View source for Andrew Jackson

{{Short description|President of the United States from 1829 to 1837}}
{{About|the seventh president of the United States}}
{{Redirect|President Jackson|the attack transport|USS President Jackson{{!}}USS ''President Jackson''|the class of attack transports|President Jackson-class attack transport{{!}}''President Jackson''–class attack transport}}
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{{Use American English|date=January 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates |date=September 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name                = Andrew Jackson
| image               = Andrew jackson head (cropped).jpg
| caption             = Portrait {{circa|1835}}
| alt                 = A portrait of Andrew Jackson, serious in posture and expression, with a grey-and-white haired widow's peak, wearing a red-collared black cape.
| order               = 7th
| office              = President of the United States
| vicepresident       = {{plainlist|
* {{longitem|[[John C. Calhoun]]<br />(1829–1832)}}
* ''None'' (1832–1833){{efn|Vice President Calhoun resigned from office. As this was prior to the adoption of the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-fifth Amendment]] in 1967, a vacancy in the office of vice president was not filled until the next ensuing election and inauguration.}}
* {{longitem|Martin Van Buren<br />(1833–1837)}}
}}
| term_start          = March 4, 1829
| term_end            = March 4, 1837
| predecessor         = [[John Quincy Adams]]
| successor           = [[Martin Van Buren]]
| jr/sr1              = United States Senator
| state1              = [[Tennessee]]
| term_start1         = March 4, 1823
| term_end1           = October 14, 1825
| predecessor1        = [[John Williams (Tennessee politician)|John Williams]]
| successor1          = [[Hugh Lawson White]]
| term_start2         = September 26, 1797
| term_end2           = April 1, 1798
| predecessor2        = [[William Cocke]]
| successor2          = [[Daniel Smith (surveyor)|Daniel Smith]]
| office3             = [[List of governors of Florida|Federal Military Commissioner of Florida]]
| appointer3          = [[James Monroe]]
| term_start3         = March 10, 1821
| term_end3           = December 31, 1821
| predecessor3        = {{plainlist|
* [[José María Coppinger]] {{awrap|(Spanish East Florida)}}
* [[José María Callava]] {{awrap|(Spanish West Florida)}}
}}
| successor3          = [[William Pope Duval]] {{awrap|(as Territorial Governor)}}
| office4             = [[List of justices of the Tennessee Supreme Court|Justice of the Tennessee Superior Court]]
| appointer4          = [[John Sevier]]
| term_start4         = June 1798
| term_end4           = June 1804
| predecessor4        = [[Howell Tatum]]
| successor4          = [[John Overton (judge)|John Overton]]
| state5              = Tennessee
| district5           = {{ushr|TN|AL|at-large}}
| term_start5         = December 4, 1796
| term_end5           = September 26, 1797
| predecessor5        = [[James White (Southwest Territory politician)|James White]] (Delegate from the [[Southwest Territory]])
| successor5          = [[William C. C. Claiborne]]
| birth_date          = {{birth date|1767|3|15}}
| birth_place         = [[Waxhaws|Waxhaw Settlement]] between [[Province of North Carolina|North Carolina]] and [[Province of South Carolina|South Carolina]], British America
| death_date          = {{death date and age|1845|6|8|1767|3|15}}
| death_place         = [[Nashville, Tennessee]], U.S.
| resting_place       = [[The Hermitage (Nashville, Tennessee)|The Hermitage]]
| party               = [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] (1828–1845)
| otherparty          = {{plainlist|
* [[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]] (before 1825)
* [[Jacksonian democracy|Jacksonian]] (1825–1828)
}}
| spouse              = {{marriage|[[Rachel Jackson|Rachel Donelson]]|January 18, 1794|December 22, 1828|end=died}}
| children            = [[Andrew Jackson Jr.]]
| occupation          = {{hlist|Politician|lawyer|general}}
| awards              = {{plainlist|
* [[Congressional Gold Medal]]
* [[Thanks of Congress]]
}}
| signature           = Andrew Jackson Signature-.svg
| signature_alt       = Cursive signature in ink
| allegiance          = United States
| branch              = [[United States Army]]
| rank                = {{plainlist|
* [[Major general (United States)|Major general]] (U.S. Army)
* Major general ([[United States Volunteers|U.S. Volunteers]])
* Major general ([[Tennessee State Guard|Tennessee militia]])
}}
| unit                = [[List of South Carolina militia units in the American Revolution|South Carolina Militia]] (1780–81)<br>[[Tennessee State Guard|Tennessee Militia]] (1792–1821)<br>[[United States Army]] (1814-1821)
| military_blank1     = Wars
| battles             = {{collapsible list|title = {{nobold|See list}}|
{{tree list}}
* [[American Revolutionary War]]
** [[Battle of Hanging Rock]]
* [[Creek War]]
** [[Battle of Talladega]]
** [[Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek]]
** [[Battle of Horseshoe Bend]]
* [[War of 1812]]
** [[Battle of Pensacola (1814)|Battle of Pensacola]]
** [[Battle of New Orleans]]
* [[Seminole Wars#First Seminole War|First Seminole War]]
** [[San Marcos de Apalache Historic State Park|Capture of St. Marks]]
** [[Fort Barrancas#First battles under U.S. control|Siege of Fort Barrancas]]
{{tree list/end}}
}}
}}
'''Andrew Jackson''' (March 15, 1767 – June 8, 1845) was the seventh [[president of the United States]] from 1829 to 1837. Before [[Presidency of Andrew Jackson|his presidency]], he rose to fame as a general in the [[U.S. Army]] and served in both houses of the [[U.S. Congress]].  [[Jacksonian democracy|His political philosophy]] became the basis for the [[History of the Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]. Jackson's legacy is controversial: he has been praised as an advocate for working Americans and [[Nullification crisis|preserving the union of states]], and criticized for his racist policies, particularly towards [[Native Americans in the United States|Native Americans]].

Jackson was born in the colonial [[Carolinas]] before the [[American Revolutionary War]]. He became a [[American frontier|frontier]] lawyer and married [[Rachel Donelson Jackson|Rachel Donelson Robards]]. He briefly served in the [[U.S. House of Representatives]] and the [[U.S. Senate]], representing [[Tennessee]]. After resigning, he served as a justice on the [[Tennessee Supreme Court#History|Tennessee Superior Court]] from 1798 until 1804. Jackson purchased a plantation later known as [[The Hermitage (Nashville, Tennessee)|the Hermitage]], becoming a wealthy [[Planter class|planter]] who profited off the forced labor of hundreds of [[Slavery in the United States|enslaved]] African Americans during his lifetime. In 1801, he was appointed colonel of the Tennessee militia and was elected its commander. He led troops during the [[Creek War]] of 1813–1814, winning the [[Battle of Horseshoe Bend]] and negotiating the [[Treaty of Fort Jackson]] that required the indigenous [[Muscogee|Creek]] population to surrender vast tracts of present-day Alabama and Georgia. In the concurrent [[War of 1812|war against the British]], Jackson's victory at the [[Battle of New Orleans]] in 1815 made him a national hero. He later commanded U.S. forces in the [[Seminole Wars#First Seminole War|First Seminole War]], which led to the [[Adams–Onís Treaty|annexation]] of Florida from Spain. Jackson briefly served as Florida's first territorial governor before returning to the Senate. He ran for president in [[1824 United States presidential election|1824]]. He won a [[Plurality (voting)|plurality]] of the popular and electoral vote, but no candidate won the electoral majority. With the help of [[Henry Clay]], the House of Representatives elected [[John Quincy Adams]] as president. Jackson's supporters alleged that there was a "[[corrupt bargain]]" between Adams and Clay (who joined Adams' cabinet) and began creating a new political coalition that became the [[History of the United States Democratic Party|Democratic Party]] in the 1830s.

Jackson ran again in [[1828 United States presidential election|1828]], defeating Adams in a landslide despite issues such as his slave trading and his "irregular" marriage. In 1830, he signed the [[Indian Removal Act]]. This act, which has been described as [[ethnic cleansing]], [[Indian removal|displaced]] tens of thousands of Native Americans from their ancestral homelands east of the Mississippi and resulted in thousands of deaths, in what has become known as the [[Trail of Tears]]. Jackson faced a challenge to the integrity of the federal union when South Carolina threatened to nullify a high [[Tariff of Abominations|protective tariff]] set by the federal government. He [[Force Bill|threatened]] the use of military force to enforce the tariff, but the crisis was defused when it was [[Tariff of 1833|amended]]. In 1832, he vetoed a bill by Congress to reauthorize the [[Second Bank of the United States]], arguing that it was a corrupt institution. After a lengthy [[Bank War|struggle]], the Bank was dismantled. In 1835, Jackson became the only president to pay off the [[National debt of the United States|national debt]]. After leaving office, Jackson supported the presidencies of [[Martin Van&nbsp;Buren]] and [[James K. Polk]], as well as the [[annexation of Texas]].

Contemporary opinions about Jackson are often polarized. Supporters characterize him as a defender of democracy and the [[U.S. Constitution]], while critics point to his reputation as a [[demagogue]] who ignored the law when it suited him. [[Scholarly rankings of U.S. presidents]] historically rated Jackson's presidency as above average. Since the late 20th century, his reputation declined, and in the 21st century his placement in rankings of presidents fell.

==Early life==

=== Childhood ===
Andrew Jackson was born on March 15, 1767, in the [[Waxhaws]] region of the [[Carolinas]]. His parents were [[Scotch-Irish Americans|Scots-Irish]] colonists Andrew Jackson and Elizabeth Hutchinson, [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]] who had emigrated from [[Ulster]], Ireland, in 1765.{{sfn|Brands|2005|pp=11–15}} Jackson's father was born in [[Carrickfergus]], [[County Antrim]], around 1738,{{sfn|Gullan|2004|pp=xii; 308}} and his ancestors had crossed into Northern Ireland from Scotland after the [[Battle of the Boyne]] in 1690.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=2}} Jackson had two older brothers who came with his parents from Ireland, Hugh (born 1763) and Robert (born 1764).{{sfn|Nowlan|2012|p=257}}{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=2}} Elizabeth had a strong hatred of the British that she passed on to her sons.{{sfn|Meacham|2008|p=11}}

Jackson's exact birthplace is unclear. Jackson's father died at the age of 29 in February 1767, three weeks before his son Andrew was born;{{sfn|Nowlan|2012|p=257}} afterwards, Elizabeth and her three sons moved in with her sister and brother-in-law, Jane and James Crawford.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=16}} Jackson later stated that he was born on the Crawford plantation,{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=4–5}} which is in [[Lancaster County, South Carolina]], but second-hand evidence suggests that he might have been born at another uncle's home in North Carolina.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=16}}

When Jackson was young, Elizabeth thought he might become a minister and paid to have him schooled by a local clergyman.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=16}} He learned to read, write, and work with numbers, and was exposed to Greek and Latin,{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=6}} but he was too strong-willed and hot-tempered for the ministry.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=16}}

=== Revolutionary War ===
[[File:The Brave Boy of the Waxhalls2.jpg|thumb|''The Brave Boy of the Waxhaws'', an 1876 [[Currier and Ives]] lithograph depicting the story of a young Andrew Jackson defending himself from a [[British Army during the American Revolutionary War|British]] officer during the [[American Revolutionary War]]|alt=Sketch of an officer preparing to strike a boy with a sword. The boy holds out his arm in self-defense.]]
Jackson and his older brothers, Hugh and Robert, served on the [[Patriot (American Revolution)|Patriot]] side against British forces during the [[American Revolutionary War]]. Hugh served under Colonel [[William Richardson Davie]], dying from [[heat exhaustion]] after the [[Battle of Stono Ferry]] in June 1779.{{sfn|Booraem|2001|p=47}} After anti-British sentiment intensified in the Southern Colonies following the [[Battle of Waxhaws]] in May 1780, Elizabeth encouraged Andrew and Robert to participate in militia drills.{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=15}} They served as couriers,{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=24}} and were present at the [[Battle of Hanging Rock]] in August 1780.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=17}}

Andrew and Robert were captured in April 1781 when the British occupied the home of a Crawford relative. A British officer demanded to have his boots polished. Andrew refused, and the officer slashed him with a sword, leaving him with scars on his left hand and head. Robert also refused and was struck a blow on the head.{{sfnm|Meacham|2008|1p=12|Remini|1977|2p=21}} The brothers were taken to a [[prisoner-of-war camp]] in [[Camden, South Carolina]], where they became malnourished and contracted smallpox.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=15}} In late spring, the brothers were released to their mother in a [[prisoner exchange]].{{sfn|Booraem|2001|p= 104}} Robert died two days after arriving home, but Elizabeth was able to nurse Andrew back to health.{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=23–24}} Once he recovered, Elizabeth volunteered to nurse American [[Prisoner of war|prisoners of war]] housed in British [[prison ship]]s in the harbor of [[Charleston, South Carolina]].{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=17}} She contracted [[cholera]] and died soon afterwards.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=24}} The war made Jackson an orphan at age 14{{sfn|Brands|2005|pp=30–31}} and increased his hatred for the values he associated with Britain, in particular [[aristocracy]] and political privilege.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=9}}

==Early career==
[[File:Jackson Marriage, pictorial history.jpg|alt=Black-and-white illustration showing a Protestant minister wearing in a cassockstanding between Andrew Jackson on the left and Rachel Donelson on the right. The two of them hold hands between then, showing the minister marrying them. An audience stands to the left, at the edge of the image.|thumb|An 1846 [[wood engraving]] by [[William Croome]] depicting Jackson's marriage to [[Rachel Jackson|Rachel Donelson]] in the 1847 ''Pictorial History of Andrew Jackson'' by John Frost]]

===Legal career and marriage===
{{Further|Robards–Donelson–Jackson relationship controversy}}
After the American Revolutionary War, Jackson worked as a saddler,{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=27}} briefly returned to school, and taught reading and writing to children.{{sfn|Booraem|2001|pp= 133, 136}} In 1784, he left the Waxhaws region for [[Salisbury, North Carolina]], where he [[reading law|studied law]] under attorney Spruce Macay.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=29}} He completed his training under [[John Stokes (North Carolina judge)|John Stokes]],{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=37}} and was admitted to the [[Bar examination in the United States|North Carolina bar]] in September 1787.<ref name="NC State Library">{{cite web |url=http://www.ncpedia.org/biography/jackson-andrew |title=Andrew Jackson |last=Case |first=Steven |date=2009 |publisher=State Library of North Carolina |access-date=July 20, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170618060525/http://www.ncpedia.org/biography/jackson-andrew |archive-date=June 18, 2017}}</ref> Shortly thereafter, his friend [[John McNairy]] helped him get appointed as a [[prosecuting attorney]] in the [[Washington District, North Carolina|Western District]] of North Carolina,{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=34}} which would later become the state of [[Tennessee]]. While traveling to assume his new position, Jackson stopped in [[Jonesborough, Tennessee|Jonesborough]]. While there, he bought his first slave, a woman who was around his age.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=37}} He also fought his first [[duel]], accusing another lawyer, [[Waightstill Avery]], of impugning his character. The duel ended with both men firing in the air.{{sfn|Booraem|2001|pp=190–191}}

Jackson began his new career in the frontier town of Nashville in 1788 and quickly moved up in [[social status]].{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=18}} He became a protégé of [[William Blount]], one of the most powerful men in the territory.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=19}} Jackson was appointed attorney general of the Mero District in 1791 and [[judge-advocate]] for the militia the following year.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=53}} He also got involved in land speculation,{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=87}} eventually forming a partnership with fellow lawyer [[John Overton (judge)|John Overton]].{{sfn|Clifton|1952|p=24}} Their partnership mainly dealt with claims made under a [[Confederation period#Western settlement|"land grab" act of 1783]] that opened [[Cherokee]] and [[Chickasaw]] territory to North Carolina's white residents.{{sfn|Durham|1990|pp=218–219}} Jackson also became a [[Andrew Jackson and the slave trade in the United States|slave trader]],{{sfn|Cheathem|2011|p=327}} transporting enslaved people for the [[Slave trade in the United States|interregional slave market]] between Nashville and the [[Natchez District]] of [[Spanish West Florida]] via the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Natchez Trace]].{{sfn|Remini|1991|p=[https://www.proquest.com/openview/1a72861ea0a0473316e0d956124c4e31/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=2029886 35]}}

While boarding at the home of Rachel Stockly Donelson, the widow of [[John Donelson]], Jackson became acquainted with their daughter, Rachel Donelson Robards. The younger Rachel was in an unhappy marriage with Captain [[Lewis Robards]], and the two were separated by 1789.{{sfn|Owsley|1977|pp=481–482}} After the separation, Jackson and Rachel became romantically involved,{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=63}} living together as husband and wife.{{sfn|Meacham|2008|pp=22–23}} Robards petitioned for divorce, which was granted in 1793 on the basis of Rachel's infidelity.{{sfnm|Howe|2007|1p=277|Remini|1977|2p=62}} The couple legally married in January 1794.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=65}} In 1796, they acquired their first plantation, [[Hunter's Hill (Tennessee)|Hunter's Hill]],{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=68}} on {{convert|640|acres|ha|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} of land near Nashville.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=73}}

===Early public career===
[[File:Tennesee circa 1810.jpg|thumb|Tennessee {{circa}} 1810. The eastern counties shaded in blue, the [[Mero District]] in green, and Native American lands in red.  The [[Natchez Trace]] from its northern terminus to Chickasaw Crossing where it leaves the state is shaded in gray.|alt=Map of Tennessee]]

Jackson became a member of the [[Democratic-Republican Party]], the dominant party in Tennessee.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=19}} He was elected as a delegate to the Tennessee [[Constituent assembly|constitutional convention]] in 1796.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=18–19}} When Tennessee achieved statehood that year, he was elected to be its [[U.S. representative]]. During his 10 months in Congress, Jackson argued against the [[Jay Treaty]], criticized [[George Washington]] for allegedly removing Democratic-Republicans from public office, and joined several other Democratic-Republican congressmen in voting against a resolution of thanks for Washington.{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=92–94}} He advocated for the right of Tennesseans to militarily oppose Native American interests.{{sfn|Brands|2005|pp=79–81}} The state legislature elected him to be a [[U.S. senator]] in 1797, but he resigned after serving only six months.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=112}}

In early 1798, Governor [[John Sevier]] appointed Jackson to be a judge of the [[Tennessee Superior Court]].{{sfn|Ely|1981|pp=144–145}} 
In 1802, he also became major general, or commander, of the [[Tennessee State Guard|Tennessee militia]], a position that was determined by a vote of the militia's officers. The vote was tied between Jackson and Sevier, a popular Revolutionary War veteran and former governor, but the governor, [[Archibald Roane]], broke the tie in Jackson's favor. Jackson later accused Sevier of fraud and bribery.{{sfn|Brands|2005|pp=104–105}} Sevier responded by impugning Rachel's honor, resulting in a shootout on a public street.{{sfn|Meacham|2008|p=25}} Soon afterwards, they met to duel, but parted without having fired at each other.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=123}}

===Planting career and slavery===
{{main|Andrew Jackson and slavery}}
{{further|Andrew Jackson and the slave trade in the United States}}

[[File:The Hermitage cabins 2022h.jpg|thumb|Reconstruction of one of the enslaved quarters at the [[Hermitage, Tennessee|Hermitage]] |alt= Two-door wooden cabin with stone fireplace and no windows]]

