View source for Spaceplane

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{{Short description|Spacecraft capable of aerodynamic flight in atmosphere}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2019}}
[[File:STS-133_Space_Shuttle_Discovery_after_undocking_3_(cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'']]]]
{{Spaceflight sidebar}}

A '''spaceplane''' is a vehicle that can [[flight|fly]] and [[gliding flight|glide]] as an [[aircraft]] in [[Earth's atmosphere]] and function as a [[spacecraft]] in [[outer space]].<ref name="NYT-20141020-KC">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/10/21/science/25-years-ago-nasa-envisioned-its-own-orient-express.html |title=25 Years Ago, NASA Envisioned Its Own 'Orient Express' |work=[[The New York Times]] |last=Chang |first=Kenneth |date=20 October 2014 |access-date=21 October 2014}}</ref>  To do so, spaceplanes must incorporate features of both aircraft and spacecraft. [[Orbital spaceflight|Orbital]] spaceplanes tend to be more similar to conventional spacecraft, while [[sub-orbital]] spaceplanes tend to be more similar to [[fixed-wing aircraft]].  All spaceplanes as of 2024 have been [[rocket engine|rocket]]-powered for takeoff and climb, but have then landed as unpowered [[glider (aircraft)|gliders]].

Four examples of spaceplanes have successfully launched to orbit, [[Atmospheric entry|reentered Earth's atmosphere]], and [[Landing#Aircraft|landed]]: the U.S. [[Space Shuttle]], Russian [[Buran (spacecraft)|Buran]], U.S. [[Boeing X-37|X-37]],<ref name="BBC">{{cite web |last1=Piesing |first1=Mark |title=Spaceplanes: The return of the reusable spacecraft? |url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210121-spaceplanes-the-return-of-the-reuseable-spacecraft |website=BBC |access-date=15 February 2021 |date=22 January 2021}}</ref> and the Chinese [[Shenlong (spacecraft)|Shenlong]]. Another, [[Dream Chaser]], is under development in the U.S. As of 2024 all past and current orbital spaceplanes [[VTHL|launch vertically]]; some are carried as a payload in a conventional fairing, while the Space Shuttle used its own engines with the assistance of boosters and an external tank. Orbital [[spaceflight]] takes place at high velocities, with orbital kinetic energies typically greater than suborbital trajectories. This kinetic energy is shed as heat during [[Atmospheric entry|re-entry]]. Many more spaceplanes [[List of spaceplanes|have been proposed]].

At least two suborbital [[rocket-powered aircraft]] have been launched horizontally into sub-orbital spaceflight from an airborne [[mother ship|carrier aircraft]] before rocketing beyond the [[Kármán line]]: the [[North American X-15|X-15]] and [[SpaceShipOne]].<!--Please don't add SpaceShipTwo here until it actually reaches 100 km.-->{{efn| In 2018, [[SpaceShipTwo]] passed the US definition of space of 80km, but not the 100km Kármán line.}}

== Principles of operation ==
[[File:Atlantis is landing after STS-30 mission.jpg|thumb|Landing of {{OV|104}}, a crewed orbital spaceplane]]
Spaceplanes must operate in space, like traditional [[spacecraft]], but also must be capable of atmospheric flight, like an [[aircraft]]. 

Spaceplanes do not necessarily have to fly by their own propulsion, but instead often glide with their inertia while using aerodynamic surfaces to maneuver in the atmosphere during descent and landing. The U.S. Space Shuttle for instance, could not fly under its own propulsion but used its momentum after de-orbit to glide to the runway destination.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-23 |title=Re-entry and Landing Procedures: A Guide to Safe Spacecraft Descent - Space Voyage Ventures |url=https://spacevoyageventures.com/re-entry-and-landing-procedures/ |access-date=2024-12-13 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2003-12-29 |title=The Aeronautics of the Space Shuttle - NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers-and-facilities/langley/the-aeronautics-of-the-space-shuttle/ |access-date=2024-12-13 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Returning from Space: Re-entry |url=https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/avs/III.4.1.7_Returning_from_Space.pdf |website=faa.gov}}</ref>

These requirements drive up the complexity, risk, dry mass, and cost of spaceplane designs. The following sections will draw heavily on the US Space Shuttle as the biggest, most complex, most expensive, most flown, and only crewed orbital spaceplane, but other designs have been successfully flown.

