John Henry Mackay "cautiously" attributed it to Stirner and included it in his collection of Stirner's lesser writings. It was first translated into English in 2011 by Widukind De Ridder and the introductory note explains:
{{blockquote|Mackay based his attribution of this text to Stirner on Kuno Fischer's subsequent reply to it, in which the latter, 'with such determination', identified G. Edward as Max Stirner. The article was entitled 'Ein Apologet der Sophistik und "ein Philosophischer Reactionäre{{"'}} and was published alongside 'Die Philosophischen Reactionäre'. Moreover, it seems rather odd that Otto Wigand would have published 'Edward's' piece back-to-back with an article that falsely attributed it to one of his personal associates at the time. And, indeed, as Mackay went on to argue, Stirner never refuted this attribution. This remains, however, a slim basis on which to firmly identify Stirner as the author. This circumstantial evidence has led some scholars to cast doubts over Stirner's authorship, based on both the style and content of 'Die Philosophischen Reactionäre'. One should, however, bear in mind that it was written almost three years after ''Der Einzige und sein Eigentum'', at a time when Young Hegelianism had withered away.<ref>"The Philosophical Reactionaries: 'The Modern Sophists' by Kuno Fischer. Translated and introduced by Widukind De Ridder", Newman, Saul (ed.), Max Stirner (Critical Explorations in Contemporary Political Thought), Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 90 (2011).</ref>}}

The majority of the text deals with Kuno Fischer's definition of sophism. With much wit, the self-contradictory nature of Fischer's criticism of sophism is exposed. Fischer had made a sharp distinction between sophism and philosophy while at the same time considering it as the "mirror image of philosophy". The sophists breathe "philosophical air" and were "dialectically inspired to a formal volubility". Stirner's answer is striking:
{{blockquote|Have you philosophers really no clue that you have been beaten with your own weapons? Only one clue. What can your common sense reply when I dissolve dialectically what you have merely posited dialectically? You have showed me with what kind of 'volubility' one can turn everything to nothing and nothing to everything, black into white and white into black. What do you have against me, when I return to you your pure art?<ref>"The Philosophical Reactionaries: 'The Modern Sophists' by Kuno Fischer", Newman, Saul (ed.), Max Stirner (''Critical Explorations in Contemporary Political Thought''), Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 99 (2011).</ref>}}

Looking back on ''The Unique and Its Property'', Stirner claims that "Stirner himself has described his book as, in part, a clumsy expression of what he wanted to say. It is the arduous work of the best years of his life, and yet he calls it, in part, 'clumsy'. That is how hard he struggled with a language that was ruined by philosophers, abused by state-, religious- and other believers, and enabled a boundless confusion of ideas".<ref>"The Philosophical Reactionaries: 'The Modern Sophists' by Kuno Fischer", Newman, Saul (ed.), Max Stirner ''(Critical Explorations in Contemporary Political Thought''), Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, p. 104 (2011).</ref>

=== ''History of Reaction'' ===
''History of Reaction'' (''Geschichte der Reaktion'') was published in two volumes in 1851 by Allgemeine Deutsche Verlags-Anstalt and immediately banned in Austria.<ref name="seinleben"/> It was written in the context of the recent [[revolutions of 1848 in the German states|1848 revolutions in German states]] and is mainly a collection of the works of others selected and translated by Stirner. The introduction and some additional passages were Stirner's work. [[Edmund Burke]] and [[Auguste Comte]] are quoted to show two opposing views of [[revolution]].

== Critical reception ==
Stirner's work did not go unnoticed among his contemporaries. Stirner's attacks on ideology—in particular Feuerbach's humanism—forced Feuerbach into print. Moses Hess (at that time close to Marx) and Szeliga (pseudonym of Franz Zychlin von Zychlinski, an adherent of Bruno Bauer) also replied to Stirner, who answered the criticism in a German periodical in the September 1845 article ''Stirner's Critics'' (''Recensenten Stirners''), which clarifies several points of interest to readers of the book—especially in relation to Feuerbach.

While Marx's ''Saint Max'' (''Sankt Max''), a large part of ''[[The German Ideology]]'' (''Die Deutsche Ideologie''), was not published until 1932 and thus assured ''The Unique and Its Property'' a place of curious interest among [[Marxist]] readers, Marx's ridicule of Stirner has played a significant role in the preservation of Stirner's work in popular and academic discourse despite lacking mainstream popularity.<ref name="Paul 1975"/><ref name="Lobkowicz 1970"/><ref name="Stedman-Jones 2002"/><ref name="Alexander"/>

=== Comments by contemporaries ===
Twenty years after the appearance of Stirner's book, the author [[Friedrich Albert Lange]] wrote the following:
{{blockquote|Stirner went so far in his notorious work, 'Der Einzige und Sein Eigenthum' (1845), as to reject all moral ideas. Everything that in any way, whether it be external force, belief, or mere idea, places itself above the individual and his caprice, Stirner rejects as a hateful limitation of himself. What a pity that to this book—the extremest that we know anywhere—a second positive part was not added. It would have been easier than in the case of [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling|Schelling]]'s philosophy; for out of the unlimited Ego I can again beget every kind of [[Idealism]] as ''my'' [[Will (philosophy)|will]] and ''my'' [[idea]]. Stirner lays so much stress upon the will, in fact, that it appears as the root force of human nature. It may remind us of [[Schopenhauer]].<ref>''[[History of Materialism]]'', ii. 256 (1865).</ref>}}