Jackson resigned his judgeship in 1804.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=21}} He had almost gone bankrupt when the land and mercantile speculations he had made on the basis of [[promissory notes]] fell apart in the wake of the [[Panic of 1796–1797]].{{sfnm|Howe|2007|1p=375|Sellers|1954|2pp=76–77}} He had to sell Hunter's Hill, as well as {{convert|25,000|acres|ha|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} of land he bought for speculation and bought a smaller {{convert|420|acre|0|sigfig=2|abbr=on|adj=on}} plantation near Nashville that he would call the Hermitage.{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=131–132}} He focused on recovering from his losses by becoming a successful [[Planter class|planter]] and [[merchant]].{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=131–132}} The Hermitage grew to {{convert|1000|acres|ha|sigfig=2|abbr=on}},{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=379}} making it one of the largest cotton-growing plantations in the state.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=21}}

Like most planters in the [[Southern United States]], Jackson used [[Slavery in the United States|slave labor]]. In 1804, Jackson had nine [[African Americans|African American]] slaves; by 1820, he had over 100; and by his death in 1845, he had over 150.<ref name="Hermitage_Slavery_2011">{{cite web|title=Andrew Jackson's Enslaved Laborers|url=http://www.thehermitage.com/mansion-grounds/farm/slavery |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912055314/http://www.thehermitage.com/mansion-grounds/farm/slavery|archive-date=September 12, 2014|access-date=April 13, 2017|publisher=The Hermitage}}</ref> Over his lifetime, he owned a total of 300 slaves.<ref>{{cite web|title=Enslaved Families: Understanding the Enslaved Families at the Hermitage|url=https://thehermitage.com/learn/slavery/enslaved-families/|website=thehermitage.com|ref=Enslaved Families Understanding the Enslaved Families at The Hermitage|access-date=August 23, 2022|archive-date=June 18, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220618122940/https://thehermitage.com/learn/slavery/enslaved-families/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Jackson subscribed to the [[Paternalism|paternalistic]] idea of slavery, which claimed that slave ownership was morally acceptable as long as slaves were treated with humanity and their basic needs were cared for.{{sfn|Warshauer|2006|p=224}} In practice, slaves were treated as a form of wealth whose productivity needed to be protected.{{sfn|Cheathem|2011|p=328–329}} Jackson directed harsh punishment for slaves who disobeyed or ran away.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|last1=Feller|first1=Daniel|author-link=Daniel Feller|last2=Mullin|first2=Marsha|date=August 1, 2019|title=The Enslaved Household of President Andrew Jackson|url=https://www.whitehousehistory.org/slavery-in-the-andrew-jackson-white-house|website=[[White House Historical Association]]}}</ref> For example, in an 1804 advertisement to recover a runaway slave, he offered "ten dollars extra, for every hundred lashes any person will give him" up to three hundred lashes—a number that would likely have been fatal.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite news|last=Brown|first=DeNeen L.|date=May 1, 2017|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2017/04/11/hunting-down-runaway-slaves-the-cruel-ads-of-andrew-jackson-and-the-master-class|title=Hunting down runaway slaves: The cruel ads of Andrew Jackson and 'the master class'|newspaper=The Washington Post|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170411204030/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2017/04/11/hunting-down-runaway-slaves-the-cruel-ads-of-andrew-jackson-and-the-master-class/|archive-date=April 11, 2017}}</ref> Over time, his accumulation of wealth in both slaves and land placed him among the elite families of Tennessee.{{sfn|Meacham|2008|p=35}}

===Duel with Dickinson and adventure with Burr===
{{See also|List of violent incidents involving Andrew Jackson}}
[[File:Charles Dickinson Andrew Jackson duel 1806 - crop contrast - Image from Seba Smith's 1834 parodic biography of Andrew Jackson 07.jpg|thumb|alt=Four men in tophats, two in the foreground. The man on the right is shooting a pistol at the one on the left.|An 1834 [[woodcut]] depicting Jackson's duel with [[Charles Dickinson (historical figure)|Charles Dickinson]] from the satirical ''Major Jack Downing's Life of Andrew Jackson''.{{sfn|Smith|1834|p=19}} Downing was a fictional character created by [[Seba Smith]] to parody Jackson.{{sfn|Smith|2005|pp=60–65}}]]
In May 1806, Jackson fought a duel with [[Charles Dickinson (historical figure)|Charles Dickinson]]. Their dispute started over payments for a forfeited horse race, escalating for six months until they agreed to the duel.{{sfn|Moser|Macpherson|1984|pp=78–79}} Dickinson fired first. The bullet hit Jackson in the chest, but shattered against his breastbone.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=138}} He returned fire and killed Dickinson. The killing tarnished Jackson's reputation.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=143}}

Later that year, Jackson became involved in former vice president [[Aaron Burr]]'s [[Burr conspiracy|plan]] to conquer [[Spanish Florida]] and drive the Spanish from Texas. Burr, who was touring what was then the Western United States after [[Burr–Hamilton duel|mortally wounding Alexander Hamilton in a duel]], stayed with the Jacksons at the Hermitage in 1805.{{sfn|Meacham|2008|p=27}} He eventually persuaded Jackson to join his adventure. In October 1806, Jackson wrote [[James Winchester (general)|James Winchester]] that the United States "can conquer not only [Florida], but all Spanish North America".{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=149}} He informed the Tennessee militia that it should be ready to march at a moment's notice "when the government and constituted authority of our country require it",{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=148}} and agreed to provide boats and provisions for the expedition.{{sfn|Meacham|2008|p=27}} Jackson sent a letter to President [[Thomas Jefferson]] telling him that Tennessee was ready to defend the nation's honor.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=120}}

Jackson also expressed uncertainty about the enterprise. He warned the Governor of Louisiana [[William C. C. Claiborne|William Claiborne]] and Tennessee Senator [[Daniel Smith (surveyor)|Daniel Smith]] that some of the people involved in the adventure might be intending to break away from the United States.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=151}} In December, Jefferson ordered Burr to be arrested for treason.{{sfn|Meacham|2008|p=27}} Jackson, safe from arrest because of his extensive paper trail, organized the militia to capture the conspirators.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=153}} He testified before a grand jury in 1807, implying that it was Burr's associate [[James Wilkinson]] who was guilty of treason, not Burr. Burr was acquitted of the charges.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=127–128}}

==Military career==
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| mark-title5 = [[Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek|Battle of Enatachopo Creek]] ([[Red Stick War]]): January 24, 1814
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| label6 = Horseshoe Bend
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| mark-title6 = [[Battle of Horseshoe Bend]] ([[Red Stick War]]): March 27, 1814
| mark-description6 = [[Battle of Horseshoe Bend]]
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| label7 = Pensacola
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| mark-description7 = [[Battle of Pensacola (1814)|Battle of Pensacola]]
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| mark-title8 = [[Fort Bowyer]] (War of 1812): October–November 1429; September 15, 1814; Major William Lawrence, commander
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| mark-title9 = [[Battle of New Orleans]] (War of 1812): October–November 1429
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| label10 =
| mark-coord10 = {{coord|29.933333|-85.016667}}
| mark-title10 = [[Negro Fort]] ([[Seminole Wars#First Seminole War|First Seminole War]]): July 1816; Brevet Major General [[Edmund P. Gaines|Edmund Gaines]], commander
| mark-description10 = [[Negro Fort]]
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| label11 = St. Marks
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| mark-title11 = [[San Marcos de Apalache Historic State Park|St. Marks]] ([[Seminole Wars#First Seminole War|First Seminole War]]): Captured April 1818
| mark-description11 = [[San Marcos de Apalache Historic State Park|St. Marks]]
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| mark-coord12 = {{coord|30.347839| -87.297561}}
| mark-title12 = [[Siege of Fort Barrancas#First battles under U.S. control|Siege of Barrancas]]: ([[Seminole Wars#First Seminole War|First Seminole War]]): May 1818. The Spanish surrender Pensacola.
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| mark-title13 = [[Fort Deposit, Alabama|Fort Deposit]]
| mark-description13 = [[Fort Deposit, Alabama|Fort Deposit]]- Jackson's supply depot for Southern Alabama
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| mark-title14 = [[Fort Strother]]- Jackson's supply depot for Northern Alabama
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| mark-description15 = [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]]
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| label16 = Nashville
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| mark-title16 = [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]]
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| mark-title17 = [[Fort Mims massacre|Fort Mims]]: August 30, 1813, Major Daniel Beasely, Commander. Attack on white settlers and their Creek allies by Red Sticks. Second incident that triggered the [[Red Stick War]].
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| mark-coord18 = {{coord|31.18957|-87.12587}}
| mark-title18 = [[Battle of Burnt Corn]]- July 27, 1813; Colonel James Caller, commander. Attack on Red Sticks by U. S. forces. First incident triggering the [[Red Stick War]].
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}}
}}

===War of 1812===
On June 18, 1812, the United States declared war on the United Kingdom, launching the [[War of 1812]].{{sfn|Hickey|1989|p=46}} Though the war was primarily [[Origins of the War of 1812|caused]] by maritime issues,{{sfn|Hickey|1989|p=72}} it provided white American settlers on the southern frontier the opportunity to overcome [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] resistance to settlement, undermine British support of the Native American tribes,{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=175}} and pry [[Florida]] from the [[Spanish Empire]].{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=166}}

Jackson immediately offered to raise volunteers for the war, but he was not called to duty until after the United States military [[War of 1812#Invasions of Canada, 1812|was repeatedly defeated]] in the [[Old Northwest|American Northwest]]. After these defeats, in January 1813, Jackson enlisted over 2,000 volunteers,{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=173}} who were ordered to head to [[New Orleans]] to defend against a British attack.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=179}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/resource/rbpe.17400200/?sp=1 |title=General orders .... Andrew Jackson. Major-General 2d Division, Tennessee. November 24, 1812. |publisher=Jackson Papers, LOC |access-date=June 27, 2017}}</ref>{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=23–25}}<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.loc.gov/resource/maj.03120/?sp=1&st=text |title=Journal of trip down the Mississippi River, January 1813 to March 1813 |last=Jackson |first=Andrew |date=January 10, 1813 |publisher=Jackson Papers, LOC |access-date=July 3, 2017}}</ref> When his forces arrived at [[Natchez, Mississippi|Natchez]], they were ordered to halt by General Wilkinson, the commander at New Orleans and the man Jackson accused of treason after the Burr adventure. A little later, Jackson received a letter from the [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]], [[John Armstrong Jr.|John Armstrong]], stating that his [[Natchez Expedition]] volunteers were not needed,{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=22–23}} and that they were to hand over any supplies to Wilkinson and disband.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=184}} Jackson refused to disband his troops; instead, he led them on the difficult march back to Nashville, earning the nickname "[[Hickory]]" (later "Old Hickory") for his toughness.{{sfn|Meacham|2008|p=23}}

After returning to Nashville, Jackson and three of his kinsmen, [[John Coffee]], [[Stockley D. Hays]], and Alexander Donelson, got into a tavern brawl over honor with the brothers [[Jesse Benton Jr.|Jesse]] and [[Thomas Hart Benton (politician)|Thomas Hart Benton]]. Nobody was killed, but Jackson received a gunshot in the shoulder that nearly killed him.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=23}}

====Creek War====
{{Further|Creek War}}

Jackson had not fully recovered from his wounds when Governor [[Willie Blount]] called out the militia in September 1813 following the August [[Fort Mims Massacre]].{{sfn|Owsley|1981|pp=61–62}} The [[Red Sticks]], a [[Creek Confederacy]] faction that had allied with [[Tecumseh]], a [[Shawnee]] chief who was fighting with the British against the United States, killed about 250 militia men and civilians at Fort Mims in retaliation for an ambush by American militia at [[Battle of Burnt Corn|Burnt Corn Creek]].{{sfnm|Davis|2002|1pp=631–632|Owsley|1981|2pp=38–39}}

Jackson's objective was to destroy the Red Sticks.{{sfn|Owsley|1981|p=40}} He headed south from [[Fayetteville, Tennessee|Fayetteville]], Tennessee, in October with 2,500 militia, establishing [[Fort Strother]] as his supply base.{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=192–193}} He sent his cavalry under General Coffee ahead of the main force, destroying Red Stick villages and capturing supplies.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=197}}{{sfn|Owsley|1981|pp=63–64}} Coffee defeated a band of Red Sticks at the [[Battle of Tallushatchee]] on November 3, and Jackson defeated another band later that month at the [[Battle of Talladega]].{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=196–197}}

By January 1814, the expiration of enlistments and desertion had reduced Jackson's force by about 1,000 volunteers,{{sfn|Owsley|1981|pp=72–73}} but he continued the offensive.{{sfn|Kanon|1999|p=4}} The Red Sticks counterattacked at the [[Battles of Emuckfaw and Enotachopo Creek]]. Jackson repelled them but was forced to withdraw to Fort Strother.{{sfn|Owsley|1981|pp=75–76}} Jackson's army was reinforced by further recruitment and the addition of a regular army unit, the [[39th Infantry Regiment (War of 1812)|39th U.S. Infantry Regiment]]. The combined force of 3,000 men—including Cherokee, Choctaw, and Creek allies—attacked a Red Stick fort at Horseshoe Bend on the [[Tallapoosa River]], which was manned by about 1,000 men.{{sfn|Owsley|1981|p=79}} The Red Sticks were overwhelmed and massacred.{{sfn|Kanon|1999|p=4–10}} Almost all their warriors were killed, and nearly 300 women and children were taken prisoner and distributed to Jackson's Native American allies.{{sfn|Kanon|1999|p=4–10}} The victory broke the power of the Red Sticks.{{sfn|Owsley|1981|p=81}} Jackson continued his [[scorched-earth]] campaign of burning villages, destroying supplies,{{sfn|Owsley|1981|p=81}} and starving Red Stick women and children.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=220}} The campaign ended when [[William Weatherford]], the Red Stick leader, surrendered,{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=27}} although some Red Sticks fled to [[East Florida]].{{sfn|Owsley|1981|p=87}}

On June 8, Jackson was appointed a [[Brigadier general (United States)|brigadier general]] in the United States Army, and 10 days later was made a [[Brevet (military)|brevet]] [[Major general (United States)|major general]] with command of the Seventh Military District, which included Tennessee, Louisiana, the Mississippi Territory, and the Muscogee Creek Confederacy.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=222}} With President [[James Madison]]'s approval, Jackson imposed the [[Treaty of Fort Jackson]]. The treaty required all Creek, including those who had remained allies, to surrender {{convert|23,000,000|acres|ha|abbr=on}} of land to the United States.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=26}}

Jackson then turned his attention to the British and Spanish. He moved his forces to [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]], Alabama, in August, accused the Spanish governor of [[West Florida]], [[Mateo González Manrique]], of arming the Red Sticks, and threatened to attack. The governor responded by inviting the British to land at Pensacola to defend it, which violated Spanish neutrality.{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=236–237}} The British attempted to capture Mobile, but their four warships were repulsed at [[Fort Bowyer#First battle|Fort Bowyer]].{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=238}} Jackson then entered Florida, defeating the Spanish and British forces at the [[Battle of Pensacola (1814)|Battle of Pensacola]] on November 7.{{sfn|Owsley|1981|pp=116–117}} Afterwards, the Spanish surrendered, and the British withdrew. Weeks later, Jackson learned that the British were planning an attack on New Orleans, which was the gateway to the [[Lower Mississippi River]] and control of the American West.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=28}} He evacuated Pensacola, strengthened the garrison at Mobile,{{sfn|Owsley|1981|p=118}} and led his troops to New Orleans.{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=244–245}}

====Battle of New Orleans====
{{Further|Battle of New Orleans}}
:[[File:HNOC 1958.98.6 - Battle of New Orleans.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5| Colored [[wood engraving]] of Jackson rallying the troops, from ''Ballou's Pictorial Drawing Room Companion'', 1856 (Historic New Orleans Collection)|alt=diverse men in frontier outfits with their backs to the viewer, facing ranks of British soldiers marching towards them.]]

Jackson arrived in New Orleans on December 1, 1814.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=247}} There he instituted [[martial law]] because he worried about the loyalty of the city's [[Louisiana Creole people|Creole]] and Spanish inhabitants. He augmented his force by forming an alliance with [[Jean Lafitte]]'s smugglers and raising units of free African Americans and Creek,{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=29}} paying non-white volunteers the same salary as whites.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=254}} This gave Jackson a force of about 5,000 men when the British arrived.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=274}}

The British arrived in New Orleans in mid-December.{{sfn|Owsley|1981|p=138}} Admiral [[Alexander Cochrane]] was the overall commander of the operation;{{sfn|Owsley|1981|pp=134, 136}} General [[Edward Pakenham]] commanded the army of 10,000 soldiers, many of whom had served in the Napoleonic Wars.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=29–30}} As the British advanced up the east bank of the Mississippi River, Jackson constructed a fortified position to block them.{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=268–269}} The climactic battle took place on January 8 when the British launched a frontal assault. Their troops made easy targets for the Americans protected by their [[parapets]], and the attack ended in disaster.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=31–32}} The British suffered over 2,000 casualties (including Pakenham) to the Americans' 71.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=285}}

The British decamped from New Orleans at the end of January, but they still remained a threat.{{sfn|Owsley|1981|p=169}} Jackson refused to lift martial law and kept the militia under arms. He approved the execution of six militiamen for desertion.{{sfn|Tregle|1981|p=337}} Some Creoles registered as French citizens with the French consul and demanded to be discharged from the militia due to their foreign nationality. Jackson then ordered all French citizens to leave the city within three days,{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=309}} and had a member of the Louisiana legislature, Louis Louaillier, arrested when he wrote a newspaper article criticizing Jackson's continuation of martial law. U.S. District Court Judge [[Dominic Augustin Hall|Dominic A. Hall]] signed a writ of ''[[habeas corpus]]'' for Louaillier's release. Jackson had [[Arrest of Dominic Hall and Louis Louaillier|Hall arrested]] too. A military court ordered Louaillier's release, but Jackson kept him in prison and evicted Hall from the city.{{sfn|Tregle|1981|pp=377–378}} Although Jackson lifted martial law when he received official word that the [[Treaty of Ghent]], which ended the war with the British, had been signed,{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=312}} his previous behavior tainted his reputation in New Orleans.{{sfn|Tregle|1981|p=378–379}}

Jackson's victory made him a national hero,{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=29–33}} and on February 27, 1815, he was given the [[Thanks of Congress]] and awarded a [[Congressional Gold Medal]].<ref name="US Congress Bio">{{cite web|url=http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=j000005|title=Andrew Jackson|publisher=Biographical Directory of the U.S. Congress|access-date=April 13, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218110615/http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=J000005|archive-date=December 18, 2013}}</ref> Though the Treaty of Ghent had been signed in December 1814 before the Battle of New Orleans was fought,{{sfn|Meacham|2008|p=32}} Jackson's victory assured that the United States control of the region between Mobile and New Orleans would not be effectively contested by European powers. This control allowed the American government to ignore one of the articles in the treaty, which would have returned the Creek lands taken in the Treaty of Fort Jackson.{{sfn|Owsley|1981|pp=178–179}}

===First Seminole War===
{{Further|Seminole Wars#First Seminole War|Rhea letter|label1=First Seminole War}}
[[File:Ambristertrial.jpg|thumb|An 1846 [[wood engraving]] by [[William Croome]] of the trial of [[Arbuthnot and Ambrister incident|Robert Ambrister]]  in ''Pictorial Life of Andrew Jackson'' by John Frost|alt=Two soldiers stand trial. Several other men gather around.]]