=== Launch to space ===
The flight trajectory required to reach orbit results in significant aerodynamic loads, vibrations, and accelerations, all of which have to be withstood by the vehicle structure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Aerodynamics and Debris Transport for the Space Shuttle Launch Vehicle |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/20120014272/downloads/20120014272.pdf |website=ntrs.nasa.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=August 1973 |title=UNSTEADY AERODYNAMIC ANALYSIS OF SPACE SHUTTLE VEHICLES |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19730024030/downloads/19730024030.pdf |website=ntrs.nasa.gov}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=X-15 Hypersonic Research Program - NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/reference/x-15/ |access-date=2024-12-29 |language=en-US}}</ref>

If the launch vehicle suffers a catastrophic malfunction, a conventional capsule spacecraft is propelled to safety by a [[launch escape system]]. The Space Shuttle was far too big and heavy for this approach to be viable, resulting in a [[Space Shuttle abort modes|number of abort modes]] that may or may not have been survivable. The [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|Challenger disaster]] demonstrated a lack of survivability on ascent.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

=== Space environment ===
Once on-orbit, a spaceplane must be supplied with power by [[solar panel]]s and batteries or [[fuel cell]]s, [[orbital maneuver|maneuvered in space]], kept in thermal equilibrium, [[reaction control system|oriented]], and communicated with. On-orbit thermal and radiological environments impose additional stresses. This is in addition to accomplishing the task the spaceplane was launched to complete, such as satellite deployment or science experiments.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

The Space Shuttle used [[orbital maneuvering system|dedicated engines]] to accomplish orbital maneuvers. These engines used toxic [[hypergolic]] [[rocket propellant|propellants]] that required special handling precautions. Various gases, including [[helium]] for pressurization and [[nitrogen]] for life support, were stored under high pressure in [[composite overwrapped pressure vessel]]s.{{fact|date=January 2025}}

===Atmospheric reentry===
{{main|Atmospheric entry}}
[[File:Buran rear view (Le Bourget 1989).JPEG|thumb|upright|[[Buran (spacecraft)|Buran]] spaceplane rear showing rocket engine nozzles, attitude control thrusters, aerodynamic surfaces, and heat shielding]]
Orbital spacecraft reentering the Earth's atmosphere must shed [[orbital speed|significant velocity]], resulting in [[atmospheric entry|extreme heating]]. For example, the [[Space Shuttle thermal protection system]] (TPS) protects the orbiter's interior structure from surface temperatures that reach as high as {{convert|3000|F|C|order=flip}}, well above the melting point of steel.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/nasafact/tps.htm |title=Orbiter Thermal Protection System |publisher=NASA/Kennedy Space Center |date=1989 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060909094330/http://www-pao.ksc.nasa.gov/kscpao/nasafact/tps.htm |archive-date=9 September 2006}}</ref> [[Suborbital spaceplane]]s fly lower energy trajectories that do not put as much stress on the spacecraft thermal protection system.

The [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' disaster]] was the direct result of a TPS failure.

=== Aerodynamic flight and horizontal landing ===
[[Auxiliary power unit#Spacecraft|Aerodynamic control surfaces must be actuated]]. [[Landing gear]] must be included at the cost of additional mass.

=== Air-breathing orbital spaceplane concept ===
An air-breathing orbital spaceplane would have to fly what is known as a 'depressed trajectory,' which places the vehicle in the high-altitude hypersonic flight regime of the atmosphere for an extended period of time. This environment induces high dynamic pressure, high temperature, and high heat flow loads particularly upon the [[leading edge]] surfaces of the spaceplane, requiring exterior surfaces to be constructed from advanced materials and/or use [[active cooling]].<ref name=":0" /> [[Skylon (spacecraft)|Skylon]] was a proposed spaceplane that would have used air-breathing engines.

== Flown orbital spaceplanes ==

=== Space Shuttle ===
{{Excerpt|Space Shuttle}}

=== Buran ===
{{Excerpt|Buran programme}}

=== X-37 ===
{{Excerpt|Boeing X-37}}

=== Reusable experimental spacecraft ===
{{Excerpt|Chinese reusable experimental spacecraft}}

== Flown suborbital rocket planes ==
{{Main|Rocket-powered aircraft}}
[[File:X-15 flying.jpg|thumb|An X-15 in flight]]

=== United States ===
Two piloted suborbital rocket-powered aircraft have reached space: the [[North American X-15]] and [[SpaceShipOne]]; a third, [[SpaceShipTwo]], has crossed the US-defined boundary of space but has ''not'' reached the higher internationally recognised boundary. None of these crafts were capable of entering orbit, and all were first lifted to high altitude by a carrier aircraft.

On 7 December 2009, [[Scaled Composites]] and [[Virgin Galactic]] unveiled [[SpaceShipTwo]], along with its atmospheric [[WhiteKnightTwo|mothership]] "Eve". On 13 December 2018, [[SpaceShipTwo]] [[VSS Unity]] successfully crossed the US-defined boundary of [[Outer space#Boundary|space]] (although it has not reached space using the internationally recognised definition of this boundary, which lies at a higher altitude than the US boundary). [[SpaceShipThree]] is the new spacecraft of [[Virgin Galactic]], launched on 30 March 2021. It is also known as [[VSS Imagine]].<ref name="verge20181213">{{cite web |url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/12/13/18138279/virgin-galactic-vss-unity-spaceshiptwo-space-tourism |first=Lauren |last=Grush |title=Virgin Galactic's spaceplane finally makes it to space for the first time |date=13 December 2018 |access-date=13 December 2018 |website=theverge.com}}</ref> On 11 July 2021 [[VSS Unity]] completed its first fully crewed mission including Sir [[Richard Branson]].

