View source for Indonesian language

{{Short description|Official language of Indonesia}}
{{About|the official language of Indonesia|an overview on all languages used in Indonesia|Languages of Indonesia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Indonesian
| nativename       = {{Lang|id|Bahasa Indonesia}}
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|id|baˈha.sa in.doˈne.si.ja|}}
| state            = [[Languages of Indonesia|Indonesia]]
| image            = Utamakan Bahasa Indonesia, Yogyakarta.jpg
| imagecaption     = A sign in [[Latin script]] written in Indonesian, located in [[Yogyakarta]], encouraging the public to prioritize the use of Indonesian
| ethnicity        = Over [[Ethnic groups in Indonesia|600 Indonesian ethnic groups]]
| speakers         = [[First language|L1]]: {{sigfig|75.161170|2}}&nbsp;million
| date             = 2025 census
| ref              = <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/en/publication/2023/07/18/4a49f846d0708c1fe1117b5f/population-of-indonesia-the-result-of-long-form-population-census-2020.html|title=Hasil Long Form Sensus Penduduk 2020|publisher=Badan Pusat Statistics Indonesia|access-date=27 August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Ethnologue28|ind}}</ref>
| speakers2        = [[Second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|195.1|3}}&nbsp;million (2025 census)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/en/publication/2023/07/18/4a49f846d0708c1fe1117b5f/population-of-indonesia-the-result-of-long-form-population-census-2020.html|title=Hasil Long Form Sensus Penduduk 2020|publisher=Badan Pusat Statistics Indonesia|access-date=27 August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Ethnologue28|ind}}</ref><br /> Total: {{sigfig|270.1|3}} million (2025 census)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/en/publication/2023/07/18/4a49f846d0708c1fe1117b5f/population-of-indonesia-the-result-of-long-form-population-census-2020.html|title=Hasil Long Form Sensus Penduduk 2020|publisher=Badan Pusat Statistics Indonesia|access-date=27 August 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Ethnologue28|ind}}</ref>
| speakers_label   = Speakers
| familycolor      = Austronesian
| fam2             = [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]
| fam3             = [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Chamic]]
| fam4             = [[Malayic languages|Malayic]]
| fam5             = [[Malay language|Malay]]
| ancestor         = [[Old Malay]]
| ancestor2        = [[Classical Malay]] (Riau Malay)<ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{cite book |last1=Leitner |first1=Gerhard |last2=Hashim |first2=Azirah |last3=Wolf |first3=Hans-Georg |title=Communicating with Asia: The Future of English as a Global Language |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-47296-5 |page=180 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t7OnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Indonesian Embassy: Astana">{{cite web |url=http://kbri-astana.kz/id/print/10-bahasa_dan_dialek.html |title=Bahasa dan dialek |publisher=Republic of Indonesia Embassy in Astana |language=id |ref=Dari sudut pandang linguistik, bahasa Indonesia adalah salah satu dari banyak ragam bahasa Melayu. Dasar yang dipakai adalah bahasa Melayu Riau (wilayah Kepulauan Riau sekarang) dari abad ke-19. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501173049/http://kbri-astana.kz/id/print/10-bahasa_dan_dialek.html |archive-date=1 May 2013  }}</ref><ref name="Melayu Online">{{cite web|url=http://melayuonline.com/ind/culture/dig/1349/bahasa-melayu-riau-dan-bahasa-nasional|title=Bahasa Melayu Riau dan Bahasa Nasional|publisher=Melayu Online|access-date=29 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111122024301/http://melayuonline.com/ind/culture/dig/1349/bahasa-melayu-riau-dan-bahasa-nasional|archive-date=22 November 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| ancestor3        = [[Pre-Modern Malay]] ([[Dutch East Indies|Netherlands Indies Malay]]/[[Balai Pustaka|Balai Pustaka Malay]])
| script           = [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Indonesian orthography|Indonesian alphabet]])<br />[[Grade 1 braille|Indonesian Braille]]
| nation           = Indonesia
----
[[UNESCO]]
| minority         = [[East Timor]] (Indonesian used as a working language and a trade language with Indonesia)<ref name="easttimorgovernment.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.easttimorgovernment.com/languages.htm|title=East Timor Languages|website=www.easttimorgovernment.com|access-date=21 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304130633/http://easttimorgovernment.com/languages.htm|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| agency           = [[Language Development and Fostering Agency]] (Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa)
| iso1             = id
| iso2             = ind
| iso3             = ind
| lingua           = 33-AFA-ac
| map              = Indonesian Language Map.svg
| mapcaption       = {{legend|#000080|Countries of the world where Indonesian is an official, national language}}
{{legend|#00FFFD|Countries where Indonesian is a minority language or working language}}
| notice           = IPA
| sign             = SIBI (Manually Coded Indonesian) <!--I think that this field is for the manually coded (signed) version/form of the spoken language, not for a sign language on its own right. BISINDO is a sign language on its own right, while SIBI is the manually coded version of Indonesian.-->
| glotto           = indo1316
| glottorefname    = Indonesian
| stand1           = [[Standard language|Standard Indonesian]]
| dia1             = [[Indonesian slang|Colloquial Indonesian]] (especially Colloquial Jakarta Indonesian)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Dialect: Colloquial Jakarta Indonesian|url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/cjin1234|website=glottolog.org|access-date=2023-06-19}}</ref>
}}
[[File:Youthpledge.jpg|thumb|260px|The [[Youth Pledge]], a pledge made by Indonesian youth on October 28, 1928, defining the identity of the Indonesian nation. On the last pledge, there was an affirmation of Indonesian language as a ''unifying language'' throughout the archipelago.]]
 
'''Indonesian''' ({{Langx|id|Bahasa Indonesia|label=none}}; {{IPA|id|baˈhasa indoˈnesija|}}) is the [[official language|official]] and [[national language]] of [[Indonesia]].<ref name="uud">{{cite wikisource |title=Article 36 of The 1945 Constitution of The Republic of Indonesia |wslink=Constitution of the Republic of Indonesia}}</ref> It is a [[standard language|standardized]] [[variety (linguistics)|variety]] of [[Malay language|Malay]],<ref name=bc>{{cite book|author = Uri Tadmor |editor1= Yaron Matras |editor2=Jeanette Sakel |chapter= Grammatical borrowing in Indonesian |title= Grammatical Borrowing in Cross-Linguistic Perspective |date= 2008 |isbn = 978-3-11-019919-2 |publisher= Walter de Gruyter |page = 301 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Es4T018diPIC |language= en}}</ref> an [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language]] that has been used as a [[lingua franca]] in the multilingual [[Indonesian archipelago]] for centuries. With over 280 million inhabitants,<ref>{{citation|url=https://dukcapil.kemendagri.go.id/blog/read/mendagri-tito-karnavian-peran-dukcapil-sangat-penting-bagi-bangsa-indonesia#:~:text=Data%20penduduk%20Indonesia%20yang%20paling,mata%2C%22%20Mendagri%20rinci%20menjelaskan.|title=Indonesia's full-year population in 2023|work=[[Ministry of Home Affairs (Indonesia)]]|language=id|access-date=23 June 2024|archive-date=23 June 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240623035021/https://dukcapil.kemendagri.go.id/blog/read/mendagri-tito-karnavian-peran-dukcapil-sangat-penting-bagi-bangsa-indonesia#:~:text=Data%20penduduk%20Indonesia%20yang%20paling,mata%2C%22%20Mendagri%20rinci%20menjelaskan.|url-status=dead}}</ref> Indonesia ranks as the [[list of countries by population|fourth-most populous nation]] globally. According to the 2020 census, over 97% of Indonesians are fluent in Indonesian,<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.bps.go.id/en/publication/2023/01/27/ffb5939b4393e5b1146a9b91/the-result-of-long-form-population-census-2020.html|title=Long Form Census 2020|work=[[Statistics Indonesia]]|language=id}}</ref> making it the largest language by number of speakers in [[Southeast Asia]] and one of the [[List of languages by total number of speakers|most widely]] spoken languages in the world.<ref name="The Indonesian Language 2004. Page 14">[[James Neil Sneddon]]. ''The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society''. UNSW Press, 2004.</ref> Indonesian vocabulary has been influenced by various native regional languages such as [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]], [[Minangkabau language|Minangkabau]], [[Balinese language|Balinese]], [[Banjar language|Banjarese]], and [[Bugis language|Buginese]], as well as by foreign languages such as  [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[Hokkien]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], and [[English language|English]]. Many borrowed words have been adapted to fit the phonetic and grammatical rules of Indonesian, enriching the language and reflecting Indonesia's diverse linguistic heritage.

Most Indonesians, aside from speaking the national language, are fluent in at least one of the more than 700 indigenous [[languages of Indonesia|local languages]]; examples include [[Javanese language|Javanese]] and [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]], which are commonly used at home and within the local community.<ref name="policy">{{cite news |title=Indigenous language policy as a national cultural strategy |author=Setiono Sugiharto |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/10/28/indigenous-language-policy-a-national-cultural-strategy.html |date=28 October 2013 |newspaper=The Jakarta Post |access-date=9 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916072533/http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2013/10/28/indigenous-language-policy-a-national-cultural-strategy.html |archive-date=16 September 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="statistics">{{cite web |url=http://aclweb.org/anthology/I/I08/I08-7014.pdf |title=Resources Report on Languages of Indonesia |author=Hammam Riza |year=2008 |access-date=9 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109061129/http://aclweb.org/anthology/I/I08/I08-7014.pdf |archive-date=9 January 2014 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, most formal [[education]] and nearly all national [[mass media]], [[governance]], [[Public administration|administration]], and [[judiciary]] and other forms of communication are conducted in Indonesian.<ref name="hawaii.edu">{{cite web |author=George Quinn |url=http://www.hawaii.edu/sealit/Downloads/The%20Indonesian%20Language.doc |title=The Indonesian Language |website=www.hawaii.edu |access-date=17 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225005237/http://www.hawaii.edu/sealit/Downloads/The%20Indonesian%20Language.doc |archive-date=25 December 2010 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Under Indonesian rule from 1976 to 1999, Indonesian was designated as the official language of [[Timor Leste|East Timor]]. It has the status of a [[working language]] under the country's [[Constitution of East Timor|constitution]] along with [[English language|English]].<ref name="easttimorgovernment.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.easttimorgovernment.com/languages.htm|title=East Timor Languages|website=www.easttimorgovernment.com|access-date=21 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304130633/http://easttimorgovernment.com/languages.htm|archive-date=4 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Berlie2017ch1">{{cite book |last1=Berlie |first1=Jean A. |title=East Timor's Independence, Indonesia and ASEAN |date=1 October 2017 |publisher=Springer |isbn=9783319626307 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6EQ4DwAAQBAJ |ref=Berlie2007ch1 |chapter=A Socio-Historical Essay: Traditions, Indonesia, Independence, and Elections}}</ref>{{rp|3}}<ref name="thejakartapost.com">{{Cite news |url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2012/04/20/timor-leste-tetum-portuguese-bahasa-indonesia-or-english.html |title=Timor Leste, Tetum, Portuguese, Bahasa Indonesia or English? |last=Ramos-Horta |first=J. |date=20 April 2012 |work=The Jakarta Post |language=en |author-link=José Manuel Ramos-Horta}}</ref> In November 2023, the Indonesian language was recognized as one of the official languages of the [[UNESCO]] General Conference.

{{anchor|baku}}The term ''Indonesian'' is primarily associated with the national standard dialect ({{lang|id|bahasa baku}}).<ref name="Sneddon-2003"/> However, in a looser sense, it also encompasses the various local varieties spoken throughout the Indonesian archipelago.<ref name=bc/><ref>{{cite book |author= Uri Tadmor |editor= Bernard Comrie |chapter= Malay-Indonesian |title= The World's Major Languages |year= 2009 |isbn = 9781134261567 |publisher= Routledge |page= 791|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=4DR-AgAAQBAJ |language= en}}</ref> Standard Indonesian is confined mostly to formal situations, existing in a [[diglossia|diglossic]] relationship with vernacular Malay varieties, which are commonly used for daily communication, coexisting with the aforementioned regional languages and with [[Malay trade and creole languages|Malay creoles]];<ref name="Sneddon-2003">{{cite journal |first = James | last = Sneddon | title = Diglossia in Indonesian |journal = Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |year = 2003 |issn = 0006-2294 |volume = 159 | pages = 519–549 |number = 4 | jstor = 27868068 | doi = 10.1163/22134379-90003741 |doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="policy" /> standard Indonesian is spoken in informal speech as a lingua franca between vernacular Malay dialects, Malay creoles, and regional languages.

The Indonesian name for the language ({{lang|id|bahasa Indonesia}}) is also occasionally used in [[English language|English]] and other languages. ''Bahasa Indonesia'' is sometimes incorrectly reduced to ''Bahasa'', which refers to the Indonesian subject (''Bahasa Indonesia'') taught in schools, on the assumption that this is the name of the language. But the word {{Lang|id|bahasa}} (a loanword from Sanskrit ''[[Bhāṣā]]'') only means "language." For example, ''French language'' is translated as {{Lang|id|bahasa Prancis}}, and the same applies to other languages, such as {{lang|id|bahasa Inggris}} (English), {{lang|id|bahasa Jepang}} (Japanese), {{lang|id|bahasa Arab}} (Arabic), {{lang|id|bahasa Italia}} (Italian), and so on. Indonesians generally may not recognize the name {{lang|id|Bahasa}} alone when it refers to their national language.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sneddon |first=James |title=The Indonesian language: its history and role in modern society |publisher=[[University of New South Wales]] Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0868405988 |location=Sydney |language=en}}</ref>

== History ==
[[File:Kerinci MSS detail.jpg|thumb|[[Rencong alphabet]], native writing systems found in central and [[South Sumatra]]. The text reads (Voorhoeve's spelling): "haku manangis ma / njaru ka'u ka'u di / saru tijada da / tang [hitu hadik sa]", which is translated by Voorhoeve as: "I am weeping, calling you; though called, you do not come" (in modern Malay "Aku menangis, menyerukan engkau, kaudiseru, tiada datang [itu adik satu]").]]
[[File:Prasasti Kedukan Bukit 1.jpg|thumb|[[Kedukan Bukit Inscription]], written in [[Pallava script]], is the oldest surviving specimen of the [[Old Malay]] language.]]Standard Indonesian is a [[standard language]] of "Riau Malay",<ref name="Indonesian Embassy: Astana">{{cite web |url=http://kbri-astana.kz/id/print/10-bahasa_dan_dialek.html |title=Bahasa dan dialek |publisher=Republic of Indonesia Embassy in Astana |language=id |ref=Dari sudut pandang linguistik, bahasa Indonesia adalah salah satu dari banyak ragam bahasa Melayu. Dasar yang dipakai adalah bahasa Melayu Riau (wilayah Kepulauan Riau sekarang) dari abad ke-19. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501173049/http://kbri-astana.kz/id/print/10-bahasa_dan_dialek.html |archive-date=1 May 2013  }}</ref><ref name="Melayu Online">{{cite web|url=http://melayuonline.com/ind/culture/dig/1349/bahasa-melayu-riau-dan-bahasa-nasional|title=Bahasa Melayu Riau dan Bahasa Nasional|publisher=Melayu Online|access-date=29 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111122024301/http://melayuonline.com/ind/culture/dig/1349/bahasa-melayu-riau-dan-bahasa-nasional|archive-date=22 November 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> which despite its common name is not based on the vernacular Malay dialects of the [[Riau Islands]], but rather represents a form of [[Classical Malay]] as used in the 19th and early 20th centuries in the [[Riau-Lingga Sultanate]]. Classical Malay had emerged as a literary language in the royal courts along both shores of the [[Strait of Malacca]], including the [[Johor Sultanate]] and [[Malacca Sultanate]].<ref name="Abas 1987 26–28">{{cite book |last=Abas |first=Husen |date=1987 |title=Indonesian as a Unifying Language of Wider Communication : A Historical and Sociolinguistic Perspective |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/145414 |series=Pacific Linguistics, D-73 |pages=26–28 |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |doi=10.15144/PL-D73 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926072010/https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/145414 |archive-date=26 September 2020 |access-date=28 December 2020 |isbn=0858833581 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Sneddon">Sneddon 2003, ''The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society'', p. 70</ref><ref name="Nothofer 2009 677–680">{{cite book |last=Nothofer |first=Bernd |year=2009 |chapter=Malay |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World |editor1=Kevin Brown |editor2=Sarah Ogilvie |pages=677–680}}</ref> Originally spoken in Northeast [[Sumatra]],<ref name="ethnologue.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/|title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World|website=Ethnologue|access-date=27 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227170852/http://www.ethnologue.com/|archive-date=27 December 2007|url-status=live}}</ref> Malay has been used as a [[lingua franca]] in the Indonesian [[archipelago]] for half a millennium. It might be attributed to its [[ancestor]], the [[Old Malay]] language (which can be traced back to the 7th century). The [[Kedukan Bukit Inscription]] is the oldest surviving specimen of Old Malay, the language used by [[Srivijayan]] empire.<ref name="1g1H"/> Since the 7th century, the Old Malay language has been used in [[Nusantara (archipelago)]] (Indonesian archipelago), evidenced by Srivijaya inscriptions and by other inscriptions from [[coast]]al areas of the archipelago, such as [[Sojomerto inscription]].<ref name="1g1H">{{cite web|url=https://drive.google.com/file/d/1g1HZDUO7EVdaCXlKi0NwYKjYmqbOps-H/view?usp=sharing |title=BUKU PROFIL KEPAKSIAN.pdf - Google Drive |date= |access-date=2022-08-07}}</ref> 
Indonesian (in its standard form) has essentially the same material basis as the [[Malaysian language|Malaysian]] standard of Malay and is therefore considered to be a variety of the pluricentric Malay language. However, it does [[Comparison of Indonesian and Standard Malay|differ]] from Malaysian Malay in several respects, with differences in pronunciation and vocabulary. These differences are due mainly to the Dutch and Javanese influences on Indonesian. Indonesian was also influenced by the {{lang|id|[[Malay trade and creole languages|Melayu pasar]]}} ({{lit|market Malay}}), which was the lingua franca of the archipelago in colonial times, and thus indirectly by other spoken languages of the islands.

Malaysian Malay claims to be closer to the classical Malay of earlier centuries, even though modern Malaysian has been heavily influenced, in lexicon as well as in syntax, by English. The question of whether High Malay (Court Malay) or Low Malay (Bazaar Malay) was the true parent of the Indonesian language is still in debate. High Malay was the official language used in the court of the [[Johor Sultanate]] and continued by the Dutch-administered territory of [[Riau-Lingga]], while Low Malay was commonly used in marketplaces and ports of the archipelago. Some linguists have argued that it was the more common Low Malay that formed the base of the Indonesian language.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://melayuonline.com/ind/culture/dig/1626/bahasa-indonesia-memasyarakatkan-kembali-bahasa-pasar |title=Bahasa Indonesia: Memasyarakatkan Kembali 'Bahasa Pasar'? |publisher=Melayu Online |access-date=29 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120630131527/http://melayuonline.com/ind/culture/dig/1626/bahasa-indonesia-memasyarakatkan-kembali-bahasa-pasar |archive-date=30 June 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Old Malay as ''lingua franca'' ===
[[File:Srivijaya Empire.svg|thumb|For centuries, [[Srivijaya]], through its expansion, economic power and military prowess, was responsible for the widespread of [[Old Malay]] throughout the [[Malay Archipelago]]. It was the working language of traders and it was used in various ports, and marketplaces in the region.<ref>[http://sea.lib.niu.edu/lang/malay.html Southeast Asia Digital Library: About Malay] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20070616131617/http://sea.lib.niu.edu/lang/malay.html |date=16 June 2007 }}</ref>|224x224px]]
[[Trade]] contacts carried on by various [[ethnic group|ethnic]] peoples at the time were the main [[vehicle]] for spreading the Old Malay language, which was the main [[communications]] medium among the traders. Ultimately, the Old Malay language became a [[lingua franca]] and was spoken widely by most people in the archipelago.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://melayuonline.com/ind/article/read/174/sriwijaya-dalam-telaah |title=Sriwijaya dalam Tela'ah |date=5 June 2007 |publisher=Melayu Online |access-date=1 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022105208/http://melayuonline.com/ind/article/read/174/sriwijaya-dalam-telaah |archive-date=22 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://melayuonline.com/eng/opinion/read/80/risen-up-maritime-nation |title=Risen Up Maritime Nation! |author=Bambang Budi Utomo |date=23 January 2008 |publisher=Melayu Online |access-date=1 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121022091319/http://melayuonline.com/eng/opinion/read/80/risen-up-maritime-nation |archive-date=22 October 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The beginning of the common era saw the growing influence of Indian civilisation in the archipelago. With the penetration and proliferation of [[Sanskrit]] vocabulary and the influence of major [[Indian religions]] such as [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], Ancient Malay evolved into the Old Malay. The oldest uncontroversial specimens of Old Malay are the 7th century CE [[Sojomerto inscription]] from [[Central Java]], [[Kedukan Bukit Inscription]] from [[South Sumatra]], [[Indonesia]] and several other inscriptions dating from the 7th to 10th centuries discovered in [[Sumatra]], [[Java]], other islands of the [[Sunda Islands|Sunda archipelago]], as well as [[Luzon]], [[Philippines]]. All these Old Malay inscriptions used either scripts of Indian origin such as [[Pallava script|Pallava]], [[Nāgarī script|Nagari]] or the Indian-influenced old Sumatran characters.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Molen |first=Willem van der |date=2008 |title=The Syair of Minye Tujuh |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |volume=163 |issue=2/3 |pages=356–375 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003689 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The Old Malay system is greatly influenced by [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] scriptures in terms of [[phonemes]], [[morpheme]]s, [[vocabulary]] and the characteristics of scholarship, particularly when the words are closely related to Indian culture. Further research stated that Old Malay and Modern Malay are forms of the same language,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Clavé |first1=Elsa |last2=Griffiths |first2=Arlo |date=2022-10-11 |title=The Laguna Copperplate Inscription: Tenth-Century Luzon, Java, and the Malay World |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.13185/ps2022.70202 |journal=Philippine Studies: Historical and Ethnographic Viewpoints |volume=70 |issue=2 |pages=167–242 |doi=10.13185/ps2022.70202 |doi-broken-date=15 April 2025 |issn=2244-1093|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Adelaar |first=Alexander |author-link=K. Alexander Adelaar |title=The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar |date=2005 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415681537 |editor-last=Adelaar |editor-first=Alexander |editor-link=K. Alexander Adelaar |location=Abingdon |pages=1–42 |language=en |chapter=The Austronesian languages of Asia and Madagascar: A historical perspective |editor-last2=Himmelmann |editor-first2=Nikolaus |editor-link2=Nikolaus P. Himmelmann}}</ref> in spite of some considerable differences between them.

=== Classical Malay of Riau-Lingga ===
Standard Indonesian is a [[standard language]] of "Riau Malay",<ref name="Indonesian Embassy: Astana">{{cite web |url=http://kbri-astana.kz/id/print/10-bahasa_dan_dialek.html |title=Bahasa dan dialek |publisher=Republic of Indonesia Embassy in Astana |language=id |ref=Dari sudut pandang linguistik, bahasa Indonesia adalah salah satu dari banyak ragam bahasa Melayu. Dasar yang dipakai adalah bahasa Melayu Riau (wilayah Kepulauan Riau sekarang) dari abad ke-19. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501173049/http://kbri-astana.kz/id/print/10-bahasa_dan_dialek.html |archive-date=1 May 2013  }}</ref><ref name="Melayu Online">{{cite web|url=http://melayuonline.com/ind/culture/dig/1349/bahasa-melayu-riau-dan-bahasa-nasional|title=Bahasa Melayu Riau dan Bahasa Nasional|publisher=Melayu Online|access-date=29 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111122024301/http://melayuonline.com/ind/culture/dig/1349/bahasa-melayu-riau-dan-bahasa-nasional|archive-date=22 November 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> which despite its common name is not based on the vernacular Malay dialects of the [[Riau Islands]], but rather represents a form of [[Classical Malay]] as used in the 19th and early 20th centuries in the [[Riau-Lingga Sultanate]]. Classical Malay had emerged as a literary language in the royal courts along both shores of the [[Strait of Malacca]], including the [[Johor Sultanate]] and [[Malacca Sultanate]].<ref name="Abas 1987 26–28"/><ref name="Sneddon"/><ref name="Nothofer 2009 677–680"/> The period of Classical Malay started when [[Islam]] gained its foothold in the region and the elevation of its status to a [[state religion]]. As a result of [[Islamisation]] and growth in trade with the [[Muslim world]], this era witnessed the penetration of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]] vocabulary as well as the integration of major [[Islamic culture]]s with local Malay culture. The earliest instances of Arabic lexicons incorporated in the pre-Classical Malay written in Kawi was found in the [[Minye Tujoh inscription]] dated 1380 CE from [[Aceh]] in [[Sumatra]]. Nevertheless, pre-Classical Malay took on a more radical form more than half a century earlier as attested in the 1303 CE [[Terengganu Inscription Stone]] as well as the 1468 CE [[Pengkalan Kempas|Pengkalan Kempas Inscription]], both from the Malay Peninsula. Both inscriptions not only serve as the evidence of Islam as a state religion but also as the oldest surviving specimen of the dominant classical [[Orthography|orthographic]] form, the [[Jawi script]]. Similar inscriptions containing various adopted Arabic terms with some of them still written the Indianised scripts were also discovered in other parts of Sumatra and Borneo.<ref>{{harvnb|Collins|1998|pp=12–15}}</ref><ref name="Abdul Rashid 2006 29">{{harvnb|Abdul Rashid|Amat Juhari|2006|p=29}}</ref>

=== Dutch East Indies Colonial Malay ===
When the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) first arrived in the archipelago at the start of the 1600s, the Malay language was a significant trading and political language due to the influence of the [[Malacca Sultanate|Malaccan Sultanate]] and later the [[Portugal|Portuguese]]. However, the language had never been dominant among the population of the Indonesian archipelago as it was limited to mercantile activity. The VOC adopted the Malay language as the administrative language of their trading outpost in the east. Following the [[bankruptcy]] of the VOC, the [[Batavian Republic]] took control of the colony in 1799, and it was only then that education in and promotion of Dutch began in the [[colony]].