Following the war, Jackson remained in command of troops in the southern half of the United States and was permitted to make his headquarters at the Hermitage.{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=321}} Appointed as Indian commissioner plenipotentiary, Jackson continued to displace the Native Americans in areas under his command.{{Sfn|Remini|1977|p=322, 325–326}} Despite resistance from Secretary of the Treasury [[William H. Crawford|William Crawford]], he negotiated and signed five treaties between 1816 and 1820 in which the Creek, Choctaw, Cherokee and Chickasaw ceded tens of millions of acres of land to the United States. These included the [[Treaty of Turkeytown]], [[Treaty of Tuscaloosa]], and the [[Treaty of Doak's Stand]].{{sfn|Clark|Guice|1996|pp=233–243}}{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=36}}

Jackson soon became embroiled in conflict in Florida. The former British post at [[Negro Fort|Prospect Bluff]], which became known to Americans as "the Negro fort", remained occupied by more than a thousand former soldiers of the British Royal and Colonial Marines, escaped [[runaway slaves|slaves]], and various indigenous peoples.{{sfn|Wright|1968|p=569}} It had become a magnet for escapees{{sfn|Wright|1968|p=569}} and was seen as a threat to the property rights of American enslavers,{{sfn|Porter|1951|pp=261–262}} even a potential source of insurrection by enslaved people.{{sfn|Missall|Missall|2004|p=26}} Jackson ordered Colonel [[Duncan Lamont Clinch|Duncan Clinch]] to capture the fort in July 1816. He destroyed it and killed many of the garrison. Some survivors were enslaved while others fled into the wilderness of Florida.{{sfn|Missall|Missall|2004|pp=28–30}}

White American settlers were in constant conflict with Native American people collectively known as the [[Seminole]]s, who straddled the border between the U.S. and Florida.{{sfn|Missall|Missall|2004|pp=32–33}} In December 1817, Secretary of War [[John C. Calhoun]] initiated the [[Seminole Wars#First Seminole War|First Seminole War]] by ordering Jackson to lead a campaign "with full power to conduct the war as he may think best".{{sfn|Mahon|1998|p=64}} Jackson believed the best way to do this was to seize Florida from [[History of Spain (1808–1874)|Spain]] once and for all. Before departing, Jackson wrote to President [[James Monroe]], "Let it be signified to me through any channel ... that the possession of the Floridas would be desirable to the United States, and in sixty days it will be accomplished."{{sfn|Ogg|1919|p=66}}

Jackson invaded Florida, captured the Spanish fort of [[San Marcos de Apalache Historic State Park#History|St. Marks]], and occupied [[Pensacola, Florida|Pensacola]]. Seminole and Spanish resistance was effectively ended by May 1818. He also captured two [[British subject]]s, [[Arbuthnot and Ambrister incident|Robert Ambrister and Alexander Arbuthnot]], who had been working with the Seminoles. After a brief trial, Jackson executed both of them, causing an [[international incident]] with the British. Jackson's actions polarized Monroe's cabinet. The occupied territories were returned to Spain.{{sfn|Mahon|1998|pp=65–67}} Calhoun wanted him censured for violating the Constitution, since the United States had not [[Declaration of war by the United States|declared war]] on Spain. [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] John Quincy Adams defended him as he thought Jackson's occupation of Pensacola would lead Spain to sell Florida, which Spain did in the [[Adams–Onís Treaty]] of 1819.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=38–39}} In February 1819, a congressional investigation exonerated Jackson,{{sfn|Heidler|1993|p=518}} and his victory was instrumental in convincing the Seminoles to sign the [[Treaty of Moultrie Creek]] in 1823, which surrendered much of their land in Florida.{{sfn|Mahon|1962|pp=350–354}}

==Presidential aspirations==

===Election of 1824===
{{Main|1824 United States presidential election}}

[[File:Andrew Jackson.jpg|thumb|Painting of Jackson based on an 1824 portrait, {{circa}} 1857 attributed to [[Thomas Sully]] now housed at the U. S. Senate Collection<ref>{{cite web|title=Andrew Jackson (1767–1845)|website=U.S. Government Publication Office|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CDOC-10719sdoc11/pdf/GPO-CDOC-107sdoc11-2-61.pdf|archive-url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-CDOC-107sdoc11/pdf/GPO-CDOC-107sdoc11-2-61.pdf|archive-date=January 13, 2019}}</ref>|alt=A man with wavy gray hair in white shirt, black bowtie, and black coat. Faces left.]]
[[File:Electoral Votes for 1824- Focus on Jackson.png|thumb|alt=Refer to caption|The [[1824 United States presidential election|1824 U.S. presidential election]] results in which Jackson received a plurality of Electoral College votes. Subsequently, John Quincy Adams was elected the sixth president of the United States in a contingent election.]]

The [[Panic of 1819]], the United States' first prolonged financial depression, caused Congress to reduce the military's size and abolish Jackson's generalship.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=40}} In compensation, Monroe made him the first territorial governor of Florida in 1821.{{sfn|Brands|2005|pp=356–357}} He served as the governor for two months, returning to the Hermitage in ill health.{{sfn|Remini|1981|p=2}} During his convalescence, Jackson, who had been a [[Freemasonry|Freemason]] since at least 1798, became the [[Grand Master (Masonic)|Grand Master]] of the [[Grand Lodge of Tennessee]] for 1822–1823.{{sfn|Burstein|2003|p=39}} Around this time, he also completed negotiations for Tennessee to purchase Chickasaw lands. This became known as the [[Jackson Purchase]]. Jackson, Overton, and another colleague had speculated in some of the land and used their portion to form the town of [[Memphis, Tennessee|Memphis]].<ref name="Jackson Purchase">{{cite web |last=Semmer |first=Blythe |url=http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entry.php?rec=698 |title=Jackson Purchase, Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture |publisher=Tennessee Historical Society |access-date=April 12, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807120650/http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entry.php?rec=698 |archive-date=August 7, 2016}}</ref>

In 1822, Jackson agreed to run in the 1824 presidential election, and he was nominated by the Tennessee legislature in July.{{sfn|Remini|1981|pp=48–49}} At the time, the Federalist Party had collapsed, and there were four major contenders for the Democratic-Republican Party nomination: William Crawford, John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Jackson was intended to be a [[stalking horse]] candidate to prevent Tennessee's electoral votes from going to Crawford, who was seen as a Washington insider. Jackson unexpectedly garnered popular support outside of Tennessee and became a serious candidate.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=40}} He benefited from the expansion of suffrage among white males that followed the conclusion of the War of 1812.{{sfn|Schlesinger|1945|pp=36–38}}{{sfn|Howe|2007|pp=489–492}} He was a popular war hero whose reputation suggested he had the decisiveness and independence to bring reform to Washington.{{sfn|Phillips|1976|p=501}} He also was promoted as an outsider who stood for all the people, blaming banks for the country's depression.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=41–42, 45–46}}

During his presidential candidacy, Jackson reluctantly ran for one of Tennessee's U.S. Senate seats. Jackson's political managers [[William Berkeley Lewis]] and [[John Eaton (politician)|John Eaton]] convinced him that he needed to defeat incumbent [[John Williams (Tennessee politician)|John Williams]], who opposed him. The legislature elected Jackson in October 1823.{{sfn|Remini|1981|pp=51–52}}{{sfn|Brands|2005|pp=376–377}} He was attentive to his senatorial duties. He was appointed chairman of the [[United States Senate Committee on Armed Services|Committee on Military Affairs]] but avoided debate or initiating legislation.{{sfn|Remini|1981|p=67}} He used his time in the Senate to form alliances and make peace with old adversaries.{{sfn|Meacham|2008|p=38}} Eaton continued to campaign for Jackson's presidency, updating his biography and writing a series of widely circulated pseudonymous letters that portrayed Jackson as a champion of republican liberty.{{sfn|Remini|1981|pp=75–77}}

Democratic-Republican presidential nominees had historically been chosen by informal [[congressional nominating caucus]]es. In 1824, most of the Democratic-Republicans in Congress boycotted the caucus,{{sfn|Morgan|1969|p=195}} and the power to choose nominees was shifting to state nominating committees and legislatures.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=45}} Jackson was nominated by a Pennsylvania convention, making him not merely a regional candidate but the leading national contender.{{sfn|Phillips|1976|p=490}} When Jackson won the Pennsylvania nomination, Calhoun dropped out of the presidential race.{{sfn|Niven|1988|p=101}} Afterwards, Jackson won the nomination in six other states and had a strong second-place finish in three others.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=46}}

In the presidential election, Jackson won a 42-percent [[Plurality (voting)|plurality]] of the popular vote. More importantly, he won a plurality of [[Electoral College (United States)|electoral votes]], receiving 99 votes from states in the South, West, and Mid-Atlantic. He was the only candidate to win states outside of his regional base: Adams dominated [[New England]], Crawford won Virginia and Georgia, and Clay took three western states. Because no candidate had a [[Majority vote|majority]] of 131 electoral votes, the House of Representatives held a [[contingent election]] under the terms of the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twelfth Amendment]]. The amendment specifies that only the top three electoral vote-winners are eligible to be elected by the House, so Clay was eliminated from contention.{{sfn|Remini|1981|pp=81–83}} Clay, who was also [[Speaker of the United States House of Representatives|Speaker of the House]] and presided over the election's resolution, saw a Jackson presidency as a disaster for the country.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=47}} Clay threw his support behind Adams, who won the contingent election on the first ballot. Adams appointed Clay as his Secretary of State, leading supporters of Jackson to accuse Clay and Adams of having struck a "[[corrupt bargain]]".{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=45–48}} After the Congressional session concluded, Jackson resigned his Senate seat and returned to Tennessee.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=49}}

===Election of 1828 and death of Rachel Jackson===
{{Main|1828 United States presidential election|Andrew Jackson 1828 presidential campaign}}

[[File:Electoral Votes for 1828- Focus on Jackson.png|thumb|alt=Refer to caption|The 1828 United States presidential election results]]

After the election, Jackson's supporters formed a new party to undermine Adams and ensure he served only one term. Adams's presidency went poorly, and Adams's behavior undermined it. He was perceived as an intellectual elite who ignored the needs of the populace. He was unable to accomplish anything because Congress blocked his proposals.{{sfn|Unger|2012|pp=245–248}} In his First Annual Message to Congress, Adams stated that "we are palsied by the will of our constituents", which was interpreted as his being against representative democracy.{{sfn|Remini|1981|p=110}} Jackson responded by championing the needs of ordinary citizens and declaring that "the voice of the people{{nbsp}}... must be heard".{{sfn|Unger|2012|p=246}}

Jackson was nominated for president by the Tennessee legislature in October 1825, more than three years before the 1828 election.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=50–51}} He gained powerful supporters in both the South and North, including Calhoun, who became Jackson's vice-presidential running mate, and New York Senator Martin Van Buren.{{sfn|Niven|1988|p=126}} Meanwhile, Adams's support from the Southern states was eroded when he signed a tax on European imports, the [[Tariff of Abominations|Tariff of 1828]], which was called the "Tariff of Abominations" by opponents, into law.{{sfn|Unger|2012|p=246}} Jackson's victory in the presidential race was overwhelming. He won 56 percent of the popular vote and 68 percent of the electoral vote. The election ended the [[Dominant-party system|one-party system]] that had formed during the [[Era of Good Feelings]] as Jackson's supporters coalesced into the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] and the various groups who did not support him eventually formed the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]].{{sfn|Koenig|1964|pp=197–198}}

The political campaign was dominated by the personal abuse that partisans flung at both candidates.{{sfn|Koenig|1964|p=197}} Jackson was accused of being the son of an English prostitute and a [[mulatto]],{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=134}}{{sfn|Marszalek|1997|p=16}} and he was accurately labeled a slave trader who trafficked in human flesh.{{sfn|Cheathem|2014|loc=§3}} A series of pamphlets known as the [[Coffin Handbills]]{{sfn|Boller|2004|p=45–46}} accused him of having murdered 18 white men, including the soldiers he had executed for desertion and alleging that he stabbed a man in the back with his cane.{{sfn|Howell|2010|pp=294–295}}{{sfn|Binns|1828}} (In 1807, Jackson had been indicted and acquitted on a charge of assault with intent to kill in the case of the alleged cane stabbing.)<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Various |last2=Jackson |first2=Andrew |url=https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_jackson/5 |title=The Papers of Andrew Jackson, Volume II, 1804–1813 |editor-last1=Moser |editor-first1=Harold D. |editor-last2=MacPherson |editor-first2=Sharon |date=1984 |publisher=University of Tennessee Press |isbn=978-0-8704-9441-3 |pages=172–174 }}</ref> They stated that he had intentionally massacred Native American women and children at the Battle of Horseshoe Bend, ate the bodies of Native Americans he killed in battle,{{sfn|Taliaferro|1828}}<ref>{{cite web |title=The Tsunami of Slime Circa 1828 |url=https://nymag.com/news/frank-rich/coffin-handbill-2012-6/ |website=New York News & Politics |date=June 15, 2012 |access-date=June 1, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160323145858/http://nymag.com/news/frank-rich/coffin-handbill-2012-6/ |archive-date=March 23, 2016 }}</ref> and threatened to cut off the ears of congressmen who questioned his behavior during the First Seminole War.{{sfn|Howell|2010|pp=295–297}}

Jackson and Rachel were accused of adultery for living together before her divorce was finalized,{{sfn|Howe|2007|pp=277–278}} and Rachel heard about the accusation.{{sfn|Unger|2012|p=256}} She had been under stress throughout the election, and just as Jackson was preparing to head to Washington for his inauguration, she fell ill.{{sfn|Brands|2005|pp=404–405}} She did not live to see her husband become president, dying of a stroke or heart attack a few days later.{{sfn|Unger|2012|p=256}} Jackson believed that the abuse from Adams' supporters had hastened her death, stating at her funeral: "May God Almighty forgive her murderers, as I know she forgave them. I never can."{{sfn|Boller|2004|p=46}}

==Presidency (1829–1837)==
{{Main|Presidency of Andrew Jackson}}

===Inauguration===
{{Main|First inauguration of Andrew Jackson}}

[[File:Andrew Jackson Portrait.jpg|left|thumb|Engraving of President Jackson by [[Alexander Hay Ritchie|A. H. Ritchie]] based on [[Dennis Malone Carter]]'s portrait, {{circa|1860}}|alt=Man stands in white shirt and black pants and coat with right hand on desk and left hand at his side.]]

Jackson arrived in [[Washington, D.C.]], on February 11, and began forming his cabinet.{{sfn|Remini|1981|p=150}} He chose Van Buren as Secretary of State, John Eaton as Secretary of War, [[Samuel D. Ingham]] as Secretary of Treasury, [[John Branch]] as Secretary of Navy, [[John M. Berrien]] as Attorney General, and [[William T. Barry]] as Postmaster General.{{sfn|Latner|2002|p=105}} Jackson was inaugurated on March 4, 1829; Adams, who was embittered by his defeat, refused to attend.{{sfn|Unger|2012|p=256–257}} Jackson was the first president-elect to take the oath of office on the East Portico of the [[United States Capitol|U.S. Capitol]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/pihtml/pinotable.html|title=Inaugurals of Presidents of the United States: Some Precedents and Notable Events|publisher=Library of Congress|access-date=April 18, 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160701120453/http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/pihtml/pinotable.html|archive-date=July 1, 2016}}</ref>  In his inaugural address, he promised to protect the sovereignty of the states, respect the limits of the presidency, reform the government by removing disloyal or incompetent appointees, and observe a fair policy toward Native Americans.{{sfn|Jackson|1829}} Jackson invited the public to the [[White House]], which was promptly overrun by well-wishers who caused minor damage to its furnishings. The spectacle earned him the nickname "King Mob".{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=55}}

===Reforms and rotation in office===
{{Further|Spoils system}}

Jackson believed that Adams's administration had been corrupt and he initiated investigations into all executive departments.{{sfn|Gilman|1995|p=64–65}} These investigations revealed that $280,000 ({{Inflation|US|280000|1830|fmt=eq|r=-5|cursign=$}}) was stolen from the Treasury. They also resulted in a reduction in costs to the Department of the Navy, saving $1&nbsp;million ({{Inflation|US|1000000|1830|fmt=eq|r=-5|cursign=$}}).{{sfn|Remini|1981|pp=186–187}} Jackson asked Congress to tighten laws on embezzlement and tax evasion, and he pushed for an improved government accounting system.{{sfn|Ellis|1974|p=56}}

Jackson implemented a principle he called "[[Term limits in the United States|rotation in office]]". The previous custom had been for the president to leave the existing appointees in office, replacing them through attrition. Jackson enforced the [[Tenure of Office Act (1820)|Tenure of Office Act]], an 1820 law that limited office tenure, authorized the president to remove current office holders, and appoint new ones.{{sfn|Howe|2007|pp=332–333}} During his first year in office, he removed about 10% of all federal employees{{sfn|Howe|2007|pp=332–333}} and replaced them with loyal Democrats.{{sfn|Sabato|O'Connor|2002|p=278}} Jackson argued that rotation in office reduced corruption{{sfn|Friedrich|1937|p=14}} by making officeholders responsible to the popular will,{{sfn|Ellis|1974|p=51}} but it functioned as political patronage and became known as the [[spoils system]].{{sfn|Ellis|1974|p=61}}{{sfn|Friedrich|1937|p=14}}

===Petticoat affair===
{{Main|Petticoat affair}}

[[File:Pettycoat Affair during Andrew Jackson's first administration.jpg|thumb|A lithograph cartoon, ''The Celeste-al Cabinet'', by Albert A. Hoffay, published by [[Henry R. Robinson]] in 1836, depicting Jackson's cabinet during the Petticoat Affair; "Celeste" is [[Peggy Eaton|Margaret Eaton]].|alt= Jackson faces a woman dancing, flanked by three seated men on right; three seated men on left and one man standing behind the woman]]

Jackson spent much of his time during his first two and a half years in office dealing with what came to be known as the "Petticoat affair" or "Eaton affair".{{sfn|Wood|1997|p=238}}{{sfn|Marszalek|1997|p=vii}} The affair focused on Secretary of War Eaton's wife, [[Peggy Eaton|Margaret]]. She had a reputation for being promiscuous, and like Rachel Jackson, she was accused of adultery. She and Eaton had been close before her first husband [[John B. Timberlake|John Timberlake]] died, and they married nine months after his death.{{sfn|Meacham|2008|pp=66–67}} With the exception of Barry's wife Catherine,{{sfn|Howe|2007|pp=336}} the cabinet members' wives followed the lead of Vice-president Calhoun's wife [[Floride Calhoun|Floride]] and refused to socialize with the Eatons.{{sfn|Marszalek|1997|pp=53–55}} Though Jackson defended Margaret, her presence split the cabinet, which had been so ineffective that he rarely called it into session,{{sfn|Latner|2002|p=105}} and the ongoing disagreement led to its dissolution.{{sfn|Wood|1997|pp=239–241}}