Some people believe that in a sense a "second positive part" was soon to be added, though not by Stirner, but by [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. The [[Relationship between Friedrich Nietzsche and Max Stirner|relationship between Nietzsche and Stirner]] seems to be much more complicated.<ref>See [http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/ennietzsche.html Bernd A. Laska: Nietzsche's initial crisis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020022410/http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/ennietzsche.html |date=20 October 2017 }}. In: Germanic Notes and Reviews, vol. 33, n. 2, Fall/Herbst 2002, pp. 109–133.</ref> According to George J. Stack's ''Lange and Nietzsche'', Nietzsche read Lange's ''History of Materialism'' "again and again" and was therefore very familiar with the passage regarding Stirner.<ref>George J. Stack, ''Lange and Nietzsche'', Walter de Gruyter, Berlin, New York, 1983, p. 12, {{ISBN|978-3-11-008866-3}}.</ref>

== Influence ==
While ''Der Einzige'' was a critical success and attracted much reaction from famous philosophers after publication, it was out of print and the notoriety that it had provoked had faded many years before Stirner's death.<ref name=sep>{{cite SEP|url-id=max-stirner |title=Max Stirner}}</ref> However, since his death, it has seen a revival in publication in multiple languages.<ref name=sep/> Stirner had a destructive impact on [[left-Hegelianism]], but his philosophy was a significant influence on Marx and his magnum opus became a founding text of [[individualist anarchism]].<ref name=sep/> [[Edmund Husserl]] once warned a small audience about the "seducing power" of ''Der Einzige'', but he never mentioned it in his writing.<ref>[http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/eninnuce.html "Max Stirner, a durable dissident – in a nutshell"<!-- Bot generated title -->] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060518155939/http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/eninnuce.html |date=18 May 2006 }}.</ref> As the art critic and Stirner admirer [[Herbert Read]] observed, the book has remained "stuck in the gizzard" of Western culture since it first appeared.<ref>Quoted in Read's book, "The Contrary Experience", Faber and Faber, 1963.</ref>

Many thinkers have read and been affected by ''The Unique and Its Property'' in their youth including [[Rudolf Steiner]], [[Gustav Landauer]], [[Victor Serge]],<ref>See ''[[Memoirs of a Revolutionary, 1901–1941]]'' by Victor Serge. Publisher Oxford U.P., 1967.</ref> [[Carl Schmitt]] and [[Jürgen Habermas]]. Few openly admit any influence on their own thinking.<ref>See Bernd A. Laska: ''Ein dauerhafter Dissident.'' Nürnberg: LSR-Verlag 1996 ([http://www.lsr-projekt.de/msstudien.html#ss2 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228034538/http://www.lsr-projekt.de/msstudien.html#ss2 |date=28 February 2008 }}).</ref> [[Ernst Jünger]]'s book ''[[Eumeswil]]'', had the character of the [[Anarch (sovereign individual)|Anarch]], based on Stirner's Einzige.<ref>Bernd A. Laska: ''Katechon und Anarch.'' Nürnberg: LSR-Verlag 1997 ([http://www.lsr-projekt.de/msstudien.html#ss3 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228034538/http://www.lsr-projekt.de/msstudien.html#ss3 |date=28 February 2008 }}).</ref> Some have tried to use Stirner’s ideas to defend capitalism while others have used them to argue for anarcho-syndicalism.<ref name="McKay 2012" />

Several other authors, philosophers and artists have cited, quoted or otherwise referred to Max Stirner. They include [[Albert Camus]] in ''[[The Rebel (book)|The Rebel]]'' (the section on Stirner is omitted from the majority of English editions including [[Penguin books|Penguin]]'s), Benjamin Tucker, [[James Huneker]],<ref>Huneker's book ''Egoists, a Book of Supermen'' (1909)contains an essay on Stirner.</ref> Dora Marsden, [[Renzo Novatore]], [[Emma Goldman]],<ref>See Goldman, Anarchism and Other Essays, p. 50.</ref> [[Georg Brandes]], [[John Cowper Powys]],<ref>{{cite news|last=Wilson|first=A. N.|date=1 November 2004|title=World of books|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml?xml=/opinion/2004/11/01/do0106.xml|url-status=dead|access-date=12 May 2010|archive-date=20 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210220062510/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/}}</ref> [[Martin Buber]],<ref>''Between Man and Man'' by Martin Buber, Beacon Press, 1955.</ref> [[Sidney Hook]],<ref>From Hegel to Marx by Sidney Hook, London, 1936.</ref> [[Robert Anton Wilson]], [[Horst Matthai Quelle|Horst Matthai]], [[Enrico Arrigoni|Frank Brand]], [[Marcel Duchamp]], several writers of the [[Situationist International]] including [[Raoul Vaneigem]]<ref>"The long revolution is preparing to write works in the ink of action whose unknown or nameless authors will flock to join Sade, Fourier, Babeuf, Marx, Lacenaire, Stirner, Lautréamont, L'hautier, Vaillant, Henry, Villa, Zapata, Makhno, the Communards, the insurrectionaries of Hamburg, Kiel, Kronstadt, Asturias—all those who have not yet played their last card in a game which we have only just joined: the great gamble whose stake is freedom". [[Raoul Vaneigem]]. ''[[The Revolution of Everyday Life]]''.</ref> and [[Max Ernst]]. [[Oscar Wilde]]'s ''[[The Soul of Man Under Socialism]]'' has caused some historians to speculate that Wilde (who could read German) was familiar with the book.<ref>[[David Goodway]], ''[[Anarchist Seeds Beneath the Snow]]'', Liverpool University Press, 2006. p. 75.</ref>