The 19th century was the period of strong [[Western world|Western]] political and commercial domination in the archipelago. The Dutch colonists, realising the importance of understanding the local languages and cultures, began establishing various centres of linguistic, literary and cultural studies in universities like [[Leiden University|Leiden]] and [[University of London|London]]. The use of [[Latin script]] began to expand in the fields of administration and education whereby the influence of [[Dutch literature]]s and languages started to penetrate and spread gradually into the language.

Even then, Dutch administrators were remarkably reluctant to promote the use of Dutch compared to other colonial regimes. Dutch thus remained the language of a small elite: in 1940, only 2% of the total population could speak Dutch. Nevertheless, it did have a significant influence on the development of Malay in the colony: during the colonial era, the language that would be standardized as Indonesian absorbed a large amount of Dutch vocabulary in the form of [[loanwords]].

The Dutch colonial government recognised the Malacca-Johor Malay used in [[Riau-Lingga]] as "High Malay" and promoted it as a medium of communication between the Dutch and local population. The language was also taught in schools not only in Riau but also in [[East Sumatra]], [[Java]], [[Kalimantan]] and East Indonesia.<ref name="Abdul Rashid 2006 33">{{harvnb|Abdul Rashid|Amat Juhari|2006|p=33}}</ref> In 1864, the Dutch colonial government was therefore decided to disseminate this language - and not Dutch - throughout the colony.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Salverda |first=Reinier |date=2000 |title=The History of Dutch Language Policy in Colonial Indonesia 1600-1950, The Low Countries. Jaargang 7 |url=https://www.dbnl.org/tekst/_low001199901_01/_low001199901_01_0043.php |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=DBNL |language=nl}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Malik |first1=Abdul |last2=Shanty |first2=Isnaini Leo |last3=Wahyusari |first3=Ahada |last4=Elfitra |first4=Legi |last5=Loren |first5=Fabio Testy Ariance |date=2024 |editor-last=bin Surif |editor-first=J. |editor2-last=Jacobs |editor2-first=G.M. |editor3-last=Wei Dai |editor3-first=D. |editor4-last=Reddy |editor4-first=M.V. |editor5-last=Yamamoto |editor5-first=T. |editor6-last=Pardi |editor6-first=H. |title=Improving the Malay Language to Become an International Language |journal=SHS Web of Conferences |volume=205 |pages=06009 |doi=10.1051/shsconf/202420506009 |issn=2261-2424|doi-access=free }}</ref> To this end, the colonial government stimulated the study, standardisation and modernisation of Malay, imposing it via its institutions, via education, the missions and the media, and via the literary works produced by the state publishers Balai Poestaka. In this respect, the Dutch pursued a non-chauvinistic cultural policy.<ref name=":1" /> Another catalyst in the movement towards standardization of Malay in Western script was an amalgam of philology and a growing consciousness of an Indies identity such that a "lingua franca" justification for Malay had become insufficient.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Hoffman |first=John |year=1979 |title=A Foreign Investment: Indies Malay to 1901 |url=https://ecommons.cornell.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/6b77474a-3203-4aed-b9e2-be826926c279/content |url-status=live |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240413130100/https://ecommons.cornell.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/6b77474a-3203-4aed-b9e2-be826926c279/content |archive-date=2024-04-13 |access-date=2025-03-17 |website=ecommons.cornell.edu}}</ref> In reality, Klinkert's pure Malacca or Riau Malay was unusable in the eastern part of Indies even in the coastal regions.<ref name=":2" /> In 1910, Sasrasoeganda Koewatin, a prominent Malay language teacher of Kweekschool and OpIeidingschool in Yogyakarta, wrote a Malay grammar book entitled ''Kitab Jang Menjatakan Djalannja Bahasa Melajoe'' in which is the first Malay grammar book in Latin script which became the basis for the Indonesian language in use today.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sasrasoegonda |first=Koewatin |title=Kitab jang menjatakan djalan bahasa Melajoe |publisher=Balai Pustaka |year=1986 |editor-last=Stokhof |editor-first=Wim |location=Jakarta |publication-date=1917 |language=ms |trans-title=The book that explains the way of the Melajoe language}}</ref>
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Nila speaking Indonesian.webm|thumb|Indonesian speaker]]

=== The birth of Indonesian: adoption as the national language ===

The [[Indonesian National Awakening|nationalist movement]] that ultimately brought Indonesian to its national language status rejected [[Dutch language|Dutch]] from the outset. However, the rapid disappearance of Dutch was a very unusual case compared with other colonized countries, where the colonial language generally has continued to function as the language of politics, [[bureaucracy]], education, [[technology]], and other fields of importance for a significant time after independence.<ref name="Swaan"/> The Indonesian scholar {{ill|Soenjono Dardjowidjojo|id}} even goes so far as to say that when compared to the situation in other Asian countries such as India, Malaysia, Singapore and the Philippines, "Indonesian is perhaps the only language that has achieved the status of a national language in its true sense" since it truly dominates in all spheres of [[Culture of Indonesia|Indonesian society]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Soenjono Dardjowidjojo |year=1998 |title=Strategies for a successful national language policy: the Indonesian case |journal=International Journal of the Sociology of Language |issue=130 |pages=35–47 |doi=10.1515/ijsl.1998.130.35|s2cid=143634760 }}</ref> The ease with which Indonesia eliminated the language of its former colonial power can perhaps be explained as much by Dutch [[policy]] as by Indonesian nationalism. In marked contrast to the [[France|French]], [[Spain|Spanish]] and Portuguese, who pursued an [[cultural assimilation|assimilation]] colonial policy, or even the [[British Empire|British]], the Dutch did not attempt to spread their language among the indigenous population. In fact, they consciously prevented the language from being spread by refusing to provide education, especially in Dutch, to the native Indonesians so they would not come to see themselves as equals.<ref name="Swaan"/> Moreover, the Dutch wished to prevent the Indonesians from elevating their perceived social status by taking on elements of Dutch culture. Thus, until the 1930s, they maintained a minimalist regime and allowed Malay to spread quickly throughout the archipelago.[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Opening van de Volksraad door gouverneur-generaal Van Limburg Stirum op 18 mei 1918 op Java TMnr 10001373.jpg|thumb|''[[Volksraad (Dutch East Indies)|Volksraad]]'' session held in July 1938 in Jakarta, where Indonesian was formally used for the first time by Jahja Datoek Kajo|left]]Dutch dominance at that time covered nearly all aspects, with official forums requiring the use of Dutch, although since the Second Youth Congress (1928) the use of Indonesian as the national language was agreed on as one of the tools in the independence struggle. As of it, [[Mohammad Hoesni Thamrin]] inveighed actions underestimating Indonesian. After some criticism and protests, the use of Indonesian was allowed since the ''Volksraad'' sessions held in July 1938.<ref>{{cite web|author=George Quinn|title=Bahasa Indonesia: The Indonesian Language|url=http://www.hawaii.edu/indolang/malay.html |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050508115242/http://www.hawaii.edu/indolang/malay.html|archive-date=8 May 2005}}</ref> By the time they tried to counter the spread of Malay by teaching Dutch to the natives, it was too late, and in 1942, the Japanese conquered Indonesia. The Japanese mandated that all official business be conducted in Indonesian and quickly outlawed the use of the Dutch language.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fogg |first=Kevin W. |year=2015 |title=The standardisation of the Indonesian language and its consequences for Islamic communities |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0022463414000629/type/journal_article |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |language=en |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=86–110 |doi=10.1017/S0022463414000629 |s2cid=145518202 |issn=0022-4634|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Three years later, the Indonesians themselves formally abolished the language and established ''bahasa Indonesia'' as the national language of the new nation.<ref name="Paauw"/> The term ''bahasa Indonesia'' itself had been proposed by [[Mohammad Tabrani]] in 1926,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Government of Jakarta |title=Mohammad Tabrani |url=https://jakarta.go.id/artikel/konten/2486/mohammad-tabrani |access-date=27 November 2019 |language=id |date=2017 |archive-date=1 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801215405/https://jakarta.go.id/artikel/konten/2486/mohammad-tabrani |url-status=dead }}</ref> and Tabrani had further proposed the term over calling the language [[Malay language]] during the First Youth Congress in 1926.<ref name="Cambridge University Press">{{cite book |last1=Leitner |first1=Gerhard |last2=Hashim |first2=Azirah |last3=Wolf |first3=Hans-Georg |title=Communicating with Asia: The Future of English as a Global Language |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-316-47296-5 |page=180 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t7OnCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA180 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:MuseumSumpahPemuda-13-IndonesischClubgebouw.jpg|thumb|The [[Youth Pledge]] was the result of the Second Youth Congress held in [[Batavia, Dutch East Indies|Batavia]] in October 1928. On the last pledge, there was an affirmation of Indonesian language as a ''unifying language'' throughout the archipelago.]]

{{Quote box
| quote = ''"Jang dinamakan "bahasa Indonesia" jaitoe bahasa Melajoe jang soenggoehpoen pokoknja berasal dari "Melajoe Riau" akan tetapi jang soedah ditambah, dioebah atau dikoerangi menoeroet keperloean zaman dan alam baharoe, hingga bahasa itoe laloe moedah dipakai oleh rakjat di seloeroeh Indonesia; pembaharoean bahasa Melajoe hingga kini mendjadi bahasa Indonesia itoe haroes dilakoekan oleh kaoem ahli jang beralam baharoe, ialah alam kebangsaan Indonesia."'' (Indonesian for "What is called "Indonesian" is the Malay which originally came from "Riau Malay" but which has been added to, changed or modified according to the needs of the times and the new world, so that the language is now used by the people throughout Indonesia; the renewal of the Malay until now to become Indonesian must be carried out by experts who are from the new world, namely the Indonesian national world.")
| source = — Excerpt of [[Ki Hadjar Dewantara]]'s "Bahasa Indonesia didalam pergoroean", a paper presented at the First Indonesian Language Conference at [[Surakarta]], 25–28 June 1938.<ref name="KBI1&2@Lampau">{{Cite book|last=Kridalaksana |first=Harimurti |title=Masa Lampau Bahasa Indonesia. Sebuah bunga Rampai |publisher=Kanisius |year=1991 |isbn=979-413-476-7 |location=Yogyakarta |pages=240–241 |language=id |trans-title=Past of the Indonesian Language. An Anthology |chapter=Kongres Bahasa Indonesia I (1938) dan Kongres Bahasa Indonesia II (1958) |trans-chapter=The First Indonesian Language Congress (1938) and the Second Indonesian Language Congress (1958)}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title= Indonesian language for Higher Education (eng) |last1=Nurdjan |first1=Sukirman |last2= Firman|first2=Mirnawati|year=2016|publisher= Aksara Timur|location=Indonesia |isbn= 978-602-73433-6-8|page=4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iiurDwAAQBAJ |access-date=30 Dec 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://tirto.id/sejarah-kongres-bahasa-indonesia-i-meresmikan-bahasa-persatuan-ecjH |title=History of The Indonesian Language Congress I: Inaugurating The United Language (eng) |last= Ardanareswari|first=Indira |date= 25 June 2019 |website=tirto.id |publisher= Tirto |access-date=28 December 2020}}</ref>
| align = right
| width = 45%
| salign = right
}}

Several years prior to the congress, Swiss linguist, [[Renward Brandstetter]] wrote ''[[s:An Introduction to Indonesian Linguistics|An Introduction to Indonesian Linguistics]]'' in 4 essays from 1910 to 1915. The essays were translated into English in 1916. By "Indonesia", he meant [[names of Indonesia#Indonesia|the name of the geographical region]], and by "Indonesian languages" he meant [[Malayo-Polynesian languages]] west of New Guinea, because by that time there was still no notion of Indonesian language.

[[Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana]] was a great promoter of the use and development of Indonesian and he was greatly exaggerating the decline of Dutch. Higher education was still in Dutch and many educated Indonesians were writing and speaking in Dutch in many situations (and were still doing so well after independence was achieved). He believed passionately in the need to develop Indonesian so that it could take its place as a fully adequate national language, able to replace Dutch as a means of entry into modern international culture. In 1933, he began the magazine ''Pujangga Baru'' (New Writer — ''Poedjangga Baroe'' in the original spelling) with co-editors Amir Hamzah and Armijn Pane. The language of Pujangga Baru came in for criticism from those associated with the more classical School Malay and it was accused of publishing Dutch written with an Indonesian vocabulary. Alisjahbana would no doubt have taken the criticism as a demonstration of his success. To him the language of Pujangga Baru pointed the way to the future, to an elaborated, Westernised language able to express all the concepts of the modern world. As an example, among the many innovations they condemned was use of the word ''bisa'' instead of ''dapat'' for 'can'. In Malay ''bisa'' meant only 'poison from an animal's bite' and the increasing use of Javanese ''bisa'' in the new meaning they regarded as one of the many threats to the language's purity. Unlike more traditional intellectuals, he did not look to Classical Malay and the past. For him, Indonesian was a new concept; a new beginning was needed and he looked to Western civilisation, with its dynamic society of individuals freed from traditional fetters, as his inspiration.<ref name="The Indonesian Language 2004. Page 14" />{{Quote box
| quote = ''"Bahasa Indonesia ialah bahasa Melajoe Perhoeboengan, jang diperkaja dengan zat-zat dari Melajoe Kesoesastraan, bahasa Djawa, bahasa Belanda dan dengan lebih koerang bahasa Austronesia jang Iain-lain, sedang peroebahan saraf banjak terdjadi dan begitoe poela peroebahan tinggi boenji dan tekanan. Bahasa Indonesia soedah djadi bahasa keboedajaan dan akan toemboeh dengan keboedajaan Indonesia."'' (Indonesian for "Indonesian is a communication Malay, enriched with elements from literary Malay, Javanese, Dutch and to a greater extent other Austronesian languages, while many grammar changes have occurred and so have changes in the pitch and stress. Indonesian has become the language of culture and will grow with Indonesian culture.")
| source = — Excerpt of [[Sanoesi Pane]]'s "Sedjarah Bahasa Indonesia", a paper presented at the First Indonesian Language Conference at [[Surakarta]], 25–28 June 1938.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Kridalaksana |first=Harimurti |title=Masa Lampau Bahasa Indonesia. Sebuah bunga Rampai |publisher=Kanisius |year=1991 |isbn=979-413-476-7 |location=Yogyakarta |pages=240 |language=id |trans-title=Past of the Indonesian Language. An Anthology |chapter=Kongres Bahasa Indonesia I (1938) dan Kongres Bahasa Indonesia II (1958) |trans-chapter=The First Indonesian Language Congress (1938) and the Second Indonesian Language Congress (1958)}}</ref>
| align = right
| width = 45%
| salign = right
}}

=== Indonesian language in Japanese occupation, Old Order, and New Order ===
Once the Japanese overturned Dutch rule, a prohibition on the use of the Dutch language led to an expansion of Indonesian language newspapers and pressure on them to increase the language's wordstock. The Japanese agreed to the establishment of the Komisi Bahasa (Language Commission) in October 1942, formally headed by three Japanese but with a number of prominent Indonesian intellectuals playing the major part in its activities. Soewandi, later to be Minister of Education and Culture, was appointed secretary, Alisjahbana was appointed an 'expert secretary' and other members included the future president and vice-president, Sukarno and Hatta. Journalists, beginning a practice that has continued to the present, did not wait for the ''Komisi Bahasa'' to provide new words, but actively participated themselves in coining terms. Many of the Komisi Bahasa's terms never found public acceptance and after the Japanese period were replaced by the original Dutch forms, including ''jantera'' (Sanskrit for 'wheel'), which temporarily replaced ''mesin'' (machine), ''ketua negara'' (literally 'chairman of state'), which had replaced ''presiden'' (president) and ''kilang'' (meaning 'mill'), which had replaced ''pabrik'' (factory). In a few cases, however, coinings permanently replaced earlier Dutch terms, including ''pajak'' (earlier meaning 'monopoly') instead of ''belasting'' (tax) and ''senam'' (meaning 'exercise') instead of ''gimnastik'' (gymnastics). The Komisi Bahasa is said to have coined more than 7000 terms, although few of these gained common acceptance.<ref name="The Indonesian Language 2004. Page 14" />

[[File:Poster Propaganda Jepang.jpg|left|thumb|[[Propaganda]] posters from [[Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies|Japanese-occupied Dutch East Indies]] ]]

The adoption of Indonesian as the country's national language was in contrast to most other post-colonial states. Neither the language with the most native speakers (Javanese) nor the language of the former European colonial power (Dutch) was to be adopted. Instead, a local language with far fewer native speakers than the most widely spoken local language was chosen (nevertheless, Malay was the second most widely spoken language in the colony after Javanese, and had many L2 speakers using it for trade, administration, and education).

In 1945, when Indonesia declared its independence, Indonesian was formally declared the national language,<ref name="uud"/> despite being the native language of only about 5% of the population. In contrast, Javanese and Sundanese were the mother tongues of 42–48% and 15% respectively.<ref name="Kratz">{{cite encyclopedia |last=Kratz |first=U. |title=Indonesia: language situation |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |edition=Second |year=2006 |pages=639–641 |doi=10.1016/B0-08-044854-2/01720-X|chapter=Indonesia * : Language Situation |isbn=9780080448541 }}</ref> The combination of [[nationalism|nationalistic]], [[politics|political]], and [[pragmatism|practical]] concerns ultimately led to the successful adoption of Indonesian as a national language. In 1945, Javanese was easily the most prominent language in Indonesia. It was the native language of nearly half the population, the primary language of politics and [[economics]], and the language of [[court]]ly, [[religion|religious]], and literary tradition.<ref name="Swaan">{{cite book |last1=de Swaan |first1=Abram |title=Words of the World |date=2001 |publisher=Polity |location=Cambridge, UK |isbn=978-0745627489 |pages=81–95 }}</ref> What it lacked, however, was the ability to unite the diverse Indonesian population as a whole. With thousands of islands and hundreds of different languages, the newly independent country of Indonesia had to find a national language that could realistically be spoken by the majority of the population and that would not divide the nation by favouring one ethnic group, namely the Javanese, over the others. In 1945, Indonesian was already in widespread use;<ref name=Kratz/> in fact, it had been for roughly a thousand years. Over that long period, Malay, which would later become standardized as Indonesian, was the primary language of [[commerce]] and [[travel]]. It was also the language used for the propagation of [[Islam]] in the 13th to 17th centuries, as well as the language of instruction used by Portuguese and Dutch missionaries attempting to convert the indigenous people to [[Christianity]].<ref name=Swaan/> The combination of these factors meant that the language was already known to some degree by most of the population, and it could be more easily adopted as the national language than perhaps any other. Moreover, it was the language of the sultanate of [[Brunei]] and of future [[Malaysia]], on which [[Greater Indonesia|some Indonesian nationalists had claims]].

Over the first 53 years of [[Proclamation of Indonesian Independence|Indonesian independence]], the country's first two presidents, [[Sukarno]] and [[Suharto]], constantly nurtured the sense of national unity embodied by Indonesian, and the language remains an essential component of Indonesian identity. Through a language planning program that made Indonesian the language of [[politics]], [[education]], and nation-building in general, Indonesian became one of the few success stories of an [[indigenous language]] effectively overtaking that of a country's colonisers to become the ''[[de jure]]'' and ''[[de facto]]'' official language.<ref name="Paauw">{{cite journal|last1=Paauw |first1=Scott|title=One Land, One Nation, One Language: An Analysis of Indonesia's National Language Policy|journal=University of Rochester Working Papers in the Language Sciences|date=2009|volume=5|issue=1|pages=2–16 |url=http://www.rochester.edu/college/cls/assets/pdf/working/Paauw.pdf|access-date=18 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141218024007/http://www.rochester.edu/college/cls/assets/pdf/working/Paauw.pdf|archive-date=18 December 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> Today, Indonesian continues to function as the language of [[national identity]] as the Congress of Indonesian Youth envisioned, and also serves as the language of education, [[literacy]], [[modernization theory|modernization]], and [[social mobility]].<ref name="Paauw" /> Despite still being a second language to most Indonesians, it is unquestionably the language of the Indonesian nation as a whole, as it has had unrivalled success as a factor in nation-building and the strengthening of Indonesian identity.

=== Modern and colloquial Indonesian ===
{{further|Indonesian slang}}
[[File:Sukarno hatta airport - Terminal - Jakarta - Indonesia.jpg|thumb|right|Road signs in an [[airport terminal]]]]
[[File:Kuta Bali Indonesia Tol-Station-Nusa-Dua-01.jpg|thumb|Toll gate in [[Bali]]]]
[[File:Jakarta Indonesia Bus-stop-Monumen-Nasional-02.jpg|thumb|right|Indonesian language used on a [[Kopaja]] bus advertisement]]

Indonesian is spoken as a [[mother tongue]] and national language. Over 200 million people regularly make use of the national language, with varying degrees of proficiency. In a nation that is home to more than 700 native languages and a vast array of ethnic groups, it plays an important unifying and cross-archipelagic role for the country. Use of the national language is abundant in the media, [[government]] bodies, [[school]]s, [[University|universities]], [[workplace]]s, among members of the upper-class or nobility and also in formal situations, despite the 2010 census showing only 19.94% of over-five-year-olds speak mainly Indonesian at home.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html | title=Publication Name | access-date=4 December 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710134114/http://sp2010.bps.go.id/files/ebook/kewarganegaraan%20penduduk%20indonesia/index.html | archive-date=10 July 2017 | url-status=dead | df=dmy-all }}</ref>

Standard Indonesian is used in books and newspapers and on television/radio news broadcasts. The standard dialect, however, is rarely used in daily conversations, being confined mostly to formal settings. While this is a phenomenon common to most languages in the world (for example, spoken English does not always correspond to its written standards), the proximity of spoken Indonesian (in terms of grammar and vocabulary) to its normative form is noticeably low. This is mostly due to Indonesians combining aspects of their own local languages (e.g., [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]], and [[Balinese language|Balinese]]) with Indonesian. This results in various vernacular varieties of Indonesian, the very types that a foreigner is most likely to hear upon arriving in any Indonesian city or town.<ref>[http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20180703-why-no-one-speaks-indonesias-language Why no-one speaks Indonesia's language], BBC, by David Fettling, 4 July 2018</ref> This phenomenon is amplified by the use of [[Indonesian slang]], particularly in the cities. Unlike the relatively uniform standard variety, Vernacular Indonesian exhibits a high degree of geographical variation, though Colloquial Jakartan Indonesian functions as the ''de facto'' norm of informal language and is a popular source of influence throughout the archipelago.<ref name="Sneddon-2003" /> There is [[language shift]] of [[first language]] among Indonesian into Indonesian from other language in Indonesia caused by ethnic diversity than urbanicity.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pepinsky |first1=Thomas B. |last2=Abtahian |first2=Maya Ravindranath |last3=Cohn |first3=Abigail C. |date=2022-03-24 |title=Urbanization, ethnic diversity, and language shift in Indonesia |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/01434632.2022.2055761 |journal=Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development |volume=45 |issue=7 |language=en |pages=2503–2521 |doi=10.1080/01434632.2022.2055761 |issn=0143-4632|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The most common and widely used colloquial Indonesian is heavily influenced by the [[Betawi language]], a [[Malay trade and creole languages|Malay-based creole]] of [[Jakarta]], amplified by its popularity in Indonesian popular culture in mass media and Jakarta's status as the national capital. In informal spoken Indonesian, various words are replaced with those of a less formal nature. For example, {{lang|id|tidak}} (no) is often replaced with the Betawi form {{lang|id|nggak}} or the even simpler {{lang|id|gak/ga}}, while {{lang|id|seperti}} (like, similar to) is often replaced with {{lang|jv-Latn|kayak}} {{IPA|ms|kajaʔ|}}. {{lang|id|Sangat}} or {{lang|id|amat}} (very), the term to express intensity, is often replaced with the Javanese-influenced {{lang|id|banget}}. As for pronunciation, the diphthongs ''ai'' and ''au'' on the end of base words are typically pronounced as {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/o/}}. In informal writing, the spelling of words is modified to reflect the actual pronunciation in a way that can be produced with less effort. For example, {{lang|id|capai}} becomes {{lang|id|cape}} or {{lang|id|capek}}, {{lang|id|pakai}} becomes {{lang|id|pake}}, {{lang|id|kalau}} becomes {{lang|id|kalo}}. In verbs, the prefix ''me-'' is often dropped, although an initial nasal consonant is often retained, as when {{lang|id|mengangkat}} becomes {{lang|id|ngangkat}} (the base word is {{lang|id|angkat}}). The suffixes ''-kan'' and ''-i'' are often replaced by ''-in''. For example, {{lang|id|mencarikan}} becomes {{lang|id|nyariin}}, {{lang|id|menuruti}} becomes {{lang|id|nurutin}}. The latter grammatical aspect is one often closely related to the Indonesian spoken in Jakarta and its surrounding areas.