In early 1831, Jackson demanded the resignations of all the cabinet members except Barry,{{sfn|Latner|2002|p=108}} who would resign in 1835 when a Congressional investigation revealed his mismanagement of the Post Office.{{sfn|Remini|1984|pp=240–243}} Jackson tried to compensate Van Buren by appointing him the [[List of ambassadors of the United States to the United Kingdom#Duties|Minister to Great Britain]], but Calhoun blocked the nomination with a tie-breaking vote against it.{{sfn|Latner|2002|p=108}} Van Buren—along with newspaper editors [[Amos Kendall]]{{sfn|Cole|1997|p=24}} and [[Francis Preston Blair]]{{sfn|Meacham|2008|p=165}}—would become regular participants in Jackson's [[Kitchen Cabinet]], an unofficial, varying group of advisors that Jackson turned to for decision making even after he had formed a new official cabinet.{{sfn|Latner|1978|pp=380–385}}

===Indian Removal Act===
{{Further|Indian removal|Indian Removal Act|Trail of Tears}}
[[File:Cessions Southeastern Tribes- Andrew Jackson.jpg|thumb|The Indian Removal Act and treaties involving Jackson before his presidency displaced most of the [[Five Civilized Tribes|major tribes of the Southeast]] from their traditional territories east of the [[Mississippi River]].|alt=Map of the southern United States showing in dark green areas ceded by Indians.{{sfnm|1a1=Clark|1a2=Guice|1y=1996|1pp=233–243|2a1=Mahon|2y=1962|2pp=350–354}}]]
[[File:Ralph Eleaser Whiteside Earl Andrew Jackson NCMOA.jpg|thumb|
Portrait of President Andrew Jackson, c. 1830–1832 by Ralph Eleaser Whiteside Earl now housed at the [[North Carolina Museum of Art]]]]

[[Presidency of Andrew Jackson|Jackson's presidency]] marked the beginning of a national policy of Native American removal.{{sfn|Latner|2002|p=108}} Before Jackson took office, the relationship between the southern states and the Native American tribes who lived within their boundaries was strained. The states felt that they had full jurisdiction over their territories; the native tribes saw themselves as autonomous nations that had a right to the land they lived on.{{sfn|Parsons|1973|pp=353–358}} Significant portions of the [[Five Civilized Tribes|five major tribes]] in the area then known as the [[Old Southwest|Southwest]]—the Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Creek, and Seminoles—began to adopt white culture, including education, agricultural techniques, a road system, and rudimentary manufacturing.{{sfn|Wallace|1993|pp=58–62}} In the case of the tensions between the state of Georgia and the Cherokee, Adams had tried to address the issue encouraging Cherokee emigration west of the Mississippi through financial incentives, but most refused.{{sfn|McLoughlin|1986|pp=611–612}}

In the first days of Jackson's presidency, some southern states passed legislation extending state jurisdiction to Native American lands.{{sfn|Satz|1974|p=12}} Jackson supported the states' right to do so.{{sfn|Cave|2003|p=1332}}{{sfn|Rogin|1975|pp=212–213}} His position was later made clear in the 1832 Supreme Court [[Test case (law)|test case]] of this legislation, ''[[Worcester v. Georgia]]''. Georgia had arrested a group of missionaries for entering Cherokee territory without a permit; the Cherokee declared these arrests illegal. The court under [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] [[John Marshall]] decided in favor of the Cherokee: imposition of Georgia law on the Cherokee was unconstitutional.{{sfn|Remini|1981|p=276}} [[Horace Greeley]] alleges that when Jackson heard the ruling, he said, "Well, John Marshall has made his decision, but now let him enforce it."{{sfn|Greeley|1864|p=106}} Although the quote may be apocryphal, Jackson made it clear he would not use the federal government to enforce the ruling.{{sfn|Berutti|1992|pp=305–306}}{{sfn|Miles|1992|pp=527–528}}{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=141}}

Jackson used the power of the federal government to enforce the separation of Indigenous tribes and whites.{{sfn|Parsons|1973|p=360}} In May 1830, Jackson signed the [[Indian Removal Act]], which Congress had narrowly passed.{{sfn|Latner|2002|p=109}} It gave the president the right to negotiate treaties to buy tribal lands in the eastern part of the United States in exchange for lands set aside for Native Americans west of the Mississippi,{{sfn|Wallace|1993|p=66}} as well as broad discretion on how to use the federal funds allocated to the negotiations.{{sfn|Davis|2010|pp=54–55}} The law was supposed to be a voluntary relocation program, but it was not implemented as one. Jackson's administration often achieved agreement to relocate through bribes, fraud and intimidation,{{sfn|Cave|2003|p=1337}} and the leaders who signed the treaties often did not represent the entire tribe.{{sfn|Latner|2002|p=110}} The relocations could be a source of misery too: the Choctaw relocation was rife with corruption, theft, and mismanagement that brought great suffering to that people.{{sfn|Remini|1981|p=273}}

In 1830, Jackson personally negotiated with the Chickasaw, who quickly agreed to move.{{sfn|Remini|1981|p=271}} In the same year, Choctaw leaders signed the [[Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek]]; the majority did not want the treaty but complied with its terms.{{sfn|Howe|2007|p=353}} In 1832, Seminole leaders signed the [[Treaty of Payne's Landing]], which stipulated that the Seminoles would move west and become part of the Muscogee Creek Confederacy if they found the new land suitable.{{sfn|Missall|Missall|2004|pp=83–85}} Most Seminoles refused to move, leading to the [[Second Seminole War]] in 1835 that lasted six years.{{sfn|Latner|2002|p=110}} Members of the Muscogee Creek Confederacy ceded their land to the state of Alabama in the [[Treaty of Cusseta]] of 1832. Their private ownership of the land was to be protected, but the federal government did not enforce this. The government did encourage voluntary removal until the [[Creek War of 1836]], after which almost all Creek were removed to Oklahoma territory.{{sfn|Haveman|2009|pp=1–5, 129}} In 1836, Cherokee leaders ceded their land to the government by the [[Treaty of New Echota]].{{sfn|Howe|2007|p=415}} Their removal, known as the [[Trail of Tears]], was enforced by Jackson's successor, Van Buren.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=536}}

Jackson also applied the removal policy in the [[Northwest Territory|Northwest]]. He was not successful in removing the [[Iroquois|Iroquois Confederacy]] in New York, but when some members of the [[Meskwaki]] (Fox) and the [[Sauk people|Sauk]] triggered the [[Black Hawk War]] by trying to cross back to the east side of the Mississippi, the peace treaties ratified after their defeat reduced their lands further.{{sfn|Howe|2007|p=418–419}}

During his administration, he made about 70 treaties with American Indian tribes. He had removed almost all the Native Americans east of the Mississippi and south of Lake Michigan, about 70,000 people, from the United States;{{sfn|Rogin|1975|p=206}} though it was done at the cost of thousands of Native American lives lost because of the unsanitary conditions and epidemics arising from their dislocation, as well as their resistance to expulsion.{{sfn|Ostler|2019|pp=[{{Google books|id=6zeWDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA256 |plainurl=yes}} 256], [{{Google books|id=6zeWDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA263 |plainurl=yes}} 263], [{{Google books|id=6zeWDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA273 |plainurl=yes}} 273]–274, [{{Google books|id=6zeWDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA280 |plainurl=yes}} 280]}} Jackson's implementation of the Indian Removal Act contributed to his popularity with his constituency. He added over 170,000 square miles of land to the public domain, which primarily benefited the United States' agricultural interests. The act also benefited small farmers, as Jackson allowed them to purchase moderate plots at low prices and offered squatters on land formerly belonging to Native Americans the option to purchase it before it was offered for sale to others.{{sfn|Whapples|2014|pp= 546–548}}

===Nullification crisis===
{{Main|Nullification crisis}}

[[File:Democracy-1832-1864-Jackson.jpg|thumb|A [[American Civil War|Civil War]]–era lithograph cartoon of [[John C. Calhoun]] bowing before Jackson during the nullification crisis by [[Pendleton's Lithography]] and published by [[Louis Prang|L. Prang & Co.]] in 1864|alt=Jackson stands looking right with right arm raised; Calhoun faces left bowing before Jackson with hands down.]]

Jackson had to confront another challenge that had been building up since the beginning of his first term. The Tariff of 1828, which had been passed in the last year of Adams' administration, set a protective tariff at a very high rate to prevent the manufacturing industries in the Northern states from having to compete with lower-priced imports from Britain.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=63–64}} The tariff reduced the income of southern cotton planters: it propped up consumer prices, but not the price of cotton, which had severely declined in the previous decade.{{sfn|Freehling|1966|p=6}} Immediately after the tariff's passage, the [[South Carolina Exposition and Protest]] was sent to the U.S. Senate.{{sfn|Brogdon|2011|pp=245–273}} This document, which had been anonymously written by John C. Calhoun, asserted that the constitution was a compact of individual states{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=64}} and when the federal government went beyond its delegated duties, such as enacting a protective tariff, a state had a right to declare this action unconstitutional and [[Nullification (U.S. Constitution)|make the act null and void]] within the borders of that state.{{sfn|Ellis|1989|pp=7–8}}

Jackson suspected Calhoun of writing the Exposition and Protest and opposed his interpretation. Jackson argued that Congress had full authority to enact tariffs and that a dissenting state was denying the will of the majority.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=64–65}} He also needed the tariff, which generated 90% of the federal revenue,{{sfn|Temin|1969|p=29}} to achieve another of his presidential goals, eliminating the national debt.{{sfn|Lane|2014|pp=121–122}} The issue developed into a personal rivalry between the two men. For example, during a celebration of Thomas Jefferson's birthday on April 13, 1830, the attendees gave after-dinner toasts. Jackson toasted: "Our federal Union: It must be preserved!"&nbsp;– a clear challenge to nullification. Calhoun, whose toast immediately followed, rebutted: "The Union: Next to our Liberty, the most dear!"{{sfn|Brands|2005|pp=445–446}}

As a compromise, Jackson supported the [[Tariff of 1832]], which reduced the duties from the Tariff of 1828 by almost half. The bill was signed on July 9, but failed to satisfy extremists on either side.{{sfn|Remini|1981|pp=358–360}} On November 24, South Carolina had passed the [[Ordinance of Nullification]],{{sfn|Bergeron|1976|p=263}} declaring both tariffs null and void and threatening to secede from the United States if the federal government tried to use force to collect the duties.{{sfn|Freehling|1966|pp=1–2}}{{sfn|Ordinance of Nullification|1832}} In response, Jackson sent warships to Charleston harbor, and threatened to hang any man who worked to support nullification or secession.{{sfn|Howe|2007|pp=404–406}} On December 10, he issued a proclamation against the "nullifiers",{{sfn|Remini|1984|p=22}} condemning nullification as contrary to the Constitution's letter and spirit, rejecting the right of secession, and declaring that South Carolina stood on "the brink of insurrection and treason".{{sfn|Jackson|1832}} On December 28, Calhoun, who had been elected to the U.S. Senate, resigned as vice president.{{sfn|Feerick|1965|pp=85–86}}

Jackson asked Congress to pass a "[[Force Bill]]" authorizing the military to enforce the tariff. It was attacked by Calhoun as despotism.{{sfn|Meacham|2008|pp=239–240}} Meanwhile, Calhoun and Clay began to work on a new [[Tariff of 1833|compromise tariff]]. Jackson saw it as an effective way to end the confrontation but insisted on the passage of the Force Bill before he signed.{{sfn|Ericson|1995|p=253, fn14}} On March 2, he signed into law the Force Bill and the Tariff of 1833. The South Carolina Convention then met and rescinded its nullification ordinance but nullified the Force Bill in a final act of defiance.{{sfn|Remini|1984|p=42}} Two months later, Jackson reflected on South Carolina's nullification: "the tariff was only the pretext, and [[Secession in the United States|disunion]] and [[Confederate States of America|southern confederacy]] the real object. The next pretext will be the negro, or [[History of slavery in the United States|slavery]] question".{{sfn|Meacham|2008|p=247}}

===Bank War and Election of 1832===
{{Main|Bank War|Banking in the Jacksonian Era}}

====Bank veto====
[[File:Downfall of Mother Bank.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|An 1833 lithograph cartoon of Jackson destroying the Second Bank of the United States with his "[[Bank War#Removal of the deposits and panic of 1833–1834|Removal Notice]]" by Zachariah Downing, published by Henry R. Robinson; [[Nicholas Biddle]] is portrayed as the devil.|alt=Jackson holds up document towards a devil and other people who flee while columns tumble around them.]]

A few weeks after his inauguration, Jackson started looking into how he could replace the Second Bank of the United States.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=74}} The Bank had been chartered by President Madison in 1816 to restore the United States economy after the War of 1812. Monroe had appointed [[Nicholas Biddle (banker)|Nicholas Biddle]] as the Bank's executive.{{sfn|Latner|2002|pp=111}} The Bank was a repository for the country's public monies which also serviced the national debt; it was formed as a for-profit entity that looked after the concerns of its shareholders.{{sfn|Campbell|2016|pp=273, 277}} In 1828, the country was prosperous{{sfn|Howe|2007|pp=375–376}} and the currency was stable,{{sfn|Hammond|1957|p=374}} but Jackson saw the Bank as a fourth branch of government run by an elite,{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=74}} what he called the "money power" that sought to control the labor and earnings of the "real people", who depend on their own efforts to succeed: the planters, farmers, mechanics, and laborers.{{sfn|Meyers|1960|p=20–24}} Additionally, Jackson's own near bankruptcy in 1804 due to credit-fuelled land speculation had biased him against paper money and toward a policy favorable to [[Hard money (policy)|hard money]].{{sfn|Sellers|1954|p=61–84}}

In his [[1829 State of the Union Address|First Annual Address]] in December 1829, Jackson openly challenged the Bank by questioning its constitutionality and the soundness of its money.{{sfn|Perkins|1987|pp=532–533}} Jackson's supporters further alleged that it gave preferential loans to speculators and merchants over artisans and farmers, that it used its money to bribe congressmen and the press, and that it had ties with foreign creditors. Biddle responded to Jackson's challenge in early 1830 by using the Bank's vast financial holding to ensure the Bank's reputation, and his supporters argued that the Bank was the key to prosperity and stable commerce. By the time of the 1832 election, Biddle had spent over $250,000 ({{Inflation|US|250000|1832|fmt=eq|r=-2|cursign=$}}) in printing pamphlets, lobbying for pro-Bank legislation, hiring agents and giving loans to editors and congressmen.{{sfn|Campbell|2016|pp=274–278}}

On the surface, Jackson's and Biddle's positions did not appear irreconcilable. Jackson seemed open to keeping the Bank if it could include some degree of Federal oversight, limit its real estate holdings, and have its property subject to taxation by the states.{{sfn|Perkins|1987|pp=534–535}} Many of Jackson's cabinet members thought a compromise was possible. In 1831, Treasury Secretary [[Louis McLane]] told Biddle that Jackson was open to chartering a modified version of the Bank, but Biddle did not consult Jackson directly. Privately, Jackson expressed opposition to the Bank;{{sfn|Campbell|2016|pp=285}} publicly, he announced that he would leave the decision concerning the Bank in the hands of the people.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=285}} Biddle was finally convinced to take open action by Henry Clay, who had decided to run for president against Jackson in the 1832 election. Biddle would agree to seek renewal of the charter two years earlier than scheduled. Clay argued that Jackson was in a bind. If he vetoed the charter, he would lose the votes of his pro-Bank constituents in Pennsylvania; but if he signed the charter, he would lose his anti-Bank constituents. After the recharter bill was passed, Jackson vetoed it on July 10, 1832, arguing that the country should not surrender the will of the majority to the desires of the wealthy.{{sfn|Baptist|2016|p=260|ps=. See {{Cite web |title=President Jackson's Bank Veto, 1832 |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/USHistory/Building/docs/Jackson%20on%20the%20Bank.htm |url-status=live |access-date=2025-04-15 |website=www.ucl.ac.uk}} for text of the speech.}}

====Election of 1832====
{{Main|1832 United States presidential election}}

[[File:Electoral Votes for 1832- Focus on Jackson.png|thumb|[[United States 1832 presidential election|1832 presidential election results]]|alt=A map of the 1832 presidential election. Blue states were won by Jackson.]]

The 1832 presidential election demonstrated the rapid development of political parties during Jackson's presidency. The Democratic Party's first national convention, held in [[Baltimore]], nominated Jackson's choice for vice president, Martin Van Buren. The [[National Republican Party]], which had held its first convention in Baltimore earlier in December 1831, nominated Clay, now a senator from Kentucky, and [[John Sergeant (politician)|John Sergeant]] of Pennsylvania.{{sfn|Meacham|2008|p=218}} An [[Anti-Masonic Party]], with a platform built around opposition to Freemasonry,{{sfn|Meacham|2008|p=420}} supported neither Jackson nor Clay, who both were Masons. The party nominated [[William Wirt (Attorney General)|William Wirt]] of Maryland and [[Amos Ellmaker]] of Pennsylvania.{{sfn|Latner|2002|pp=112–113}}

In addition to the votes Jackson would lose because of the bank veto, Clay hoped that Jackson's Indian Removal Act would alienate voters in the East; but Jackson's losses were offset by the Act's popularity in the West and Southwest. Clay had also expected that Jackson would lose votes because of his stand on internal improvements.{{sfn|Gammon|1922|pp=55–56}} Jackson had [[Maysville Road veto|vetoed the Maysville Road bill]], which funded an upgrade of a section of the [[National Road]] in Clay's state of Kentucky; Jackson had argued it was unconstitutional to fund internal improvements using national funds for local projects.{{sfn|Jackson|1966|pp=261–268}}

Clay's strategy failed. Jackson was able to mobilize the Democratic Party's strong political networks.{{sfn|Latner|2002|p=113}} The Northeast supported Jackson because he was in favor of maintaining a stiff tariff; the West supported him because the Indian Removal Act reduced the number of Native Americans in the region and made available more public land.{{sfn|Van Deusen|1963|p=54}} Except for South Carolina, which passed the Ordinance of Nullification during the election month and refused to support any party by giving its votes to the future Governor of Virginia [[John B. Floyd]],{{sfn|Ericson|1995|p=259}} the South supported Jackson for implementing the Indian Removal Act, as well as for his willingness to compromise by signing the Tariff of 1832.{{sfn|Ratcliffe|2000|p=10–14}} Jackson won the election by a landslide, receiving 55 percent of the popular vote and 219 electoral votes.{{sfn|Latner|2002|p=113}}

====Removal of deposits and censure====
{{Further|Censure of Andrew Jackson}}
[[File:King Andrew the First (political cartoon of President Andrew Jackson).jpg|thumb|An 1832 lithograph cartoon, "King Andrew the First" by an anonymous artist, depicting Jackson|alt=Jackson dressed as king with robe and crown, veto in hand and stepping on the Constitution]]

Jackson saw his victory as a mandate to continue his war on the Bank's control over the national economy.{{sfn|Ellis|1974|p=63}} In 1833, Jackson signed an executive order ending the deposit of Treasury receipts in the bank.{{sfn|Knodell|2006|p=542}} When Secretary of the Treasury McLane refused to execute the order, Jackson replaced him with [[William J. Duane]], who also refused. Jackson then appointed [[Roger B. Taney]] as acting secretary, who implemented Jackson's policy.{{sfn|Schmidt|1955|p=328}} With the loss of federal deposits, the Bank had to contract its credit.{{sfn|Gatell|1967|p=26}} Biddle used this contraction to create an economic downturn in an attempt to get Jackson to compromise. Biddle wrote, "Nothing but the evidence of suffering abroad will produce any effect in Congress."{{sfn|Schlesinger|1945|p=103}} The attempt did not succeed: the economy recovered and Biddle was blamed for the recession.{{sfn|Howe|2007|pp=391–392}}