=== Anarchist movement ===
{{anarchism sidebar|people}}
{{main|Egoist anarchism|Individualist anarchism}}
Stirner's philosophy was important in the development of modern anarchist thought, particularly [[individualist anarchism]] and [[egoist anarchism]]. Although Stirner is usually associated with [[individualist anarchism]], he was influential to many [[social anarchism|social anarchists]] such as [[anarcha-feminist]]s Emma Goldman and [[Federica Montseny]]. In [[European individualist anarchism]], he influenced its major proponents after him such as [[Émile Armand]], [[Han Ryner]], Renzo Novatore, John Henry Mackay, [[Miguel Giménez Igualada]] and [[Lev Chernyi]].

In [[American individualist anarchism]], he found adherence in Benjamin Tucker and his magazine ''[[Liberty (1881–1908)|Liberty]]'' while these abandoned [[natural right]]s positions for egoism.<ref name="mcelroy">"Only the influence of the German philosopher of egoism, Max Stirner (né Johann Kaspar Schmidt, 1806–1856), as expressed through The Ego and His Own (Der Einzige und sein Eigentum) compared with that of Proudhon. In adopting Stirnerite egoism (1886), Tucker rejected natural rights which had long been considered the foundation of libertarianism. This rejection galvanized the movement into fierce debates, with the natural rights proponents accusing the egoists of destroying libertarianism itself. So bitter was the conflict that a number of natural rights proponents withdrew from the pages of Liberty in protest even though they had hitherto been among its frequent contributors. Thereafter, Liberty championed egoism although its general content did not change significantly". Wendy Mcelroy. [http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=1300&layout=html#chapter_100896 "Benjamin Tucker, Individualism, & Liberty: Not the Daughter but the Mother of Order"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110524105129/http://oll.libertyfund.org/index.php?option=com_staticxt&staticfile=show.php%3Ftitle=1300&layout=html#chapter_100896 |date=24 May 2011 }}.</ref> Several periodicals "were undoubtedly influenced by ''Liberty'''s presentation of egoism". They included ''I'', published by [[Clarence Lee Swartz]] and edited by William Walstein Gordak and [[J. William Lloyd]] (all associates of ''Liberty''); and ''The Ego and The Egoist'', both of which were edited by Edward H. Fulton. Among the egoist papers that Tucker followed, there were the German ''[[Der Eigene]]'', edited by [[Adolf Brand]]; and ''The Eagle and The Serpent'', issued from London. The latter, the most prominent English-language egoist journal, was published from 1898 to 1900 with the subtitle ''A Journal of Egoistic Philosophy and Sociology''.<ref name="mcelroy"/> Other American egoist anarchists around the early 20th century include [[James L. Walker]], George Schumm, [[John Beverley Robinson (anarchist)|John Beverley Robinson]], [[Steven T. Byington]].<ref name="mcelroy"/>

In the United Kingdom, Herbert Read was influenced by Stirner and noted the closeness of Stirner's egoism to existentialism (see existentialist anarchism). Later in the 1960s, Daniel Guérin says in ''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice'' that Stirner "rehabilitated the individual at a time when the philosophical field was dominated by Hegelian anti-individualism and most reformers in the social field had been led by the misdeeds of bourgeois egotism to stress its opposite" and pointed to "the boldness and scope of his thought".<ref name="Guerin">[[Daniel Guérin]],''Anarchism: From Theory to Practice''</ref> In the 1970s, an American [[Situationist International|Situationist]] collective called For Ourselves published a book called ''[[The Right To Be Greedy: Theses On The Practical Necessity Of Demanding Everything]]'' in which they advocate a "communist egoism" basing themselves on Stirner.<ref>[http://libcom.org/library/right-be-greedy-theses-practical-necessity-demanding-everything "Four Ourselves, The Right To Be Greedy: Theses On The Practical Necessity Of Demanding Everything"]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622062115/http://libcom.org/library/right-be-greedy-theses-practical-necessity-demanding-everything|date=22 June 2013}}</ref>