== Classification and related languages ==
{{See also|Austronesian languages#Cross-linguistic Comparison Chart}}
Malay historical linguists agree on the likelihood of the Malay homeland being in western [[Borneo]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=K. Alexander |last=Adelaar |title=Where does Malay come from? Twenty years of discussions about homeland, migrations and classifications |journal=Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |volume=160 |year=2004 |issue=1 |pages=1–30 |jstor=27868100 |doi=10.1163/22134379-90003733|url=http://minerva-access.unimelb.edu.au/bitstream/11343/122869/1/3089-5554-1-PB.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://minerva-access.unimelb.edu.au/bitstream/11343/122869/1/3089-5554-1-PB.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |hdl=11343/122869 |s2cid=59381288 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> A form known as Proto-Malay language was spoken in Borneo at least by 1000 BCE and was, it has been argued, the ancestral language of all subsequent [[Malayan languages]]. Its ancestor, [[Proto-Malayo-Polynesian]], a descendant of the [[Proto-Austronesian language]], began to break up by at least 2000 BCE, possibly as a result of the southward expansion of [[Austronesian peoples]] into [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] from the island of [[Taiwan]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Andaya |first=Leonard Y. |title=The Search for the 'Origins' of Melayu |journal=Journal of Southeast Asian Studies |volume=32 |issue=3 | pages=315–330 |year=2001 |doi=10.1017/s0022463401000169 |jstor=20072349 |s2cid=62886471 |url=http://sabrizain.org/malaya/library/search.pdf |access-date=13 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011113403/http://sabrizain.org/malaya/library/search.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2017 |url-status=live}}</ref> Indonesian, which originated from Malay, is a member of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian]] family of languages, which includes languages from [[Southeast Asia]], the [[Pacific Ocean]] and [[Madagascar]], with a smaller number in continental [[Asia]]. The formal register has a high degree of [[mutual intelligibility]] with the Malaysian standard of Malay, which is officially known there as {{lang|ms|[[bahasa Malaysia]]}}, despite the numerous lexical differences.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtWdhQ7vc6kC&q=Indonesian+Malaysian+Malay+differences&pg=PA71 |title=The Austronesian Languages of Asia and Madagascar|last1=Adelaar|first1=K. Alexander|last2=Himmelmann |first2=Nikolaus|date=2013-03-07|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781136755095|language=en}}</ref> However, vernacular varieties spoken in Indonesia and Malaysia share limited intelligibility, which is evidenced by the fact that Malaysians have difficulties understanding Indonesian [[soap opera|sinetron (soap opera)]] aired on Malaysia TV stations, and vice versa.<ref>{{cite web |first=Setiono |last=Sugiharto |title=Indonesian-Malay mutual intelligibility? |date=25 October 2008 |url=https://www.thejakartapost.com/news/2008/10/25/indonesianmalay-mutual-intelligibility.html|access-date=6 December 2019}}{{registration required}}</ref>

[[Malagasy language|Malagasy]], a geographic outlier spoken in [[Madagascar]] in the [[Indian Ocean]]; the Philippines national language, [[Filipino language|Filipino]]; [[Formosan language|Formosan]] in Taiwan's aboriginal population; and the native [[Māori language]] of New Zealand are also members of this language family. Although each language of the family is mutually unintelligible, their similarities are rather striking. Many roots have come virtually unchanged from their common ancestor, [[Proto-Austronesian language]]. There are many [[cognate]]s found in the languages' words for kinship, health, body parts and common animals. Numbers, especially, show remarkable similarities.

{{anchor|Numbers}}
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Numbers in [[Austronesian languages]] 
|-
! Language
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! 5
! 6
! 7
! 8
! 9
! 10
|-
! [[Proto-Austronesian language|PAN]], {{small|{{circa|4000}} BCE}}
| *isa || *DuSa || *telu || *Sepat || *lima || *enem || *pitu || *walu || *Siwa || *puluq
|-
! [[Malay language|Malay]]/Indonesian 
| {{lang|ms|satu}} || {{lang|ms|dua}} || {{lang|ms|tiga}} || {{lang|ms|empat}} || {{lang|ms|lima}} || {{lang|ms|enam}} || {{lang|ms|tujuh}} || {{lang|id|delapan}}|| {{lang|ms|sembilan}} || {{lang|ms|sepuluh}}
|-
! [[Amis language|Amis]] 
| {{lang|ami|cecay}} || {{lang|ami|tusa}} || {{lang|ami|tulu}} || {{lang|ami|sepat}} || {{lang|ami|lima}} || {{lang|ami|enem}} || {{lang|ami|pitu}} || {{lang|ami|falu}} || {{lang|ami|siwa}} || {{lang|ami|pulu'}}
|-
! [[Sundanese Language|Sundanese]]
| {{lang|su|hiji}} || {{lang|su|dua}} || {{lang|su|tilu}} || {{lang|su|opat}} || {{lang|su|lima}} || {{lang|su|genep}} || {{lang|su|tujuh}} || {{lang|su|dalapan}} || {{lang|su|salapan}} || {{lang|su|sapuluh}}
|-
! [[Tsou language|Tsou]] 
| {{lang|tsu|coni}} || {{lang|tsu|yuso}} || {{lang|tsu|tuyu}} || {{lang|tsu|sʉptʉ}} || {{lang|tsu|eimo}} || {{lang|tsu|nomʉ}} || {{lang|tsu|pitu}} || {{lang|tsu|voyu}} || {{lang|tsu|sio}} || {{lang|tsu|maskʉ}}
|- 
! [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] 
| {{lang|tl|isá}} || {{lang|tl|dalawá}} || {{lang|tl|tatló}} || {{lang|tl|ápat}} || {{lang|tl|limá}} || {{lang|tl|ánim}} || {{lang|tl|pitó}} || {{lang|tl|waló}} || {{lang|tl|siyám}} || {{lang|tl|sampu}}
|- 
! [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]] 
| {{lang|ilo|maysá}} || {{lang|ilo|dua}} || {{lang|ilo|talló}} || {{lang|ilo|uppát}} || {{lang|ilo|limá}} || {{lang|ilo|inném}} || {{lang|ilo|pitó}} || {{lang|ilo|waló}} || {{lang|ilo|siam}} || {{lang|ilo|sangapúlo}}
|- 
! [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]] 
| {{lang|ceb|usá}} || {{lang|ceb|duhá}} || {{lang|ceb|tuló}} || {{lang|ceb|upat}} || {{lang|ceb|limá}} || {{lang|ceb|unom}} || {{lang|ceb|pitó}} || {{lang|ceb|waló}} || {{lang|ceb|siyám}} || {{lang|ceb|napulu}}
|- 
! [[Hiligaynon language|Hiligaynon]] 
| {{lang|hil|isá}} || {{lang|hil|duwá}} || {{lang|hil|tatló}} || {{lang|hil|apat}} || {{lang|hil|limá}} || {{lang|hil|anom}} || {{lang|hil|pitó}} || {{lang|hil|waló}} || {{lang|hil|siyám}} || {{lang|hil|pulo}}
|- align=center
! [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]] 
| {{lang|ch|maisa/håcha}} || {{lang|ch|hugua}} || {{lang|ch|tulu}} || {{lang|ch|fatfat}} || {{lang|ch|lima}} || {{lang|ch|gunum}} || {{lang|ch|fiti}} || {{lang|ch|guålu}} || {{lang|ch|sigua}} || {{lang|ch|månot/fulu}}
|- 
! [[Malagasy language|Malagasy]] 
| {{lang|mg|iray/isa}} || {{lang|mg|roa}} || {{lang|mg|telo}} || {{lang|mg|efatra}} || {{lang|mg|dimy}} || {{lang|mg|enina}} || {{lang|mg|fito}} || {{lang|mg|valo}} || {{lang|mg|sivy}} || {{lang|mg|folo}}
|- 
! [[Cham language|Cham]] 
| sa || dua || klau || pak || limâ || nam || tajuh || dalipan || thalipan || pluh
|- 
! [[Toba Batak language|Toba Batak]] 
| {{lang|bbc|sada}} || {{lang|bbc|dua}} || {{lang|bbc|tolu}} || {{lang|bbc|opat}} || {{lang|bbc|lima}} || {{lang|bbc|onom}} || {{lang|bbc|pitu}} || {{lang|bbc|ualu}} || {{lang|bbc|sia}} || {{lang|bbc|sampulu}}
|- 
! [[Minangkabau language|Minangkabau]] 
| {{lang|min|ciek}} || {{lang|min|duo}} || {{lang|min|tigo}} || {{lang|min|ampek}} || {{lang|min|limo}} || {{lang|min|anam}} || {{lang|min|tujuah}} || {{lang|min|salapan}} || {{lang|min|sambilan}}|| {{lang|min|sapuluah}}
|- 
! [[Rejang language|Rejang]]<ref>{{Cite book
  | last = Munir Hamidy
  | first = Badrul 
  | title = Kamus Lengkap Indonesia-Rejang, Rejang-Indonesia
  | publisher = Pusat Pembinaan dan Pengembangan Bahasa, Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan
  | year = 1985
  | page = xv
  }}</ref>
| {{lang|rej|do}} || {{lang|rej|duai}} || {{lang|rej|tlau}} || {{lang|rej|pat}} || {{lang|rej|lêmo}} || {{lang|rej|num}} || {{lang|rej|tujuak}} || {{lang|rej|dêlapên}} || {{lang|rej|sêmbilan}} || {{lang|rej|sêpuluak}}
|- align=center
! [[Javanese language|Javanese]] 
| {{lang|jv|siji}} || {{lang|jv|loro}} || {{lang|jv|telu}} || {{lang|jv|papat}} || {{lang|jv|lima}} || {{lang|jv|nem}} || {{lang|jv|pitu}} || {{lang|jv|wolu}} || {{lang|jv|sanga}} || {{lang|jv|sepuluh}}
|- 
! [[Tetum language|Tetun]] 
| {{lang|tet|ida}} || {{lang|tet|rua}} || {{lang|tet|tolu}} || {{lang|tet|hat}} || {{lang|tet|lima}} || {{lang|tet|nen}} || {{lang|tet|hitu}} || {{lang|tet|ualu}} || {{lang|tet|sia}} || {{lang|tet|sanulu}}
|- align=center
! [[Biak language|Biak]] 
| {{lang|bhw|eser/oser}} || {{lang|bhw|suru}} || {{lang|bhw|kyor}} || {{lang|bhw|fyak}} || {{lang|bhw|rim}} || {{lang|bhw|wonem}} || {{lang|bhw|fik}} || {{lang|bhw|war}} || {{lang|bhw|siw}} || {{lang|bhw|samfur}}
|- 
! [[Fijian language|Fijian]] 
| {{lang|fj|dua}} || {{lang|fj|rua}} || {{lang|fj|tolu}} || {{lang|fj|vā}} || {{lang|fj|lima}} || {{lang|fj|ono}} || {{lang|fj|vitu}} || {{lang|fj|walu}} || {{lang|fj|ciwa}} || {{lang|fj|tini}}
|- 
! [[Gilbertese language|Kiribati]] 
| {{lang|gil|teuana}} || {{lang|gil|uoua}} || {{lang|gil|teniua}} || {{lang|gil|aua}} || {{lang|gil|nimaua}} || {{lang|gil|onoua}} || {{lang|gil|itiua}} || {{lang|gil|waniua}} || {{lang|gil|ruaiua}}|| {{lang|gil|tebuina}}
|- align=center
! [[Samoan language|Samoan]] 
| {{lang|sm|tasi}} || {{lang|sm|lua}} || {{lang|sm|tolu}} || {{lang|sm|fā}} || {{lang|sm|lima}} || {{lang|sm|ono}} || {{lang|sm|fitu}} || {{lang|sm|valu}} || {{lang|sm|iva}} || {{lang|sm|sefulu}}
|- 
! [[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]]
| {{lang|haw|kahi}} || {{lang|haw|lua}} || {{lang|haw|kolu}} || {{lang|haw|hā}} || {{lang|haw|lima}} || {{lang|haw|ono}} || {{lang|haw|hiku}} || {{lang|haw|walu}} || {{lang|haw|iwa}} || {{lang|haw|-'umi}}
|}

There are more than 700 local languages in Indonesian islands, such as [[Javanese language|Javanese]], [[Sundanese language|Sundanese]], etc. While Malay as the source of Indonesian is the mother tongue of ethnic Malay who lives along the east coast of Sumatra, in the Riau Archipelago, and on the south and west coast of Kalimantan (Borneo). There are several areas, such as Jakarta, Manado, Lesser Sunda islands, and Mollucas which has Malay-based trade languages. Thus, a large proportion of Indonesians use at least two languages daily, including Indonesian and local languages. When two languages are used by the same people in this way, they are likely to influence each other.<ref name="Poedjosoedarmo-1982" />

Aside from local languages, [[Dutch language|Dutch]] made the highest contribution to the Indonesian vocabulary, due to the Dutch [[Dutch East Indies|colonization]] over three centuries, from the 16th century until the mid-20th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dannyreviews.com/h/Indonesian_Language.html|title=The Indonesian Language (James N Sneddon) – book review|website=dannyreviews.com|access-date=13 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729003635/http://dannyreviews.com/h/Indonesian_Language.html|archive-date=29 July 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.geheugenvannederland.nl/?/en/collecties/nederlands-indie_in_fotos,_1860-1940|title=The Dutch East Indies in photographs, 1860–1940 – Memory of the Netherlands|website=geheugenvannederland.nl|access-date=13 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508230330/https://www.geheugenvannederland.nl/%3F/en/collecties/nederlands-indie_in_fotos,_1860-1940|archive-date=8 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Poedjosoedarmo-1982" /> [[Languages of Asia|Asian languages]] also influenced the language, with [[Chinese language|Chinese]] influencing Indonesian during the 15th and 16th centuries due to the [[spice trade]]; [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]],  [[Prakrit language|Prakrit]] contributing during the flourishing of [[History of Indonesia#Hindu-Buddhist civilisations|Hindu and Buddhist kingdoms]] from the 2nd to the 14th century; followed by [[Arabic]] after the [[Spread of Islam in Indonesia|spread of Islam]] in the archipelago in the 13th century.<ref>{{cite journal |title=On the history of Indonesian |first=H. |last=Steinhauer |journal=Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics |volume=1 |year=1980 |pages=349–375 |doi=10.1163/9789004653931_022 |jstor=40996873|isbn=978-90-04-65393-1 }}</ref> Loanwords from [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] were mainly connected with articles that the early European traders and explorers brought to Southeast Asia. Indonesian also receives many [[English language|English]] words as a result of [[globalization]] and [[modernization]], especially since the 1990s, as far as the [[History of Internet|Internet's emergence and development]] until the present day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/May2006/38-Indonesian-English-false-friends.htm|title=Language interference: Indonesian and English|website=macmillandictionaries.com|access-date=13 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170729050607/http://www.macmillandictionaries.com/MED-Magazine/May2006/38-Indonesian-English-false-friends.htm|archive-date=29 July 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Some Indonesian words correspond to Malay loanwords in English, among them the common words ''orangutan'', ''gong'', ''bamboo'', ''rattan'', ''sarong'', and the less common words such as ''paddy'', ''sago'' and ''kapok'', all of which were inherited in Indonesian from Malay but borrowed from Malay in English. The phrase "to run amok" comes from the Malay verb {{Lang|ms|amuk}} (to run out of control, to rage).<ref>Discussed at [[Talk:Indonesian language#English loanwords from Malay or Indonesian?|Talk:Indonesian language]]. See the section 'English loanwords from Malay or Indonesian?'.</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=amok {{!}} Search Online Etymology Dictionary|url=https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=amok|access-date=2021-07-06|website=etymonline.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://aboutworldlanguages.com/bahasa-indonesia|title=Indonesian (Bahasa Indonesia) – About World Languages|website=aboutworldlanguages.com|access-date=13 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190508230322/http://aboutworldlanguages.com/bahasa-indonesia|archive-date=8 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ipll.manoa.hawaii.edu/indonesian/about/bahasa-indonesia-the-indonesian-language/|title=History of Indonesian|website=ipll.manoa.hawaii.edu|access-date=13 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329072758/http://ipll.manoa.hawaii.edu/indonesian/about/bahasa-indonesia-the-indonesian-language/|archive-date=29 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

Indonesian is neither a [[Pidgin language|pidgin]] nor a [[Creole language|creole]] since its characteristics do not meet any of the criteria for either. It is believed that the Indonesian language was one of the means to achieve independence, but it is opened to receive vocabulary from other foreign languages aside from Malay that it has made contact with since the colonialism era, such as Dutch, English and Arabic among others, as the [[loan words]] keep increasing each year.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pratika |first1=D. |year=2016 |title=The Existence of Indonesian Language: Pidgin or Creole |journal=Journal on English as a Foreign Language |volume=6 |issue=2 |pages=83–100 |url=http://e-journal.iain-palangkaraya.ac.id/index.php/jefl/article/download/397/637 |doi=10.23971/jefl.v6i2.397 |access-date=1 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190206072621/http://e-journal.iain-palangkaraya.ac.id/index.php/jefl/article/download/397/637 |archive-date=6 February 2019 |url-status=live |doi-access=free }}</ref>

== Geographical distribution ==

In 2020, Indonesian had 71.9&nbsp;million [[native speaker]]s and 176.5&nbsp;million [[second language|second-language]] speakers,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/en/publication/2023/07/18/4a49f846d0708c1fe1117b5f/population-of-indonesia-the-result-of-long-form-population-census-2020.html|title=Hasil Long Form Sensus Penduduk 2020|publisher=Badan Pusat Statistics Indonesia|access-date=27 August 2024}}</ref> who speak it alongside their [[languages of Indonesia|local mother tongue]], giving a total number of speakers in Indonesia of 248.5&nbsp;million.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bps.go.id/en/publication/2023/07/18/4a49f846d0708c1fe1117b5f/population-of-indonesia-the-result-of-long-form-population-census-2020.html|title=Hasil Long Form Sensus Penduduk 2020|publisher=Budan Pusat Statistics Indonesia|access-date=27 August 2024}}</ref> It is common as a first language in urban areas, and as a second language by those residing in more rural parts of Indonesia.

The [[VOA]] and [[BBC]] use Indonesian as one of their standard language for broadcasting.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.voaindonesia.com/ |title=Voice of America Bahasa Indonesia |publisher=[[Voice of America]] |access-date=1 April 2012 |url-status=live |archive-date=1 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401034329/http://www.voaindonesia.com/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/languages/index.shtml |title=Languages: News and Analysis in your Language |publisher=[[BBC World Service]] |access-date=1 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120401025752/http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/languages/index.shtml |archive-date=1 April 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> In [[Australia]], Indonesian is one of three Asian target languages, together with [[Japanese language|Japanese]] and [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]], taught in some schools as part of the [[Languages Other Than English]] programme.<ref name="APO">{{Cite report |url=http://apo.org.au/research/building-asia-literate-australia-australian-strategy-asian-language-proficiency |title=Building an Asia-literate Australia: an Australian strategy for Asian language proficiency |publisher=Australian Policy Online |access-date=10 July 2012 |date=10 June 2009 |last1=Wesley |first1=Michael |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120702094230/http://apo.org.au/research/building-asia-literate-australia-australian-strategy-asian-language-proficiency |archive-date=2 July 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Indonesian has been taught in Australian schools and universities since the 1950s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/languages/indonesian|title=Indonesian |website=www.australiancurriculum.edu.au}}</ref>

In [[East Timor]], which was occupied by Indonesia between 1975 and 1999, Indonesian is recognized by the constitution as one of the two working languages (the other being [[English language|English]]), alongside the official languages of [[Tetum language|Tetum]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].<ref name="easttimorgovernment.com"/> It is understood by the Malay people of Australia's [[Cocos (Keeling) Islands|Cocos Keeling Islands]] in the [[Indian Ocean]], also in some parts of the [[Sulu|Sulu area]] of the southern [[Philippines]] and traces of it are to be found among people of Malay descent in [[Sri Lanka]], [[South Africa]], and other places.<ref name="hawaii.edu"/>

===Indonesian as a foreign language===
Indonesian is taught as a foreign language in schools, universities and institutions around the world, especially in [[Australia]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Japan]], [[South Korea]], [[East Timor|Timor-Leste]], [[Vietnam]], [[Taiwan]], the [[United States]], and the [[United Kingdom]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/education/217807/indonesian-language-officially-taught-at-vietnam-national-university.html|title=Indonesian Language Officially Taught at Vietnam National University|website=english.vietnamnet.vn|access-date=19 July 2022|archive-date=1 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701193026/http://english.vietnamnet.vn/fms/education/217807/indonesian-language-officially-taught-at-vietnam-national-university.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://kansai.jpf.go.jp/en/news/2017/05/indonesian-thai-and-spanish-language-versions-of-the-marugoto-a1-japanese-online-course-are-now-avai.html|title=Indonesian, Thai, and Spanish language versions of the 'Marugoto (A1) Japanese Online Course' are now available|author=<!--Not stated-->|website=kansai.jpf.go.jp|publisher=Japanese-Language Institute, Kansai|access-date=2021-09-13|archive-date=2021-09-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913065140/https://kansai.jpf.go.jp/en/news/2017/05/indonesian-thai-and-spanish-language-versions-of-the-marugoto-a1-japanese-online-course-are-now-avai.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://cltr.asia.edu.tw/files/15-1028-57989,c1693-1.php?Lang=en|title=The Indonesian, Vietnamese and Thai Language Courses|author=<!--Not stated-->|website=cltr.asia.edu.tw|publisher=Center for the Development of Language Teaching and Research, Asia University|location=Taiwan (Republic of China)|access-date=2021-09-13|archive-date=2021-09-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913065144/https://cltr.asia.edu.tw/files/15-1028-57989,c1693-1.php?Lang=en|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://sas.fas.harvard.edu/bahasa-indonesia|title=Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian language)|author=<!--Not stated-->|website= sas.fas.harvard.edu|publisher=Harvard University: Faculty of Arts and Sciences}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cambridgeinternational.org/programmes-and-qualifications/cambridge-igcse-indonesian-foreign-language-0545/|title=Cambridge IGCSE Indonesian - Foreign Language|author=<!--Not stated-->|website=cambridgeinternational.org|publisher=Cambridge University Press & Assessment|access-date=2021-09-13|archive-date=2021-09-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913065139/https://www.cambridgeinternational.org/programmes-and-qualifications/cambridge-igcse-indonesian-foreign-language-0545/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arts.adelaide.edu.au/study-with-us/undergraduate/indonesian-studies|title=Indonesian Studies|author=<!--Not stated--> |website=arts.adelaide.edu.au|publisher=The University of Adelaide, Australia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://arts.unimelb.edu.au/asia-institute/discipline-areas/indonesian|title=Indonesia's geographic proximity and strategic importance to Australia make it vital to understand its peoples, politics, history, languages and cultures|work=The University of Melbourne|date=22 May 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.monash.edu/arts/languages-literatures-cultures-linguistics/indonesian-studies |title=Indonesian studies |author=<!--Not stated-->|website= |publisher=Monash University, Australia}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/creativity-and-crisis-teaching-indonesian-in-australian-schools|title=Teaching Indonesian in Australian Schools|author=Hamish Curry|work=The University of Melbourne|date=18 March 2021 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sydney.edu.au/arts/schools/school-of-languages-and-cultures/department-of-indonesian-studies.html|title=Department of Indonesian Studies|author=<!--Not stated-->|website=www.sydney.edu.au|publisher= The University of Sydney, Australia}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=September 2022}}