Jackson's actions led those who disagreed with him to form the Whig Party. They claimed to oppose Jackson's expansion of executive power, calling him "[[King Andrew the First]]", and naming their party after the [[Whigs (British political party)|English Whigs]] who [[Glorious Revolution|opposed]] the British monarchy in the 17th century.{{sfn|Ellis|1974|p=62}} In March 1834, the Senate [[censure]]d Jackson for inappropriately taking authority for the Treasury Department when it was the responsibility of Congress and refused to confirm Taney's appointment as secretary of the treasury.{{sfn|Ellis|1974|p=54}} In April, however, the House declared that the bank should not be rechartered. By July 1836, the Bank no longer held any federal deposits.{{sfn|Knodell|2006|p=566}}

Jackson had Federal funds deposited into state banks friendly to the administration's policies, which critics called [[pet banks]].{{sfn|Gatell|1964|pp=35–37}} The number of these state banks more than doubled during Jackson's administration,{{sfn|Schmidt|1955|p=328}} and investment patterns changed. The Bank, which had been the federal government's fiscal agent, invested heavily in [[Trade finance|trade]] and financed interregional and international trade. State banks were more responsive to state governments and invested heavily in [[Equity (finance)|land development]], land speculation, and state public works projects.{{sfn|Knodell|2006|pp=562–563}} In spite of the efforts of Taney's successor, [[Levi Woodbury]], to control them, the pet banks expanded their loans, helping to create a speculative boom in the final years of Jackson's administration.{{sfn|Howe|2007|p=393}}

In January 1835, Jackson paid off the national debt, the only time in U.S. history that it had been accomplished.<ref name="npr">{{cite web|last=Smith|first=Robert|title=When the U.S. paid off the entire national debt (and why it didn't last)|url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/money/2011/04/15/135423586/|work=Planet Money|publisher=NPR|access-date=January 15, 2014|date=April 15, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Our History |url=http://publicdebt.treas.gov/history/history.htm |publisher=Bureau of the Public Debt |access-date=February 21, 2016 |date=November 18, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306012419/http://publicdebt.treas.gov/history/history.htm |archive-date=March 6, 2016 }}</ref> It was paid down through tariff revenues,{{sfn|Latner|2002|p=113}} carefully managing federal funding of internal improvements like roads and canals,{{sfn|Howe|2007|pp=358–360}} and the sale of public lands.{{sfn|Howe|2007|p=395}} Between 1834 and 1836, the government had an unprecedented spike in land sales:{{sfn|Rousseau|2002|pp=460–461}} At its peak in 1836, the profits from land sales were eight to twelve times higher than a typical year.{{sfn|Timberlake|1965|p=412}} During Jackson's presidency, 63 million acres of public land—about the size of the state of Oklahoma—was sold.{{sfn|Schmidt|1955|p=325}} After Jackson's term expired in 1837, a Democrat-majority Senate [[Expungement|expunged]] Jackson's censure.{{sfn|Remini|1984|p=377}}{{sfn|US Senate|1837}}

====Panic of 1837====
{{Main|Panic of 1837}}

[[File:The times panic 1837.jpg|thumb|A lithograph cartoon of the [[Panic of 1837]] published by [[Henry R. Robinson]] in 1837; Jackson is symbolized by "glory" in the sky with top hat, spectacles, and pipe.|alt=Political cartoon showing people suffering from economic trouble]]

Despite the economic boom following Jackson's victory in the Bank War, land speculation in the west caused the [[Panic of 1837]].{{sfn|Olson|2002|p=190}}  Jackson's transfer of federal monies to state banks in 1833 caused western banks to relax their lending standards;{{sfn|Rousseau|2002|pp=459–460}} the Indian Removal Act made large amounts of former Native American lands available for purchase and speculation.{{sfn|Parins|Littlefield|2011|p=[{{Google Books|id=A7OlZPtIMy4C|pg=PR14|plainurl=yes}} xiv]}} Two of Jackson's acts in 1836 contributed to the Panic of 1837. One was the [[Specie Circular]], which mandated western lands only be purchased by money backed by [[bullion coin|specie]]. The act was intended to stabilize the economy by reducing speculation on credit, but it caused a drain of gold and silver from the Eastern banks to the Western banks to address the needs of financing land transactions.{{sfn|McGrane|1965|pp=60–62}} The other was the Deposit and Distribution Act, which transferred federal monies from eastern to western state banks.  Together, they left Eastern banks unable to pay specie to the British when they recalled their loans to address their economic problems in international trade.{{sfn|Rousseau|2002|p=48}} The panic drove the U.S. economy into a depression that lasted until 1841.{{sfn|Olson|2002|p=190}}

===Physical assault and assassination attempt===
[[File:Assassination attempt on Jackson (cropped) (cropped).jpg|thumb|An 1835 lithograph of the attempted assassination of Andrew Jackson, published by Endicott & Co.|alt=Several people in a crowd, man aims a gun at Jackson]]

On May 6, 1833, Robert B. Randolph struck Jackson in the face with his hand because Jackson had ordered Randolph's dismissal from the navy for embezzlement. Jackson declined to press charges.{{sfn|Remini|1984|p=60–61}} While Jackson was leaving the United States Capitol on January 30, 1835, [[Richard Lawrence (failed assassin)|Richard Lawrence]], an unemployed house painter from England, aimed a pistol at him, which misfired. Lawrence pulled out a second pistol, which also misfired. Jackson attacked Lawrence with his cane until others intervened to restrain Lawrence, who was later found not guilty [[Insanity defense|by reason of insanity]] and institutionalized.{{sfn|Jackson|1967}}<ref name="AmericanHeritage.com">{{cite web |title=Trying to Assassinate Andrew Jackson |last= Grinspan |first=Jon |url=http://www.americanheritage.com/people/articles/web/20070130-richard-lawrence-andrew-jackson-assassination-warren-r-davis.shtml |publisher=American Heritage Project |access-date=November 11, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024234731/http://www.americanheritage.com/people/articles/web/20070130-richard-lawrence-andrew-jackson-assassination-warren-r-davis.shtml |archive-date=October 24, 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> This was the [[List of United States presidential assassination attempts and plots|first attempt to assassinate a sitting president in United States history]].{{sfn|Nester|2013|p=2}}

===Slavery===
By the 1830s, [[abolitionism in the United States]] had become a major reform movement, one often targeted by pro-slavery violence.{{Sfn|Dickey|2022|loc=introduction}} Federal troops were used to crush [[Nat Turner's Rebellion|Nat Turner's slave rebellion]] in 1831,{{sfn|Aptheker|1943|p=300}} though Jackson ordered them withdrawn immediately afterwards despite the petition of local citizens for them to remain for protection.{{sfn|Breen|2015|p=105–106}} Jackson considered the issue of slavery divisive to the nation and to the delicate alliances of the Democratic Party.{{sfn|Latner|2002|p=117}}

Jackson's view was challenged when the [[American Anti-Slavery Society]] agitated for [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolition]]{{sfn|Henig|1969|p=43}} by sending anti-slavery tracts through the postal system into the South in 1835.{{sfn|Latner|2002|p=117}} Jackson condemned the abolitionists as "monsters"{{sfn|Henig|1969|p=43–44}} and said they should die,{{sfn|Remini|1984|p=260}} arguing that their antislavery activism would encourage [[sectionalism]] and destroy the Union.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=554}} The tracts provoked riots in Charleston, and pro-slavery Southerners demanded that the postal service ban distribution of the materials. Jackson responded by directing that antislavery tracts should be sent only to subscribers, whose names could be made publicly known, exposing them to reprise.{{sfn|Remini|1984|pp=258–260}} That December, Jackson called on Congress to prohibit the circulation through the South of "incendiary publications intended to instigate the slaves to insurrection".{{sfn|Remini|1984|p=261}}

===Foreign affairs===
{{CSS image crop|Image = JACKSON, Andrew-President (BEP engraved portrait).jpg|bSize = 325|cWidth = 230|cHeight = 250|oTop = 75|oLeft = 45|Location = left|Description = Engraved portrait of Jackson as president by the [[Bureau of Engraving and Printing]]. This portrait has appeared on the [[United States twenty-dollar bill|$20 bill]] since 1929.<ref name=1929$20Bill>{{cite web|title=$20 Note: Issued 1914–1990|url=https://www.uscurrency.gov/sites/default/files/downloadable-materials/files/en/20-1914-1990-features-en.pdf|website=U.S. Currency Education Program|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204051120/https://www.uscurrency.gov/sites/default/files/downloadable-materials/files/en/20-1914-1990-features-en.pdf|archive-date=February 4, 2020}}</ref>|alt=Man with wavy white hair and black clothing looks to his left}}

The Jackson administration successfully negotiated a trade agreement with [[Rattanakosin Kingdom (1782–1932)|Siam]], the first Asian country to form a trade agreement with the U.S. The administration also made trade agreements with Great Britain, Spain, [[Russian Empire|Russia]], and the [[Ottoman Empire]].{{sfn|Latner|2002|p=120}}

In his First Annual Message to Congress, Jackson addressed the issues of [[Looting|spoliation]] claims, demands of compensation for the capture of American ships and sailors by foreign nations during the [[Napoleonic Wars]].{{sfn|Thomas|1976|p=51}} Using a combination of bluster and tact, he successfully settled these claims with Denmark, [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]], and Spain,{{sfn|Latner|2002|p=120}} but he had difficulty collecting spoliation claims from France, which was unwilling to pay an indemnity agreed to in an earlier treaty. Jackson asked Congress in 1834 to authorize reprisals against French property if the country failed to make payment, as well as to arm for defense.{{sfn|Thomas|1976|p=51}} In response, France put its Caribbean fleet on a wartime footing.{{sfn|Howe|2007|p=263}} Both sides wanted to avoid a conflict, but the French wanted an apology for Jackson's belligerence. In his 1835 Annual Message to the Congress, Jackson asserted that he refused to apologize, but stated that he did not intend to "menace or insult the Government of France".{{sfn|Thomas|1976|p=63}} The French were assuaged and agreed to pay $5,000,000 ({{Inflation|US|5000000|1835|fmt=eq|r=-2|cursign=$}}) to settle the claims.{{sfn|Remini|1984|p=288}}

Since the early 1820s, large numbers of Americans had been immigrating into Texas, a territory of the [[Mexican War of Independence|newly independent]] nation of [[First Mexican Republic|Mexico]].{{sfn|Howe|2007|pp=658–659}} As early as 1824, Jackson had supported acquiring the region for the United States.{{sfn|Stenberg|1934|p=229}} In 1829, he attempted to purchase it, but Mexico did not want to sell. By 1830, there were twice as many settlers from the United States as from Mexico, leading to tensions with the Mexican government that started the [[Texas Revolution]]. During the conflict, Jackson covertly allowed the settlers to obtain weapons and money from the United States.{{sfn|Howe|2007|pp=659–669}} They defeated the Mexican military in April 1836 and declared the region an independent country, the Republic of Texas. The new Republic asked Jackson to recognize and annex it. Although Jackson wanted to do so, he was hesitant because he was unsure it could maintain independence from Mexico.{{sfn|Latner|2002|p=120}} He also was concerned because Texas had legalized slavery, which was an issue that could divide the Democrats during the 1836 election. Jackson recognized the Republic of Texas on the last full day of his presidency, March 3, 1837.{{sfn|Howe|2007|pp=670–671}}

===Judiciary===
{{Further|List of federal judges appointed by Andrew Jackson}}

Jackson appointed six justices to the Supreme Court.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Jacobson |first=John Gregory |date=2004 |title=Jackson's judges: Six appointments who shaped a nation |type=PhD dissertation |publisher=University of Nebraska–Lincoln |access-date=July 18, 2017 |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/dissertations/AAI3152613/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160330114220/http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/dissertations/AAI3152613/ |archive-date=March 30, 2016 |isbn=978-0-496-13089-4 |id={{ProQuest|305160669}} }}</ref> Most were undistinguished. Jackson nominated Roger B. Taney in January 1835 to the Court in reward for his services, but the nomination failed to win Senate approval.{{sfn|Remini|1984|p=266}}

When Chief Justice Marshall died in 1835, Jackson again nominated Taney for Chief Justice; he was confirmed by the new Senate,{{sfn|Remini|1984|pp=266–268}} [[Taney Court|serving]] as Chief Justice until 1864.{{sfn|Schwartz|1993|pp=73–74}} He was regarded with respect during his career on the bench, but he is most remembered for his widely condemned decision in ''[[Dred Scott v. Sandford]]''.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2017/08/16/removing-a-slavery-defenders-statue-roger-b-taney-wrote-one-of-supreme-courts-worst-rulings/ |title=Removing a slavery defender's statue: Roger B. Taney wrote one of Supreme Court's worst rulings |last=Brown |first=DeNeen L. |date=August 18, 2017 |newspaper=The Washington Post |access-date=December 29, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180110083832/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/retropolis/wp/2017/08/16/removing-a-slavery-defenders-statue-roger-b-taney-wrote-one-of-supreme-courts-worst-rulings/ |archive-date=January 10, 2018 }}</ref> On the last day of his presidency, Jackson signed the [[Eighth and Ninth Circuits Act of 1837|Judiciary Act of 1837]],{{sfn|Nettels|1925|pp=225–226}} which created two new Supreme Court seats and reorganized the [[United States courts of appeals|federal circuit courts]].{{sfn|Hall|1992|p=475}}

===States admitted to the Union===
Two new states were admitted into the Union during Jackson's presidency: Arkansas (June 15, 1836) and Michigan (January 26, 1837). Both states increased Democratic power in Congress and helped Van Buren win the presidency in 1836, as new states tended to support the party that had done the most to admit them.{{sfn|Remini|1984|pp=375–376}}

==Later life and death (1837–1845)==
[[File:Andrew Jackson Daguerrotype (flipped image).jpg|thumb|left|A [[mezzotint]] after a [[daguerreotype]] of Jackson in 1845]]

Jackson's presidency ended on March 4, 1837. Jackson left Washington, D.C., three days later, retiring to the Hermitage in Nashville, where he remained influential in national and state politics.{{sfn|Latner|2002|p=121}} To reduce the [[inflation]] caused by the Panic of 1837, Jackson supported an [[Independent Treasury]] system that would restrict the government from printing [[Banknote|paper money]] and require it to hold its money in silver and gold.{{sfn|Lansford|Woods|2008|p=1046}}

During the [[1840 United States presidential election|1840 presidential election]],{{sfn|Remini|1984|pp=462–470}} Jackson campaigned for Van Buren in Tennessee, but Van Buren had become unpopular during the continuing depression.  The Whig Party nominee, [[William Henry Harrison]], won the election using a campaign style similar to that of the Democrats: Van Buren was depicted as an uncaring aristocrat, while Harrison's war record was glorified, and he was portrayed as a man of the people.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=475}} Harrison won the 1840 election and the Whigs captured majorities in both houses of Congress,{{sfn|Remini|1984|p=470}} but Harrison died a month into his term, and was replaced by his vice president, former Democrat [[John Tyler]]. Jackson was encouraged because Tyler was not bound to party loyalties and praised him when he vetoed two Whig-sponsored bills to establish a new national bank in 1841.{{sfn|Remini|1984|pp=475–476}}

Jackson lobbied for the [[Texas annexation|annexation of Texas]]. He was concerned that the British could use it as a base to threaten the United States{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=161–163}} and insisted that it was part of the [[Louisiana Purchase]].{{sfn|Remini|1984|p=492}} Tyler signed a treaty of annexation in April 1844, but it became associated with the expansion of slavery and was not ratified. Van Buren, who had been Jackson's preferred candidate for the Democratic Party in the 1844 presidential election, had opposed annexation. Disappointed by Van Buren, Jackson convinced fellow Tennessean [[James K. Polk]], who was then set to be Van Buren's running mate, to run as the Democratic Party's presidential nominee instead.  Polk defeated Van Buren for the nomination and won the general election against Jackson's old enemy, Henry Clay. Meanwhile, the Senate passed a bill to annex Texas, and it was signed on March 1, 1845.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|pp=162–163}}

Jackson died of [[Edema|dropsy]], [[tuberculosis]], and [[heart failure]]<ref name="healthguidance">{{cite web |title=The Health Of The President: Andrew Jackson |last=Marx |first=Rudolph |url=http://www.healthguidance.org/entry/8908/1/The-Health-Of-The-President-Andrew-Jackson.html |website=healthguidance.org |access-date=December 18, 2017 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222053053/http://www.healthguidance.org/entry/8908/1/The-Health-Of-The-President-Andrew-Jackson.html |archive-date=December 22, 2017 }}</ref> at 78 years of age on June 8, 1845. His deathbed was surrounded by family, friends, and slaves, and he was recorded to have said, "Do not cry; I hope to meet you all in Heaven—yes, all in Heaven, white and black."{{sfn|Meacham|2008|p=345}} He was buried in the same tomb as his wife Rachel.{{sfn|Remini|1984|p=526}}

==Personal life==
[[File:Rachel Donelson Jackson by Ralph E. W. Earl.jpg|thumb|Posthumous portrait of Jackson's wife Rachel, by [[Ralph Eleaser Whiteside Earl]] now housed at [[The Hermitage (Nashville, Tennessee)|The Hermitage]] in [[Nashville]]|alt=Woman in black with white bonnet and lace collar looking forward]]
[[File:Tennessee Gentleman portrait of Andrew Jackson by Ralph E. W. Earl.jpg|thumb|Jackson depicted in 1831 as a ''Tennessee Gentleman'' by [[Ralph Eleaser Whiteside Earl]], now housed at Hermitage in Nashville|alt=Painting of a man with a tall white hat, cane, black pants and coat, and a white shirt. He is standing on grass beside a tree.]]