Later in the United States, it emerged the tendency of [[post-left anarchy]] which was influenced profoundly by Stirner in aspects such as the critique of ideology. [[Jason McQuinn]] says that "when I (and other anti-ideological anarchists) criticize ideology, it is always from a specifically critical, anarchist perspective rooted in both the skeptical, individualist-anarchist philosophy of Max Stirner".<ref name="Cuchuflito">"What is Ideology?" by [[Jason McQuinn]].</ref> [[The Abolition of Work|Bob Black]] and Feral Faun/Wolfi Landstreicher strongly adhere to Stirnerist egoism. In the hybrid of [[post-structuralism]] and anarchism called [[post-anarchism]], [[Saul Newman]] has written on Stirner and his similarities to post-structuralism. [[Insurrectionary anarchism]] also has an important relationship with Stirner as can be seen in the work of Wolfi Landstreicher and [[Alfredo Bonanno]] who has also written on him in works such as ''Max Stirner'' and ''Max Stirner and Anarchism''.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bonanno |first1=Alfredo M. |title=Max Stirner und der Anarchismus |date=1996 |publisher=Anares |location=Bern |isbn=3-905052-61-X }}</ref>

==== Free love, homosexuals and feminists ====
{{See also|Anarchism and issues related to love and sex}}
German Stirnerist Adolf Brand produced the homosexual periodical ''Der Eigene'' in 1896. This was the first ongoing homosexual publication in the world<ref>[[Karl Heinrich Ulrichs]] had begun a journal called ''Prometheus'' in 1870, but only one issue was published. Kennedy, Hubert, ''Karl Heinrich Ulrichs: First Theorist of Homosexuality'', In: 'Science and Homosexualities', ed. Vernon Rosario. New York: Routledge, 1997, pp. 26–45.</ref> and ran until 1931. The name was taken from the writings of Stirner (who had greatly influenced the young Brand) and refers to Stirner's concept of "[[self-ownership]]" of the individual. Another early homosexual activist influenced by Stirner was John Henry Mackay. Feminists influenced by Stirner include anarchist Emma Goldman, as well as [[Dora Marsden]] who founded the journals ''[[The Freewoman]], [[The New Freewoman]]'', and [[The Egoist (periodical)|''The Egoist'']]. Stirner also influenced [[free love]] and [[polyamory]] propagandist [[Émile Armand]] in the context of [[Individualist anarchism in Europe#France|French individualist anarchism]] of the early 20th century which is known for "[t]he call of nudist [[naturism]], the strong defense of birth control methods, the idea of "unions of egoists" with the sole justification of sexual practices".<ref name="frenchexperimentation">Xavier Diez. [http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2044944 "La insumisión voluntaria. El anarquismo individualista español durante la dictadura y la Segunda República"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220143610/https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2044944 |date=20 December 2019 }}.</ref>

==== Post-structuralism ====
{{see also|Post-anarchism|Post-structuralism}}
In his book ''[[Specters of Marx]]'', influential French poststructuralist thinker [[Jacques Derrida]] dealt with Stirner and his relationship with Marx while also analysing Stirner's concept of "specters" or "spooks".<ref>[[Jacques Derrida]]. ''[[Specters of Marx]]''. Routledge. 1994.</ref> [[Gilles Deleuze]], another key thinker associated with post-structuralism, mentions Stirner briefly in his book ''[[The Logic of Sense]]''.<ref>"Human or divine, as Stirner said, the predicates are the same whether they belong analytically to the divine being, or whether they are synthetically bound to the human form" (Gilles Deleuze. ''[[The Logic of Sense]]''. Continuum. 2004). p. 122.</ref> Saul Newman calls Stirner a proto-[[Post-structuralism|poststructuralist]] who on the one hand had essentially anticipated modern post-structuralists such as [[Michel Foucault|Foucault]], [[Jacques Lacan|Lacan]], Deleuze and Derrida, but on the other had already transcended them, thus providing what they were unable to—i.e. a ground for a [[non-essentialist]] critique of present liberal capitalist society. This is particularly evident in Stirner's identification of the self with a "creative nothing", a thing that cannot be bound by ideology, inaccessible to representation in language.

=== Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels ===
Friedrich Engels commented on Stirner in poetry at the time of ''Die Freien'':
{{poem quote|Look at Stirner, look at him, the peaceful enemy of all constraint.
For the moment, he is still drinking beer,
Soon he will be drinking blood as though it were water.
When others cry savagely "down with the kings"
Stirner immediately supplements "down with the laws also."
Stirner full of dignity proclaims;
You bend your willpower and you dare to call yourselves free.
You become accustomed to slavery
Down with dogmatism, down with law.<ref>Henri Arvon, Aux sources de 1'existentialisme Max Stirner (Paris, 1954), p. 14.</ref>}}

Engels once even recalled at how they were "great friends" (''Duzbrüder'').<ref name="autogenerated2" /> In November 1844, Engels wrote a letter to Karl Marx in which he first reported a visit to Moses Hess in [[Cologne]] and then went on to note that during this visit Hess had given him a press copy of a new book by Stirner, ''The Unique and Its Property''. In his letter to Marx, Engels promised to send a copy of the book to him, for it certainly deserved their attention as Stirner "had obviously, among the 'Free Ones', the most talent, independence and diligence."<ref name="autogenerated2"/> To begin with, Engels was enthusiastic about the book and expressed his opinions freely in letters to Marx:
{{blockquote|But what is true in his principle, we, too, must accept. And what is true is that before we can be active in any cause we must make it our own, egoistic cause—and that in this sense, quite aside from any material expectations, we are communists in virtue of our egoism, that out of egoism we want to be human beings and not merely individuals.<ref>Zwischen 18 and 25, pp. 237–238.</ref>}}