== Official status ==

[[File:Indonesian magazines Jakarta.JPG|thumb|Indonesian is also the language of Indonesian mass media, such as magazines. Printed and broadcast mass media are encouraged to use standard Indonesian, although more relaxed popular slang often prevails.]]
Indonesian is the [[official language]] of [[Indonesia]], and its use is encouraged throughout the Indonesian archipelago. It is regulated in Chapter XV, [[Constitution of Indonesia|1945 Constitution of Indonesia]] about the flag, official language, coat of arms, and national anthem of Indonesia.<ref name="uud"/> Also, in Chapter III, Section 25 to 45, Government regulation No. 24/ 2009 mentions explicitly the status of the Indonesian language.<ref name="UU No 24/2009">{{cite act |type=Law |index=24 |date= 2009 |legislature=[[People's Representative Council]] |title=Undang-undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 24 Tahun 2009 2009 Tentang Bendera, Bahasa, dan Lambang Negara, serta Lagu Kebangsaan |url=https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Home/Details/38661/uu-no-24-tahun-2009 |language=id}}</ref>

{{Blockquote|text=The national language is Indonesian.
|source=Article 36, Chapter XV, [[Constitution of Indonesia]]<ref name="uud"/>}}

Indonesian functions as a symbol of national identity and pride, and is a ''lingua franca'' among the diverse [[ethnic groups in Indonesia]] and the speakers of vernacular Malay dialects and Malay creoles. The Indonesian language serves as the national and official language, the language of education, communication, transaction and trade documentation, the development of national culture, science, technology, and mass media. It also serves as a vehicle of communication among the provinces and different regional cultures in the country.<ref name="UU No 24/2009"/>

[[File:Ondel2diSMPN227.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Indonesian is used in [[Education in Indonesia|schools]].]]
According to Indonesian law, the Indonesian language was proclaimed as the unifying language during the [[Youth Pledge]] on 28 October 1928 and developed further to accommodate the dynamics of Indonesian civilization.<ref name="UU No 24/2009" /> As mentioned previously, the language was based on Riau Malay,<ref name="Indonesian Embassy: Astana" /><ref name="ethnologue:Indonesian">{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ind |title=Indonesian, A language of Indonesia |publisher=[[Ethnologue]] |access-date=10 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120609115801/http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=ind |archive-date=9 June 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> though linguists note that this is not the local dialect of Riau, but the Malaccan dialect that was used in the [[Riau-Lingga Sultanate|Riau court]].<ref name="Sneddon"/> Since its conception in 1928 and its official recognition in the 1945 Constitution, the Indonesian language has been loaded with a nationalist political agenda to unify Indonesia (former [[Dutch East Indies]]). This status has made it relatively open to accommodate influences from other Indonesian ethnic languages, most notably Javanese as the majority ethnic group, and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] as the previous coloniser. Compared to the indigenous dialects of [[Malay language|Malay]] spoken in Sumatra and Malay peninsula or the normative Malaysian standard, the Indonesian language differs profoundly by a large number of [[Javanese language|Javanese]] loanwords incorporated into its already-rich vocabulary. As a result, Indonesian has more extensive sources of [[list of loan words in Indonesian|loanwords]], compared to Malaysian Malay.

The disparate evolution of Indonesian and Malaysian has led to a rift between the two standardized varieties. This has been based more upon political nuance and the history of their standardization than cultural reasons, and as a result, there are asymmetrical views regarding each other's variety among Malaysians and Indonesians. Malaysians tend to assert that Malaysian and Indonesian are merely different normative varieties of the same language, while Indonesians tend to treat them as separate, albeit closely related, languages. Consequently, Indonesians feel little need to harmonise their language with Malaysia and Brunei, whereas Malaysians are keener to coordinate the evolution of the language with Indonesians,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yawningbread.org/arch_2005/yax-455.htm|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060400/http://www.yawningbread.org/arch_2005/yax-455.htm|archive-date=4 March 2016|title=Who is Malay?|date=July 2005}}</ref> although the 1972 [[Indonesian Spelling System|Indonesian alphabet reform]] was seen mainly as a concession of Dutch-based Indonesian to the English-based spelling of Malaysian.

In November 2023, the Indonesian language was recognised as one of the official languages of the [[UNESCO]] General Conference. Currently there are 10 official languages of the UNESCO General Conference, consisting of the six [[United Nations]] languages, namely [[English language|English]], [[French language|French]], [[Arabic]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Russian language|Russian]], and [[Spanish language|Spanish]], as well as four other languages of UNESCO member countries, namely [[Hindi]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], and Indonesian.<ref name="Kompas.id-1">{{Cite web |last=Napitupulu |first=Ester Lince |date=2023-11-22 |title=Indonesian Becomes the Official Language of the UNESCO General Conference |url=https://www.kompas.id/baca/english/2023/11/21/en-bahasa-indonesia-jadi-bahasa-resmi-sidang-umum-unesco |access-date=2023-11-29 |website=kompas.id }}</ref><ref name="UNESCO">{{Cite journal|url= https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000387388.locale=en|title=Recognition of Bahasa Indonesia as an official language of the General Conference of UNESCO|access-date=2023-11-20|publisher=UNESCO|journal=UNESCO General Conference|issue=42|year=2023}}</ref>

== Official policy ==
As regulated by Indonesian state law UU No 24/2009, other than state official speeches and documents between or issued to Indonesian government, Indonesian language is required by law to be used in:<ref name="SGR-2020">{{Cite web |last=SGR |first=Baun Thoib Soaloon |date=2020-01-30 |title=Inilah 14 Ranah Wajib Bahasa Indonesia |url=https://bbaceh.kemdikbud.go.id/2020/01/30/inilah-14-ranah-wajib-bahasa-indonesia/ |access-date=2023-01-18 |website=Balai Bahasa Provinsi Aceh |language=en-US}}</ref>

# Official speeches by the [[President of Indonesia|president]], [[Vice President of Indonesia|vice president]], and other state officials delivered within or outside Indonesia
# Agreements involving either government, private institutions, or individuals
# National or international forums held in Indonesia
# Scientific papers and publications in Indonesia
# Geographical names in Indonesia (name of buildings, roads, offices, complexes, institutions)
# Public signs, road signs, public facilities, banners, and other information of public services in public area.
# Information through mass media

However, other languages may be used in dual-language setting to accompany but not to replace Indonesian language in: agreements, information regarding goods / services, scientific papers, information through mass media, geographical names, public signs, road signs, public facilities, banners, and other information of public services in public area.<ref name="SGR-2020" />

While there are no sanctions of the uses of other languages,<ref name="SGR-2020" /> in Indonesian court's point of view, any agreements made in Indonesia but not drafted in Indonesian language, is null and void.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Indonesian language in contracts - a strict requirement |url=https://www.hfw.com/Indonesian-language-in-contracts-November-2013 |access-date=2023-01-18 |website=HFW |language=en}}</ref> In any different interpretations in dual-language agreements setting, Indonesian language shall prevail.<ref>{{Cite web |last=websitefeedbacklondon@hsf.com |date=2019-11-06 |title=Update on Indonesian Language Requirements for Contracts with Indonesian Parties |url=https://www.herbertsmithfreehills.com/latest-thinking/update-on-indonesian-language-requirements-for-contracts-with-indonesian-parties |access-date=2023-01-18 |website=Herbert Smith Freehills {{!}} Global law firm |language=en}}</ref>

== Phonology ==
{{main|Malay phonology}}

=== Vowels ===
Indonesian has six vowel phonemes as shown in the table below.<ref name="SodOlson2008" /><ref>{{cite book |author1=Anton M. Moeliono |author2=Hans Lapoliwa |author3=Hasan Alwi |author4=Sry Satrya Tjatur Wisnu Sasangka |author5=Sugiyono |title=Tata Bahasa Baku Bahasa Indonesia |year=2017 |location=Jakarta |publisher=Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa |edition=4th}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ caption | '''Indonesian vowel phonemes'''
|-
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| /{{IPA link|i}}/
|
| /{{IPA link|u}}/
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-Mid]]
| /{{IPA link|e}}/
| /{{IPA link|ə}}/
| /{{IPA link|o}}/
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| /{{IPA link|ä|a}}/
|
|}

In standard Indonesian orthography, the [[Latin alphabet]] is used, and five vowels are distinguished: ''a, i, u, e, o''. In materials for learners, the mid-front vowel /e/ is sometimes represented with a diacritic as ⟨é⟩ to distinguish it from the mid-central vowel ⟨ê⟩ /ə/. Since 2015, the auxiliary graphemes ⟨é⟩ and ⟨è⟩ are used respectively for phonetic [{{IPA link|e}}] and [{{IPA link|ɛ}}] in Indonesian, while Standard Malay has rendered both of them as ⟨é⟩.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Karyati |first=Zetty |date=2016-12-05 |title=Antara EYD dan PUEBI: Suatu Analisis Komparatif |url=http://journal.lppmunindra.ac.id/index.php/SAP/article/view/1024 |journal=SAP (Susunan Artikel Pendidikan) |volume=1 |issue=2 |doi=10.30998/sap.v1i2.1024 |issn=2549-2845|doi-access=free }}</ref>

The phonetic realization of the mid vowels /{{IPA|e}}/ and /{{IPA|o}}/ ranges from close-mid ({{IPA|[e]}}/{{IPA|[o]}}) to open-mid ({{IPA|[ɛ]}}/{{IPA|[ɔ]}}) [[allophone]]s. Some analyses set up a system which treats the open-mid vowels {{IPAslink|ɛ}} and {{IPAslink|ɔ}} as distinct phonemes.<ref>Yunus Maris, M. (1980). ''The Indonesian Sound System''. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd, page 2.</ref> Poedjosoedarmo argued the split of the front mid vowels in Indonesian is due to [[Javanese language|Javanese]] influence which exhibits a difference between ⟨i⟩ [{{IPA link|i}}], ⟨é⟩ [{{IPA link|e}}] and è [{{IPA link|ɛ}}]. Another example of Javanese influence in Indonesian is the split of back mid vowels into two allophones of [{{IPA link|o}}] and [{{IPA link|ɔ}}]. These splits (and loanwords) increase instances of [[Doublet (linguistics)|doublets]] in Indonesian, such as ⟨''satai''⟩ and ⟨''saté''⟩. Javanese words adopted into Indonesian have greatly increased the frequency of Indonesian ⟨é⟩ and ⟨o⟩.<ref name="Poedjosoedarmo-1982">{{Cite book |last=Poedjosoedarmo |first=Soepomo |url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/144387/1/PL-D38.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/bitstream/1885/144387/1/PL-D38.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=Javanese influence on Indonesian |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |year=1982 |volume=38 |location=Canberra |pages=19–50 |language=en |chapter=Javanese influence on Indonesian phonology}}</ref>

In traditional Malay, high vowels (⟨i⟩, ⟨u⟩) could not appear in a final syllable if a mid-vowel (⟨e⟩, ⟨o⟩) appeared in the previous syllable, and conversely, mid-vowels (⟨e⟩, ⟨o⟩) could not appear in the final syllable if a high vowel (⟨i⟩, ⟨u⟩) appeared in the previous syllable.<ref name="The Indonesian Language 2004. Page 14" />

Traditional Malay does not allow the mid-central schwa vowel to occur in consonant open or closed word-final syllables. The schwa vowel was introduced in closed syllables under the influence of Javanese and Jakarta Malay, but Dutch borrowings made it more acceptable. Although Alisjahbana argued against it, insisting on writing ⟨a⟩ instead of an ⟨ê⟩ in final syllables such as ''koda'' (vs ''kode'' 'code') and nasionalisma (vs ''nasionalisme'' 'nationalism'), he was unsuccessful.<ref name="The Indonesian Language 2004. Page 14" /> This spelling convention was instead survived in [[Balinese language|Balinese]] orthography.

====Diphthongs====
Indonesian has four [[diphthong]] phonemes only in open syllables.<ref name="EYDV">{{cite act|title=Keputusan Kepala Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa Kementerian Pendidikan, Kebudayaan, Riset, dan Teknologi Republik Indonesia Nomor 0424/I/BS.00.01/2022 Tentang Ejaan Bahasa Indonesia Yang Disempurnakan|language=id|type=Language Center Decree|index=0424/I/BS.00.01/2022|date=2022|legislature=[[Language Development and Fostering Agency]]|url=https://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/produk-detail/3685/ejaan-yang-disempurnakan-eyd}}</ref> They are:
* {{IPA|/ai̯/}}: ''ked'''ai''''' ('shop'), ''pand'''ai''''' ('clever')
* {{IPA|/au̯/}}: ''kerb'''au''''' ('buffalo'), ''lim'''au''''' ('lime')
* {{IPA|/oi̯/}} (or {{IPA|/ʊi̯/}} in Indonesian): ''amb'''oi''''' ('wow')'', t'''oi'''let'' ('toilet')
* {{IPA|/ei̯/}}: ''surv'''ei''''' ('survey'), ''g'''ei'''ser'' ('geyser')

Some analyses assume that these diphthongs are actually a monophthong followed by an approximant, so {{angbr|ai}} represents {{IPA|/aj/}}, {{angbr|au}} represents {{IPA|/aw/}}, and {{angbr|oi}} represents {{IPA|/oj/}}. On this basis, there are no phonological diphthongs in Indonesian.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Clynes | first1 = A | year = 1997 | title = On the Proto-Austronesian 'diphthongs' | journal = Oceanic Linguistics | volume = 36 | issue = 2 | pages = 347–362 | doi=10.2307/3622989 |jstor=3622989 }}</ref>

Diphthongs are differentiated from two vowels in two syllables, such as:
* {{IPA|/a.i/}}: e.g. ''l'''ai'''n'' ('other') {{IPA|[la.in]}}, '''''ai'''r'' ('water') {{IPA|[a.ir]}}
* {{IPA|/a.u/}}: ''b'''au''''' ('smell') {{IPA|[ba.u]}}, ''l'''au'''t'' ('sea') {{IPA|[la.ut]}}

===Consonants===
{|class="wikitable" style=text-align:center
|-
|+Indonesian consonant phonemes
! colspan=2| 
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br>[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
| {{IPA link|ɲ}}
| {{IPA link|ŋ}}
|
|-
! rowspan=2| [[Stop consonant|Plosive]]/<br>[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t̪}}
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}
| {{IPA link|k}}
| ({{IPA link|ʔ}})
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|d}}
| {{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}
| {{IPA link|ɡ}}
| 
|-
! rowspan=2| [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small>
| ({{IPA link|f}})
| {{IPA link|s}}
| ({{IPA link|ʃ}})
| ({{IPA link|x}})
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small>
| ({{IPA link|v}})
| ({{IPA link|z}})
| 
| 
| 
|-
! colspan=2| [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
| {{IPA link|w}}
| {{IPA link|l}}
| {{IPA link|j}}
| 
| 
|-
! colspan=2| [[Trill consonant|Trill]]
|
| {{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|
|}

The consonants of Indonesian are shown above.<ref name="SodOlson2008">{{cite journal | last1 = Soderberg | first1 = C. D. | last2 = Olson | first2 = K. S. | year = 2008 | title = Indonesian | journal = Journal of the International Phonetic Association | volume = 38 | issue = 2| pages = 209–213 | doi=10.1017/s0025100308003320| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="ClynesDet2011">{{cite journal |last1=Clynes |first1=A. |last2=Deterding |first2=D. |year=2011 |title=Standard Malay (Brunei) |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=259–268 |doi=10.1017/S002510031100017X|doi-access=free }}</ref> Non-native consonants that only occur in borrowed words, principally from Arabic and English, are shown in parentheses. Some analyses list 19 "primary consonants" for Indonesian as the 18 symbols that are not in parentheses in the table as well as the glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}}. The secondary consonants /f/, /v/, /z/, /ʃ/ and /x/ only appear in loanwords. Only small amounts of speakers pronounce /v/ in loanwords as [v], most of them pronounce them as [f]. Likewise, /x/ is mostly replaced with [h] or [k] by some speakers. /ʃ/ is sometimes replaced with /s/, which was traditionally used as a substitute for /ʃ/ in older borrowings from [[Sanskrit]], and /f/ is rarely replaced, though /p/ was substituted for /f/ in older borrowings such as kopi "coffee" from [[Dutch language|Dutch]] koffie. /z/ may occasionally be replaced with /s/ or /d͡ʒ/. [z] can also be an allophone of /s/ before voiced consonants.<ref>Asmah Haji Omar (2008). ''Ensiklopedia Bahasa Melayu''. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, page 108.</ref><ref>Yunus Maris, M. (1980). ''The Indonesian Sound System''. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Fajar Bakti Sdn. Bhd, page 52.</ref> According to some analyses, postalveolar affricates {{IPAslink|tʃ}} and {{IPAslink|dʒ}} are instead palatals {{IPAblink|c}} and {{IPAblink|ɟ}} in Indonesian.<ref>[https://etd.ohiolink.edu/apexprod/rws_etd/send_file/send%3Faccession%3Dosu1651140749118127%26disposition%3Dinline&ved=2ahUKEwjO9d_2zc39AhUzyTgGHT_-A10QFnoECBwQAQ&usg=AOvVaw2mTMeMAFiIPE-x_vYRceXg ''To Tap or Not To Tap: A Preliminary Acoustic Description of American English Alveolar Tap Productions by Indonesian Bilingual Adults'']</ref>

The consonants in Indonesian are influenced by other important languages in Indonesian history. The influences included schwa in final closed syllable (e.g. Indonesian pəcəl vs Malay pəcal), initial homorganic nasal stop clusters of ⟨mb⟩, ⟨nd⟩, and ⟨nj⟩ (e.g. Indonesian ''mbolos'' 'to malinger'), the consonant-semivowel clusters (e.g. Indonesian ''pria'' vs Malay ''pəria'' 'male'),{{Clarify|reason=How is r a semivowel?|date=October 2023}} introduction of consonant clusters ⟨-ry-⟩ and ⟨-ly-⟩ (e.g. Indonesian ''gərilya'' vs Malay ''gərila'' 'guerrilla'), increased usage of initial ⟨w-⟩ (e.g. ''warta'' and ''bərita'' 'news') and intervocalic ⟨w-⟩, and increase of initial and post-consonant ⟨y⟩ [j]. These changes resulted from influences of local languages in Indonesia, such as Balinese, Madurese, Sundanese and especially Javanese, and foreign languages such as Arabic and Dutch.<ref name="Poedjosoedarmo-1982" />

'''Orthographic note''':

The sounds are represented orthographically by their symbols as above, except:

* {{IPAslink|ɲ}} is written {{angbr|ny}}.
* {{IPAslink|ŋ}} is written {{angbr|ng}}.
* The glottal stop {{IPA|[ʔ]}} is written as a final {{angbr|k}} (the use {{angbr|k}} from its being an allophone of /k/ or /ɡ/ in the syllable coda), or it can be unwritten.
* {{IPAslink|tʃ}} is written {{angbr|c}}.
* {{IPAslink|dʒ}} is written {{angbr|j}}.
* {{IPAslink|ʃ}} is written {{angbr|sy}}.
* {{IPAslink|x}} is written {{angbr|kh}}.
* {{IPAslink|j}} is written {{angbr|y}}.

=== Stress ===
Indonesian has light [[Stress (linguistics)|stress]] that falls on either the final or [[Penult|penultimate syllable]], depending on regional variations as well as the presence of the schwa ({{IPA|/ə/}}) in a word. It is generally the penultimate syllable that is stressed, unless its vowel is a schwa {{IPA|/ə/}}. If the penult has a schwa, then stress usually moves to the final syllable.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Soderberg |first1=Craig D. |last2=Olson |first2=Kenneth S. |date=2008 |title=Indonesian |journal=Journal of the International Phonetic Association |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=209–213 |doi=10.1017/S0025100308003320|doi-access=free }}</ref>

However, there is some disagreement among linguists over whether stress is phonemic (unpredictable), with some analyses suggesting that there is no underlying stress in Indonesian.<ref name="ClynesDet2011" /><ref name="Zur2008">{{cite journal |first1=Zuraidah |last1=Mohd Don |last2=Knowles |first2=G. |last3=Yong |first3=J. |year=2008 |title=How words can be misleading: A study of syllable timing and 'stress' in Malay |journal=The Linguistics Journal |volume=3 |issue=2 |url=https://www.linguistics-journal.com/2014/01/08/how-words-can-be-misleading-a-study-of-syllable-timing-and-stress-in-malay/ |access-date=13 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801235943/https://www.linguistics-journal.com/2014/01/08/how-words-can-be-misleading-a-study-of-syllable-timing-and-stress-in-malay/ |archive-date=1 August 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://email.eva.mpg.de/~gil/ismil/11/abstracts/Gil.pdf |access-date=25 March 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120225063313/http://email.eva.mpg.de/~gil/ismil/11/abstracts/Gil.pdf |archive-date=25 February 2012  |last=Gil |first=David |title=A Typology of Stress, And Where Malay/Indonesian Fits In}} (abstract only)</ref>

=== Rhythm ===
The classification of languages based on rhythm can be problematic.<ref>Roach, P. (1982). "On the distinction between 'stress-timed' and 'syllable-timed' languages".  In D. Crystal (ed.), ''Linguistic Controversies'' (pp.&nbsp;73–79). London: Edward Arnold.</ref> Nevertheless, acoustic measurements suggest that Indonesian has more syllable-based rhythm than British English,<ref>Deterding, D. (2011). "Measurements of the rhythm of Malay". In ''Proceedings of the 17th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences, Hong Kong, 17–21 August 2011'', pp. 576–579. [http://www.ubd.edu.bn/academic/faculty/FASS/staff/docs/DD/ICPhS-HK-Malay-rhythm.pdf On-line Version] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515020831/http://www.ubd.edu.bn/academic/faculty/FASS/staff/docs/DD/ICPhS-HK-Malay-rhythm.pdf |date=15 May 2013 }}</ref> even though doubts remain about whether the syllable is the appropriate unit for the study of Malay prosody.<ref name="Zur2008" />

== Grammar ==
{{Main|Malay grammar}}
Word order in Indonesian is generally [[subject-verb-object]] (SVO), similar to that of most modern [[Languages of Europe|European languages]] as well as English. However, considerable flexibility in word ordering exists, in contrast with languages such as [[Japanese language|Japanese]] or [[Korean language|Korean]], for instance, which always end clauses with verbs. Indonesian, while allowing for relatively flexible word orderings, does not mark for [[grammatical case]], nor does it make use of [[grammatical gender]].

=== Affixes ===
Indonesian words are composed of a root or a root plus derivational affixes. The root is the primary lexical unit of a word and is usually bisyllabic, of the shape CV(C)CV(C). Affixes are "glued" onto roots (which are either nouns or verbs) to alter or expand the primary meaning associated with a given root, effectively generating new words, for example, {{lang|id|masak}} (to cook) may become {{lang|id|memasak}} (cooking), {{lang|id|memasakkan}} (cook for), {{lang|id|dimasak}} (be cooked), {{lang|id|pemasak}} (a cook), {{lang|id|masakan}} (a meal, cookery), {{lang|id|termasak}} (accidentally cooked). There are four types of affixes: [[prefixes]] ({{lang|id|awalan}}), [[suffixes]] ({{lang|id|akhiran}}), [[circumfixes]] ({{lang|id|apitan}}) and [[infixes]] ({{lang|id|sisipan}}). Affixes are categorized into noun, verb, and adjective affixes. Many initial consonants alternate in the presence of prefixes: {{lang|id|sapu}} (to sweep) becomes {{lang|id|menyapu}} (sweeps/sweeping); {{lang|id|panggil}} (to call) becomes {{lang|id|memanggil}} (calls/calling), {{lang|id|tapis}} (to sieve) becomes {{lang|id|menapis}} (sieves).