=== Family ===
{{Further|Wards of Andrew Jackson}}Jackson and Rachel had no children together but adopted [[Andrew Jackson Jr.]], the son of Rachel's brother Severn Donelson. The Jacksons also acted as guardians for the children of another of Rachel's brothers, Samuel Donelson: John Samuel, [[Daniel Smith Donelson]], and [[Andrew Jackson Donelson]]. They were also guardians for [[A. J. Hutchings]], Rachel's orphaned grandnephew, and the orphaned children of a friend, [[Edward Butler (soldier)|Edward Butler]]{{mdash}}Caroline, Eliza, [[Edward G. W. Butler|Edward]], and Anthony{{mdash}}who lived with the Jacksons after their father died.{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=160–161}} There were also three [[Indigenous members of the Andrew Jackson household|Indigenous members of Jackson's household]]: [[Lyncoya Jackson|Lyncoya]],{{sfn|Remini|1977|p=194}} [[Theodore (Andrew Jackson captive)|Theodore]],{{sfn|Moser|Macpherson|1984|p=444, fn 5}} and [[Charley (Andrew Jackson captive)|Charley]].{{sfn|Moser|Hoth|Macpherson|Reinbold|1991|p=60, fn 3}}

For the only time in U.S. history, two women acted simultaneously as unofficial first lady for the widower Jackson. Rachel's niece [[Emily Donelson]] was married to Andrew Jackson Donelson (who acted as Jackson's private secretary) and served as hostess at the White House. The president and Emily became estranged for over a year during the Petticoat affair, but they eventually reconciled and she resumed her duties as White House hostess. [[Sarah Yorke Jackson]], the wife of Andrew Jackson Jr., became co-hostess of the White House in 1834, and took over all hostess duties after Emily died from tuberculosis in 1836.{{sfn|Meacham|2008|pp=109; 315}}

=== Temperament ===
Jackson had a reputation for being short-tempered and violent,{{sfn|Somit|1948|p= 295}} which terrified his opponents.{{sfn|Brands|2005|p=297}} He was able to use his temper strategically to accomplish what he wanted.{{sfnm|Meacham|2008|1p=37|Remini|1977|2p=7|Wilentz|2005|3p=3}} He could keep it in check when necessary: his behavior was friendly and urbane when he went to Washington as senator during the campaign leading up to the 1824 election. According to Van Buren, he remained calm in times of difficulty and made his decisions deliberatively.{{sfn|Somit|1948|p=302}}

He had the tendency to take things personally. If someone crossed him, he would often become obsessed with crushing them.{{sfn|Somit|1948|p=297–300}} For example, on the last day of his presidency, Jackson declared he had only two regrets: that he had not shot Henry Clay or hanged John C. Calhoun.{{sfn|Borneman|2008|p=36}} He also had a strong sense of loyalty. He considered threats to his friends as threats to himself, but he demanded unquestioning loyalty in return.{{sfn|Somit|1948|p=306}}

Jackson was self-confident,{{sfn|Meacham|2008|p=19}} without projecting a sense of self-importance.{{sfn|Somit|1948|pp=299–300}} This self-confidence gave him the ability to persevere in the face of adversity.{{sfn|Remini|1977|pp=178– 179}} Once he decided on a plan of action, he would adhere to it.{{sfn|Somit|1948|p=312}} His reputation for being both quick-tempered and confident worked to his advantage;{{sfn|Brown|2022|p=[{{Google Books|id=3t9IEAAAQBAJ|pg=PA191|plainurl=yes}} 191]}} it misled opponents to see him as simple and direct, leading them to often understimate his political shrewdness.{{sfn|Somit|1948|p=304}}

===Religion===
In 1838, Jackson became an official member of the [[Downtown Presbyterian Church (Nashville)|First Presbyterian Church]] in Nashville.{{sfn|Wilentz|2005|p=160}} Both his mother and his wife had been devout Presbyterians all their lives, but Jackson stated that he had postponed officially entering the church until after his retirement to avoid accusations that he had done so for political reasons.{{sfn|Remini|1984|p=444}}

==Legacy==
{{Further|List of memorials to Andrew Jackson}}
[[File:Andrew Jackson statue County Courthouse KC Missouri.jpg|thumb|left|The [[equestrian statue]] of Jackson commissioned by Judge [[Harry S. Truman]] and developed by [[Charles Keck]] in 1934 on display in front of the Jackson County Courthouse in [[Kansas City, Missouri]]]]

Jackson's legacy is controversial and polarizing.{{sfn|Adams|2013|pp=[{{Google Books|id=_z2JMnBpTqgC|pg=PA1|plainurl=yes}} 1–2]}}{{refn|name=JacksonsShiftingLegacy|{{cite web|last=Feller|first=Daniel|title=Andrew Jackson's Shifting Legacy|url=https://ap.gilderlehrman.org/essay/andrew-jackson%27s-shifting-legacy|website=The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History|date=February 24, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103063436/https://ap.gilderlehrman.org/essay/andrew-jackson's-shifting-legacy|archive-date=November 3, 2014}}}}{{sfn|Sellers|1958|p=615}} His contemporary, [[Alexis de Tocqueville]], depicted him as the spokesperson of the majority and their passions.{{sfn|Tocqueville|1840|pp=392–394}} He has been variously described as a frontiersman personifying the independence of the American West,{{sfn|Turner|1920|p=252–254}} a slave-owning member of the Southern gentry,{{sfn|Cheathem|2014a|loc=[{{Google books|id=ZdStAAAAQBAJ|pg=PP19|plainurl=yes}} Introduction, §9]}} and a [[populist]] who promoted faith in the wisdom of the ordinary citizen.{{sfn|Watson|2017|p=218}} He has been represented as a statesman who substantially advanced the spirit of democracy,{{sfn|Remini|1990|p=6}} and upheld the foundations of American [[constitutionalism]],{{sfn|Brogdon|2011|p=273}} as well as an autocratic [[demagogue]] who crushed political opposition and trampled the law.{{sfn|Nester|2013|p=2–3}}

In the 1920s, Jackson's rise to power became associated with the idea of the "common man".{{sfnm|Adams|2013|1p=[{{Google Books|id=_z2JMnBpTqgC|pg=PA8|plainurl=yes}} 8]|Ward|1962|2p=82}} This idea defined the age as a populist rejection of social elites and a vindication of every person's value independent of class and status.{{sfn|Ward|1962|pp=82–83 }} Jackson was seen as its personification,{{sfn|Murphy|2013|p=[{{Google Books|id=nyIQMv2ODoMC|pg=PA261|plainurl=yes}} 261]}} an individual free of societal constraints who can achieve great things.{{sfn|Fish|1927|p=337-338}} In 1945, [[Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr.]]'s influential ''Age of Jackson'' redefined Jackson's legacy through the lens of [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]]'s [[New Deal]],{{sfn|Adams|2013|pp=[{{Google Books|id=_z2JMnBpTqgC|pg=PA3|plainurl=yes}} 3–4]}} describing the common man as a member of the working class struggling against exploitation by business concerns.{{sfnm|Cheathem|2013|1p=5|Cole|1986|2p=151}}

Jackson's legacy has been variously used by later presidents. [[Abraham Lincoln]] referenced Jackson's ideas when negotiating the challenges to the Union that he faced during 1861, including Jackson's understanding of the constitution during the nullification crisis and the president's right to interpret the constitution.<ref name=WilentzLincoln>{{cite web |url=https://ap.gilderlehrman.org/essay/andrew-jackson%27s-shifting-legacy |title=Abraham Lincoln and Jacksonian Democracy|last=Willentz |first=Sean |date=February 24, 2012 |publisher=The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150511233733/https://ap.gilderlehrman.org/essays/abraham-lincoln-and-jacksonian-democracy?period=5|archive-date=May 11, 2015}}</ref> Franklin D. Roosevelt used Jackson to redefine the Democratic Party, describing him as a defender of the exploited and downtrodden and as a fighter for social justice and human rights.{{sfn|Brands|2008|p=449–450}}<ref name=RooseveltJackson>{{cite web|first1=Franklin |last1=Roosevelt|title=Jackson Day Dinner Address, Washington D.C.|date=January 8, 1936|website=The American Presidency Project|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/jackson-day-dinner-address-washington-dc|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190629112817/https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/jackson-day-dinner-address-washington-dc|archive-date=June 29, 2019}}</ref> The members of the [[Progressive Party (United States, 1948-1955)|Progressive Party]] of 1948 to 1955 saw themselves as the heirs to Jackson.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/documents/progressive-party-platform-1948|title=Progressive Party Platform of 1948 |website=The American Presidency Project |date=July 23, 1948 }}</ref> [[Donald Trump]] used Jackson's legacy to present himself as the president of the common man,{{sfn|Brown|2022|p=[{{Google Books|id=3t9IEAAAQBAJ|pg=PA367|plainurl=yes}} 367]}} praising Jackson for saving the country from a rising aristocracy and protecting American workers with a tariff.<ref>{{cite web|title=Remarks by the President on the 250th anniversary of the Birth of Andrew Jackson|date=March 15, 2017|publisher=[[whitehouse.gov]]|url=https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-250th-anniversary-birth-president-andrew-jackson/ |first1=Donald |last1=Trump |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219181827/https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/remarks-president-250th-anniversary-birth-president-andrew-jackson/|archive-date=December 19, 2017}}</ref> In 2016, [[Barack Obama]]'s administration announced it was removing Jackson's portrait from the [[United States twenty-dollar bill|$20 bill]] and replacing it with one of [[Harriet Tubman]].{{sfn|Thompson|Barchiesi|2018|p=1}} Though the plan was put on hold during Trump's first presidency, [[Joe Biden]]'s administration resumed it in 2021.<ref>{{cite news|last=Crutsinger|first=Martin|date=January 25, 2021|title=Effort to put Tubman on $20 bill restarted under Biden|website=AP News|url=https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-biden-cabinet-harriet-tubman-voting-rights-jen-psaki-56c80108669b268ea3b11ce80b002899|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125205042/https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-biden-cabinet-harriet-tubman-voting-rights-jen-psaki-56c80108669b268ea3b11ce80b002899|archive-date=January 25, 2021}}</ref>

The debate over Jackson's legacy{{mdash}}his significance as an outsider who represents the ultimate triumph of the "common man" or as a symbol of undemocratic racism and brutality{{mdash}}continues into the 21st century.{{sfnm|Barna|2020|1p=17|Freehling|2008|2p=104, fn 5}} The Indian Removal Act has been described as [[ethnic cleansing]].{{sfnm|Anderson|2016|1p=416|Carson|2008|2pp=9–10|Garrison|2002|3pp=2–3|Howe|2007|4p=423|Kakel|2011|5p=[{{Google Books|id=7Nt8DAAAQBAJ|pg=PA158|plainurl=yes}} 158]|Lynn|2019|6p=[{{Google Books|id=bqOfDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA78|plainurl=yes}} 78]}} To achieve the goal of separating Native Americans from the whites,{{sfnm|Perdue|2012|1p=6|Remini|1990|2pp=56–59}} coercive force such as threats and bribes were used to effect removal{{sfnm|Cave|2003|1p=1337|Howe|2007|2p=348}} and unauthorized military force was used when there was resistance,{{sfnm|Cave|2003|1p=1337}} as in the case of the Second Seminole War.{{sfn|Missall|Missall|2004|p=xv–xvii}} The act also has been discussed in the context of [[genocide]],{{sfnm|1a1=Cave|1y=2017|1p=[{{Google book|id=CI7DEAAAQBAJ|pg=PA192|plainurl=yes}} 192]|2a1=Gilo-Whitaker|2y=2019|2pp=[{{Google Books|id=V9GLDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA35|plainurl=yes}} 35–36]|3a1=Kalaitzidis|3a2=Streich|3y=2011|3p=[{{Google books|id=iunEEAAAQBAJ|pg=PA33|plainurl=yes}} 33]}} and its role in the long-term [[Genocide of indigenous peoples#United States colonization of indigenous territories|destruction of Native American societies]] and their cultures continues to be debated.{{sfnm|Ostler|2019|1pp=[{{Google books|id=6zeWDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA365|plainurl=yes}} 365]-[{{Google books|id=6zeWDwAAQBAJ|pg=PA366|plainurl=yes}} 366]|Perdue|2012|2p=3}}  In the last decade, white supremacist groups have used Jackson's image in their literature,<ref>{{cite web|title=White Supremacists Step Up Off-Campus Propaganda Efforts in 2018|website=Anti-Defamation League|year=2018|url=https://www.adl.org/resources/report/white-supremacists-step-campus-propaganda-efforts-2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250121115535/https://www.adl.org/resources/report/white-supremacists-step-campus-propaganda-efforts-2018|archive-date=21 Jan 2025}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Extremists, Groups, & Ideologies: Thomas Rousseau|website=Southern Poverty Law Center|year=2025|url=https://www.splcenter.org/resources/extremist-files/thomas-rousseau/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250116234401/https://www.splcenter.org/resources/extremist-files/thomas-rousseau/|archive-date=16 Jan 2025}}</ref> and in 2020, anti-racist protestors in [[Washington D.C.]] attempted to pull down the [[Equestrian statue of Andrew Jackson (Washington, D.C.)|Andrew Jackson statue]] in [[Lafayette Square, Washington, D.C.|Lafayette Square]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Winsor |first=Morgan |date=2020-06-23 |title=Protesters try to topple Andrew Jackson statue near White House |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/protesters-topple-andrew-jackson-statue-white-house/story?id=71398486|website=ABC News |language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711070449/https://abcnews.go.com/amp/US/protesters-topple-andrew-jackson-statue-white-house/story?id=71398486|archive-date=11 July 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|last=Ostler|first=Jeffrey|title=Trail of Tears, Plural: What we don't know about Indian removal|magazine=Humanities|publisher=National Endowment for the Humanities|year=2024|volume=45|issue=3|url=https://www.neh.gov/article/trails-tears-plural-what-we-dont-know-about-indian-removal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250114125654/https://www.neh.gov/article/trails-tears-plural-what-we-dont-know-about-indian-removal|archive-date=14 Jan 2025}}</ref>

Jackson was historically rated highly as a president, but his reputation began to decline in the 1960s.<ref name="Brands">{{cite web|last=Brands|first=H. W.|year= 2017|title=Andrew Jackson at 250: President's Legacy isn't Pretty, but Neither is History|website=The Tennessean|url=https://www.tennessean.com/story/opinion/2017/03/11/andrew-jackson-250-presidents-legacy-isnt-pretty-but-neither-history/98816804/|access-date=December 7, 2023}}</ref><ref name="FellerLegacy">{{cite web |url=https://ap.gilderlehrman.org/essay/andrew-jackson%27s-shifting-legacy |title=Andrew Jackson's Shifting Legacy |last=Feller |first=Daniel |date=February 24, 2012 |publisher=The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History |access-date=August 6, 2022}}</ref> His contradictory legacy is shown in [[Historical rankings of presidents of the United States|scholarly rankings]]. In a [[C-SPAN]] poll of historians, Jackson was ranked the 13th in 2009, 18th in 2017, and 22nd in 2021.<ref name="CSPAN2021">{{Cite web|title=Total Scores/Overall Rankings {{!}} C-SPAN Survey on Presidents 2021 {{!}} C-SPAN.org|url=https://www.c-span.org/presidentsurvey2021/?page=overall|access-date=July 1, 2021|website=www.c-span.org}}</ref> The Presidential Greatness Project, which surveys political scientists, found that Jackson was rated the 9th greatest president in 2014,{{sfn|Rottinghaus|Vaughn|2017}} falling to 15th in 2018{{sfn|Rottinghaus|Eady|Vaughn|2020}} and 21st in 2024,{{sfn|Rottinghaus|Vaughn|2024}} but he was rated the third most polarizing president after Barack Obama and [[George W. Bush]] in 2014{{sfn|Rottinghaus|Vaughn|2017}} and the second most polarizing after Donald Trump in both 2018{{sfn|Rottinghaus|Eady|Vaughn|2020}} and 2024.{{sfn|Rottinghaus|Vaughn|2024}}

==Writings==
* {{cite book|editor1-last=Feller|editor1-first=Daniel|editor2-last=Coens|editor2-first=Thomas|editor3-last=Moss|editor3-first=Laura-Eve|editor4-last=Moser|editor4-first=Harold D.|editor5-last=Alexander|editor5-first=Erik B.|editor6-last =Smith|editor6-first= Sam B.|editor7-last=Owsley|editor7-first= Harriet C.|editor8-last=Hoth|editor8-first=David R|editor9-last=Hoemann|editor9-first=George H.|editor10-last=McPherson|editor10-first=Sharon|editor11-last=Clift|editor11-first=J. Clint|editor12-last=Wells|editor12-first= Wyatt C.|title=The Papers of Andrew Jackson|year=1980–2019|publisher=University of Tennessee|ref=none|url=https://thepapersofandrewjackson.utk.edu/}} (11 volumes to date; 17 volumes projected). Ongoing project to print all of Jackson's papers.
:* [https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_jackson/1/ Vol. I, (1770–1803)]; [https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_jackson/5/ Vol. II, (1804–1813)]; [https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_jackson/4/ Vol. III, (1814–1815)]; [https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_jackson/2/ Vol. IV, (1816–1820)]; [https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_jackson/3/ Vol. V, (1821–1824)]; [https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_jackson/12/ Vol. VI, (1825–1828)]; [https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_jackson/11/ Vol. VII, (1829)]; [https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_jackson/9/ Vol. VIII, (1830)]; [https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_jackson/8/ Vol. IX, (1831)]; [https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_jackson/6/ Vol. X, (1832)]; [https://trace.tennessee.edu/utk_jackson/13/ Vol. XI, (1833)]
* {{cite book|editor-last=Bassett|editor-first= John S.|year=1926–1935|title=Correspondence of Andrew Jackson|publisher=Carnegie Institution|ref=none}} (7 volumes; 2 available online).
:* [https://archive.org/details/correspondenceof0003unse_q4f7 Vol III, (1820–1828) ]{{registration required}}; [https://archive.org/details/correspondenceof0004unse_u3y7 Vol IV, (1829–1832) ]{{registration required}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Richardson|editor-first=James D.|year=1897|chapter=Andrew Jackson|title=Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents|publisher=Bureau of National Literature and Art|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/acompilationmes09pringoog/page/n104|volume=III|pages=996–1359|ref=none}} Reprints Jackson's major messages and reports.