=== Soviet Union ===
The [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-105]] was an atmospheric prototype of an intended orbital spaceplane, with the suborbital [[BOR-4]] subscale heat shield test vehicle successfully [[Atmospheric entry|reentering the atmosphere]] before program cancellation. 

=== Japan ===
[[HYFLEX]] was a miniaturized suborbital demonstrator launched in 1996, flying to 110&nbsp;km altitude, achieving [[hypersonic flight]], and successfully reentering the [[Atmospheric entry|atmosphere]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.astronautix.com/craft/hyflex.htm |title=Hyflex |website=Astronautix.com |access-date=15 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110119034904/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/hyflex.htm |archive-date=19 January 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rocket.jaxa.jp/fstrc/0c02.html |title=HYFLEX |publisher=Space Transportation System Research and Development Center, JAXA |access-date=15 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111125004437/http://www.rocket.jaxa.jp/fstrc/0c02.html |archive-date=25 November 2011}}</ref>

=== Europe ===
The [[European Space Agency]] [[European Space Agency|(ESA)]] test project [[Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle|Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle (IXV)]] has demonstrated [[lifting body]] reentry technologies during a 100-minute suborbital flight in 2015.

== Spaceplanes in development ==

=== China ===
{{main|Shenlong (spacecraft)|Shadow Dragon (aircraft)}}

Shenlong ({{zh|s=神龙|p=shén lóng|l=divine dragon}}) is a Chinese robotic spaceplane that may be similar to the [[Boeing X-37]].<ref>{{cite web |last=David |first=Leonard |date=9 November 2012 |title=China's Mystery Space Plane Project Stirs Up Questions |url=http://www.space.com/18410-china-space-plane-project-mystery.html |access-date=13 June 2015 |work=Space.com}}</ref> Only a few images have been released since late 2007.<ref name="StrategyCenter">{{cite web |last=Fisher |first=Richard Jr. |date=3 January 2008 |title=...And Races into Space |url=http://www.strategycenter.net/research/pubID.175/pub_detail.asp |publisher=International Assessment and Strategy Center}}</ref><ref name="Shenlong Space Plane">{{cite web |last=Fisher |first=Richard Jr. |date=17 December 2007 |title=Shenlong Space Plane Advances China's Military Space Potential |url=http://www.strategycenter.net/research/pubID.174/pub_detail.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109034744/http://www.strategycenter.net/research/pubID.174/pub_detail.asp |archive-date=9 January 2008 |access-date=12 February 2015 |publisher=International Assessment and Strategy Center}}</ref><ref name="Space Politics">{{cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=3 January 2008 |title=Invoking China to keep the shuttle alive |url=http://www.spacepolitics.com/2008/01/03/invoking-china-to-keep-the-shuttle-alive/ |work=Space Politics}}</ref>

=== Europe ===
The experience from the [[Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle|IXV]] project is being used in the [[Programme for Reusable In-orbit Demonstrator in Europe|PRIDE programme]] to develop the uncrewed reusable spaceplane [[Space Rider]].<ref name="auto" /> 

{{Excerpt|Space Rider}}The [[German Aerospace Center|German Space Agency]] [[German Aerospace Center|(DLR)]] is developing the Reusable Flight Experiment (ReFEx) as a demonstrator for a winged reusable rocket first stage. It will be carried by a sounding rocket to [[apogee]] of approximately 130 km.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Reusability Flight Experiment (ReFEx) |url=https://www.dlr.de/en/sr/research-and-transfer/projects-and-missions/space-research/the-reusability-flight-experiment-refex |access-date=2025-06-19 |website=www.dlr.de |language=en}}</ref> Its first flight is expected in 2026.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Parsonson |first=Andrew |date=2024-11-02 |title=Launch of DLR Reusable Flight Experiment Pushed to Late 2026 |url=https://europeanspaceflight.com/launch-of-dlr-reusable-flight-experiment-pushed-to-late-2026/ |access-date=2025-06-19 |website=European Spaceflight |language=en-US}}</ref>