Later, Marx and Engels wrote a major criticism of Stirner's work. The number of pages Marx and Engels devote to attacking Stirner in the unexpurgated text of ''The German Ideology'' exceeds the total of Stirner's written works.<ref>[http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Marx,+Karl/Die+deutsche+Ideologie/I.+Band%3A+%5BKritik+der+neuesten+deutschen+Philosophie+in+ihren+Repr%C3%A4sentanten+Feuerbach,+B.+Bauer+und+Stirner%5D/III.+Sankt+Max "Chapter ''Sankt Max'' in ''Die deutsche Ideologie''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110929113759/http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Marx,+Karl/Die+deutsche+Ideologie/I.+Band%3A+%5BKritik+der+neuesten+deutschen+Philosophie+in+ihren+Repr%C3%A4sentanten+Feuerbach,+B.+Bauer+und+Stirner%5D/III.+Sankt+Max |date=29 September 2011 }}.</ref> In the book Stirner is derided as ''Sankt Max'' (Saint Max) and as ''Sancho'' (a reference to Cervantes' [[Sancho Panza]]). As [[Isaiah Berlin]] has described it, Stirner "is pursued through five hundred pages of heavy-handed mockery and insult."<ref>I. Berlin, Karl Marx (New York, 1963), 143.</ref> The book was written in 1845–1846, but it was not published until 1932. Marx's lengthy ferocious [[polemic]] against Stirner has since been considered an important turning point in Marx's intellectual development from [[idealism]] to [[materialism]]. It has been argued that [[historical materialism]] was Marx's method of reconciling communism with a Stirnerite rejection of morality.<ref name="Lobkowicz 1970">{{cite book|last=Lobkowicz|first=Nicolas|year=1970|chapter=Karl Marx and Max Stirner|title=Demythologizing Marxism|pages=64–95|edition=illustrated|location=Heidelberg|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-9024702121 |doi=10.1007/978-94-010-3185-1_3|doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 }}</ref><ref name="Stedman-Jones 2002">Stedman-Jones, Gareth (2002). "Introduction". In Engels, Friedrich; Marx, Karl. ''The Communist Manifesto'' (illustrated, reprinted, revised ed.). London: Penguin Adult. {{ISBN|978-0140447576}}.</ref><ref name="Alexander">{{cite journal|last=Alexander|first=Green|url=http://consciousegoism.6te.net/pdfs/nonserviam/23.pdf|title=Stirner & Marx – Max Stirner: A Biographical Sketch|journal=Non Serviam|volume=1|issue=23|pages=5–42|access-date=8 May 2020|archive-date=20 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200420153640/http://consciousegoism.6te.net/pdfs/nonserviam/23.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Possible influence on Friedrich Nietzsche ===
{{main|Relationship between Friedrich Nietzsche and Max Stirner}}
The ideas of Stirner and Friedrich Nietzsche have often been compared and many authors have discussed apparent similarities in their writings, sometimes raising the question of influence.<ref>Albert Levy, ''Stirner and Nietzsche'', Paris, 1904; Robert Schellwien, ''Max Stirner and Friedrich Nietzsche'', 1892; H.L. Mencken, ''The Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche'', 1908; K. Löwith, From Hegel To Nietzsche New York, 1964, p. 187; R. A. Nicholls, "Beginnings of the Nietzsche Vogue in Germany", in ''Modern Philology'', Vol. 56, No. 1, August 1958, pp. 24–37; T. A. Riley, "Anti-Statism in German Literature, as Exemplified by the Work of John Henry Mackay", in ''PMLA'', Vol. 62, No. 3, September 1947, pp. 828–843; Seth Taylor, ''Left Wing Nietzscheans, The Politics of German Expressionism 1910–1920'', p. 144, 1990, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin/New York; Gilles Deleuze, ''Nietzsche et la Philosophy'', Presses Universitaires de France, 1962; R. C. Solomon and K. M. Higgins, ''The Age of German Idealism'', p. 300, Routledge, 1993.</ref> During the early years of Nietzsche's emergence as a well-known figure in Germany, the only thinker discussed in connection with his ideas more often than Stirner was [[Arthur Schopenhauer]].<ref>While discussion of possible influence has never ceased entirely, the period of most intense discussion occurred between 1892 and 1900 in the German-speaking world. During this time, the most comprehensive account of Nietzsche's reception in the German language, the 4-volume work of Richard Frank Krummel called ''Nietzsche und der deutsche Geist'', indicates 83 entries discussing Stirner and Nietzsche. The only thinker more frequently discussed in connection with Nietzsche during this time is Schopenhauer, with about twice the number of entries. Discussion steadily declines thereafter, but it is still significant. Nietzsche and Stirner show 58 entries between 1901 and 1918. From 1919 to 1945, there are 28 entries regarding Nietzsche and Stirner.</ref> It is certain that Nietzsche read about ''The Unique and Its Property'', which was mentioned in Friedrich Albert Lange's ''History of Materialism'' and [[Karl Robert Eduard von Hartmann]]'s ''Philosophy of the Unconscious'', both of which Nietzsche knew well.<ref>"Apart from the information which can be gained from the annotations, the library (and the books Nietzsche read) shows us the extent, and the bias, of Nietzsche's knowledge of many fields, such as evolution and cosmology. Still more obvious, the library shows us the extent and the bias of Nietzsche's knowledge about many persons to whom he so often refers with ad hominem statements in his works. This includes not only such important figures as Mill, Kant, and Pascal but also such minor ones (for Nietzsche) as Max Stirner and William James who are both discussed in books Nietzsche read". T. H. Brobjer, "Nietzsche's Reading and Private Library", 1885–1889, in ''Journal of the History of Ideas'', Vol. 58, No. 4, October 1997, pp. 663–693; Stack believes it is doubtful that Nietzsche read Stirner, but notes "he was familiar with the summary of his theory he found in Lange's history." George J. Stack, ''Lange and Nietzsche'', Walter de Gruyter, 1983, p. 276.</ref> However, there is no indication that he actually read it as no mention of Stirner is known to exist anywhere in Nietzsche's publications, papers or correspondence.<ref>Albert Levy, ''Stirner and Nietzsche'', Paris, 1904.</ref> In 2002, a biographical discovery revealed it is probable that Nietzsche had encountered Stirner's ideas before he read Hartmann and Lange in October 1865, when he met with Eduard Mushacke, an old friend of Stirner's during the 1840s.<ref>[http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/ennietzsche.html Bernd A. Laska: Nietzsche's initial crisis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020022410/http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/ennietzsche.html |date=20 October 2017 }}. In: Germanic Notes and Reviews, vol. 33, n. 2, fall/Herbst 2002, pp. 109–133.</ref>