==See also==
* [[List of presidents of the United States]]
* [[List of presidents of the United States by previous experience]]
* [[List of presidents of the United States who owned slaves]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{Further|Bibliography of Andrew Jackson}}

===Biographies===
{{refbegin|32em}}
* {{cite book |last=Brands |first=H. W. |date=2005 |title=Andrew Jackson: His Life and Times |location=New York, NY |publisher=Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group |url=https://archive.org/details/andrewjacksonhis0000bran_j1p2|oclc=1285478081|url-access=registration|isbn=978-1-4000-3072-9 |author-link=H. W. Brands }}
* {{cite book |last=Brown |first=David S. |author-link=David S. Brown |date=2022 |title=The First Populist: The Defiant Life of Andrew Jackson |location=New York, NY |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-1-9821-9109-2|oclc=1303813425 }}
* {{cite book |last=Latner |first=Richard B. |chapter=Andrew Jackson |editor-last=Graff |editor-first=Henry |date=2002 |title=The Presidents: A Reference History |edition=3 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/presidentsrefere00graf/page/106 |chapter-url-access=registration |location=New York, NY |publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons |isbn=978-0-684-31226-2 |oclc=49029341 |pages=106–127 }}
* {{cite book |last=Meacham |first=Jon |date=2008 |title=American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House |url=https://archive.org/details/americanlionandr00meac_0|url-access=registration| location=New York, NY |publisher=Random House Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8129-7346-4 |oclc=1145796050|author-link=Jon Meacham }}
* {{cite book |last=Remini |first=Robert V. |date=1977 |title=Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767–1821|url=https://archive.org/details/andrewjacksonco00remi|url-access=registration |location=New York, NY |publisher=Harper & Row Publishers, Inc. |isbn=978-0-8018-5912-0 |oclc=1145801830|author-link=Robert V. Remini }}
* {{cite book |last=Remini |first=Robert V. |date=1981 |title=Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 1822–1832 |url=https://archive.org/details/andrewjacksoncou0002remi|url-access=registration|location=New York, NY |publisher=Harper & Row Publishers, Inc. |isbn=978-0-8018-5913-7|oclc=1145807972 }}
* {{cite book |last=Remini |first=Robert V. |date=1984 |title=Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833–1845 |url=https://archive.org/details/andrewjacksoncou0000remi|url-access=registration|location=New York, NY |publisher=Harper & Row Publishers, Inc. |isbn=978-0-8018-5913-7|oclc=1285459723 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wilentz |first=Sean |date=2005 |title=Andrew Jackson |url=https://archive.org/details/andrewjackson00wile|url-access=registration |location=New York, NY |publisher=Henry Holt and Company |isbn=978-0-8050-6925-9|author-link= Sean Wilentz|oclc=863515036}}
{{refend}}

===Books===
{{refbegin|32em}}
* {{cite book |last=Adams |first=Sean P. |chapter=Introduction: The President and his Era |editor-last=Adams |editor-first=Sean P. |date=2013 |title=A Companion to the Era of Andrew Jackson |publisher=Wiley |isbn=9781444335415 |oclc=1152040405 |pages=1–11}}
* {{cite book |last=Aptheker |first=Herbert |orig-year=1943 |chapter=The Turner Cataclysm and Some Repercussions |title=American Negro Slave Revolts |publisher=International Publishers |year=1974 |oclc=1028031914 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/americannegrosla00herb/page/298 |chapter-url-access=registration |pages=293–394 |isbn=9780717800032 |ref={{SfnRef|Aptheker|1943}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Baptist |first=Edward E. |date=2016 |title=The Half has Never Been Told: Slavery and the Making of American Capitalism |url=https://archive.org/details/halfhasneverbeen0000bapt_c1d5 |url-access=registration |location=New York, NY |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-00296-2 |oclc=1302085747}}
* {{cite book |last=Booraem |first=Hendrik |date=2001 |title=Young Hickory: The Making of Andrew Jackson |url=https://archive.org/details/younghickorymaki0000boor |url-access=registration |location=Lanham, MD |publisher=Taylor Trade Publishing |isbn=978-0-8783-3263-2 |oclc=}}
* {{cite book |last=Boller |first=Paul F. Jr. |date=2004 |title=Presidential Campaigns: From George Washington to George W. Bush |url=https://archive.org/details/presidentialcamp0000boll_a3l8 |url-access=registration |location=New York, NY |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19516-716-0 |oclc=1285570008}}
* {{cite book |last=Borneman |first=Walter R. |date=2008 |title=Polk: The Man Who Transformed the Presidency and America |location=New York, NY |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-1-4000-6560-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/polkmanwhotransf00born |url-access=registration |oclc=1150943134}}
* {{cite book |last=Brands |first=Henry W. |year=2008 |title=Traitor to his Class: The Privileged Life and radical Presidency of Franklin Delano Roosevelt |url=https://archive.org/details/traitortohisclas0000bran |url-access=registration |publisher=Doubleday |isbn=9780385519588 |oclc=759509803}}
* {{cite book |last=Breen |first=Patrick H. |year=2015 |title=The Land Shall be Deluged in Blood : A New History of the Nat Turner Revolt |publisher=Oxford University Press |oclc=929856251 |url=https://archive.org/details/americannegrosla00herb |url-access=registration |isbn=9780199828005}}
* {{Cite book |last=Burstein |first=Andrew |year=2003 |title=The Passions of Andrew Jackson |url=https://archive.org/details/passionsofandrew0000burs |url-access=registration |publisher=Knopf |isbn=0375714049 |oclc=1225864865}}
* {{cite book |last=Cave |first=Alfred A. |year=2017 |title=Sharp Knife: Andrew Jackson and the American Indians |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9781440860409 |oclc=987437631}}
* {{cite book |last=Cheathem |first=Mark R. |year=2013 |chapter="The Shape of Democracy": Historical Interpretations of Jacksonian Democracy |title=Interpreting American History: The Age of Andrew Jackson. |editor1-last=McKnight |editor1-first=Brian D. |editor2-last=Humphreys |editor2-first=James S. |pages=1–21 |publisher=Kent State University Press |isbn=9781606350980 |oclc=700709151}}
* {{cite book |last=Cheathem |first=Mark R. |year=2014a |title=Andrew Jackson: Southerner |publisher=LSU Press |isbn=9780807151006 |oclc=858995561 |type=Ebook}}
* {{cite book |author1-last=Clark |author1-first=Thomas D. |author2-last=Guice |author2-first=John D. W. |title=The Old Southwest, 1765–1830: Frontiers in conflict |url=https://archive.org/details/oldsouthwest17950000clar |url-access=registration |date=1996 |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |isbn=9780806128368 |oclc=1285743152}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dickey |first=J.&nbsp;D. |title=The Republic of Violence: The Tormented Rise of Abolition in Andrew Jackson's America |publisher=Pegasus Books |year=2022 |isbn=978-1643139289}}
* {{cite book |last=Durham |first=Walter T. |date=1990 |title=Before Tennessee: the Southwest Territory, 1790–1796: a narrative history of the Territory of the United States South of the River Ohio |location=Piney Flats, TN |publisher=Rocky Mount Historical Association |isbn=978-0-9678-3071-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Ellis |first=Richard E. |editor1-last=Woodward |editor1-first=C. Vann |chapter=Andrew Jackson:1829-1837 |title=Responses of the Presidents to Charges of Misconduct |publisher=Dell |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/responsesofpresi00wood/page/51 |chapter-url-access=registration |pages=51–656 |date=1974 |oclc=1036817744}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ellis |first=Richard E. |year=1989 |title=The Union at Risk: Jacksonian Democracy, States' Rights, and the Nullification Crisis |url=https://archive.org/details/unionatriskjacks0000elli |url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford University Press |oclc=655900280 |isbn=9780195345155}}
* {{cite book |last1=Feerick |first1=John D. |year=1965 |title=From Failing Hands: the Story of Presidential Succession |url=https://archive.org/details/fromfallinghands0000unse |url-access=registration |publisher=Fordham University Press |location=New York City |oclc=}}
* {{cite book |last=Fish |first=Carl R. |year=1927 |title=The Rise of the Common Man 1830–1850. |publisher=MacMillian |url=https://archive.org/details/riseofcommonman0000fish |url-access=registration |isbn= |oclc=1151151619}}
* {{cite book |last=Freehling |first=William |date=1966 |title=Prelude to Civil War: The Nullification Controversy in South Carolina, 1816–1836 |url=https://archive.org/details/preludetocivilwa0000unse |url-access=registration |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195076813 |oclc=1151067281}}
* {{Cite book |last=Freehling |first=William W. |chapter=Andrew Jackson, Great President (?) |title=Congress and the Emergence of Sectionalism: From the Missouri Compromise to the Age of Jackson |year=2008 |pages=133–151|publisher=Ohio University Press |isbn=9780821417836 |editor-last=Finkelman |editor-first=Paul |series=Perspectives on the History of Congress, 1801–1877|editor-last2=Kennon |editor-first2=Donald R. |oclc=613401991}}
* {{cite book |last=Garrison |first=Tim Allen |date=2002 |title=The Legal Ideology of Removal: The Southern Judiciary and the Sovereignty of Native American Nations |url=https://archive.org/details/legalideologyofr0000garr |url-access=registration |location=Athens, GA |publisher=University of Georgia Press |isbn=978-0-8203-3417-2 |oclc=53956489}}
* {{cite book |last=Gatell |first=Frank Otto |date=1967 |title=The Jacksonians and the Money Power |publisher=Chicago, Rand McNally |url=https://archive.org/details/jacksoniansmoney0000gate |url-access=registration |oclc=651767466}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gilo-Whitaker |first1=Dina |year=2019 |title=As Long as Grass Grows: The Indigenous Fight for Environmental Justice, from Colonization to Standing Rock |publisher=Beacon Press |isbn=9780807073780 |oclc=1044542033}}
* {{Cite book |last=Greeley |first=Horace |year=1864 |title=The American Conflict: A History of the Great Rebellion in the United States of America, 1860-64. Its Causes, Incidents and Results |url=https://archive.org/details/americanconflict00gree_2 |url-access=registration |publisher=O. D. Case and Company |isbn= |oclc=}}
* {{cite book |last=Gullan |first=Harold I. |date=2004 |title=First fathers: the men who inspired our Presidents |chapter=Dramatic Departure: Andrew Jackson Sr., Abraham Van Buren |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-46597-3 |oclc=53090968}}
* {{cite book |last=Hammond |first=Bray |date=1957 |title=Banks and Politics in America from the Revolution to the Civil War |url=https://archive.org/details/bankspoliticsina0000hamm |url-access=registration |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Princeton University Press |oclc=1147712456 |isbn=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Hickey |first=Donald R. |year=1989 |title=The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict |url=https://archive.org/details/warof1812forgo00hick |url-access=registration |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=0252060598 |oclc=1036973138}}
* {{cite book |last=Howe |first=Daniel Walker |title=What Hath God Wrought: the Transformation of America, 1815–1848 |url=https://archive.org/details/whathathgodwroug00howe |url-access=registration |year=2007 |location=Oxford, NY |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-974379-7 |oclc=646814186}}
* {{cite book |last1=Kakel |first1=Carroll |year=2011 |title=The American West and the Nazi East: A Comparative and Interpretive Perspective |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=9780230307063 |oclc=743799760}}
* {{cite book |first1=Akis |last1=Kalaitzidis |first2=Gregory W. |last2=Streich |title=U.S. Foreign Policy: A Documentary and Reference Guide |year=2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-313-38375-5 |oclc=759101504}}
* {{Cite book |last=Lane |first=Carl |year=2014 |title=A Nation Wholly Free: The Elimination of the National Debt in the Age of Jackson |url=https://archive.org/details/nationwhollyfree0000lane |url-access=registration |publisher=Westholme |oclc=1150853554 |isbn=9781594162091}}
* {{cite book |title=Exploring American History: From Colonial Times to 1877 |volume=10 |editor1-last=Lansford |editor1-first=Tom |editor2-last=Woods |editor2-first=Thomas E. |date=2008 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |url=https://archive.org/details/exploringamerica0010unse |url-access=registration |location=New York |isbn=978-0-7614-7758-7 |oclc=}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lynn |first1=John A. |year=2019 |title=Another Kind of War: The Nature and History of Terrorism |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=9780300189988 |oclc=1107042059}}
* {{cite journal |last=Mahon |first=John K. |year=1962 |title=The Treaty of Moultrie Creek, 1823 |journal=The Florida Historical Quarterly |volume=40 |issue=4 |pages=350–372 |jstor=30139875}}
* {{cite book |last=Marszalek |first=John F. |year=1997 |title=The Petticoat Affair: Manners, Mutiny, and Sex in Andrew Jackson's White House |url=https://archive.org/details/petticoataffairm00mars |url-access=registration |publisher=Free Press |isbn=0684828014 |oclc=36767691}}
* {{cite book |last=McGrane |first=Reginald C. |year=1965 |title=The Panic of 1837 |url=https://archive.org/details/panicof1837somef0000mcgr |url-access=registration |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn= |oclc=1150938709}}
* {{Cite book |last=Meyers |first=Marvin |year=1960 |title=The Jacksonian Persuasion: Politics & Belief |url=https://archive.org/details/jacksonianpersua00meye |url-access=registration |publisher=Vintage Books |oclc=1035884705 |isbn=}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Missall |first1=John |last2=Missall |first2=Mary Lou |year=2004 |title=The Seminole Wars: America's Longest Indian Conflict |url=https://archive.org/details/seminolewarsamer0000miss |url-access=registration |publisher=University Press of Florida |isbn=0813027152 |oclc=1256504949}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Moser |editor1-first=Harold D. |editor2-last=Macpherson |editor2-first=Sharon |year=1984 |title=The Papers of Andrew Jackson, Volume II, 1804–1813 |publisher=University of Tennessee Press |url=https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=utk_jackson |access-date=May 25, 2022}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Moser |editor1-first=Harold D. |editor2-last=Hoth |editor2-first=David R. |editor3-last=Macpherson |editor3-first=Sharon |editor4-last=Reinbold |editor4-first=John H. |title=The Papers of Andrew Jackson, Volume III, 1814–1815 |date=1991 |publisher=University of Tennessee Press |page=35 |url=https://trace.tennessee.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1004&context=utk_jackson |access-date=May 25, 2022 |quote=I have not heard whether Genl Coffee has taken on to him little Lyncoya-I have got another Pett-given to me by the chief Jame Fife, ... [The Indian children were probably Theodore and Charley.]}}*
* {{cite book |last=Murphy |first=Sharon A. |chapter=The Myth and Reality of andrew Jackson's Rise in the Election of 1824 |editor-last=Adams |editor-first=Sean P. |date=2013 |title=A Companion to the Era of Andrew Jackson |publisher=Wiley |isbn=9781444335415 |oclc=1152040405 |pages=260–279}}
* {{cite book |last=Nester |first=William R. |year=2013 |title=The Age of Jackson and the Art of Power |publisher=Potomac Books |isbn=9781612346052 |oclc=857769985 |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofjacksonarto0000nest |url-access=registration}}
* {{cite book |last=Niven |first=John |title=John C. Calhoun and the Price of Union: A Biography |url=https://archive.org/details/johnccalhounp00john |url-access=registration |date=1988 |location=Baton Rouge, LA |publisher=LSU Press |isbn=978-0-8071-1858-0 |oclc=1035889000}}
* {{cite book |last=Nowlan |first=Robert A. |date=2012 |title=The American Presidents, Washington to Tyler |location=Jefferson, NC |publisher=McFarland Publishing |isbn=978-0-7864-6336-7 |oclc=692291434}}
* {{cite book |last=Ogg |first=Frederic Austin |date=1919 |title=The Reign of Andrew Jackson; Vol. 20, Chronicles of America Series |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13009 |location=New Haven, CT |publisher=Yale University Press |oclc=928924919}}
* {{cite book |last=Olson |first=James Stuart |editor=Robert L. Shadle |title=Encyclopedia of the Industrial Revolution in America |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofin00olso |url-access=registration |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, CT |date=2002 |isbn=978-0-313-30830-7 |oclc=1033573148}}
* {{Cite book |last=Owsley |first=Frank Lawrence Jr. |year=1981 |title=Struggle for the Gulf Borderlands: The Creek War and the Battle of New Orleans, 1812-1815 |url=https://archive.org/details/struggleforgulfb0000owsl |url-access=registration |publisher=University Presses of Florida |isbn=0813006627 |oclc=1151350587}}
* {{cite book |last=Ostler |first=Jeffrey |date=2019 |title=Surviving Genocide |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-24526-4 |oclc=1099434736}}
* {{cite book |last1=Parins |first1=James W. |last2=Littlefield |first2=Daniel F. |year=2011 |chapter=Introduction |title=Encyclopedia of American Indian Removal [2 Volumes] |editor-last1=Parins |editor-first1=James W. |editor-last2=Littlefield |editor-first2=Daniel F. |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9780313360428 |oclc=720586004}}
* {{cite book |last=Remini |first=Robert V. |year=1990 |title=The Legacy of Andrew Jackson: Essays on Democracy, Indian Removal, and Slavery |url=https://archive.org/details/legacyofandrewja0000remi |url-access=registration |publisher=Louisiana State University Press |isbn=9780807116425 |oclc=1200479832}}
* {{cite book |last=Rogin |first=Michael P. |year=1975 |title=Fathers and Children: Andrew Jackson and the Subjugation of the American Indian |url=https://archive.org/details/fatherschildren00mich |url-access=registration |publisher=Knopf |isbn=0394482042 |oclc=1034678255}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sabato |first1=Larry |last2=O'Connor |first2=Karen |date=2002 |title=American Government: Continuity and Change |url=https://archive.org/details/americangovernme00kare_0 |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Pearson Longman |isbn=978-0-321-31711-7 |oclc=1028046888}}
* {{cite book |last=Satz |first=Ronald N. |year=1974 |title=American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era |url=https://archive.org/details/americanindianpo0000satz |url-access=registration |publisher=University of Nebraska |isbn=9780803208230 |oclc=}}
* {{cite book |last=Schlesinger |first=Arthur M. Jr. |year=1945 |title=The Age of Jackson |url=https://archive.org/details/ageofjackson0000schl |url-access=registration |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |isbn=9780316773430 |oclc=1024176654}}
* {{cite book |last=Schwartz |first=Bernard |title=A History of the Supreme Court |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofsupreme00schw |url-access=registration |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-0-19-509387-2 |oclc=1035668728}}
* {{cite book |last=Temin |first=Peter |year=1969 |title=Jacksonian Economy |url=https://archive.org/details/jacksonianeconom00temi |url-access=registration |publisher=Norton |oclc=1150111725 |isbn=}}
* {{cite book |last=Turner |first=Frederick Jackson |year=1920 |title=The Frontier in American History |url=https://archive.org/details/frontierinameric0000turn_y3z9 |url-access=registration |publisher=Henry Holt |isbn= |oclc=1045610195}}
* {{cite book |last=Unger |first=Harlow G. |year=2012 |title=John Quincy Adams |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780306822650 |url-access=registration |publisher=De Capo |isbn=9780306822650 |oclc=1035758771}}
* {{cite book |last=Van Deusen |first=Glyndon G. |year=1963 |title=The Jacksonian Era, 1828-1848 |url=https://archive.org/details/jacksonianera0000unse |url-access=registration |publisher=Harper & Row |isbn=9780061330285 |oclc=1176180758}}
* {{cite book |last=Wallace |first=Anthony F. C. |year=1993 |title=The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians |url=https://archive.org/details/longbittertraila0000wall |url-access=registration |publisher=Hill and Wang |isbn=9780809066315 |oclc=1150209732}}
* {{cite book |last=Ward |first=John. W. |year=1962 |chapter=The Age of the Common Man |title=The Reconstruction of American History |editor-last=Higham |editor-first=John |publisher=Hutchison |oclc=1151080132 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/reconstructionof0000high/page/82 |chapter-url-access=registration |pages=82–97}}
{{refend}}