Other examples of the use of [[affix]]es to change the meaning of a word can be seen with the word {{lang|id|ajar}} (to teach):
* {{lang|id|ajar}} = to teach
*{{lang|id|ajar'''i'''}} = to teach (imperative, locative)
*{{lang|id|ajar'''ilah'''}} = to teach (jussive, locative)
*{{lang|id|ajar'''kan'''}} = to teach (imperative, causative/applicative)
*{{lang|id|ajar'''kanlah'''}} = to teach (jussive, causative/applicative)
*{{lang|id|ajar'''lah'''}} = to teach (jussive, active)
* {{lang|id|ajar'''an'''}} = teachings
* {{lang|id|'''bel'''ajar}} = to learn ([[Intransitive verb|intransitive]], active)
* {{lang|id|'''di'''ajar}} = to be taught (intransitive)
*{{lang|id|'''di'''ajar'''i'''}} = to be taught (transitive, locative)
*{{lang|id|'''di'''ajar'''kan'''}} = to be taught (transitive, causative/applicative)
*{{lang|id|'''dipel'''ajar'''i'''}} = to be studied (locative)
* {{lang|id|'''dipel'''ajar'''kan'''}} = to be studied (causative/applicative)
* {{lang|id|'''mempel'''ajar'''i'''}} = to study (locative)
*{{lang|id|'''mempel'''ajar'''kan'''}} = to study (causative/applicative)
*{{lang|id|'''meng'''ajar}} = to teach ([[intransitive verb|intransitive]], active)
* {{lang|id|'''meng'''ajar'''kan'''}} = to teach ([[transitive verb|transitive]], casuative/applicative)
*{{lang|id|'''meng'''ajar'''i'''}} = to teach ([[Transitive verb|transitive]], locative)
* {{lang|id|'''pel'''ajar}} = student
*{{lang|id|'''pel'''ajar'''i'''}} = to study (imperative, locative)
*{{lang|id|'''pel'''ajar'''ilah'''}} = to study (jussive, locative)
*{{lang|id|'''pel'''ajar'''kan'''}} = to study (imperative, causative/applicative)
*{{lang|id|'''pel'''ajar'''kanlah'''}} = to study (jussive, causative/applicative)
* {{lang|id|'''peng'''ajar}} = teacher, someone who teaches
* {{lang|id|'''pel'''ajar'''an'''}} = subject, education
*{{lang|id|'''pel'''ajar'''i'''}} = to study (jussive, locative)
*{{lang|id|'''pel'''ajar'''kan'''}} = to study (jussive, causative/applicative)
* {{lang|id|'''peng'''ajar'''an'''}} = lesson
* {{lang|id|'''pembel'''ajar'''an'''}} = learning
* {{lang|id|'''ter'''ajar}} = to be taught (accidentally)
*{{lang|id|'''ter'''ajar'''i'''}} = to be taught (accidentally, locative)
*{{lang|id|'''ter'''ajar'''kan'''}} = to be taught (accidentally, causative/applicative)
* {{lang|id|'''terpel'''ajar}} = well-educated, literally "been taught" 
*{{lang|id|'''terpel'''ajar'''i'''}} = been taught (locative)
*{{lang|id|'''terpel'''ajar'''kan'''}} = been taught (causative/applicative)
* {{lang|id|'''berpel'''ajar'''an'''}} = is educated, literally "has education"

''-Kan'' and ''-i'' both increase the valency of verbs, but ''-i'' should be used "if [the verb] is directly followed by an animate object."<ref>cite journal | last1=Sujaya | first1 = Nyoman | last2 = Artawa | first2 = Ketut | last3 = Kardana | first3 = I Nyoman | last4 = Satyawi | first4 = Made Sri | title = The Ka- Passive Form in Balinese | journal = Journal of Language and Teaching Research | volume = 10 | pages = 886–894 | doi = http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/jltr.1004.29 | ISSN = 1798-4769</ref>

==== Noun affixes ====
Noun affixes are affixes that form nouns upon addition to root words. The following are examples of noun affixes:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! style="background:#efefef;" | Type of noun affixes
! style="background:#efefef;" | Affix
! style="background:#efefef;" | Example of root word
! style="background:#efefef;" | Example of derived word
|-
|Prefix
|pə(r)- ~ pəng-
|{{lang|id|duduk}} (sit)
|{{lang|id|'''pen'''duduk}} (population)
|-
|
|kə-
|{{lang|id|hendak}} (want)
|{{lang|id|'''ke'''hendak}} (desire)
|-
|Infix
| {{angbr|əl}}
|{{lang|id|tunjuk}} (point)
|{{lang|id|t'''el'''unjuk}} (index finger, command)
|-
|
| {{angbr|əm}}
|{{lang|id|kelut}} (dishevelled)
|{{lang|id|k'''em'''elut}} (chaos, crisis)
|-
|
| {{angbr|ər}}
|{{lang|id|gigi}} (teeth)
|{{lang|id|g'''er'''igi}} (toothed blade)
|-
|Suffix
| -an
|{{lang|id|bangun}} (wake up, raise)
|{{lang|id|bangun'''an'''}} (building)
|-
|Circumfix
|kə-...-an
|{{lang|id|raja}} (king)
|{{lang|id|'''ke'''raja'''an'''}} (kingdom)
|-
|
|pə(r)-...-an<br />pəng-...-an
|{{lang|id|kerja}} (work)
|{{lang|id|'''pe'''kerja'''an'''}} (occupation)
|}

The prefix {{lang|id|per-}} drops its {{lang|id|r}} before {{lang|id|r, l}} and frequently before {{lang|id|p, t, k.}} In some words it is {{lang|id|peng-}}; though formally distinct, these are treated as variants of the same prefix in Indonesian grammar books.

==== Verb affixes ====
Similarly, verb affixes in Indonesian are attached to root words to form verbs. In Indonesian, there are:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Type of verb affixes
! Affix
! Example of root word
! Example of derived word
|-
! rowspan=6|Prefix
|bər-
|''ajar'' (teach)
|''belajar'' (to study)<ref>The root ''ajar'' retrieves a historic initial ''l'' after the suffixes ''ber-'' and ''pe(r)-''.</ref>
|-
|məng-
|''tolong'' (help)
|''menolong'' (to help)
|-
|di-
|''ambil'' (take)
|''diambil'' (be taken)
|-
|məmpər-
|''panjang'' (length)
|''memperpanjang'' (to lengthen)
|-
|dipər-
|''dalam'' (deep)
|''diperdalam'' (be deepened)
|-
|tər-
|''makan'' (eat)
|''termakan'' (to have accidentally eaten)
|-
! rowspan=2|Suffix
| -kan
|''letak'' (place, keep)
|''letakkan'' (keep, put)
|-
| -i
|''jauh'' (far)
|''jauhi'' (avoid)
|-
!rowspan=10|Circumfix
|bər-...-an
|''pasang'' (pair)
|''berpasangan'' (in pairs)
|-
|bər-...-kan
|''dasar'' (base)
|''berdasarkan'' (based on)
|-
|məng-...-kan
|''pasti'' (sure)
|''memastikan'' (to make sure)
|-
|məng-...-i
|''teman'' (company)
|''menemani'' (to accompany)
|-
|məmpər-...-kan
|''guna'' (use)
|''mempergunakan'' (to utilise, to exploit)
|-
|məmpər-...-i
|''ajar'' (teach)
|''mempelajari'' (to study)
|-
|kə-...-an
|''hilang'' (disappear)
|''kehilangan'' (to lose)
|-
|di-...-i
|''sakit'' (pain)
|''disakiti'' (to be hurt by)
|-
|di-...-kan
|''benar'' (right)
|''dibenarkan'' (is allowed to)
|-
|dipər-...-kan
|''kenal'' (know, recognise)
|''diperkenalkan'' (is being introduced)
|}

==== Adjective affixes ====
Adjective affixes are attached to root words to form adjectives:

{|class="wikitable"
|-
! Type of adjective affixes
! Affix
! Example of root word
! Example of derived word
|-
!rowspan=2|Prefix
|tər-
|''panas'' (hot)
|''terpanas'' (hottest)
|-
|sə-
|''baik'' (good)
|''sebaik'' (as good as)
|-
!rowspan=3|Infix
| {{angbr|əl}}
|''serak'' (disperse)
|''selerak'' (messy)
|-
| {{angbr|əm}}
|''cerlang'' (radiant bright)
|''cemerlang'' (bright, excellent)
|-
| {{angbr|ər}}
|''sabut'' (husk)
|''serabut'' (dishevelled)
|-
!Circumfix
|kə-...-an
|''barat'' (west)
|''kebaratan'' (westernized)
|}

In addition to these affixes, Indonesian also has a lot of borrowed affixes from other languages such as Sanskrit, Arabic and English. For example, ''maha-'', ''pasca-'', ''eka-'', ''bi-'', ''anti-'', ''pro-'' etc.

=== Nouns ===
Common derivational affixes for nouns are peng-/per-/juru- (actor, instrument, or someone characterized by the root), -an (collectivity, similarity, object, place, instrument), ke-...-an (abstractions and qualities, collectivities), per-/peng-...-an (abstraction, place, goal or result).

==== Gender ====
Indonesian does not make use of [[grammatical gender]], and there are only selected words that use natural [[Grammatical gender|gender]]. For instance, the same word is used for ''he/him'' and ''she/her'' ({{lang|id|dia}} or {{lang|id|ia}}) or for ''his'' and ''her'' ({{lang|id|dia}}, {{lang|id|ia}} or {{lang|id|-nya}}). No real distinction is made between "girlfriend" and "boyfriend", both of which can be referred to as {{lang|id|pacar}} (although more colloquial terms as {{lang|id|cewek}} girl/girlfriend and {{lang|id|cowok}} boy/boyfriend can also be found). A majority of Indonesian words that refer to people generally have a form that does not distinguish between the natural genders. However, unlike English, distinction is made between older or younger.

There are some words that have gender: for instance, {{lang|id|putri}} means "daughter" while {{lang|id|putra}} means "son"; {{lang|id|pramugara}} means "male flight attendant" while {{lang|id|pramugari}} means "female flight attendant". Another example is {{lang|id|olahragawan}}, which means "sportsman", versus {{lang|id|olahragawati}}, meaning "sportswoman". Often, words like these (or certain suffixes such as "-a" and "-i" or "-wan" and "wati") are absorbed from other languages (in these cases, from [[Sanskrit]]).
In some regions of Indonesia such as Sumatra and Jakarta, {{lang|id|abang}} (a gender-specific term meaning "older brother") is commonly used as a form of address for older siblings/males, while {{lang|id|kakak}} (a non-gender specific term meaning "older sibling") is often used to mean "older sister". Similarly, more direct influences from other languages, such as Javanese and Chinese, have also seen further use of other gendered words in Indonesian. For example: {{lang|jv|Mas}} ("older brother"), {{lang|jv|Mbak}} ("older sister"), {{lang|jv|Koko}} ("older brother") and {{lang|jv|Cici}} ("older sister").

==== Number ====
Indonesian grammar does not regularly mark [[plural]]s. In Indonesian, to change a singular into a plural one either repeats the word or adds {{lang|id|para}} before it (the latter for living things only); for example, "students" can be either {{lang|id|murid-murid}} or {{lang|id|para murid}}. Plurals are rarely used in Indonesian, especially in informal parlance. Reduplication is often mentioned as the formal way to express the plural form of nouns in Indonesian; however, in informal daily discourse, speakers of Indonesian usually use other methods to indicate the concept of something being "more than one". Reduplication may also indicate the conditions of variety and diversity as well, and not simply plurality.

[[Reduplication]] is commonly used to emphasise plurality; however, reduplication has many other functions. For example, {{lang|id|orang-orang}} means "(all the) people", but {{lang|id|orang-orangan}} means "scarecrow". Similarly, while {{lang|id|hati}} means "heart" or "liver", {{lang|id|hati-hati}} is a verb meaning "to be careful". Also, not all reduplicated words are inherently plural, such as {{lang|id|orang-orangan}} "scarecrow/scarecrows", {{lang|id|biri-biri}} "a/some sheep" and {{lang|id|kupu-kupu}} "butterfly/butterflies". Some reduplication is rhyming rather than exact, as in {{lang|id|sayur-mayur}} "(all sorts of) vegetables".

Distributive affixes derive mass nouns that are effectively plural: {{lang|id|pohon}} "tree", {{lang|id|pepohonan}} "flora, trees"; {{lang|id|rumah}} "house", {{lang|id|perumahan}} "housing, houses"; {{lang|id|gunung}} "mountain", {{lang|id|pegunungan}} "mountain range, mountains".

Quantity words come before the noun: {{lang|id|seribu orang}} "a thousand people", {{lang|id|beberapa pegunungan}} "a series of mountain ranges", {{lang|id|beberapa kupu-kupu}} "some butterflies".

Plural in Indonesian serves just to explicitly mention the number of objects in sentence. For example, {{lang|id|Ani membeli satu kilo mangga}} (Ani buys one kilogram of mangoes). In this case, "mangoes", which is plural, is not said as {{lang|id|mangga-mangga}} because the plurality is implicit: the amount '''a kilogram''' means more than one mango rather than one giant mango. So, as it is logically, one does not change the singular into the plural form, because it is not necessary and considered a [[pleonasm]] (in Indonesian often called {{lang|id|pemborosan kata}}).

=== Pronouns ===
Personal pronouns are not a separate part of speech, but a subset of nouns. They are frequently omitted, and there are numerous ways to say "you". Commonly the person's name, title, title with name, or occupation is used ("does Johnny want to go?", "would Madam like to go?"); kin terms, including [[fictive kinship]], are extremely common. However, there are also dedicated personal pronouns, as well as the demonstrative pronouns {{lang|id|ini}} "this, the" and {{lang|id|itu}} "that, the".

==== Personal pronouns ====
From the perspective of a European language, Indonesian boasts a wide range of different pronouns, especially to refer to the addressee (the so-called second person pronouns). These are used to differentiate several parameters of the person they are referred to, such as the social rank and the relationship between the addressee and the speaker. Indonesian also exhibits [[pronoun avoidance]], often preferring kinship terms and titles over pronouns, particularly for respectful forms of address.
 
The table below provides an overview of the most commonly and widely used pronouns in the Indonesian language:

{| class="wikitable"
|+Common pronouns
|-
! Person
! Respect
! colspan="2" | Singular
! colspan="2" | Plural
|-
! rowspan=2|1st person exclusive
! Informal, Familiar
| align=center| ''aku''
| rowspan=2 | I
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| ''kami''
| rowspan=2 | we<br />(not including the listener)
|-
! Standard, Polite
| style="text-align:center;"| ''saya''
|-
!1st person inclusive
! All
| colspan=2 |
| style="text-align:center;"| ''kita''
| we<br />(including the listener)
|-
! rowspan=2| 2nd person
! Familiar
| style="text-align:center;"| ''kamu, engkau, kau''
| rowspan="2" | you
| style="text-align:center;"| ''kalian''
| rowspan="2" | you all
|-
! Polite
| style="text-align:center;"| ''Anda''
| style="text-align:center;"| ''Anda sekalian''
|-
! rowspan="2" | 3rd person
! Familiar
| align=center| ''dia, ia''
| s/he, it
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| ''mereka''
| rowspan="2" | they
|-
! Polite
| align=center| ''beliau''
| s/he
|}
* '''First person pronouns'''
Notable among the personal-pronoun system is a distinction between [[inclusive and exclusive we|two forms of "we"]]: ''kita'' (you and me, you and us) and ''kami'' (us, but not you). The distinction is not always followed in colloquial Indonesian.

''Saya'' and ''aku'' are the two major forms of "I". ''Saya'' is the more formal form, whereas ''aku'' is used with family, friends, and between lovers. Colloquially, ''gue'' or ''gua'' (derived from Hokkien) is often used. However, this is only used when talking with close friends, and not used in family context as it is considered not polite. ''Sahaya'' is an old or literary form of ''saya''. ''Sa(ha)ya'' may also be used for "we", but in such cases it is usually used with ''sekalian'' or ''semua'' "all"; this form is ambiguous as to whether it corresponds with inclusive ''kami'' or exclusive ''kita''. Less common are ''hamba'' "slave", ''hamba tuan, hamba datuk'' (all extremely humble), ''beta'' (a royal addressing oneselves), ''patik'' (a commoner addressing a royal), ''kami'' (royal or editorial "we"), ''kita'', ''təman'', and ''kawan.''

* '''Second person pronouns'''
There are three common forms of "you", ''Anda'' (polite), ''kamu'' (familiar), and ''kalian'' "all" (commonly used as a plural form of you, slightly informal). ''Anda'' is used with strangers, recent acquaintances, in advertisements, in business, and when you wish to show distance, while ''kamu'' is used in situations where the speaker would use ''aku'' for "I". Colloquially, ''lu'' (derived from Hokkien) is often used among close friends, just like how ''gue'' or ''gua'' is used when referring to "I". ''Anda sekalian'' is polite plural. Particularly in conversation, respectful titles like ''Bapak/Pak'' "father" (used for any older male), ''Ibu/Bu'' "mother" (any older woman), and ''tuan'' "sir" are often used instead of pronouns.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kevinwfogg.net/blog/4570569437/You-in-Indonesian/8596083|title="You" in Indonesian|access-date=4 August 2021|archive-date=3 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210803044749/http://www.kevinwfogg.net/blog/4570569437/You-in-Indonesian/8596083|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=August 2021}}

''Engkau'' (''əngkau''), commonly shortened to ''kau''.
* '''Third person pronouns'''
The common word for "s/he" and "they" is ''ia'', which has the object and emphatic/focused form ''dia''. ''Bəliau'' "his/her Honour" is respectful. As with "you", names and kin terms are extremely common. ''Mereka'' "someone", ''mereka itu'', or ''orang itu'' "those people" are used for "they".
* '''Regional varieties'''
There are a large number of other words for "I" and "you", many regional, dialectical, or borrowed from local languages. ''Saudara'' "you" (male) and ''saudari'' (female) (plural ''saudara-saudara'' or ''saudari-saudari'') show utmost respect. ''Daku'' "I" and ''dikau'' "you" are poetic or romantic. Indonesian ''[[Indonesian slang language|gua]]'' "I" (from [[Hokkien]] {{lang-zh|t=我|poj=góa}}) and ''[[Indonesian slang language|lu]]'' "you" ({{lang-zh|t=汝|poj=lú}}) are slang and extremely informal.

The pronouns ''aku, kamu, engkau, ia, kami,'' and ''kita'' are indigenous to Indonesian.

==== Possessive pronouns ====
''Aku, kamu, engkau'', and ''ia'' have short possessive [[enclitic]] forms. All others retain their full forms like other nouns, as does emphatic ''dia'': ''meja saya, meja kita, meja anda, meja dia'' "my table, our table, your table, his/her table".

{|class="wikitable"
|+Possessed forms of ''meja'' "table"
! Pronoun
! Enclitic
! Possessed form
|-
|aku
| -ku
|''mejaku'' (my table)
|-
|kamu
| -mu
|''mejamu'' (your table)
|-
|ia
| -nya
|''mejanya'' (his, her, their table)
|}

There are also [[proclitic]] forms of ''aku'', ''ku-'' and ''kau-''. These are used when there is no emphasis on the pronoun:

:'''''Ku'''dengar raja itu menderita penyakit kulit. '''Aku''' mengetahui ilmu kedokteran. '''Akulah''' yang akan mengobati dia.''
:"It has come to my attention that the King has a skin disease. I am skilled in medicine. ''I'' will cure him."
Here ''ku-''verb is used for a general report, ''aku'' verb is used for a factual statement, and emphatic ''aku-lah meng-''verb (≈ "I am the one who...") for focus on the pronoun.<ref>M.B. Lewis, 1947, ''Teach Yourself Indonesian'', p. 178, ASIN: B0007JGNQO</ref>

The suffix ''-nya'' is a special case: it can be also used to mark [[definiteness]], or to link two nouns in possession ([[his genitive]]). It is also even extended to pronouns and names. However, this usage has been occasionally criticized.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://bahasyuk.blogspot.com/2015/11/hati-hati-dalam-menggunakan-imbuhan-nya.html?m=1|title=Hati-Hati dalam Menggunakan Imbuhan -nya pada Suatu Kalimat|website=bahasyuk.blogspot.com|date=23 November 2015 |access-date=2023-02-24}}</ref>

==== Demonstrative pronouns ====
There are two [[demonstrative pronoun]]s in Indonesian. ''Ini'' "this, these" is used for a noun which is generally near to the speaker. ''Itu'' "that, those" is used for a noun which is generally far from the speaker. Either may sometimes be equivalent to English "the". There is no difference between singular and plural. However, plural can be indicated through duplication of a noun followed by a ''ini'' or ''itu''. The word ''yang'' "which" is often placed before demonstrative pronouns to give emphasis and a sense of certainty, particularly when making references or enquiries about something/ someone, like English "this one" or "that one".

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Pronoun
! Indonesian
! English
|-
! rowspan=2|ini
| ''buku ini''
| This book, these books, the book(s)
|-
| ''buku-buku ini''
| These books, (all) the books
|-
! rowspan=2| itu
| ''kucing itu''
| That cat, those cats, the cat(s)
|-
| ''kucing-kucing itu''
| Those cats, the (various) cats
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Pronoun + '''yang'''
! Example sentence
! English meaning
|-
| '''Yang ini'''
| Q: Anda mau membeli buku yang mana?
A: Saya mau '''yang ini'''.
| Q: Which book do you wish to purchase?
A: I would like '''this one'''.
|-
| '''Yang itu'''
| Q: Kucing mana yang memakan tikusmu?
A: '''Yang itu!'''
| Q: Which cat ate your mouse?
A: '''That one'''!
|}

=== Verbs ===
Verbs are not [[inflected language|inflected]] for person or number, and they are not marked for tense; tense is instead denoted by time adverbs (such as "yesterday") or by other tense indicators, such as ''sudah'' "already" and ''belum'' "not yet". On the other hand, there is a complex system of verb affixes to render nuances of meaning and to denote [[voice (grammar)|voice]] or intentional and accidental [[grammatical mood|moods]]. Some of these affixes are ignored in colloquial speech.

Examples of these are the prefixes ''di-'' ([[Austronesian alignment|patient focus]], traditionally called "passive voice", with OVA word order in the third person, and OAV in the first or second persons), ''meng-'' ([[Austronesian alignment|agent focus]], traditionally called "active voice", with AVO word order), ''memper-'' and ''diper-'' ([[causative]], agent and patient focus), ''ber-'' ([[stative verb|stative]] or habitual; intransitive VS order), and ''ter-'' (agentless actions, such as those which are involuntary, sudden, stative or accidental, for VA = VO order); the suffixes ''-kan'' (causative or [[benefactive]]) and ''-i'' (locative, repetitive, or exhaustive); and the circumfixes ''ber-...-an'' ([[pluractionality|plural subject, diffuse action]]) and ''ke-...-an'' (unintentional or potential action or state).

* ''duduk'' to sit down
* ''mendudukkan'' to sit someone down, give someone a seat, to appoint
* ''menduduki'' to sit on, to occupy
* ''didudukkan'' to be given a seat, to be appointed
* ''diduduki'' to be sat on, to be occupied
* ''terduduk'' to sink down, to come to sit
* ''kedudukan'' to be situated

Forms in ''ter-'' and ''ke-...-an'' are often equivalent to adjectives in English.

==== Negation ====
Four words are used for negation in Indonesian, namely ''tidak'', ''bukan'', ''jangan'', and ''belum''.

* '''''Tidak''''' (not), often shortened to '''''tak''''', is used for the negation of verbs and "adjectives".
* '''''Bukan''''' (be-not) is used in the negation of a noun.
For example:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Indonesian
!Gloss
!English
|-
|''Saya '''tidak''' tahu'' (Saya '''gak/ngga''' tahu(informal))
|I '''not''' know
|I do '''not''' know
|-
|''Ibu saya '''tidak''' senang'' (Ibu saya '''gak/ngga''' senang(informal))
|mother I '''not''' be-happy
|My mother is '''not''' happy
|-
|''Itu '''bukan''' anjing saya''
|that '''be-not''' dog I
|That '''is not''' my dog
|}

==== Prohibition ====
For negating imperatives or advising against certain actions in Indonesian, the word ''jangan'' (do not) is used before the verb. For example,
*  '''''Jangan''''' tinggalkan saya di sini!
:'''Don't''' leave me here!
*  '''''Jangan''''' lakukan itu!
:'''Don't''' do that!
*  '''''Jangan'''''! Itu tidak bagus untukmu.
:'''Don't!''' That's not good for you.