The German company POLARIS Spaceplanes, in cooperation with [[German Aerospace Center|DLR]], is developing a multipurpose suborbital spaceplane that can be used for launching payloads into orbit when combined with an expendable upper stage.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Parsonson |first=Andrew |date=2024-08-06 |title=POLARIS and DLR to Explore Integrating Spaceplanes in Commercial Airspace |url=https://europeanspaceflight.com/polaris-and-dlr-to-explore-integrating-spaceplanes-in-commercial-airspace/ |access-date=2025-06-19 |website=European Spaceflight |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Parsonson |first=Andrew |date=2025-05-05 |title=POLARIS Spaceplanes Prepares for Key In-Flight Refuelling Milestone |url=https://europeanspaceflight.com/polaris-spaceplanes-prepares-for-key-in-flight-refuelling-milestone/ |access-date=2025-06-19 |website=European Spaceflight |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Parsonson |first=Andrew |date=2025-06-13 |title=Germany’s POLARIS Spaceplanes Secures €5.4M in New Funding |url=https://europeanspaceflight.com/germanys-polaris-spaceplanes-secures-e5-4m-in-new-funding/ |access-date=2025-06-19 |website=European Spaceflight |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[Dassault Aviation]] is developing an orbital spaceplane called Vortex (Véhicule Orbital Réutilisable de Transport et d’EXploration) for both civilian and military orbital missions. The company first presented this project at the 2025 [[Paris Air Show]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-06-17 |title=Dassault : voici à quoi ressemblera le futur avion spatial français |url=https://www.lopinion.fr/international/dassault-vortex-le-rafale-du-futur-qui-volera-dans-lespace |access-date=2025-06-19 |website=l'Opinion |language=fr}}</ref><ref>[https://www.usinenouvelle.com/article/bourget-2025-dassault-aviation-leve-le-voile-sur-son-concept-d-avion-spatial-le-vortex.N2233902 Bourget 2025 : Dassault Aviation lève le voile sur son concept d’avion spatial, le Vortex]</ref>

=== India ===
{{As of|2012}}, the [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] is developing a launch system named the [[RLV Technology Demonstration Programme|Reusable Launch Vehicle]] (RLV). It is India's first step towards realizing a [[two-stage-to-orbit]] [[reusable launch system]]. A space plane serves as the second stage. The plane is expected to have air-breathing [[scramjet]] engines as well as rocket engines. Tests with miniature spaceplanes and a working scramjet have been conducted by ISRO in 2016.<ref>{{cite web |date=23 May 2016 |title=India's Reusable Launch Vehicle-Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD), Successfully Flight Tested |url=http://www.isro.gov.in/update/23-may-2016/india%E2%80%99s-reusable-launch-vehicle-technology-demonstrator-rlv-td-successfully |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914011950/http://www.isro.gov.in/update/23-may-2016/india%E2%80%99s-reusable-launch-vehicle-technology-demonstrator-rlv-td-successfully |archive-date=14 September 2016 |access-date=27 December 2016 |publisher=Indian Space Research Organisation}}</ref> In April 2023, India successfully conducted an [[RLV-LEX|autonomous landing mission of a scaled-down prototype]] of the spaceplane.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reusable Launch Vehicle Autonomous Landing Mission (RLV LEX) |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/Reusable_launch_vehicle_autonomous_landing_mission.html |access-date=2023-04-02 |website=www.isro.gov.in}}</ref> The RLV prototype was dropped from a [[Chinook helicopter |Chinook]] helicopter at an altitude of 4.5&nbsp;km and was made to autonomously glide down to a purpose-built runway at the [[Chitradurga Aeronautical Test Range]], Karnataka.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-04-02 |title=Isro reusable launch vehicle's landing experiment successful; RLV closer to orbital re-entry mission |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/isro-reusable-launch-vehicles-landing-experiment-successful-rlv-closer-to-orbital-re-entry-mission/articleshow/99181950.cms?from=mdr |access-date=2023-04-02 |work=The Times of India |issn=0971-8257}}</ref>

=== Japan ===
As of 2018, Japan is developing the [[Winged Reusable Sounding rocket]] (WIRES), which if successful, may be used as a recoverable first-stage or as a crewed sub-orbital spaceplane.<ref name="WIRES March 2018">{{citation |last1=Koichi |first1=Yonemoto |title=Subscale Winged Rocket Development and Application to Future Reusable Space Transportation |journal=Incas Bulletin |volume=10 |pages=161–172 |year=2018 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323693460 |doi=10.13111/2066-8201.2018.10.1.15 |last2=Takahiro |first2=Fujikawa |last3=Toshiki |first3=Morito |last4=Joseph |first4=Wang |last5=Ahsan r |first5=Choudhuri |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== United States ===
{{excerpt|Dream Chaser}}