As soon as Nietzsche's work began to reach a wider audience, the question of whether he owed a debt of influence to Stirner was raised. As early as 1891 when Nietzsche was still alive, though incapacitated by mental illness, Hartmann went so far as to suggest that he had plagiarized Stirner.<ref>Eduard von Hartmann, Nietzsches "neue Moral", in ''Preussische Jahrbücher'', 67. Jg., Heft 5, May 1891, S. 501–521; augmented version with more express reproach of plagiarism in: ''Ethische Studien'', Leipzig, Haacke 1898, pp. 34–69.</ref> By the turn of the century, the belief that Nietzsche had been influenced by Stirner was so widespread that it became something of a commonplace at least in Germany, prompting one observer to note in 1907 that "Stirner's influence in modern Germany has assumed astonishing proportions, and moves in general parallel with that of Nietzsche. The two thinkers are regarded as exponents of essentially the same philosophy."<ref>This author believes that one should be careful in comparing the two men. However, he notes: "It is this intensive nuance of individualism that appeared to point from Nietzsche to Max Stirner, the author of the remarkable work ''Der Einzige und sein Eigentum''. Stirner's influence in modern Germany has assumed astonishing proportions, and moves in general parallel with that of Nietzsche. The two thinkers are regarded as exponents of essentially the same philosophy." O. Ewald, "German Philosophy in 1907", in ''The Philosophical Review'', Vol. 17, No. 4, July 1908, pp. 400–426.</ref>

From the beginning of what was characterized as "great debate"<ref>[in the last years of the nineteenth century] "The question of whether Nietzsche had read Stirner was the subject of great debate" R.A. Nicholls, "Beginnings of the Nietzsche Vogue in Germany", in ''Modern Philology'', Vol. 56, No. 1, August 1958, pp. 29–30.</ref> regarding Stirner's possible positive influence on Nietzsche, serious problems with the idea were nonetheless noted.<ref>Levy pointed out in 1904 that the similarities in the writing of the two men appeared superficial. Albert Levy, ''Stirner and Nietzsche'', Paris, 1904</ref> By the middle of the 20th century, if Stirner was mentioned at all in works on Nietzsche, the idea of influence was often dismissed outright or abandoned as unanswerable.<ref>R. A. Nicholls, "Beginnings of the Nietzsche Vogue in Germany", in ''Modern Philology'', Vol. 56, No. 1, August 1958, pp. 24–37.</ref> However, the idea that Nietzsche was influenced in some way by Stirner continues to attract a significant minority, perhaps because it seems necessary to explain the oft-noted (though arguably superficial) similarities in their writings.<ref>"Stirner, like Nietzsche, who was clearly influenced by him, has been interpreted in many different ways," [[Saul Newman]], ''[[From Bakunin to Lacan: Anti-authoritarianism and the Dislocation of Power]]'', Lexington Books, 2001, p. 56; "We do not even know for sure that Nietzsche had read Stirner. Yet, the similarities are too striking to be explained away." R. A. Samek, ''The Meta Phenomenon'', p. 70, New York, 1981; Tom Goyens, (referring to Stirner's book ''The Ego and His Own'') "The book influenced Friedrich Nietzsche, and even Marx and Engels devoted some attention to it." T. Goyens, ''[[Beer and Revolution|Beer and Revolution: The German Anarchist Movement In New York City]]'', p. 197, Illinois, 2007.</ref> In any case, the most significant problems with the theory of possible Stirner influence on Nietzsche are not limited to the difficulty in establishing whether the one man knew of or read the other. They also consist in determining if Stirner in particular might have been a meaningful influence on a man as widely read as Nietzsche.<ref>"We have every reason to suppose that Nietzsche had a profound knowledge of the Hegelian movement, from Hegel to Stirner himself. The philosophical learning of an author is not assessed by the number of quotations, nor by the always fanciful and conjectural check lists of libraries, but by the apologetic or polemical directions of his work itself." Gilles Deleuze (translated by Hugh Tomlinson), ''[[Nietzsche and Philosophy]]'', 1962 (2006 reprint, pp. 153–154).</ref>