=== Adjectives ===
There are grammatical adjectives in Indonesian. [[Stative verb]]s are often used for this purpose as well. Adjectives are always placed after the noun that they modify. 
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Indonesian
!Gloss
!English
|-
|''Hutan hijau''
|forest green
|(The) green forest
|-
|''Hutan itu hijau''
|forest that green
|That/the forest is green
|-
|''Kereta yang merah''
|carriage which red
|(The) carriage which is red = the red carriage
|-
|''Kereta merah''
|carriage red
|Red carriage
|-
|''Dia orang yang terkenal sekali''
|he/she person which famous very
|He/she is a very famous person
|-
|''Orang terkenal''
|person famous
|Famous person
|-
|''Orang ini terkenal sekali''
|person this famous very
|This person is very famous
|}

To say that something "is" an adjective, the determiners "itu" and "ini" ("that" and "this") are often used. For example, in the sentence "anjing itu galak", the use of "itu" gives a meaning of "the/that dog is ferocious", while "anjing ini galak", gives a meaning of "this dog is ferocious". However, if "itu" or "ini" were not to be used, then "anjing galak" would only mean "ferocious dog", a plain adjective without any stative implications. The all-purpose determiner, "yang", is also often used before adjectives, hence "anjing yang galak" also means "ferocious dog" or more literally "dog which is ferocious"; "yang" will often be used for clarity. Hence, in a sentence such as "saya didekati oleh anjing galak" which means "I was approached by a ferocious dog", the use of the adjective "galak" is not stative at all.

Often the "ber-" intransitive verb prefix, or the "ter-" stative prefix is used to express the meaning of "to be...". For example, "beda" means "different", hence "berbeda" means "to be different"; "awan" means "cloud", hence "berawan" means "cloudy". Using the "ter-" prefix, implies a state of being. For example, "buka" means "open", hence "terbuka" means "is opened"; "tutup" means "closed/shut", hence "tertutup" means "is closed/shut".

=== Word order ===
Adjectives, [[demonstrative]] determiners, and [[possessive]] determiners follow the noun they modify.

Indonesian does not have a [[grammatical subject]] in the sense that English does.{{Citation needed|date=January 2025}} In intransitive clauses, the noun comes before the verb. When there is both an [[agent (grammar)|agent]] and an [[object (grammar)|object]], these are separated by the verb (OVA or AVO), with the difference encoded in the voice of the verb. OVA, commonly but inaccurately called "passive", is the basic and most common word order.

Either the agent or object or both may be omitted. This is commonly done to accomplish one of two things:

;1) Adding a sense of politeness and respect to a statement or question

For example, a polite shop assistant in a store may avoid the use of pronouns altogether and ask:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Ellipses of pronoun (agent & object)
! Literal English
! Idiomatic English
|-
| Bisa ''dibantu?''
| Can + ''to be helped''?
| Can (I) ''help'' (you)?
|}

;2) Agent or object is unknown, not important, or understood from context

For example, a friend may enquire as to when you bought your property, to which you may respond:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Ellipses of pronoun (understood agent)
! Literal English
! Idiomatic English
|-
| ''Rumah ini '''dibeli''' lima tahun yang lalu''
| House this + ''be purchased'' five-year(s) ago
| The house 'was purchased' five years ago
|}

Ultimately, the choice of voice and therefore word order is a choice between actor and patient and depends quite heavily on the language style and context.

==== Emphasis ====
Word order is frequently modified for [[focus (grammar)|focus]] or emphasis, with the focused word usually placed at the beginning of the clause and followed by a slight pause (a break in [[intonation (linguistics)|intonation]]):

* ''Saya pergi ke pasar kemarin'' "I went to the market yesterday" – neutral, or with focus on the subject.
* ''Kemarin, saya pergi ke pasar'' "Yesterday I went to the market" – emphasis on yesterday.
* ''Ke pasar, saya pergi kemarin'' "To the market I went yesterday" – emphasis on where I went yesterday.
* ''Pergi ke pasar, saya, kemarin'' "To the market went I yesterday" – emphasis on the process of going to the market.

The last two are more likely to be encountered in speech than in writing.

=== Measure words ===
Another distinguishing feature of Indonesian is its use of [[measure word]]s, also called [[Classifier (linguistics)|classifiers]] (''kata penggolong''). In this way, it is similar to many other languages of Asia, including [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]], [[Thai language|Thai]], [[Burmese language|Burmese]], and [[Bengali language|Bengali]].

Measure words are also found in English such as ''two head of cattle'' or ''a loaf of bread'', where ''*two cattle'' and ''a bread''{{efn|This article uses [[Asterisk#Ungrammaticality|asterisks]] to indicate ungrammatical examples.}} would be ungrammatical. The word ''satu'' reduces to ''se-'' {{IPA|/sə/}}, as it does in other compounds:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Measure word
! Used for measuring
! Literal translation
! Example
|-
| buah
| things (in general), large things, abstract nouns<br />houses, cars, ships, mountains; books, rivers, chairs, some fruits, thoughts, etc.
| 'fruit'
| dua buah meja (two tables), lima buah rumah (five houses)
|-
| ekor 
| animals
| 'tail'
| seekor ayam (a chicken), tiga ekor kambing (three goats)
|-
| orang
| human beings
| 'person'
| seorang laki-laki (a man), enam orang petani (six farmers), seratus orang murid (a hundred students)
|-
| biji
| smaller rounded objects<br />most fruits, cups, nuts
| 'grain'
| sebiji/ sebutir telur (an egg), sebutir/ butiran-butiran beras (rice or rices)
|-
| batang
| long stiff things<br />trees, walking sticks, pencils
| 'trunk, rod'
| sebatang tongkat (a stick)
|-
| həlai
| things in thin layers or sheets<br />paper, cloth, feathers, hair
| 'leaf'
| sepuluh helai pakaian (ten cloths)
|-
| kəping keping
| flat fragments, slabs of stone, pieces of wood, pieces of bread, land, coins, paper 
| 'chip'
|sekeping uang logam (a coin)
|-
| pucuk
| letters, firearms, needles
| 'sprout'
| sepucuk senjata (a weapon)
|-
| bilah
| things which cut lengthwise and thicker
| 'blade'
| sebilah kayu (a piece of wood)
|-
| bidanɡ 
| things shaped square or which can be measured with number 
| 'field'
| sebidang tanah/lahan (an area)
|-
| potong 
|things that are cut<br/>bread
|'cut'
|sepotong roti (slices of bread)
|-
| utas 
|nets, cords, ribbons
| 'thread'
|seutas tali (a rope)
|-
| carik 
|things easily torn, like paper 
|'shred'
|secarik kertas (a piece of paper)
|}

''Example'':
Measure words are not necessary just to say "a": ''burung'' "a bird, birds". Using ''se-'' plus a measure word is closer to English "one" or "a certain":
:''Ada seekor burung yang bisa berbicara''
:"There was a (certain) bird that could talk"

== Writing system ==
{{main|Indonesian orthography}}

Indonesian is written with the [[Latin script]]. It was originally based on the [[Dutch spelling]] and still bears some similarities to it. Consonants are represented in a way similar to [[Italian language#Writing system|Italian]], although {{angle bracket|c}} is always {{IPA|/tʃ/}} (like English {{angle bracket|ch}}), {{angle bracket|g}} is always {{IPA|/ɡ/}} ("hard") and {{angle bracket|j}} represents {{IPA|/dʒ/}} as it does in English. In addition, {{angle bracket|ny}} represents the [[palatal nasal]] {{IPA|/ɲ/}}, {{angle bracket|ng}} is used for the [[velar nasal]] {{IPA|/ŋ/}} (which can occur word-initially), {{angle bracket|sy}} for {{IPA|/ʃ/}} (English {{angle bracket|sh}}) and {{angle bracket|kh}} for the [[voiceless velar fricative]] {{IPA|/x/}}. Both {{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/ə/}} are represented with {{angle bracket|e}}.

Spelling changes in the language that have occurred since Indonesian independence include:
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Phoneme!!Obsolete<br />spelling!!Modern<br />spelling
|- style="text-align:center;"
|{{IPAslink|u}}||oe||u
|- style="text-align:center;"
|{{IPAslink|tʃ}}||tj||c
|- style="text-align:center;"
|{{IPAslink|dʒ}}||dj||j
|- style="text-align:center;"
|{{IPAslink|j}}||j||y
|- style="text-align:center;"
|{{IPAslink|ɲ}}||nj||ny
|- style="text-align:center;"
|{{IPAslink|ʃ}}||sj||sy
|- style="text-align:center;"
|{{IPAslink|x}}||ch||kh
|}

Introduced in 1901, the [[van Ophuijsen Spelling System|''van Ophuijsen'' system]] (named from the advisor of the system, Charles Adriaan van Ophuijsen) was the first standardization of romanized spelling. It was most influenced by the then current [[Dutch orthography|Dutch spelling system]] and based on the dialect of Malay spoken in Johor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sneddon |first=James |title=The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society |year=2003 |location=Sydney |pages=92}}</ref> In 1947, the spelling was changed into ''[[Republican Spelling System|Republican Spelling]]'' or ''Soewandi Spelling'' (named by at the time Minister of Education, Soewandi). This spelling changed formerly spelled ''oe'' into ''u'' (however, the spelling influenced other aspects in orthography, for example writing reduplicated words). All of the other changes were a part of the [[Perfected Spelling System]], an officially mandated [[spelling reform]] in 1972. Some of the old spellings (which were derived from [[Dutch orthography]]) do survive in proper names; for example, the name of a former president of Indonesia is still sometimes written ''[[Suharto|Soeharto]]'', and the central Java city of [[Yogyakarta (city)|Yogyakarta]] is sometimes written ''Jogjakarta''. In time, the spelling system is further updated and the latest update of Indonesian spelling system issued on 16 August 2022 by Head of Language Development and Fostering Agency decree No 0424/I/BS.00.01/2022.<ref name="EYDV"/>

=== Letter names and pronunciations ===
The [[Malay alphabet|Indonesian alphabet]] is exactly the same as in ISO basic Latin alphabet.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|-
|style="background:#efefef;" colspan="26"| '''[[Capital letters|Majuscule Forms]]'''
|-
| style="width:3%;"|[[A]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[B]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[C]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[D]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[E]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[F]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[G]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[H]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[I]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[J]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[K]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[L]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[M]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[N]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[O]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[P]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[Q]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[R]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[S]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[T]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[U]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[V]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[W]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[X]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[Y]]|| style="width:3%;"|[[Z]]
|-
| style="background:#efefef;" colspan="26"| '''[[Lower case|Minuscule Forms]]'''
|-
||a|| b|| c|| d|| e|| f|| g|| h|| i|| j|| k|| l|| m|| n|| o|| p|| q|| r|| s|| t|| u|| v|| w|| x|| y|| z
|}

Indonesian follows the letter names of the [[Dutch alphabet]]. Indonesian alphabet has a [[phonemic orthography]]; words are spelled the way they are pronounced, with few exceptions. The letters Q, V and X are rarely encountered, being chiefly used for writing [[loanword]]s.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!Letter
!Name (in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
!Sound (in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]]) 
!English equivalent
|-
|Aa 
|''a'' (/a/)
|{{IPA|/a/}} 
| '''a''' as in f'''a'''ther
|-
|Bb 
|''be'' (/be/) 
|{{IPA|/b/}} 
|'''b''' as in '''b'''ed
|-
|Cc 
|''ce'' (/t͡ʃe/) 
|{{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}}
|'''ch''' as in '''ch'''eck 
|-
|Dd
|''de'' (/de/)
|{{IPA|/d/}} 
|'''d''' as in '''d'''ay
|-
|Ee 
|''e'' (/e/) 
|{{IPA|/e/}} 
|'''e''' as in r'''e'''d
|-
|Ff 
|''ef'' (/ef/)
|{{IPA|/f/}} 
|'''f''' as in e'''f'''fort
|-
|Gg 
|''ge'' (/ge/) 
|{{IPA|/ɡ/}} 
|'''g''' as in '''g'''ain
|-
|Hh 
|''ha'' (/ha/) 
|{{IPA|/h/}} 
|'''h''' as in '''h'''arm
|-
|Ii 
|''i'' (/i/) 
|{{IPA|/i/}} 
|'''ee''' as in s'''ee'''
|-
|Jj
|''je'' (/d͡ʒe/) 
|{{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}} 
|'''j''' as in '''j'''am 
|-
|Kk
|''ka'' (/ka/) 
|{{IPA|/k/}}
|'''k''' as in '''k'''arma
|-
|Ll
|''el'' (/el/) 
|{{IPA|/l/}} 
|'''l''' as in e'''l'''se
|-
|Mm
|''em'' (/em/) 
|{{IPA|/m/}} 
|'''m''' as in e'''m'''pty
|-
|Nn 
|''en'' (/en/) 
|{{IPA|/n/}} 
|'''n''' as in e'''n'''ergy
|-
|Oo 
|''o'' (/o/) 
|{{IPA | /o/}} 
|'''o''' as in '''o'''we
|-
|Pp 
|''pe'' (/pe/) 
|{{IPA | /p/}} 
|'''p''' as in '''p'''et
|-
|Qq 
|''qi or qiu'' (/ki/ or /kiu̯/)
|{{IPA | /k/}} 
|'''q''' as in '''q'''ueue
|-
|Rr
|''er'' (/er/) 
|{{IPA | /r/}} 
|Spanish '''rr''' as in pe'''rr'''o
|-
|Ss 
|''es'' (/es/) 
|{{IPA | /s/}} 
|'''s''' as in e'''s'''tablish
|-
|Tt 
|''te'' (/te/) 
|{{IPA | /t/}} 
|'''t''' as in '''t'''ext
|-
|Uu 
|''u'' (/u/) 
|{{IPA | /u/}} 
|'''oo''' as in p'''oo'''l
|-
|Vv 
|''ve'' (/fe/)
|{{IPA|/f/}}
|'''v''' as in '''v'''est
|-
|Ww
|'' we'' (/we/) 
|{{IPA | /w/}} 
|'''w''' as in '''w'''et
|-
|Xx 
|'' ex'' (/eks/) 
|{{IPA|/ks/ or /s/}}
|'''x''' as in e'''x'''
|-
|Yy 
|'' ye'' (/je/) 
|{{IPA | /j/}} 
|'''y''' as in '''y'''es
|-
|Zz 
|''zet'' (/zet/) 
|{{IPA | /z/}} 
|'''z''' as in '''z'''ebra
|}

In addition, there are [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] that are not considered separate letters of the alphabet:<ref name=Omniglot>{{cite web|url=http://www.omniglot.com/writing/malay.htm|title=Malay language, alphabets and pronunciation|website=www.omniglot.com|access-date=13 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626115200/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/malay.htm|archive-date=26 June 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! Digraph
! Sound
! English equivalent
|-
|ai 
|{{IPA|/aɪ/}} 
|'''uy''' as in b'''uy'''
|-
|au 
|{{IPA|/aʊ/}} 
|'''ou''' as in '''ou'''ch
|-
|oi 
|{{IPA|/oɪ/}} 
|'''oy''' as in b'''oy'''
|-
|ei
|{{IPA|/eɪ/}} 
|'''ey''' as in surv'''ey'''
|-
|gh 
|{{IPA|/ɣ/}} or {{IPA|/x/}} 
|similar to Dutch and German '''ch''', but voiced
|-
|kh 
|{{IPA|/x/}} 
|'''ch''' as in lo'''ch'''
|-
|ng 
|{{IPA|/ŋ/}} 
|'''ng''' as in si'''ng'''
|-
|ny 
|{{IPA|/ɲ/}} 
|Spanish '''ñ'''; similar to '''ny''' as in ca'''ny'''on with a nasal sound
|-
|sy 
|{{IPA|/ʃ/}} 
|'''sh''' as in '''sh'''oe
|}

== Vocabulary ==
{{see also|List of loanwords in Indonesian}}
{{Pie chart
|caption= Pie chart showing percentage of other languages contribute on loan words of Indonesian language
|value1=42.5
|label1=Dutch
|color1=#FCB514
|value2=20.9
|label2=English
|color2=#00247D
|value3=19
|label3=Arabic
|color3=#008000
|value4=9
|label4=Sanskrit and Hindi
|color4=#008080
|value5=3.6
|label5=Chinese
|color5=#BB133E
|value6=2
|label6=Portuguese
|color6=#8B008B
|value7=2
|label7=Tamil
|color7=#696969
|value8=1
|label8=Persian
|color8=#000000
}}

As a modern variety of Malay, Indonesian has been influenced by other languages, including [[Dutch language|Dutch]], [[English language|English]], [[Greek language|Greek]] (where the name of the country, Indonesia, comes from), [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Hindi language|Hindi]], and [[Persian language|Persian]]. The vast majority of Indonesian words, however, come from the root lexical stock of Austronesian (including Old Malay).<ref name="Paauw"/>

The study of Indonesian etymology and loan words reveals both its historical and social contexts. Examples are the early Sanskrit borrowings from the 7th century during the trading era, the borrowings from Arabic and Persian during the time of the establishment of Islam in particular, and those from Dutch during the colonial period. Linguistic history and cultural history are clearly linked.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aseasuk.org.uk/v2/aseasuknews/%252Fbookreviews/46/Grijns%20et%20al. |title=Loan-words in Indonesian and Malay |editor=C. D. Grijns |display-editors=etal |publisher=ASEASUK, Association of South-East Asian Studies in the United Kingdom |access-date=21 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112145030/http://aseasuk.org.uk/v2/aseasuknews/%252Fbookreviews/46/Grijns%20et%20al. |archive-date=12 November 2012  }}</ref>

List of loan words of Indonesian language published by the ''[[Language Development and Fostering Agency|Badan Pengembangan Bahasa dan Perbukuan]]'' (The Language Center) under the [[Ministry of Education (Indonesia)|Ministry of Education and Culture]]:<ref name="badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id">{{cite web|url=http://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/lamanbahasa/|title=Badan Pengembangan dan Pembinaan Bahasa – Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan|website=badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id|access-date=14 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309064643/http://badanbahasa.kemdikbud.go.id/lamanbahasa/|archive-date=9 March 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Language origin
! Number of words
|-
| Dutch
| 3280
|-
| English
| 1610
|-
| Arabic
| 1495
|-
| Sanskrit
| 677
|-
| Chinese
| 290
|-
| Portuguese
| 131
|-
| Tamil
| 131 
|-
| Persian
| 63 
|-
| Hindi
| 7
|}

Note: This list only lists foreign languages, thus omitting numerous local languages of Indonesia that have also been major lexical donors, such as Javanese, Sundanese, Betawi, etc.

=== Loan words of Sanskrit origin ===
{{see also|List of Sanskrit loanwords in Indonesian}}
{{multiple image
| align             = 
| direction         = horizontal
| total_width       = 380
| image1            = Insignia of the Indonesian National Police.svg
| image2            = Insignia of the Indonesian Air Force.svg
| image3            = Insignia of the Indonesian Army.svg
| footer            = [[Indonesian National Police]], [[Indonesian Air Force]], [[Indonesian Army]] and [[Indonesian Navy]] mottos are ''Rastra Sewakottama'', ''Swa Bhuwana Paksa'', ''Kartika Eka Paksi'', ''Jalesveva Jayamahe'', all in the [[Sanskrit]] language.
| image4            = Insignia of the Indonesian Navy.svg
}}
The [[Sanskrit]] influence came from contacts with [[India]] since ancient times. The words were either borrowed directly from India or with the intermediary of the [[Old Javanese language]]. Although [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]] are no longer the major religions of Indonesia, [[Sanskrit]], which was the language vehicle for these religions, is still held in high esteem and is comparable with the status of [[Latin]] in [[English language|English]] and other Western European languages. Sanskrit is also the main source for [[neologism]]s, which are usually formed from Sanskrit roots. The loanwords from Sanskrit cover many aspects of [[religion]], [[art]] and everyday life.

From [[Sanskrit language|Sanskrit]] came such words as स्वर्ग ''surga'' (heaven), भाषा ''bahasa'' (language), काच ''kaca'' (glass, mirror), राज- ''raja'' (king), मनुष्य ''manusia'' (mankind), चिन्ता ''cinta'' (love), भूमि ''bumi'' (earth), भुवन ''buana'' (world), आगम ''agama'' (religion), स्त्री ''Istri'' (wife/woman), जय ''Jaya'' (victory/victorious), पुर ''Pura'' (city/temple/place) राक्षस ''[[Raksasa]]'' (giant/monster), धर्म ''[[Dharma]]'' (rule/regulations), मन्त्र ''[[Mantra]]'' (words/poet/spiritual prayers), क्षत्रिय ''Satria'' (warrior/brave/soldier), विजय ''Wijaya'' (greatly victorious/great victory), etc. [[Sanskrit]] words and sentences are also used in names, titles, and mottos of the Indonesian National Police and Indonesian Armed Forces such as: ''[[Indonesian National Police|Bhayangkara]]'', ''[[Laksamana]]'', ''[[Jatayu]]'', ''[[Garuda]]'', ''Dharmakerta Marga Reksyaka'', ''[[Indonesian Navy|Jalesveva Jayamahe]]'', ''[[Indonesian Army|Kartika Eka Paksi]]'', ''[[Indonesian Air Force|Swa Bhuwana Paksa]]'', ''[[Indonesian National Police|Rastra Sewakottama]]'', ''Yudha Siaga'', etc.

Because [[Sanskrit]] has long been known in the [[Indonesian archipelago]], Sanskrit loanwords, unlike those from other languages, have entered the basic vocabulary of Indonesian to such an extent that, for many, they are no longer perceived to be foreign. Therefore, one could write a short story using mostly Sanskrit-derived words. The short story below consists of approximately 80 words in Indonesian that are all derived from Sanskrit, as well as a few native [[function words]] and affixes.

:'''''[[wikt:karena|Karena]]''' '''[[wikt:semua|semua]]''' di'''[[wikt:biaya|biaya]]'''i meng'''[[wikt:guna|guna]]'''kan '''[[wikt:dana|dana]]''' '''[[wikt:negara|negara]]''' '''[[wikt:juta|juta]]'''an '''[[wikt:rupiah|rupiah]]''', '''[[wikt:baginda|baginda]] [[wikt:maharaja|maharaja]] [[wikt:bijaksa|bijaksana]]''', sang '''[[wikt:mahaguru|mahaguru]]''' '''[[wikt:sastra|sastra]] [[wikt:bahasa|bahasa]] [[wikt:Kawi|Kawi]]''', '''[[wikt:mahasiswa|mahasiswa]]-[[wikt:mahasiswi|mahasiswi]]''' per'''[[wikt:guru|guru]]'''an '''[[wikt:swasta|swasta]]''', '''[[wikt:duta|duta]]-[[wikt:duta|duta]] [[wikt:negeri|negeri]] [[wikt:mitra|mitra]]''' dan '''[[wikt:suami|suami]]/[[wikt:istri|istri]]nya, [[wikt:Menteri|Menteri]]''' Ke'''[[wikt:budaya|budaya]]'''an dan '''[[wikt:Pariwisata|Pariwisata]]''', '''[[wikt:karyawan|karyawan]]-[[wikt:karyawati|karyawati]]''' per'''[[wikt:usaha|usaha]]'''an ke'''[[wikt:tenaga|tenaga]][[wikt:kerja|kerja]]'''an, '''[[wikt:bupati|bupati]] [[wikt:budiman|budiman]]''', be'''[[wikt:serta|serta]] [[wikt:anggota|anggota]] [[wikt:lembaga|lembaga]] [[wikt:nirlaba|nirlaba]]''' ke'''[[wikt:wanita|wanita]]'''an  '''[[wikt:segera|segera]]''' ber'''[[wikt:darmawisata|darmawisata]]''' ke ka'''[[wikt:kawasan|wasa]]'''n pe'''[[wikt:desa|desa]]'''an di '''[[wikt:utara|utara]] [[wikt:kota|kota]]''' ka'''[[wikt:bupati|bupate]]'''n '''[[wikt:Probolinggo|Probolinggo]] [[wikt:antara|antara]] [[wikt:candi|candi]]-[[wikt:candi|candi]] [[wikt:purba|purba]]''' ber'''[[wikt:arca|arca]]''' dan ber'''[[wikt:prasasti|prasasti]]''', ber'''[[wikt:wahana|wahana]] [[wikt:pedati|pedati]] [[wikt:kuda|kuda]]''' dan '''[[wikt:keledai|keledai]]''' di '''[[wikt:kala|kala]] [[wikt:senja|senja]]''', lalu ber'''[[wikt:sama|sama]] [[wikt:kepala|kepala]]''', '''[[wikt:bendahara|bendahara]]''' dan '''[[wikt:kerani|kerani]] [[wikt:desa|desa]]''' me'''[[wikt:saksi|nyaksi]]'''kan '''[[wikt:para|para]]''' pe'''[[wikt:petani|tani]]''' dan '''[[wikt:gembala|gembala]]''' yang ber'''[[wikt:jiwa|jiwa]]''' ber'''[[wikt:sahaja|sahaja]] [[wikt:serta|serta]]''' ber'''[[wikt:budi|budi]] [[wikt:nirmala|nirmala]]''' se'''[[wikt:cara|cara]] [[wikt:sukacita|sukacita]]''' dan ber'''[[wikt:bahagia|bahagia]]''' ber'''[[wikt:upacara|upacara]], [[wikt:seraya|seraya]]''' me'''[[wikt:merdu|merdu]]'''kan '''[[wikt:suara|suara]]''' '''[[wikt:gita|gita]]-[[wikt:gita|gita]] [[wikt:mantra|mantra]]''', yang me'''[[wikt:rupa|rupa]]'''kan '''[[wikt:sarana|sarana]] [[wikt:puji|puji]]'''an mereka me'''[[wikt:puja|muja]] [[wikt:nama|nama]] [[wikt:suci|suci]] [[wikt:Dewi|Dewi]] [[wikt:Pertiwi|Pertiwi]]''', atas '''[[wikt:kuasa|kuasa]]'''nya ber'''[[wikt:sedia|sedia]]''' meng'''[[wikt:anugerah|anugerah]]'''i mereka '''[[wikt:karunia|karunia]]''' dan '''[[wikt:restu|restu]]''', '''[[wikt:cita|cita]]''' dan '''[[wikt:cinta|cinta]]''', '''[[wikt:sejahtera|sejahtera]]''' dan '''[[wikt:sentosa|sentosa]]''', men'''[[wikt:jaga|jaga]] [[wikt:jiwa raga|jiwa raga]]''' dan '''[[wikt:harta|harta]]''' dari '''[[wikt:segala|segala]] [[wikt:bahaya|bahaya]]''', '''[[wikt:mala|mala]] [[wikt:petaka|petaka]]''' dan '''[[wikt:bencana|bencana]]''', '''[[wikt:seperti|seperti]] [[wikt:banjir|banjir]]''' dan '''[[wikt:gempa bumi|gempa bumi]]'''''.