=== Other ===

The Dawn Mk-II Aurora is a suborbital spaceplane being developed by [[Dawn Aerospace]] to demonstrate multiple suborbital flights per day. Dawn is based in the Netherlands and New Zealand, and is working closely with the American CAA. On 9 December 2020, the [[Civil Aviation Authority of New Zealand]], working alongside the [[New Zealand Space Agency]], issued a license allowing the vehicle to fly from a conventional airport.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-12-09 |title=Dawn Aerospace wins license for suborbital flights |url=https://spacenews.com/dawn-wins-spaceplane-license/ |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}}</ref> On 25 August 2021, the first test-flight campaign of five successful flights using surrogate jet engines was announced.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 August 2021 |title=Dawn Aerospace conducts five flights of its suborbital spaceplane |url=https://techcrunch.com/2021/08/25/dawn-aerospace-conducts-five-flights-of-its-suborbital-spaceplane/ |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=TechCrunch |language=en-US}}</ref> As of 15 August 2022, 35 test flights have been complete, validating the vehicles aerodynamics, avionics, rapid deployment and various piloting modes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=After nearly 40 flights on surrogate jets, we are pretty close to - Stefan Powell on LinkedIn |url=https://www.linkedin.com/posts/spowell111_after-nearly-40-flights-on-surrogate-jets-activity-6965076153548111872-bmKT |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=www.linkedin.com |language=en}}</ref> A qualified 2.5 kN.s pump-fed HTP/kerosene engine is being installed for high-performance high-altitude flights. Dawn Aerospace previously demonstrated multiple low-altitude rocket-powered flights per day on their Mk-I vehicle.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mk-I vehicle: Rocket power in flight, multiple times per hour |url=https://www.dawnaerospace.com/latest-news/mk-1-vehicle-rocket-power-in-flight |access-date=2022-08-19 |website=Dawn Aerospace |language=en-US}}</ref>

== Unflown spaceplane concepts ==
[[File:Gemini paraglider.JPG|thumb|right|United States [[Gemini A|Gemini]] tested the use of a Rogallo wing rather than a parachute. August 1964.]]
Various types of spaceplanes have been suggested since the early twentieth century. Notable early designs include a spaceplane equipped with wings made of combustible alloys that it would burn during its ascent, and the [[Silbervogel]] [[bomber aircraft|bomber]] concept. [[World War II]] Germany and [[Operation Paperclip|the postwar US]] considered winged versions of the [[V-2]] rocket, and in the 1950s and '60s winged rocket designs inspired [[science fiction]] artists, filmmakers, and the general public.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NOVA Online {{!}} Stationed in the Stars {{!}} Inspired by Science Fiction |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/station/inspired.html |access-date=2023-12-31 |website=www.pbs.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Heppenheimer |first=T. A. |author-link=NASA |date=1999 |title=CHAPTER 1: SPACE STATIONS AND WINGED ROCKETS |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4221/ch1.htm |access-date=2023-12-31 |website=history.nasa.gov}}</ref>

=== United States ===
The [[U.S. Air Force]] invested some effort in a paper study of a variety of spaceplane projects under their [[Aerospaceplane]] efforts of the late 1950s, but later reduced the scope of the project. The result, the [[Boeing X-20 Dyna-Soar]], was to have been the first orbital spaceplane, but was canceled in the early 1960s<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kass |first=Harrison |date=2021-06-21 |title=Boeing's X-20 Dyna-Soar Was The Air Force's 'Spaceplane' That Never Flew |url=https://thedebrief.org/boeings-x-20-dyna-soar-was-the-air-forces-spaceplane-that-never-flew/ |access-date=2023-12-31 |website=The Debrief |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=USAF X-20 “Dyna-Soar” Program Draftees {{!}} Spaceline |url=https://www.spaceline.org/united-states-manned-space-flight/us-astronaut-selection-drafts-and-qualifications/usaf-x-20-dyna-soar-program-draftees/ |access-date=2023-12-31 |language=en-US}}</ref> in lieu of [[NASA]]'s [[Project Gemini]] and the U.S. Air Force's [[Manned Orbiting Laboratory|crewed spaceflight]] program.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}

In 1961, NASA originally planned to have the [[Gemini A|Gemini spacecraft]] land on a [[runway]]{{sfn|Hacker|Grimwood|1977|pp=xvi–xvii}} with a [[Rogallo wing]] [[airfoil]], rather than an [[splashdown|ocean landing]] under [[parachute]]s.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}} The test vehicle became known as the [[NASA Paresev|Paraglider Research Vehicle]]. Development work on both parachutes and the paraglider began in 1963.{{sfn|Hacker|Grimwood|1977|pp=145–148}}  By December 1963, the parachute was ready to undergo full-scale deployment testing, while the paraglider had run into technical difficulties.{{sfn|Hacker|Grimwood|1977|pp=145–148}}  Though attempts to revive the paraglider concept persisted within NASA and [[North American Aviation]], in 1964 development was definitively discontinued due to the expense of overcoming the technical hurdles.{{sfn|Hacker|Grimwood|1977|pp=171–173}}

[[File:Space Shuttle concepts.jpg|thumb|right|[[United States]] STS concepts, circa 1970s]]
The Space Shuttle underwent [[Space Shuttle#Design process|many variations]] during its conceptual design phase. Some early concepts are illustrated.