=== Rudolf Steiner ===
The individualist anarchist orientation of Rudolf Steiner's early philosophy—before he turned to [[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|theosophy]] around 1900—has strong parallels to and was admittedly influenced by Stirner's conception of the ego, for which Steiner claimed to have provided a philosophical foundation.<ref>Guido Giacomo Preparata, "Perishable Money in a Threefold Commonwealth: Rudolf Steiner and the Social Economics of an Anarchist Utopia". ''Review of Radical Economics'' 38/4 (Fall 2006). pp. 619–648.</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Alterity]]
* [[Anarchism in Germany]]
* [[Antihumanism]]
* [[Contemporary anarchism]]
* [[Difference (philosophy)]]
* [[Différance]]
* [[Egoist anarchism]]
* [[Enlightened self-interest]]
* [[Ethical solipsism]]
* [[Hauntology]]
* [[Individualist anarchism]]
* [[Individualist anarchism in Europe]]
* [[Other (philosophy)]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== References ==
* Stirner, Max: ''Der Einzige und sein Eigentum'' (1845 [October 1844]). Stuttgart: Reclam-Verlag, 1972ff; English translation ''[[The Ego and Its Own]]'' (1907), ed. David Leopold, Cambridge/ New York: CUP 1995.
* Stirner, Max: "Recensenten Stirners" (September 1845). In: ''Parerga, Kritiken, Repliken'', Bernd A. Laska, ed., Nürnberg: LSR-Verlag, 1986; English translation ''Stirner's Critics'' (abridged), see below.
* [http://www.panarchy.org/stirner/liberalism.html Max Stirner, Political Liberalism] (1845).

== Further reading ==
* Max Stirner's 'Der Einzige und sein Eigentum' im Spiegel der zeitgenössischen deutschen Kritik. Eine Textauswahl (1844–1856). Hg. Kurt W. Fleming. Leipzig: Verlag Max-Stirner-Archiv 2001 ([http://www.max-stirner-archiv-leipzig.de/stirneriana.html#stirneriana20 Stirneriana]).
* Arena, Leonardo V., Note ai margini del nulla, ebook, 2013.
* Arvon, Henri, Aux Sources de l'existentialisme, Paris: P.U.F. 1954.
* Essbach, Wolfgang, Gegenzüge. Der Materialismus des Selbst. Eine Studie über die Kontroverse zwischen Max Stirner und Karl Marx. Frankfurt: Materialis 1982.
* {{cite journal|last1=Feiten|first1=Elmo|title=Would the Real Max Stirner Please Stand Up?|journal=Anarchist Developments in Cultural Studies|date=2013|issue=1|url=https://journals.uvic.ca/index.php/adcs/article/view/17141|issn=1923-5615}}
* Helms, Hans G, Die Ideologie der anonymen Gesellschaft. Max Stirner 'Einziger' und der Fortschritt des demokratischen Selbstbewusstseins vom Vormärz bis zur Bundesrepublik, Köln: Du Mont Schauberg, 1966.
* Koch, Andrew M., "Max Stirner: The Last Hegelian or the First Poststructuralist". In: Anarchist Studies, vol. 5 (1997) pp.&nbsp;95–108.
* Laska, Bernd A., Ein dauerhafter Dissident. Eine Wirkungsgeschichte des Einzigen, Nürnberg: LSR-Verlag 1996 ([http://www.lsr-projekt.de/msstudien.html#ss2 TOC, index]).
* Laska, Bernd A., Ein heimlicher Hit. Editionsgeschichte des "Einzigen". Nürnberg: LSR-Verlag 1994 ([http://www.lsr-projekt.de/msstudien.html#ss1 abstract]).
* [[Peter Marshall (author, born 1946)|Marshall, Peter H.]] "Max Stirner" in "[[Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism]] "(London: HarperCollins, 1992).
* Moggach, Douglas; De Ridder, Widukind, "Hegelianism in Restoration Prussia, 1841–1848: Freedom, Humanism and 'Anti-Humanism' in Young Hegelian Thought". In: Herzog, Lisa (ed.): Hegel's Thought in Europe: Currents, Crosscurrents and Undercurrents. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013, pp.&nbsp;71–92 ([https://books.google.com/books?id=CdnRAQAAQBAJ&dq=hegel%27s+thought+in+europe&pg=PT5 Google Books]).
* [[Saul Newman|Newman, Saul]] (ed.), Max Stirner (Critical Explorations in Contemporary Political Thought), Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011 ([https://libcom.org/files/Newman_Max_Stirner.pdf#ss1 full book]).
* Newman, Saul, Power and Politics in Poststructural Thought. London and New York: Routledge 2005.
* Parvulescu, C. [https://www.academia.edu/38180363/The_Individualist_Anarchism_of_Early_Interwar_Germany "The Individualist Anarchist Discourse of Early Interwar Germany"]. Cluj University Press, 2018 (full book).
* Paterson, R. W. K., The Nihilistic Egoist: Max Stirner, Oxford: Oxford University Press 1971.
* Spiessens, Jeff. ''The Radicalism of Departure. A Reassessment of Max Stirner's Hegelianism'', Cambridge Scholars Publishing: Newcastle upon Tyne, 2018.
* {{cite journal|last1=Stepelevich|first1=Lawrence S.|author-link=Lawrence Stepelevich|title=Max Stirner as Hegelian|journal=[[Journal of the History of Ideas]]|volume=46|issue=4|pages=597–614|date=1985a|doi=10.2307/2709548|issn=0022-5037|jstor=2709548}}
* Stepelevich, Lawrence S., Ein Menschenleben. Hegel and Stirner". In: Moggach, Douglas (ed.): The New Hegelians. Philosophy and Politics in the Hegelian School. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006, pp.&nbsp;166–176.
* Welsh, John F. ''Max Stirner's Dialectical Egoism: A New Interpretation.'' Lexington Books. 2010.
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Wilkinson|first=Will|author-link=Will Wilkinson|editor-first=Ronald|editor-last=Hamowy|editor-link=Ronald Hamowy|encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism|chapter=Stirner, Max (1806–1856)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC|year=2008|publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|Sage]]; [[Cato Institute]]|location=Thousand Oaks, CA|doi=10.4135/9781412965811.n300|isbn=978-1412965804|oclc=750831024|lccn= 2008009151|pages=493–494|url-access=subscription}}
* Di Mascio, Carlo, ''Stirner Giuspositivista. Rileggendo l'Unico e la sua proprietà'', 2 ed., Edizioni Del Faro, Trento, 2015, p.&nbsp;253, {{ISBN|978-88-6537-378-1}}.