=== Loan words of Chinese origin ===
{{see also|List of Chinese loanwords in Indonesian}}
The relationship with China has been going since the 7th century when Chinese merchants traded in some areas of the archipelago such as [[Riau]], [[West Borneo]], [[East Kalimantan]], and [[North Maluku]]. As the kingdom of Srivijaya appeared and flourished, China opened diplomatic relations with the kingdom in order to secure trade and seafaring. In 922, Chinese travelers visited [[Kahuripan]] in [[East Java]]. Since the 11th century, hundreds of thousands of Chinese migrants left [[Mainland China]] and settled in many parts of Nusantara (now called Indonesia).

The [[Chinese language|Chinese]] loanwords are usually concerned with cuisine, trade or often just things exclusively Chinese. Words of Chinese origin (presented here with accompanying [[Hokkien]]/ Mandarin pronunciation derivatives as well as [[Traditional characters|traditional]] and [[simplified characters]]) include ''loteng'', (樓/層 = lóu/céng&nbsp;– [upper] floor/ level), ''mie'' (麵 > 面 Hokkien mī&nbsp;– noodles), ''[[lumpia]]'' (潤餅 (Hokkien = lūn-piáⁿ)&nbsp;– springroll), ''cawan'' (茶碗 cháwǎn&nbsp;– teacup), ''teko'' (茶壺 > 茶壶 = cháhú [Mandarin], teh-ko [Hokkien] = teapot), 苦力 kuli (= 苦 khu (hard) and 力 li (energy) – coolie) and even the widely used slang terms ''gua'' and ''lu'' (from the Hokkien 'goa' 我 and 'lu/li' 汝&nbsp;– meaning 'I/ me' and 'you').

=== Loan words of Arabic origin ===
[[File:Jakarta Indonesia Istiqlal-Mosque-03.jpg|thumb|The word ''masjid'' (mosque) in Indonesian derived from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''{{Transliteration|ar|Wehr|masjid}}'' ({{lang|ar|مسجد|rtl=yes}}).]]
Many Arabic words were brought and spread by merchants from [[Arab Peninsula]] like [[Arabian people|Arabian]], [[Persian people|Persian]], and from the western part of India, [[Gujarat]] where many Muslims lived.<ref name="catdir.loc.gov">{{Cite book |url=http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam032/98020577.pdf |title=Shifting Languages: Interaction and Identity in Javanese Indonesia |chapter=Introduction |first=J. Joseph |last=Errington |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1998 |access-date=14 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315041651/http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam032/98020577.pdf |archive-date=15 March 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> As a result, many Indonesian words come from the Arabic language. Especially since the late 12th century, Old Malay was heavily influenced by the language and produced many great literary works such as [[Syair]], [[Babad]], [[Hikayat]], and Suluk. This century is known as ''The Golden Age of Indonesian Literature''.<ref name="catdir.loc.gov"/>

Many loanwords from [[Arabic language|Arabic]] are mainly concerned with religion, in particular with [[Islam]], and by extension, with greetings such as the word, "selamat" (from {{langx|ar|سلامة}} ''{{transliteration|ar|Wehr|salāma}}'' = health, soundness)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://asalkata.com/?q=selamat |title=Etymology of "selamat" in ''Asalkata.com'' |access-date=13 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171024205854/http://asalkata.com/?q=selamat |archive-date=24 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> means "safe" or "lucky". Words of [[Arabic language|Arabic]] origin include ''dunia'' (from {{langx|ar|دنيا}} ''{{transliteration|ar|Wehr|dunyā}}'' = the present world), names of days (except ''Minggu''), such as ''Sabtu'' (from {{langx|ar|سبت}} ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA|sabt-u}}'' = Saturday), ''iklan'' ({{lang|ar|آعلان|rtl=yes}} ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA|iʻlan}}'' = advertisement), ''kabar'' ({{lang|ar|خبر|rtl=yes}} ''{{transliteration|ar|Wehr|khabar}}'' = news), ''Kursi'' ({{lang|ar|كرسي|rtl=yes}} ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA|kursī}}'' = a chair), ''ijazah'' ({{lang|ar|إجازة|rtl=yes}} ''{{transliteration|ar|Wehr|ijāza}}'' = 'permission', certificate of authority, e.g. a school diploma certificate), ''kitab'' ({{lang|ar|كتاب|rtl=yes}} ''{{transliteration|ar|Wehr|kitāb}}'' = book), ''tertib'' ({{lang|ar|ترتيب|rtl=yes}} ''{{transliteration|ar|Wehr|tartīb}}'' = order/arrangement) and ''kamus'' ({{lang|ar|قاموس|rtl=yes}} ''{{transliteration|ar|Wehr|qāmūs}}'' = dictionary). [[Allah]] ({{langx|ar|الله}}), as is mostly the case for [[varieties of Arabic|Arabic]] speakers, this is the word for [[God]] even in [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Bible]] translations. Many early Bible translators, when they came across some unusual [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] words or proper names, used the Arabic cognates. In the newer translations this practice is discontinued. They now turn to [[Greek language|Greek]] names or use the original Hebrew Word. For example, the name [[Jesus]] was initially translated as [[Jesus in Islam|'''Isa'']] ({{langx|ar|عيسى}}), but is now spelt as ''Yesus''. Several ecclesiastical terms derived from Arabic still exist in Indonesian language. Indonesian word for ''[[bishop]]'' is ''uskup'' (from {{langx|ar|أسقف}} ''{{transliteration|ar|Wehr|usquf}}'' = bishop). This in turn makes the Indonesian term for [[archbishop]] ''uskup agung'' ({{lit|great bishop}}), which is combining the Arabic word with an Old Javanese word. The term ''imam'' (from {{langx|ar|إمام}} ''{{transliteration|ar|Wehr|imām}}'' = leader, prayer leader) is used to translate a Catholic [[priest]], beside its more common association with an Islamic prayer leader. Some Protestant denominations refer to their congregation ''jemaat'' (from {{langx|ar|جماعة}} ''{{transliteration|ar|Wehr|jamāʻa}}'' = group, a community). Even the name of the [[Bible]] in Indonesian translation is ''Alkitab'' (from {{langx|ar|الكتاب}} ''{{transliteration|ar|Wehr|al-kitāb}}'' = the book), which literally means "the Book".

=== Loan words of Portuguese origin ===
[[File:Front gate Ganjuran.jpg|thumb|Indonesian word "''[[wikt:gereja|Gereja]]''" (Church) is derived from Portuguese "''[[wikt:igreja|Igreja]]''". The sign reads: [[Ganjuran Church|"''Gereja & Candi Hati Kudus Tuhan Yesus Ganjuran Keuskupan Agung Semarang''"]] (The Church and [[Temple]] of the [[Sacred Heart of Jesus]] Ganjuran [[Archdiocese of Semarang]]).]]
Alongside [[Malay language|Malay]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] was the ''[[lingua franca]]'' for trade throughout the archipelago from the sixteenth century through to the early nineteenth century. The Portuguese were among the first westerners to sail eastwards to the "[[Maluku Islands|Spice Islands]]". Loanwords from [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] were mainly connected with articles that the early European traders and explorers brought to Southeast Asia. Indonesian words derived from Portuguese include {{lang|id|meja}} (from {{lang|pt|mesa}} = table), {{lang|id|bangku}} (from {{lang|pt|banco}} = bench), {{lang|id|lemari/almari}} (from {{lang|pt|armário}} = closet), {{lang|id|boneka}} (from {{lang|pt|boneca}} = doll), {{lang|id|jendela}} (from {{lang|pt|janela}} = window), {{lang|id|gereja}} (from {{lang|pt|igreja}} = church), {{lang|id|misa}} (from {{lang|pt|missa}} = mass), {{lang|id|Natal}} (from {{lang|pt|Natal}} = Christmas), {{lang|id|Paskah}} (from {{lang|pt|Páscoa}} = Easter), {{lang|id|pesta}} (from {{lang|pt|festa}} = party), {{lang|id|dansa}} (from {{lang|pt|dança}} = dance), {{lang|id|pesiar}} (from {{lang|pt|passear}} = cruise), {{lang|id|bendera}} (from {{lang|pt|bandeira}} = flag), {{lang|id|sepatu}} (from {{lang|pt|sapato}} = shoes), {{lang|id|garpu}} (from {{lang|pt|garfo}} = fork), {{lang|id|kemeja}} (from {{lang|pt|camisa}} = shirt), {{lang|id|kereta}} (from {{lang|pt|carreta}} = chariot), {{lang|id|pompa}} (from {{lang|pt|bomba hidráulica}} = pump), {{lang|id|pigura}} (from {{lang|pt|figura}} = picture), {{lang|id|roda}} (from {{lang|pt|roda}} = wheel), {{lang|id|nona}} (from {{lang|pt|dona}} = young woman), {{lang|id|sekolah}} (from {{lang|pt|escola}} = school), {{lang|id|lentera}} (from {{lang|pt|lanterna}} = lantern), {{lang|id|paderi}} (from {{lang|pt|padre}} = priest), {{lang|id|Santo, Santa}} (from {{lang|pt|Santo, Santa}} = Saint), {{lang|id|puisi}} (from {{lang|pt|poesia}} = poetry), {{lang|id|keju}} (from {{lang|pt|queijo}} = cheese), {{lang|id|mentega}} (from {{lang|pt|manteiga}} = butter), {{lang|id|serdadu}} (from {{lang|pt|soldado}} = soldier), {{lang|id|meski}} (from {{lang|pt|mas que}} = although), {{lang|id|kamar}} (from {{lang|pt|câmara}} = room), {{lang|id|laguna}} (from {{lang|pt|laguna}} = lagoon), {{lang|id|lelang}} (from {{lang|pt|leilão}} = auction), {{lang|id|persero}} (from {{lang|pt|parceiro}} = company), {{lang|id|markisa}} (from {{lang|pt|maracujá}} = passion fruit), {{lang|id|limau}} (from {{lang|pt|limão}} = lemon), {{lang|id|kartu}} (from {{lang|pt|cartão}} = card), {{lang|id|Inggris}} (from {{lang|pt|inglês}} = English), {{lang|id|Sabtu}} (from {{lang|pt|sábado}} = Saturday), {{lang|id|Minggu}} (from {{lang|pt|domingo}} = Sunday), etc.<ref name="RICKLEFSp24">{{Cite book | last =Ricklefs  | first =M.C.  | title =A History of Modern Indonesia Since c.1300 |edition=2nd | publisher =MacMillan  | year =1991  | location =London  | page =26  | isbn = 978-0-333-57689-2 }}</ref>

=== Loan words of Dutch origin ===
{{see also|List of Dutch loanwords in Indonesian}}
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Glodok wijk te Djakarta TMnr 10014951.jpg|thumb|alt=Crowd at a busy street intersection. There are horse-drawn carriages in the foreground while a three-story building (with the sign "Kam Leng") and a single-story building (with the sign "Chunghua Bioscoop") stand in the background on adjacent corners of the intersection.|The Indonesian word of {{lang|id|bioskop}} is derived from [[Dutch language|Dutch]] {{lang|nl|bioscoop}} ([[movie theater]]).]]

The former colonial power, the [[Netherlands]], left a sizeable amount of vocabulary that can be seen in words such as {{lang|id|polisi}} (from {{lang|nl|politie}} = police), {{lang|id|kualitas}} (from {{lang|nl|kwaliteit}} = quality), {{lang|id|aktual}} (from {{lang|nl|actueel}} = current), {{lang|id|rokok}} (from {{lang|nl|roken}} = smoking cigarettes), {{lang|id|korupsi}} (from {{lang|nl|corruptie}} = corruption), {{lang|id|kantor}} (from {{lang|nl|kantoor}} = office), {{lang|id|resleting}} (from {{lang|nl|ritssluiting}} = zipper), {{lang|id|pelopor}} (from {{lang|nl|voorloper}} = frontrunner), {{lang|id|persneling}} (from {{lang|nl|versnelling}} = transmission gear), {{lang|id|setrum}} (from {{lang|nl|stroom}} = electricity current), {{lang|id|maskapai}} (from {{lang|nl|maatschappij}} = company), {{lang|id|apotek}} (from {{lang|nl|apotheek}} = pharmacy), {{lang|id|handuk}} (from {{lang|nl|handdoek}} = towel), {{lang|id|setrika}} (from {{lang|nl|strijkijzer}} = clothes iron), {{lang|id|bioskop}} (from {{lang|nl|bioscoop}} = [[movie theater]]), {{lang|id|spanduk}} (from {{lang|nl|spandoeken}} = banner), {{lang|id|korsleting}} (from {{lang|nl|kortsluiting}} = short circuit), {{lang|id|om}} (from {{lang|nl|oom}} = uncle), {{lang|id|tante}} (from {{lang|nl|tante}} = aunt), {{lang|id|traktir}} (from {{lang|nl|trakteer}} = treat) and {{lang|id|gratis}} (from {{lang|nl|gratis}} = free). These [[Dutch language|Dutch]] loanwords, and many other non-Ibero-Romance, European language loanwords that came via Dutch, cover all aspects of life. Some Dutch loanwords, having clusters of several consonants, pose difficulties to speakers of Indonesian. This problem is usually solved by insertion of the [[schwa]]. For example, Dutch {{lang|nl|schroef}} {{IPA|[ˈsxruf]}} > {{lang|id|sekrup}} {{IPA|[səˈkrup]}} (screw (n.)). One scholar argues that 25% of Indonesian words are inspired by the Dutch language.<ref name="mai">{{Cite journal|url=http://repositories.cdlib.org/ies/050208/|title=A Hidden Language – Dutch in Indonesia|author=Hendrik M. Maier|date=8 February 2005|journal=Institute of European Studies|page=17|access-date=26 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091010002102/http://repositories.cdlib.org/ies/050208/|archive-date=10 October 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>

Before the standardization of the language, many Indonesian words follow standard Dutch alphabet and pronunciation such as "oe" for vowel "u" or "dj" for consonant "j" [dʒ]. As a result, Malay words are written with that orthography such as: {{lang|ms|passer}} for the word {{lang|id|Pasar}} or {{lang|ms|djalan}} for the word {{lang|id|jalan}}, older Indonesian generation tend to have their name written in such order as well.

=== Loan words of English origin ===
Many English words were incorporated into Indonesian through [[globalization]]. Many Indonesians, however, mistake words already adopted from Dutch as words borrowed from English. Indonesian adopts English words with standardization.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://balaibahasajateng.kemdikbud.go.id/2010/07/imbuhan-asi-dan-itas-dalam-bahasa-indonesia/|title=Imbuhan -(a)si dan -(i)tas dalam Bahasa Indonesia|publisher=Balai Bahasa Jawa Tengah|date=2010-07-28|access-date=2022-12-13|language=id}}</ref> For example:  {{lang|id|a'''ks'''esor'''i'''}} from {{lang|en|a'''cc'''essor'''y'''}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ejaan.kemdikbud.go.id/eyd/unsur-serapan/umum/|title=A. Penulisan Unsur Serapan Umum|access-date=2022-12-13|website=Kemendikbud.go.id|language=id}}</ref><ref name="lib.ui.ac.id">{{cite web |url=http://lib.ui.ac.id/file?file=digital%2F20316254-S42391-Kata%20serapan.pdf |title=Kata Serapan dan Kata Non-Serapan dalam Orang Asing dan Sang Pemberontak: Sebuah Kajian Semantis |trans-title=The Loanword and Non-Loanword in Orang Asing and Sang Pemberontak: A Semantic Study |publisher=University of Indonesia |date=2011 |author=Katarina Mellyna |access-date=13 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011113426/http://lib.ui.ac.id/file?file=digital%2F20316254-S42391-Kata%20serapan.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, there are several words that directly borrowed without standardization that have same meanings in English such as: ''bus'', ''data'', ''domain'', ''detail'', ''internet'', ''film'', ''golf'', ''lift'', ''monitor'', ''radio'', ''radar'', ''unit'', ''safari'', ''sonar'', ''video'', and ''riil as real''.<ref name="lib.ui.ac.id"/>

=== Other loan words ===
Modern Indonesian draws many of its words from foreign sources; there are many [[synonym]]s. For example, Indonesian has three words for "book", i.e. {{lang|id|pustaka}} (from Sanskrit), {{lang|id|kitab}} (from Arabic) and {{lang|id|buku}} (from Dutch {{lang|nl|boek}}); however, each has a slightly different meaning. A {{lang|id|pustaka}} is often connected with ancient wisdom or sometimes with esoteric knowledge. A derived form, {{lang|id|perpustakaan}} means a library. A {{lang|id|kitab}} is usually a religious scripture or a book containing moral guidance. The Indonesian words for the [[Bible]] and [[Gospel]] are {{lang|id|Alkitab}} and {{lang|id|Injil}}, both directly derived from Arabic. The book containing the penal code is also called the {{lang|id|kitab}}. {{lang|id|Buku}} is the most common word for books.

There are direct borrowings from various other languages of the world, such as {{lang|id|karaoke}} (from {{lang|ja|カラオケ}}) from [[Japanese language|Japanese]], and {{lang|id|ebi}} (from {{lang|ja|えび}}) which means dried shrimp. Many words that originally are adopted through the Dutch language today however often are mistaken as English due to the similarity in the Germanic nature of both languages. In some cases the words are replaced by English language through globalization: although the word {{lang|id|arbei}} ({{langx|nl|aardbei}}) still literally means strawberry in Indonesian, today the usage of the word {{lang|id|stroberi}} is more common. [[Greek language|Greek]] words such as {{lang|id|demokrasi}} (from {{lang|el|δημοκρατία}} {{transliteration|el|dēmokratía}}), {{lang|id|filosofi}}, {{lang|id|filsafat}} (both from {{lang|el|φιλοσοφία}} {{transliteration|el|philosophia}}), {{lang|id|mitos}} (from {{lang|el|μῦθος}} {{transliteration|el|mythos}}) came through Dutch, Arabic and Portuguese respectively.

It is notable that some of the loanwords that exist in both Indonesian and Malaysian languages are different in spelling and pronunciation mainly due to how they derived their origins: Malaysian utilises words that reflect the [[English language|English]] usage (as used by its former colonial power, the [[United Kingdom|British]]), while Indonesian uses a [[Latin]]ate form (e.g. {{lang|zsm|aktiviti}} (Malaysian) vs. {{lang|id|aktivitas}} (Indonesian), {{lang|zsm|universiti}} (Malaysian) vs. {{lang|id|universitas}} (Indonesian)).

===Acronyms and portmanteau===
<!---We all love these blends, acronyms and backronyms, but please don't add unsourced stuff here--->
Since the time of the independence of Indonesia, Indonesian has seen a surge of [[neologism]]s which are formed as [[acronym]]s (less commonly also [[initialism]]s) or [[blend word]]s.

Common acronyms are {{lang|id|ABRI}} ({{IPA|id|ˈabri|pron}}, from {{lang|id|Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia}} '[[Indonesian National Armed Forces]]'), {{lang|id|SIM}} ({{IPA|id|sim|pron}}, from {{lang|id|surat izin mengemudi}} 'driving licence'), {{lang|id|SARA}} ({{IPA|id|ˈsara|pron}}, from {{lang|id|suku, agama, ras, antargolongan}} 'ethnic group, religion, race, inter-group [matters]', used when referring to the background of intercommunal conflicts), {{lang|id|HAM}} ({{IPA|id|ham|pron}}, from {{lang|id|hak asasi manusia}} 'human rights').