[[File:X-30 futuristic nasa.jpg|thumb|Illustration of [[Rockwell X-30|NASP]] taking off]]
The [[Rockwell X-30]] National Aero-Space Plane (NASP), begun in the 1980s, was an attempt to build a scramjet vehicle capable of operating like an aircraft and achieving orbit like the shuttle. Introduced to the public in 1986, the concept was intended to reach Mach 25, enabling flights between Dulles Airport to Tokyo in two hours, while also being capable of low Earth orbit.<ref name="FAS">{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/mystery/nasp.htm |title=X-30 National Aerospace Plane (NASP) |work=[[Federation of American Scientists]] |access-date=30 April 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421135746/http://www.fas.org/irp/mystery/nasp.htm |archive-date=21 April 2010}}</ref> Six critical technologies were identified, three relating to the propulsion system, which would consist of a hydrogen-fueled scramjet.<ref name="FAS" />

The NASP program became the Hypersonic Systems Technology Program (HySTP) in late 1994. HySTP was designed to transfer the accomplishments made in hypersonic flight into a technology development program. On 27 January 1995 the Air Force terminated participation in (HySTP).<ref name="FAS" />

In 1994, a USAF captain proposed an [[F-16]] sized [[single-stage-to-orbit]] peroxide/kerosene spaceplane called "[[Black Horse (spaceplane)|Black Horse]]".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/blahorse.htm |title=Black Horse |website=Astronautix.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080722112056/http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/blahorse.htm |archive-date=22 July 2008}}</ref> It was to take off almost empty and undergo [[aerial refueling]] before rocketing to orbit.<ref name=zubrin>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.risacher.org/bh/analog.html |title=Black Horse: One Stop to Orbit |magazine=[[Analog Science Fiction and Fact]] |first1=Robert M. |last1=Zubrin |first2=Mitchell Burnside |last2=Clapp |volume=115 |issue=7 |date=June 1995}}</ref>

The [[Lockheed Martin X-33]] was a 1/3 scale prototype made as part of an attempt by NASA to build a SSTO hydrogen-fuelled spaceplane [[VentureStar]] that failed when the hydrogen tank design could not be constructed as intended.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}

On 5 March 2006, [[Aviation Week & Space Technology]] published a story purporting to be the "outing" of a highly classified U.S. military [[two-stage-to-orbit]] spaceplane system with the code name [[Blackstar (spaceplane)|Blackstar]].<ref name="avweek_20060305">"[http://www.aviationweek.com/avnow/news/channel_awst_story.jsp?id=news/030606p1.xml Two-Stage-to-Orbit 'Blackstar' System Shelved at Groom Lake?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061023221054/http://www.aviationweek.com/avnow/news/channel_awst_story.jsp?id=news/030606p1.xml |date=23 October 2006 }}." Scott, W., ''[[Aviation Week & Space Technology]]''. 5 March 2006.</ref>

In 2011, Boeing proposed the X-37C, a 165 to 180 percent scale [[Boeing X-37|X-37B]] built to carry up to six passengers to [[low Earth orbit]]. The spaceplane was also intended to carry cargo, with both [[upmass]] and [[downmass]] capacity.<ref name=sdc20111007>{{cite news |url=http://www.space.com/13230-secretive-37b-space-plane-future-astronauts.html |title=Secretive US X-37B Space Plane Could Evolve to Carry Astronauts |work=Space.com |first=David |last=Leonard |date=7 October 2011 |access-date=13 October 2011}}</ref>

=== Soviet Union ===
{{Further|Buran program#Background}}
{{Excerpt|Buran program#Background}}

[[File:MiG-105-11a.JPG|thumb|MiG-105 crewed aerodynamics test vehicle]]
The [[Soviet Union]] first considered a preliminary design of rocket-launch small spaceplane Lapotok in early 1960s. The [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-105#Uragan|Spiral]] airspace system with small orbital spaceplane and rocket as second stage was developed in the 1960s–1980s.{{citation needed|date=December 2011}} [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-105]] was a crewed test vehicle to explore low-speed handling and landing.<ref>{{cite book |title=Soviet X-planes |publisher=Midland Publishers |location=Leicester |first1=Yefim |last1=Gordon |first2=Bill |last2=Gunston |date=2000 |isbn=1-85780-099-0}}</ref>