== External links ==
* {{wikisource author-inline}}
* {{wikiquote-inline}}
* {{commons-inline}}

=== General ===
* {{cite SEP|url-id=max-stirner|title=Max Stirner}}, an extensive introduction
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20160408143140/http://i-studies.com/ Svein Olav Nybergs website on Max Stirner], with extensive links to texts and references
* [http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/en.html Max Stirner within the LSR project (English section)]
* [http://www.projektmaxstirner.de/project.htm Max Stirner Project] by H. Ibrahim Türkdogan
* [http://consciousegoism.6te.net/ Library of Egoism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308125100/http://consciousegoism.6te.net/ |date=8 March 2022 }}, an extensive depisitory of free books, essays and journals concerning egoism

=== Relationship with other philosophers ===
* [http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/eninnuce.html "Max Stirner, a durable dissident – in a nutshell – 'How Marx and Nietzsche suppressed their colleague Max Stirner and why he has intellectually survived them']
* [http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/german-ideology/ch03d.htm#c.1.5 ''Stirner Delighted in His Construction''] – "loves miracles, but can only perform a logical miracle", by Karl Marx
* [http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/ennietzsche.html Nietzsche's initial crisis] due to an encounter with Stirner's "The Ego", by Bernd A. Laska (2002)
* "At the End of the Path of Doubt: Max Stirner", By Lawrence S. Stepelevich (Owl of Minerva 41:1–2 (2009–2010) pp.&nbsp;85–106)

=== Texts ===
* {{Gutenberg author|id=37096|name=Max Stirner}}
* {{Internet Archive author|sname=Max Stirner}}
* {{Librivox author|id=2520}}
* [http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Stirner,+Max/Der+Einzige+und+sein+Eigentum Online book ''Der Einzige und sein Eigentum'']
* [http://www.lsr-projekt.de/msee.html The complete original text in German of ''Der Einzige und sein Eigentum'']
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051217135357/http://tmh.floonet.net/teaho/theego0.html The complete English edition of "The Ego and his Own"], in the translation of Steven T. Byington.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110712234811/http://i-studies.com/library/articles/shorter.shtml Some of Stirner's illuminating "Shorter Essays"], translated into English
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20161117035609/http://www.lsr-projekt.de/poly/enrec.html Recensenten Stirners / Stirner's Critics] bilingual: full text in German / abridged text in English (trans. Frederick M. Gordon)
* [http://calpress.org/2013/08/04/stirners-critics-book-project/ Stirner's Critics by Max Stirner translated by Wolfi Landstreicher, with an introduction by Jason McQuinn] (2013 revision of the only full-text English translation of both "Stirner's Critics" and "The Philosophical Reactionaries" by Wolfi Landstreicher published by CAL Press)
* [http://www.revoltlib.com/?id=21 Archive of texts on Stirner at RevoltLib]

{{Stirner}}
{{Social and political philosophy}}
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