===Journal articles and dissertations===
{{Refbegin|32em}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=Gary Clayton |title=The Native Peoples of the American West: Genocide or Ethnic Cleansing? |journal=Western Historical Quarterly |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2016 |volume=47 |issue=4 |page=416 |doi=10.1093/whq/whw126 |jstor=26782720 |issn=0043-3810}}
* {{cite journal |last=Bergeron |first=Paul H. |year=1976 |title=The nullification controversy revisited |journal=Tennessee Historical Quarterly |volume=35 |number=3 |pages=263–275 |jstor=42623589}}
*{{cite thesis |last=Barna |first=Elizabeth K. |year=2020 |title=Between Plantations, President, and Public: Institutional Polysemy and the Representation of Slavery, Genocide, and Democracy at Andrew Jackson's Hermitage |type=PhD |publisher=Vanderbilt University |url=https://irbe.library.vanderbilt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/297793bf-ee84-451e-8296-01a0c4e4fb54/content}}
* {{cite journal |last=Berutti |first=Ronald A. |date=1992 |title=The Cherokee Cases: The Fight to Save the Supreme Court and the Cherokee Indians |journal=American Indian Law Review |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=291–308 |doi=10.2307/20068726 |jstor=20068726 |url=https://digitalcommons.law.ou.edu/ailr/vol17/iss1/12 |issn=0094-002X |url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite journal |last=Brogdon |first=Matthew S. |year=2011 |title=Defending the Union: Andrew Jackson's Nullifaction Proclamation and American federalism |journal=Review of Politics |volume=73 |number=2 |pages=245–273 |doi=10.1017/S0034670511000064 |jstor=42623589 |s2cid=145679939}}
* {{cite journal |last=Campbell |first=Stephen W. |year=2016 |title=Funding the Bank War: Nicholas Biddle and the public relations campaign to recharter the second bank of the U.S., 1828–1832 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14664658.2016.1230930 |url-access=registration |journal=American Nineteenth Century History |volume=17 |number=3 |pages=279–299 |doi=10.1080/14664658.2016.1230930 |s2cid=152280055}}
* {{cite journal |last=Cave |first=Alfred A. |year=2003 |title=Abuse of Power: Andrew Jackson and the Indian Removal Act of 1830 |journal=The Historian |volume=65 |issue=6 |pages=1330–1353 |doi=10.1111/j.0018-2370.2003.00055.x |jstor=2205966}}
* {{cite journal |last=Cheathem |first=Mark R. |year=2011 |title=Andrew Jackson, Slavery, and Historians |journal=History Compass |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=326–338 |doi=10.1111/j.1478-0542.2011.00763.x |issn=1478-0542 |url=https://1stdirectory.co.uk/_assets/files_comp/ad51b67b-cd80-4ec1-90ea-19f753723c3c.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012032600/https://1stdirectory.co.uk/_assets/files_comp/ad51b67b-cd80-4ec1-90ea-19f753723c3c.pdf |archive-date=October 12, 2022}}
* {{cite journal |last=Cheathem |first=Mark |title=Frontiersman or Southern Gentleman? Newspaper Coverage of Andrew Jackson during the 1828 Presidential Campaign |journal=The Readex Report |volume=9 |issue=3 |year=2014 |url=http://www.readex.com/readex-report/frontiersman-or-southern-gentleman-newspaper-coverage-andrew-jackson-during-1828 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150112022334/http://www.readex.com/readex-report/frontiersman-or-southern-gentleman-newspaper-coverage-andrew-jackson-during-1828 |archive-date=January 12, 2015}}
* {{cite journal |last=Carson |first=James T. |year=2008 |title="The obituary of nations": Ethnic cleansing, memory, and the origins of the Old South |journal=Southern Cultures |volume=14 |number=4 |pages=6–31 |doi=10.1353/scu.0.0026 |jstor=26391777 |s2cid=144154298}}
* {{cite journal |last=Clifton |first=Frances |year=1952 |title=John Overton as Andrew Jackson's friend |journal=Tennessee Historical Quarterly |volume=11 |number=1 |pages=23–40 |jstor=42621095}}
* {{cite journal |last=Cole |first=Donald B. |title=Review: ''The Age of Jackson'': After Forty Years |journal=Reviews in American History |date=1986 |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=149–159 |doi=10.2307/2702131 |jstor=2702131}}
* {{cite journal |last=Cole |first=Donald P. |year=1997 |title=A yankee in Kentucky: The early years of Amos Kendall, 1789–1828 |journal=Proceedings of the Massachusetts Historical Society |series=Third Series |volume=109 |number=1 |pages=24–36 |jstor=25081127}}
* {{cite journal |last=Davis |first=Ethan |year=2010 |title=An administrative Trail of Tears: Indian removal |journal=The American Journal of Legal History |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=1330–1353 |doi=10.1093/ajlh/50.1.49 |jstor=2205966}}
* {{cite journal |last=Davis |first=Karl |year=2002 |title="Remember Fort Mims": Reinterpreting the origins of the Creek War |journal=Journal of the Early Republic |volume=22 |number=4 |pages=611–636 |doi=10.2307/3124760 |jstor=3124760}}
* {{cite journal |last=Ely |first=James W. Jr. |year=1981 |title=Andrew Jackson as Tennessee state court judge, 1798–1804 |journal=Tennessee Historical Quarterly |volume=40 |number=2 |pages=144–157 |jstor=42626180}}
* {{cite journal |last=Ericson |first=David F. |year=1995 |title=The nullification crisis, American republicanism, and the Force Bill debate |journal=Journal of Southern History |volume=81 |number=2 |pages=249–270 |doi=10.2307/2211577 |jstor=2211577}}
* {{cite journal |last=Friedrich |first=Carl Joachim |year=1937 |title=The rise and decline of the spoils tradition |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=189 |pages=10–16 |doi=10.1177/000271623718900103 |jstor=1019439 |s2cid=144735397}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Gammon |first=Samuel G. |year=1922 |title=The Presidential Campaign of 1832 |url=https://archive.org/details/presidentialcamp01gamm |url-access=registration |publisher=Johns Hopkins University |oclc=1050835838}}
* {{cite journal |last=Gatell |first=Frank O. |year=1964 |title=Spoils of the Bank War: Political Bias in the Selection of Pet Banks |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=70 |number=1 |pages=35–58 |doi=10.2307/1842097 |jstor=1842097}}
* {{cite journal |last=Gilman |first=Stuart C. |year=1995 |title=Presidential Ethics and the Ethics of the Presidency |journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science |volume=537 |pages=58–75 |doi=10.1177/0002716295537000006 |jstor=1047754 |s2cid=143876977}}
* {{cite book |last=Hall |first=Kermit |year=1992 |chapter=Judiciary Act of 1837 |title=The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=475 |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hall |url-access=registration |isbn=0195058356 |oclc=1036760206}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Haveman |first=Christopher D. |year=2009 |title=The Removal of the Creek Indians from the Southeast, 1825–1838 |type=PhD |publisher=Auburn University |url=http://npshistory.com/publications/trte/haveman-2009.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926044231/http://npshistory.com/publications/trte/haveman-2009.pdf |archive-date=September 26, 2022}}
* {{cite journal |last=Heidler |first=David S. |year=1993 |title=The politics of national aggression: Congress and the First Seminole War |journal=Journal of the Early Republic |volume=13 |number=4 |pages=501–530 |doi=10.2307/3124558 |jstor=3124558}}
* {{cite journal |last=Henig |first=Gerald S. |year=1969 |title=The Jacksonian attitude toward Abolitionism |journal=Tennessee Historical Quarterly |volume=28 |number=1 |pages=42–56 |jstor=1901307}}
* {{cite journal |last=Howell |first=William Huntting |year=2010 |title="Read, Pause, and Reflect!!" |journal=Journal of the Early Republic |volume=30 |number=2 |pages=293–300 |doi=10.1353/jer.0.0149 |jstor=40662272 |s2cid=144448483}}
* {{cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Carlton |year=1966 |title=The internal improvement vetoes of Andrew Jackson |journal=Tennessee Historical Quarterly |volume=25 |number=3 |pages=531–550 |doi=10.2307/3115344 |jstor=3115344 |s2cid=55379727}}
* {{cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Carlton |year=1967 |title=--Another Time, Another Place--: The attempted assassination of President Andrew Jackson |journal=Tennessee Historical Quarterly |volume=26 |number=2 |pages=184–190 |jstor=42622937}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kanon |first=Thomas |year=1999 |title="A slow, laborious slaughter": The battle of Horseshoe Bend |journal=Tennessee Historical Quarterly |volume=58 |number=1 |pages=2–15 |jstor=42627446}}
* {{cite journal |last=Koenig |first=Louis W. |year=1964 |title=American Politics: The First Half-Century |journal=Current History |volume=47 |number=278 |pages=193–198 |doi=10.1525/curh.1964.47.278.193 |jstor=45311183}}
* {{cite journal |last=Knodell |first=Jane |year=2006 |title=Rethinking the Jacksonian economy: The impact of the 1832 bank veto on commercial banking |journal=Journal of Economic History |volume=66 |number=3 |pages=641–574 |doi=10.1017/S0022050706000258 |doi-broken-date=April 13, 2025 |jstor=3874852 |s2cid=155084029}}
* {{cite journal |last=Mahon |first=John K. |year=1998 |title=The First Seminole War: November 21, 1817-May24,1818 |journal=Florida Historical Quarterly |volume=77 |number=1 |pages=62–67 |jstor=30149093}}
* {{cite journal |last=Latner |first=Richard B. |year=1978 |title=The Kitchen Cabinet and Andrew Jackson's advisory system |journal=The Journal of American History |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=367–388 |doi=10.2307/1894085 |jstor=1894085}}
* {{cite journal |last=McLoughlin |first=William G. |year=1986 |title=Georgia's role in instigating compulsory Indian removal |journal=The Georgia Historical Quarterly |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=605–632 |jstor=40581582}}
* {{cite journal |last=Morgan |first=William G. |year=1969 |title=The origin and development of the congressional nominating caucus |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=113 |number=2 |pages=184–196 |jstor=985965}}
* {{cite journal |last=Miles |first=Edwin A. |year=1992 |title=After John Marshall's Decision: Worcester v. Georgia and the Nullification Crisis |journal=Journal of Southern History |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=519–544 |doi=10.2307/2205966 |jstor=2205966}}
* {{cite journal |last=Nettels |first=Curtis |year=1925 |title=The Mississippi Valley and the federal judiciary, 1807-1837 |journal=The Mississippi Valley Historical Review |volume=12 |number=2 |pages=202–226 |doi=10.2307/1886513 |jstor=1886513}}
* {{cite journal |last=Owsley |first=Harriet Chappel |year=1977 |title=The marriages of Rachel Donelson |journal=Tennessee Historical Quarterly |volume=36 |number=4 |pages=479–492 |jstor=42625784}}
* {{cite journal |last=Parsons |first=Lynn Hudson |year=1973 |title="A perpetual harrow upon my feelings": John Quincy Adams and the American Indian |journal=The New England Quarterly |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=339–379|doi=10.2307/364198 |jstor=364198 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Perdue |first=Theda |year=2012 |title=The Legacy of Indian Removal |journal=Journal of Southern History |volume=78 |issue=1 |pages=3–36 |jstor=23247455}}
* {{cite journal |last=Perkins |first=Edwin J. |year=1987 |title=Lost opportunities for compromise in the Bank War: A reassessment of jackson's veto message |journal=Business History Review |volume=61 |number=4 |pages=531–550 |doi=10.2307/3115344 |jstor=3115344 |s2cid=55379727}}
* {{cite journal |last=Phillips |first=Kim T. |year=1976 |title=The Pennsylvania origins of the Jackson movement |journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=91 |number=3 |pages=489–501 |doi=10.2307/2148938 |jstor=2148938}}
* {{cite journal |last=Porter |first=Kenneth Wiggins |year=1951 |title=Negroes and the Seminole War, 1817-1818 |journal=Journal of Negro History |volume=36 |number=3 |pages=249–280 |doi=10.2307/2715671 |jstor=2715671 |s2cid=150360181}}
* {{cite journal |last=Ratcliffe |first=Donald J. |date=2000 |title=The Nullification Crisis, Southern discontents, and the American political process |journal=American Nineteenth Century History |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=1–30 |doi=10.1080/14664650008567014 |s2cid=144242176}}
* {{cite journal |last=Remini |first=Robert V. |author-link=Robert V. Remini |date=1991 |title=Andrew Jackson's Adventures on the Natchez Trace |journal=Southern Quarterly |publisher=University of Southern Mississippi |location=Hattiesburg, Mississippi |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=35–42 |issn=0038-4496 |oclc=1644229}}
* {{cite journal |last=Rousseau |first=Peter L. |year=2002 |title=Jacksonian money policy, specie flows, and the panic of 1837 |journal=The Journal of Economic History |volume=82 |number=2 |pages=457–488 |jstor=2698187}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rottinghaus |first1=Brandon |first2=Gregory |last2=Eady |last3=Vaughn |first3=Justin S. |title=Presidential greatness in a polarized era: Results from the latest presidential greatness survey |journal=PS: Political Science & Politics |date=2020 |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=413–420 |doi=10.1017/S1049096520000177 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ps-political-science-and-politics/article/abs/presidential-greatness-in-a-polarized-era-results-from-the-latest-presidential-greatness-survey/169AFBF02BBE5938C2FA78902A1CB77B |url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rottinghaus |first1=Brandon |last2=Vaughn |first2=Justin S. |title=Presidential Greatness and Political Science: Assessing the 2014 APSA Presidents and Executive Politics Section Presidential Greatness Survey |journal=PS: Political Science & Politics |date=2017 |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=824–830 |doi=10.1017/S1049096517000671 |s2cid=157101605 |doi-access=free}}
*{{cite web |last1=Rottinghaus |first1=Brandon |last2=Vaughn |first2=Justin S. |year=2024 |title=Official Results of the 2024 Presidential Greatness Project Expert Survey |type=white paper |website=Presidential Greatness Project |url=https://presidentialgreatnessproject.com/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/2024-VP-Results-Summary-Document.pdf |archive-url=https://qzg.wvf.mybluehost.me/wp-content/uploads/2024/05/Presidential-Greatness-White-Paper-2024.pdf |archive-date=16 Jan 2025}}
* {{cite journal |last=Schmidt |first=Louis Bernard |year=1955 |title=Andrew Jackson and the Agrarian West |journal=Current History |volume=28 |number=166 |pages=321–330 |doi=10.1525/curh.1955.28.166.321 |jstor=45308841 |s2cid=249685683}}
* {{cite journal |last=Sellers |first=Charles G. Jr. |title=Andrew Jackson versus the Historians |jstor=1886599 |journal=Mississippi Valley Historical Review |date=1958 |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=615–634|doi=10.2307/1886599 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Sellers |first=Charles G. Jr. |year=1954 |title=Banking and politics in Jackson's Tennessee, 1817–1827 |journal=Mississippi Valley Historical Review |volume=41 |number=1 |pages=61–84 |doi=10.2307/1898150 |jstor=1898150}}
* {{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Jeff |year=2005 |title=Lords (and ladies) of misrule: Carnival, scandal, and satire in the age of Andrew Jackson |journal=Studies in American Humor |volume=New Series 3 |number=12 |pages=52–82 |jstor=42573468}}
* {{cite journal |last=Somit |first=Albert |year=1948 |title=Andrew Jackson: Legend and Reality |journal=Tennessee Historical Quarterly |volume=7 |number=4 |pages=291–313 |jstor=42620991}}
* {{cite journal |last=Stenberg |first=Richard R. |year=1934 |title=The Texas schemes of Jackson and Houston, 1829–1836 |journal=The Southwestern Social Science Quarterly |volume=15 |number=3 |pages=229–250 |jstor=42879202}}
* {{cite journal |last=Thomas |first=Robert C. |year=1976 |title=Andrew Jackson versus France: American policy towards France, 1834–1836 |journal=Tennessee Historical Quarterly |volume=35 |number=1 |pages=457–488 |jstor=42623553}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Thompson |first1=Sheneese |last2=Barchiesi |first2=Franco |title=Harriet Tubman and Andrew Jackson on the Twenty-Dollar Bill: A Monstrous Intimacy |journal=Open Cultural Studies |date=2018 |volume=2 |pages=417–429 |doi=10.1515/culture-2018-0038 |s2cid=166210849 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last=Timberlake |first=Richard H. |year=1965 |title=The Specie Circular and Sales of public land |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=25 |number=3 |pages=414–416 |jstor=2116177}}
* {{cite journal |last=Tregle |first=Joseph G. Jr. |year=1981 |title=Andrew Jackson and the continuing Battle of New Orleans |journal=Journal of the Early Republic |volume=1 |number=4 |pages=373–393 |doi=10.2307/3122827 |jstor=3122827}}
* {{cite journal |last=Watson |first=Harry L. |title=Andrew Jackson's Populism |journal=Tennessee Historical Quarterly |date=2017 |volume=76 |issue=3 |pages=236–237 |jstor=26540290}}
* {{cite journal |last=Warshauer |first=Matthew |title=Andrew Jackson: Chivalric slave master |journal=Tennessee Historical Quarterly |year=2006 |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=203–229 |jstor=42627964}}
* {{cite journal |last=Whapples |first=Robert |year=2014 |title=Were Andrew Jackson's policies "Good for the Economy"? |journal=The Independent Review |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=545–558 |jstor=24563169}}
* {{cite journal |last=Wood |first=Kirsten E. |year=1997 |title="One woman so dangerous to public morals": Gender and power in the Eaton Affair |journal=Journal of the Early Republic |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=237–275 |doi=10.2307/3124447 |jstor=3124447}}
* {{cite journal |last=Wright |first=J. Leitch Jr. |year=1968 |title=A note on the First Seminole War as seen by the Indians, negroes, and their British advisors |journal=The Journal of Southern History |volume=34 |number=4 |pages=565–576 |doi=10.2307/2204387 |jstor=2204387}}
{{refend}}

===Primary sources===
{{Refbegin|32em}}
* {{cite web |last=Binns|first=John|year=1828|author-link=John Binns (journalist)|url=https://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2008661734/ |title=Some account of some of the bloody deeds of General Jackson|publisher=Library of Congress |access-date=January 15, 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140116131821/http://www.loc.gov/pictures/item/2008661734/ |archive-date=January 16, 2014 }}
* {{cite web|title=Expunged Senate censure motion against President Andrew Jackson, January 16, 1837|url=https://www.archives.gov/exhibits/treasures_of_congress/Images/page_9/29a.html|work=Andrew Jackson – National Archives and Records Administration, Records of the U.S. Senate|publisher=The U.S. National Archives and Records Administration|access-date=February 21, 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141103001353/http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/treasures_of_congress/Images/page_9/29a.html|archive-date=November 3, 2014|ref={{SfnRef|US Senate|1837}}}}
* {{cite web |last=Jackson|first=Andrew|year=1829|title=Andrew Jackson's First Annual Message to Congress |publisher=The American Presidency Project |url=http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29471 |access-date=March 14, 2008| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20080226130931/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29471| archive-date= February 26, 2008 | url-status=live}}
* {{cite web |last=Jackson|first=Andrew|year=1832|title=President Jackson's Proclamation Regarding Nullification, December 10, 1832 |url=http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/proclamations/jack01.htm |access-date=August 10, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060824095525/http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/proclamations/jack01.htm |archive-date=August 24, 2006 |url-status=dead |publisher=The Avalon Project}}
* {{cite book|last=Smith|first=Seba|year=1834|title=The Life of Andrew Jackson, President of the United States. Illustrated with Numerous Cuts by Major Jack Downing of the Downington Militia|url=https://archive.org/details/lifeofandrewjack00smit|publisher=T. K. Greenbank|oclc=1048300884}}
* {{cite web |url=http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/ordnull.asp |title=South Carolina Ordinance of Nullification, November 24, 1832 |publisher=The Avalon Project |access-date=August 22, 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819073235/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/ordnull.asp |archive-date=August 19, 2016|ref={{SfnRef|Ordinance of Nullification|1832}} }}
* {{cite web| last=Taliaferro |first=John|year=1828|author-link=John Taliaferro|url=https://www.loc.gov/resource/rbpe.18601400/ |title=Supplemental account of some of the bloody deeds of General Jackson, being a supplement to the "Coffin handbill" |publisher=Library of Congress |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628122833/https://www.loc.gov/resource/rbpe.18601400/ |archive-date=June 28, 2017 }}
* {{cite book|last=de Tocqueville|first=Alexis|year=1969|orig-year=1840|title=Democracy in America|url=https://archive.org/details/democracyinameri0000tocq|url-access=registration|translator-last=Lawrence|translator-first=George|publisher=Harper & Row|oclc=1148815334|isbn=9780385081702|ref={{SfnRef|Tocqueville|1840}}}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|s=Author:Andrew Jackson|wikt=no|b=US History/Presidents|n=no|v=The US Presidents/Andrew Jackson}}
* [https://millercenter.org/president/jackson Scholarly coverage of Jackson at Miller Center, U of Virginia]
* {{Gutenberg author | id=Jackson,+Andrew | name=Andrew Jackson}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Andrew Jackson}}
* {{Librivox author |id=14014}}
* [https://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/jackpap.asp The Papers of Andrew Jackson] at the [[Avalon Project]]
* [https://thehermitage.com/ The Hermitage], home of President Andrew Jackson
* {{cite web|title=Andrew Jackson Papers|website=Library of Congress|url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/andrew-jackson-papers/about-this-collection}} A digital archive providing access to manuscript images of many of Jackson's documents.

{{Andrew Jackson}}
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