=== Russia ===
{{main|Buran program|Kliper}}
In the early 2000s the orbital 'cosmoplane' ({{langx|ru|космоплан}}) was proposed by Russia's Institute of Applied Mechanics as a passenger transport. According to researchers, it could take about 20 minutes to fly from [[Moscow]] to [[Paris]], using hydrogen and oxygen-fueled engines.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://russia-ic.com/news/show/1925/ |title=Russia Develops New Aircraft – Cosmoplane |work=Russia-InfoCentre |date=27 February 2006 |access-date=13 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rususa.com/news/news.asp-nid-2632 |title=Космоплан – самолет будущего |website=RusUsa.com |date=3 November 2003 |access-date=4 November 2011 |archive-date=22 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120422191531/http://www.rususa.com/news/news.asp-nid-2632 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== United Kingdom ===
[[File:HOTOL.JPG|thumb|An artist's depiction of HOTOL]]
The [[BAC Mustard|Multi-Unit Space Transport And Recovery Device]] (MUSTARD) was a concept explored by the [[United Kingdom|British]] Aircraft Corporation (BAC) around 1968 for launching payloads weighing as much as {{convert|5000|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=on}} into orbit. It was never constructed.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/M/MUSTARD.html |title=MUSTARD (Multi-Unit Space Transport and Recovery Device) |first=David |last=Darling |date=2010 |access-date=29 September 2010}}</ref>

In the 1980s, [[British Aerospace]] began development of [[HOTOL]], an SSTO spaceplane powered by a revolutionary [[Reaction Engines SABRE|SABRE]] air-breathing rocket engine, but the project was canceled due to technical and financial uncertainties.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reactionengines.co.uk/bkgrnd.html |title=HOTOL History |publisher=Reaction Engines Limited |date=2010 |access-date=29 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100808065903/http://www.reactionengines.co.uk/bkgrnd.html |archive-date=8 August 2010}}</ref> The inventor of SABRE set up [[Reaction Engines]] to develop SABRE and proposed a twin-engined SSTO spaceplane called [[Reaction Engines Skylon|Skylon]].<ref name="Skylon FAQ">{{cite web |url=http://www.reactionengines.co.uk/faq.html#q6 |title=Skylon FAQ |publisher=Reaction Engines Limited |date=2010 |access-date=29 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100828235618/http://www.reactionengines.co.uk/faq.html |archive-date=28 August 2010}}</ref> One NASA analysis showed possible issues with the hot rocket exhaust plumes causing heating of the tail structure at high Mach numbers.<ref>Unmeel Mehta, Michael Aftosmis, Jeffrey Bowles, and Shishir Pandya; [https://www.nas.nasa.gov/assets/nas/pdf/papers/Mehta_Unmeel_Skylon2015.pdf Skylon Aerodynamics and SABRE Plumes], NASA, 20th AIAA International Space Planes and Hypersonic Systems and Technologies Conference 6–9 July 2015, 2015,</ref> although the CEO of Skylon Enterprises Ltd has claimed that reviews by NASA were "quite positive".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.space.com/11414-skylon-space-plane-british-engine-test.html|title = Big Test Looms for British Space Plane Concept|website = [[Space.com]]|date = 18 April 2011}}</ref>

[[Bristol Spaceplanes]] has undertaken design and prototyping of three potential spaceplanes since its founding by David Ashford in 1991. The [[European Space Agency]] has endorsed these designs on several occasions.<ref name="BSPcompanyinfo">{{cite web |url=http://bristolspaceplanes.com/company/ |title=Bristol Spaceplanes Company Information |publisher=Bristol Spaceplanes |date=2014 |access-date=26 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140704123213/http://bristolspaceplanes.com/company/ |archive-date=4 July 2014}}</ref>

=== Europe ===
[[France]] worked on the [[Hermes (spaceplane)|Hermes]] crewed spaceplane launched by [[Ariane rocket]] in the late 20th century, and proposed in January 1985 to go through with Hermes development under the auspices of the ESA.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Hermes: Learning from our mistakes |journal=Space Policy |first=Martin |last=Bayer |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=171–180 |date=August 1995 |doi=10.1016/0265-9646(95)00016-6|bibcode=1995SpPol..11..171B}}</ref>

In the 1980s, West Germany funded design work on the [[Saenger (spacecraft)|MBB Sänger II]] with the Hypersonic Technology Program. Development continued on MBB/Deutsche Aerospace Sänger II/HORUS until the late 1980s when it was canceled. Germany went on to participate in the Ariane rocket, Columbus space station and Hermes spaceplane of [[ESA]], [[Spacelab]] of ESA-NASA and ''Deutschland'' missions (non-U.S. funded Space Shuttle flights with Spacelab). The Sänger II had predicted cost savings of up to 30 percent over expendable rockets.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.astronautix.com/s/saengerii.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160801095741/http://www.astronautix.com/s/saengerii.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 August 2016 |title=Saenger II |website=Astronautix.com |access-date=26 September 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://fas.org/spp/guide/germany/piloted/index.html |title=Germany and Piloted Space Missions |publisher=Federation of American Scientists |series=Space Policy Project |access-date=26 September 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402124617/http://fas.org/spp/guide/germany/piloted/index.html |archive-date=2 April 2015}}</ref>

[[Hopper (spacecraft)|Hopper]] was one of several proposals for a European reusable launch vehicle (RLV) planned to cheaply ferry satellites into orbit by 2015.<ref name="NewScientist" >{{cite news |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn4975-europes-space-shuttle-passes-early-test/ |title=Europe's space shuttle passes early test |work=New Scientist |first=Maggie |last=McKee |date=10 May 2004}}</ref> One of those was 'Phoenix', a German project which is a one-seventh scale model of the Hopper concept vehicle.<ref name=bbc>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/3699848.stm |title=Launching the next generation of rockets |work=BBC News |date=1 October 2004}}</ref> The suborbital Hopper was a Future European Space Transportation Investigations Programme system study design<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.esa.int/esapub/bulletin/bullet97/dujarric.pdf |title=Possible Future European Launchers, A Process of Convergence |journal=ESA Bulletin |publisher=European Space Agency |first=C. |last=Dujarric |issue=97 |pages=11–19 |date=March 1999}}</ref> A test project, the [[Intermediate eXperimental Vehicle]] (IXV), has demonstrated lifting reentry technologies and will be extended under the [[Programme for Reusable In-orbit Demonstrator in Europe|PRIDE programme]].<ref name="auto">{{cite news |url=http://www.space.com/5978-europe-aims-entry-spacecraft.html |title=Europe Aims For Re-entry Spacecraft |work=Space.com |first=Jeremy |last=Hsu |date=15 October 2008}}</ref>

The [[FAST20XX]] Future High-Altitude High Speed Transport 20XX aimed to establish sound technological foundations for the introduction of advanced concepts in suborbital high-speed transportation with air-launch-to-orbit ALPHA vehicle.<ref>{{cite web |date=2 October 2012 |title=FAST20XX (Future High-Altitude High-Speed Transport 20XX) / Space Engineering & Technology / Our Activities / ESA |url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Space_Engineering_Technology/FAST20XX_Future_High-Altitude_High-Speed_Transport_20XX |publisher=Esa.int}}</ref>

The Daimler-Chrysler Aerospace RLV is a small reusable spaceplane prototype for the ESA [[Future Launchers Preparatory Programme]] programme. [[SpaceLiner]] is the most recent project.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}

=== Japan ===
''[[HOPE-X|HOPE]]'' was a Japanese experimental spaceplane project designed by a partnership between [[National Space Development Agency of Japan|NASDA]] and [[National Aerospace Laboratory of Japan|NAL]] (both now part of [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency|JAXA]]), started in the 1980s. It was positioned for most of its lifetime as one of the main Japanese contributions to the [[International Space Station]], the other being the [[Japanese Experiment Module]]. The project was eventually cancelled in 2003, by which point test flights of a sub-scale testbed had flown successfully.{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}

=== India ===
[[Avatar (spacecraft)|AVATAR]] (Aerobic Vehicle for Hypersonic Aerospace Transportation; {{langx|sa|अवतार}}) was a concept study for an [[Uncrewed spacecraft|uncrewed]] [[Single-stage-to-orbit|single-stage]] [[Reusable launch system|reusable]] spaceplane capable of [[CTOL|horizontal takeoff and landing]], presented to India's [[Defence Research and Development Organisation]]. The mission concept was for low cost military and commercial satellite launches.<ref name="Gujarat 2014">{{cite news |url=http://www.scity.gujarat.gov.in/plane-avatar.htm |title=Indian Scientists unveils space plane Avatar in US |work=Gujarat Science City |date=10 July 2001 |access-date=22 October 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151222125628/http://www.scity.gujarat.gov.in/plane-avatar.htm |archive-date=22 December 2015}}</ref><ref name="Delhi 2001">{{cite news |url=http://www.spacedaily.com/news/india-01i.html |title=India Eyes New Spaceplane Concept |work=Space Daily |date=8 August 2001 |access-date=22 October 2014}}</ref><ref name="Defence India">{{cite news |title=AVATAR- Hyper Plane to be built by INDIA |work=India's Military and Civilian Technological Advancements |date=19 December 2011}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Ansari X Prize]]
* [[List of crewed spacecraft]]
* [[List of space launch system designs]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
* {{cite book |url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/cover.htm |title=On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini |publisher=NASA |location=Washington, D.C. |first1=Barton C. |last1=Hacker |first2=James M. |last2=Grimwood |year=1977 |oclc=3821896 |id=NASA SP-4203 |access-date=21 May 2015 |archive-date=7 December 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031207111557/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-4203/cover.htm |url-status=dead }}
* {{cite book |title=Reusable Space Transportation Systems |publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |first1=Heribert |last1=Kuczera |first2=Peter W. |last2=Sacher |year=2011 |isbn=978-3-540-89180-2}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}

{{Space Planes}}
{{Non-rocket spacelaunch}}
{{Space tourism}}
{{Emerging technologies|transport=yes}}
{{Spaceflight}}

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[[Category:Air launch to orbit]]
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