Blend words/portmanteau are very common in Indonesian, and have become a productive tool of word formation in both formal and colloquial Indonesian. Examples from official usage include departments and officeholders (e.g. {{lang|id|Menlu}} < {{lang|id|Mentri Luar Negeri}} 'Foreign Minister', {{lang|id|Kapolda}} < {{lang|id|Kepala kepolisian daerah}} 'Head of Regional Police') or names of provinces and districts ({{lang|id|Sulut}} < {{lang|id|Sulawesi Utara}} 'North Sulawesi', {{lang|id|Jabar}} < {{lang|id|Jawa Barat}} 'West Java'. Other commonly used portmanteau include {{lang|id|puskesmas}} < {{lang|id|pusat kesehatan masyarakat}} 'community health center', {{lang|id|sembako}} < {{lang|id|sembilan bahan pokok}} 'basic commodities' ({{lit|nine basic commodities}}).<ref>{{cite book|first=James|last=Sneddon|year=2003|title=The Indonesian Language: Its History and Role in Modern Society|location=Sydney|publisher=USNW Press|pages=145–149|isbn=9780868405988}}</ref>

== Literature ==
{{Main|Indonesian literature}}

Indonesia hosts a variety of traditional verbal arts such as [[poetry]], [[Narrative history|historical narratives]], [[romance film|romances]], and [[drama]], which are expressed in local languages, but modern genres are expressed mainly in Indonesian.<ref name="hawaii.edu"/> Some of the classic Indonesian stories include ''[[Sitti Nurbaya]]'' by [[Marah Rusli]], ''[[Azab dan Sengsara]]'' by [[Merari Siregar]], and ''[[Sengsara Membawa Nikmat]]'' by [[Tulis Sutan Sati]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.resourcefulindonesian.com/indonesian-literature.html|title=Indonesian Literature|website=Resourceful Indonesian|access-date=13 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618175250/https://www.resourcefulindonesian.com/indonesian-literature.html|archive-date=18 June 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.accu.or.jp/appreb/09/pdf32-1/32-1p.03-4.pdf |title=Recent Writers in Indonesia  |last=Sumardjo |first=Jakob |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011113425/http://www.accu.or.jp/appreb/09/pdf32-1/32-1p.03-4.pdf |archive-date=11 October 2017 |access-date=13 October 2019}}</ref> Modern literature like [[novel]]s, [[short story|short stories]], stage plays, and [[Free verse|free-form poetry]] has developed since the late years of the 19th century and has produced figures such as [[novelist]] [[Pramoedya Ananta Toer]], [[dramatist]] [[Willibrordus S. Rendra|W.S. Rendra]], poet [[Chairil Anwar]], and [[cinematographer]] [[Garin Nugroho]].<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/03062848208729531 | volume=10 | issue=29 | title=A new introduction to modern Indonesian literature | journal=Indonesia Circle. School of Oriental & African Studies. Newsletter | pages=33–40| year=2007 | last1=Watson | first1=C W }}</ref> Indonesia's classic novels themselves offer insight into the [[Culture of Indonesia|local culture]] and traditions and the historical background before and immediately after the country gained independence. One notable example is ''Shackles'', which was written by [[Armijn Pane]] in 1940. Originally titled ''[[Belenggu]]'', it has been translated into many languages, including [[English language|English]] and [[German language|German]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thejakartapost.com/life/2016/08/20/must-read-indonesian-classic-novels.html|title=Must-read Indonesian classic novels|work=The Jakarta Post|first=Masajeng|last=Rahmiasri|date=20 August 2016|access-date=13 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128192012/http://www.thejakartapost.com/life/2016/08/20/must-read-indonesian-classic-novels.html|archive-date=28 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

== As speakers of other languages ==
[[File:BIPA photograph.jpg|thumb|upright=0.81|''BIPA ({{lang|id|Bahasa Indonesia untuk Penutur Asing}})'' book, which helps foreigners learn the Indonesian language]]

Over the past few years, interest in learning Indonesian has grown among non-Indonesians.<ref>{{cite book |last=Department Pendidikan Nasional |title=Lentera Indonesia 1 |year=2006 |publisher=Department Pendidikan Nasional |location=Jakarta |isbn=978-979-685-403-5 |page=v }}</ref> Various universities have started to offer courses that emphasise the teaching of the language to non-Indonesians. In addition to national universities, private institutions have also started to offer courses, like the Indonesia Australia Language Foundation and the {{lang|id|Lembaga Indonesia Amerika}}. As early as 1988, teachers of the language have expressed the importance of a standardized {{lang|id|Bahasa Indonesia bagi Penutur Asing}} (also called '''BIPA''', literally ''Indonesian Language for Foreign Speaker'') materials (mostly books), and this need became more evident during the 4th International Congress on the Teaching of Indonesian to Speakers of Other Languages held in 2001.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ialf.edu/bipa/march2002/conferencereport.html|title=Conference Report: The Fourth International Conference on Teaching Indonesian to Speakers of Other Languages|website=www.ialf.edu|access-date=26 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402023735/http://ialf.edu/bipa/march2002/conferencereport.html|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Since 2013, the Indonesian embassy in the Philippines has given basic Indonesian language courses to 16 batches of Filipino students, as well as training to members of the [[Armed Forces of the Philippines]]. {{Update span|date=July 2022|text=Due to increasing demand among students, the embassy will open an intermediate Indonesian language course later in the year.}} In an interview, [[Department of Education (Philippines)|Department of Education]] Secretary [[Armin Luistro]]<ref>{{cite news |last=Rainier Alain |first=Ronda |title=Bahasa in schools? DepEd eyes 2nd foreign language |url=http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2013/03/22/922576/bahasa-schools-deped-eyes-2nd-foreign-language |access-date=11 June 2013 |newspaper=The Philippine Star |date=22 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513140705/http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2013/03/22/922576/bahasa-schools-deped-eyes-2nd-foreign-language |archive-date=13 May 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> said that the country's government should promote Indonesian or Malay, which are related to Filipino. Thus, the possibility of offering it as an optional subject in public schools is being studied.

The Indonesian embassy in Washington, D.C., United States, also began offering free Indonesian language courses at the beginner and intermediate level.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.embassyofindonesia.org/index.php/2016/07/18/indonesian-language-classes/ |title=Indonesian Language Classes |access-date=30 October 2018 |website=Embassy of the Republic of Indonesia, Washington, DC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181031052321/https://www.embassyofindonesia.org/index.php/2016/07/18/indonesian-language-classes/ |archive-date=31 October 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Words ==
=== Numbers ===
[[File:1000 rupiah bill, 2000 series (2013 date), processed, obverse+reverse.jpg|thumb|2013 edition of one thousand [[Indonesian Rupiah]] banknote, featuring [[National Hero of Indonesia|Indonesian national hero]] [[Pattimura|Thomas Matulessy]]]]

==== Cardinal ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Number
!English
!Indonesian
!IPA
|-
|0
|zero
|{{lang|id|nol}} || {{IPA|id|nol|}}
|-
|1
|one
|{{lang|id|satu, se-}} (as a prefix) || {{IPA|id|sa.tu|}}, {{IPA|id|sə|}}
|-
|2
|two
|{{lang|id|dua}} || {{IPA|id|du.(w)a|}}
|-
|3
|three
|{{lang|id|tiga}} || {{IPA|id|ti.ga|}}
|-
|4
|four
|{{lang|id|empat}} || {{IPA|id|əm.pat|}}
|-
|5
|five
|{{lang|id|lima}} || {{IPA|id|li.ma|}}
|-
|6
|six
|{{lang|id|enam}} || {{IPA|id|ə.nam|}}
|-
|7
|seven
|{{lang|id|tujuh}} || {{IPA|id|tu.dʒuh|}}
|-
|8
|eight
|{{lang|id|delapan}} || {{IPA|id|də.la.pan|}}
|-
|9
|nine
|{{lang|id|sembilan}} || {{IPA|id|səm.bi.lan|}}
|-
|10
|ten
|{{lang|id|sepuluh}} || {{IPA|id|sə.pu.luh|}} 
|-
|11
|eleven
|{{lang|id|sebelas}} || {{IPA|id|sə.bə.las|}} 
|-
|12
|twelve
|{{lang|id|dua belas}} || {{IPA|id|du.(w)a bə.las|}} 
|-
|13
|thirteen
|{{lang|id|tiga belas}} || {{IPA|id|ti.ga bə.las|}} 
|-
|14
|fourteen
|{{lang|id|empat belas}} || {{IPA|id|əm.pat bə.las|}}
|-
|15
|fifteen
|{{lang|id|lima belas}} || {{IPA|id|li.ma bə.las|}}
|-
|20
|twenty
|{{lang|id|dua puluh}} || {{IPA|id|du.(w)a pu.luh|}}
|-
|21
|twenty one
|{{lang|id|dua puluh satu}} || {{IPA|id|du.(w)a pu.luh sa.tu|}}
|-
|30
|thirty
|{{lang|id|tiga puluh}} || {{IPA|id|ti.ga pu.luh|}} 
|-
|100
|one hundred
|{{lang|id|seratus}} || {{IPA|id|sə.ra.tus|}} 
|-
|200
|two hundred
|{{lang|id|dua ratus}} || {{IPA|id|du.(w)a ra.tus|}} 
|-
|210
|two hundred ten
|{{lang|id|dua ratus sepuluh}} || {{IPA|id|du.(w)a ra.tus sə.pu.luh|}} 
|-
|897
|eight hundred ninety seven
|{{lang|id|delapan ratus sembilan puluh tujuh}} || {{IPA|id|də.la.pan ra.tus səm.bi.lan pu.luh tu.dʒuh|}}
|-
|1,000
|one thousand
|{{lang|id|seribu}} || {{IPA|id|sə.ri.bu|}} 
|-
|10,000
|ten thousand
|{{lang|id|sepuluh ribu}} || {{IPA|id|sə.pu.luh ri.bu|}} 
|-
|100,000
|one hundred thousand
|{{lang|id|seratus ribu}} || {{IPA|id|sə.ra.tus ri.bu|}} 
|-
|1,000,000
|one million
|{{lang|id|sejuta, satu juta}} || {{IPA|id|sə.dʒu.ta|}}, {{IPA|id|sa.tu dʒu.ta|}} 
|-
|1,000,000,000
|one billion
|{{lang|id|satu miliar}} || {{IPA|id|sa.tu mi.li.(j)ar|}}<br>{{IPA|id|sa.tu mil.jar|}} 
|-
|1,000,000,000,000
|one trillion
|{{lang|id|satu triliun}} || {{IPA|id|sa.tu tri.li.(j)un|}}<br>{{IPA|id|sa.tu tril.jun|}} 
|-
|1,000,000,000,000,000
|one quadrillion
|{{lang|id|satu kuadriliun}}
|{{IPA|id|sa.tu kwa.dri.li.(j)un|}}
|}

==== Ordinal ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Number
!English
!Indonesian
!IPA
|-
|1st
|first
|{{lang|id|pertama}} or {{lang|id|kesatu}} || {{IPA|id|pər.ta.ma|}}<br>{{IPA|id|kə.sa.tu|}}
|-
|2nd
|second
|{{lang|id|kedua}}  || {{IPA|id|kə.du.(w)a|}} 
|-
|3rd
|third
|{{lang|id|ketiga}}  || {{IPA|id|kə.ti.ga|}} 
|-
|4th
|fourth
|{{lang|id|keempat}}  || {{IPA|id|kə.əm.pat|}}
|-
|5th
|fifth
|{{lang|id|kelima}}  || {{IPA|id|kə.li.ma|}} 
|-
|6th
|sixth
|{{lang|id|keenam}}  || {{IPA|id|kə.ə.nam|}} 
|-
|7th
|seventh
|{{lang|id|ketujuh}}  || {{IPA|id|kə.tu.dʒuh|}} 
|-
|8th
|eighth
|{{lang|id|kedelapan}}  || {{IPA|id|kə.də.la.pan|}} 
|-
|9th
|ninth
|{{lang|id|kesembilan}}  || {{IPA|id|kə.səm.bi.lan|}} 
|-
|10th
|tenth
|{{lang|id|kesepuluh}}  || {{IPA|id|kə.sə.pu.luh|}} 
|}

=== Days and months ===
[[File:Kalender Indonesia.jpg|thumb|Indonesian-language [[calendar]]|alt=]]

==== Days ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!English
!Indonesian
!IPA
|-
|Monday
|{{lang|id|Senin}}  || {{IPA|id|sə.nin|}} 
|-
|Tuesday
|{{lang|id|Selasa}}  || {{IPA|id|sə.la.sa|}} 
|-
|Wednesday
|{{lang|id|Rabu}} || {{IPA|id|ra.bu|}} 
|-
|Thursday
|{{lang|id|Kamis}}  || {{IPA|id|ka.mis|}} 
|-
|Friday
|{{lang|id|Jumat}}  || {{IPA|id|dʒum.ʔat|}} 
|-
|Saturday
|{{lang|id|Sabtu}}  || {{IPA|id|sab.tu|}} 
|-
|Sunday
|{{lang|id|Minggu}}  || {{IPA|id|miŋ.gu|}}
|}

==== Months ====
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!English
!Indonesian
!IPA
|-
|January
|{{lang|id|Januari}}  || {{IPA|id|dʒa.nu.(w)a.ri|}} 
|-
|February
|{{lang|id|Februari}}  || {{IPA|id|fɛb.ru.(w)a.ri|}} 
|-
|March
|{{lang|id|Maret}}  || {{IPA|id|ma.rət|}} 
|-
|April
|{{lang|id|April}}  || {{IPA|id|ap.ril|}} 
|-
|May
|{{lang|id|Mei}}  || {{IPA|id|meɪ|}} 
|-
|June
|{{lang|id|Juni}}  || {{IPA|id|dʒu.ni.|}} 
|-
|July
|{{lang|id|Juli}}  || {{IPA|id|dʒu.li|}} 
|-
|August
|{{lang|id|Agustus }} || {{IPA|id|a.gus.tus|}} 
|-
|September
|{{lang|id|September}} || {{IPA|id|sɛp.tɛm.bər|}} 
|-
|October
|{{lang|id|Oktober}}  || {{IPA|id|ok.to.bər|}} 
|-
|November
|{{lang|id|November}}  || {{IPA|id|no.fɛm.bər|}} 
|-
|December
|{{lang|id|Desember}}  || {{IPA|id|dɛ.sɛm.bər|}} 
|}

=== Common phrases ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! scope="col" style="width: 33%;" | English 
! scope="col" style="width: 33%;" |  Indonesian 
! scope="col" style="width: 34%;" | Spelling (in [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
|-
|Hello!
|{{lang|id|Halo!}} 
| {{IPA|id|ˈhalo|}}
|-
|Good morning!
|{{lang|id|Selamat pagi!}}
| {{IPA|ms|sə'lamat ˈpagi|}}
|-
|Good afternoon!
|{{lang|id|Selamat siang!}}
| {{IPA|ms|səˈlamat ˈsiaŋ|}}
|-
|Good evening! or Good night!
|{{lang|id|Selamat malam!}}
| {{IPA|ms|səˈlamat ˈmalam|}}
|-
|Goodbye!
|{{lang|id|Selamat tinggal!}}
| {{IPA|ms|sə'lamat ˈtiŋɡal|}}
|-
|See you later!
|{{lang|id|Sampai jumpa lagi!}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈsampai̯ ˈdʒumpa ˈlagi|}}
|-
|Thank you
|{{lang|id|Terima kasih}} (standard, formal)
| {{IPA|ms|təˈrima ˈkasih|}}
|-
|Thanks
|{{lang|id|Makasih}} (colloquial)
| {{IPA|ms|maˈkasih|}}
|-
|You are welcome
|{{lang|id|Sama-sama}} or {{lang|id|terima kasih kembali}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈsa'ma ˈsama|}} or {{IPA|ms|təˈrima ˈkasih kəm'bali|}}
|-
|Yes
|{{lang|id|Ya}} (standard) or {{lang|id|iya}} (colloquial)
| {{IPA|ms|ˈja|}} or {{IPA|ms|ˈija|}}
|-
|No
|{{lang|id|Tidak}} or {{lang|id|tak}} or {{lang|id|enggak}} (colloquial)
| {{IPA|ms|ˈtidaʔ|}} or {{IPA|ms|ˈtaʔ|}} or {{IPA|ms|ˈəŋgaʔ|}} 
|-
|And
|{{lang|id|Dan}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈdan|}}
|-
|Or
|{{lang|id|Atau}}
| {{IPA|ms|a'tau̯|}}
|-
|Because
|{{lang|id|Karena}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈkarəna|}}
|-
|{{not a typo|Therefore}}
|{{lang|id|Karena itu}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈkarəna ˈʔitu|}}
|-
|Nothing
|{{lang|id|Tidak ada}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈtidaʔ ˈada|}}
|-
|Maybe
|{{lang|id|Mungkin}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈmuŋkin|}}
|-
|How are you?
|{{lang|id|Apa kabar?}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈapa ˈkabar|}}
|-
|I am fine
|{{lang|id|Baik}} or {{lang|id|Baik-baik saja}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈbaik|}} or {{IPA|ms|ˈbaik ˈbaik ˈsadʒa|}}
|-
|Have a nice day!
|{{lang|id|Semoga hari Anda menyenangkan!}}
| {{IPA|ms|sə'moga ˈhari ˈʔanda məɲəˈnaŋkan|}}
|-
|Bon appétit!
|{{lang|id|Selamat makan!}} or {{lang|id|Selamat menikmati!}}
| {{IPA|ms|sə'lamat ˈmakan|}} or {{IPA|ms|səˈlamat mənikˈmati|}}
|-
|I am sorry
|{{lang|id|Maafkan saya}}
| {{IPA|ms|ma'ʔafkan ˈsaja|}}
|-
|Excuse me
|{{lang|id|Permisi}}
| {{IPA|ms|pər'misi|}}
|-
|What?
|{{lang|id|Apa?}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈapa|}}
|-
|Who?
|{{lang|id|Siapa?}}
| {{IPA|ms|siˈapa|}}
|-
|When?
|{{lang|id|Kapan?}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈkapan|}}
|-
|Where?
|{{lang|id|Di mana?}}
| {{IPA|ms|di ˈmana|}}
|-
|Why?
|{{lang|id|Mengapa?}} (standard) or {{lang|id|kenapa?}} (colloquial)
| {{IPA|ms|mə'ŋapa|}} or {{IPA|id|kə'napa|}} 
|-
|How?
|{{lang|id|Bagaimana?}}
| {{IPA|ms|baɡai̯'mana|}}
|-
|How much?
|{{lang|id|Berapa?}} 
| {{IPA|ms|bə'rapa|}}
|-
|What is your name?
|{{lang|id|Nama Anda siapa}}?
| {{IPA|ms|ˈnama ˈʔanda siˈapa|}}
|-
|My name is... 
|{{lang|id|Nama saya...}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈnama ˈsaja|}}
|-
|Do you know?
|{{lang|id|Apakah Anda tahu?}}
| {{IPA|ms|aˈpakah ˈʔanda ˈtahu|}}
|-
|Yes, I know / No, I do not know
|{{lang|id|Ya, saya tahu / Tidak, saya tidak tahu}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈja ˈsaja ˈtahu|}} / {{IPA|ms|ˈtidaʔ ˈsaja ˈtidaʔ ˈtahu|}}
|-
|Can you speak Indonesian?
|{{lang|id|Bisakah Anda berbicara bahasa Indonesia?}}
| {{IPA|ms|biˈsakah ˈʔanda bərbiˈtʃara baˈhasa ʔindoˈnesi̯a|}}
|-
|Yes, I can speak Indonesian / No, I can not speak Indonesian
|{{lang|id|Ya, saya bisa berbicara bahasa Indonesia / Tidak, saya tidak bisa berbicara bahasa indonesia}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈja ˈsaja ˈbisa bərbiˈtʃara baˈhasa ʔindoˈnesi̯a|}} / {{IPA|ms|ˈtidaʔ ˈsaja ˈtidaʔ ˈbisa bərbiˈtʃara baˈhasa ʔindoˈnesi̯a|}}
|-
|What time is it now?
|{{lang|id|Pukul berapa sekarang?}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈpukul bə'rapa səˈkaraŋ|}}
|-
|It is 5.00 o'clock
|{{lang|id|Sekarang pukul 5.00}}
| {{IPA|ms|səˈkaraŋ ˈpukul ˈlima|}}
|-
|When will you go to the party?
|{{lang|id|Kapan Anda akan pergi ke pesta itu?}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈkapan ˈʔanda ˈʔakan pər'gi ke ˈpesta ˈʔitu|}}
|-
|Soon
|{{lang|id|Nanti}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈnanti|}}
|-
|Today
|{{lang|id|Hari ini}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈhari ˈʔini|}}
|-
|Tomorrow
|{{lang|id|Besok}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈbesok|}}
|-
|The day after tomorrow 
|{{lang|id|Lusa}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈlusa|}}
|-
|Yesterday
|{{lang|id|Kemarin}}
| {{IPA|ms|kə'marin|}}
|-
|Congratulations!
|{{lang|id|Selamat!}}
| {{IPA|ms|sə'lamat|}}
|-
|Happy New Year!
|{{lang|id|Selamat Tahun Baru!}}
| {{IPA|ms|sə'lamat ˈtahun ˈbaru|}}
|-
|Merry Christmas!
|{{lang|id|Selamat Natal!}}
| {{IPA|ms|sə'lamat ˈnatal|}}
|-
|Please
|{{lang|id|Mohon}} or {{lang|id|tolong}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈmohon|}} or {{IPA|ms|ˈtoloŋ|}}
|-
|Stop!
|{{lang|id|Berhenti!}}
| {{IPA|ms|bər'henti|}}
|-
|I am happy
|{{lang|id|Saya senang}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈsaja sə'naŋ|}}
|-
|I understand
|{{lang|id|Saya mengerti}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈsaja ˈməŋərti|}}
|-
|Help!
|{{lang|id|Tolong!}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈtoloŋ|}}
|-
|I need help
|{{lang|id|Saya memerlukan bantuan}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈsaja məmərˈlukan ban'tuan|}}
|-
|Can you help me?
|{{lang|id|Bisakah Anda menolong saya?}}
| {{IPA|ms|biˈsakah ˈʔanda mə'noloŋ ˈsaja|}}
|-
|Can I help you? / Do you need help?
|{{lang|id|Dapatkah saya membantu Anda? / Apakah Anda membutuhkan bantuan?}}
|{{IPA|ms|da'patkah ˈsaja məm'bantu ˈʔanda|}} / {{IPA|ms|aˈpakah ˈʔanda məmbuˈtuhkan banˈtuan|}}
|-
|May I borrow your eraser?
|{{lang|id|Bolehkah saya meminjam penghapus Anda?}}
| {{IPA|ms|boˈlehkah ˈsaja mə'mindʒam pəŋ'hapus ˈʔanda|}}
|-
|With my pleasure
|{{lang|id|Dengan senang hati}}
| {{IPA|ms|dəˈŋan sə'naŋ ˈhati|}}
|-
|Welcome
|{{lang|id|Selamat datang}}
| {{IPA|ms|sə'lamat ˈdataŋ|}}
|-
|Welcome to Indonesia
|{{lang|id|Selamat datang di Indonesia}}
| {{IPA|ms|sə'lamat ˈdataŋ di ʔindoˈnesi̯a|}}
|-
|I agree / I disagree
|{{lang|id|Saya setuju / Saya tidak setuju}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈsaja sə'tudʒu|}} / {{IPA|ms|ˈsaja ˈtidaʔ sə'tudʒu|}}
|-
|I understand / I do not understand
|{{lang|id|Saya mengerti / Saya tidak mengerti}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈsaja ˈməŋərti|}} / {{IPA|ms|ˈsaja ˈtidaʔ ˈməŋərti|}}
|-
|I am hungry
|{{lang|id|Saya lapar}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈsaja ˈlapar|}}
|-
|I am thirsty
|{{lang|id|Saya haus}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈsaja ˈhaus|}}
|-
|I am sick
|{{lang|id|Saya sakit}}
| {{IPA|ms|ˈsaja ˈsakit|}}
|-
|Get well soon
|{{lang|id|Semoga cepat sembuh}}
| {{IPA|ms|sə'moga tʃə'pat səmˈbuh|}}
|-
|Next lesson
|{{lang|id|Pelajaran selanjutnya}}
| {{IPA|ms|pə'ladʒaran sə'landʒutɲa|}}
|}

=== Example ===
The following texts are excerpts from the official translations of the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] in Indonesian along with the original declaration in English.
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/Language.aspx?LangID=eng|title=OHCHR -|website=www.ohchr.org|access-date=16 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160830002455/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/Language.aspx?LangID=eng|archive-date=30 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/Language.aspx?LangID=inz|title=OHCHR -|website=www.ohchr.org|access-date=16 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160921013057/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Pages/Language.aspx?LangID=inz|archive-date=21 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

English: '''''Universal Declaration of Human Rights'''''

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.

Indonesian: '''''Pernyataan Umum tentang Hak Asasi Manusia'''''

Semua orang dilahirkan merdeka dan mempunyai martabat dan hak-hak yang sama. Mereka dikaruniai akal dan hati nurani dan hendaknya bergaul satu sama lain dalam semangat persaudaraan.

== See also ==
{{Portal|Indonesia|Languages}}
* [[Languages of Indonesia]]
* [[Language politics]]
* [[Malaysian Malay]]
* [[Bhāṣā]], for other languages referred to as {{lang|id|bahasa}}
* [[Comparison of Indonesian and Standard Malay]]
* [[Indonesian Sign Language]]
* [[Indonesian slang]]
* [[List of English words of Indonesian origin]]
* [[List of Indonesian acronyms and abbreviations]]
* [[List of loanwords in Indonesian]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=lower-alpha}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{citation
 | last = Collins
 | first = James T
 | title = Malay, World Language: A Short History
 | publisher = Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka
 | year = 1998
 | isbn = 978-979-461-537-9
}}
* {{cite book | author1=Abdul Rashid | author2=Amat Juhari | title=Sejarah bahasa melayu | year=2006 | publisher=Utusan Publications & Distributors| isbn=9789676118097}} Alternate {{ISBN|9676118095}}.

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=id}}
{{Wikibooks|Indonesian}}
{{Wikivoyage|Indonesian phrasebook|Indonesian|a phrasebook}}
{{commons category}}
* [http://ipll.manoa.hawaii.edu/indonesian/2012/03/10/how-many-people-speak-indonesian/ How many people speak Indonesian?]
* [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Indonesian_Swadesh_list Indonesian Swadesh list of basic vocabulary words] (from Wiktionary's [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Swadesh_lists Swadesh-list appendix])
* [https://kbbi.kemdikbud.go.id/ ''KBBI Daring (Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia dalam jaringan)''] (online version of the ''[[Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia]]'', by the [[Language and Book Development Agency]], in Indonesian only)
* [http://www.babla.co.id/ babla.co.id] English-Indonesian dictionary from bab.la, a language learning portal

=== English-Indonesian dictionaries ===
* [http://www.softpedia.com/get/Others/Home-Education/Kamus.shtml Download Kamus 2.0.4]
* [http://indodic.com/dlEnglish.html download Indonesian English dictionary – IndoDic] [http://indodic.com/dlIndo.html Download Kamus Inggris Indonesia – IndoDic]

{{Languages of Indonesia}}
{{Languages of Malaysia}}
{{Languages of East Timor}}
{{languages of the Netherlands}}
{{Languages of Taiwan}}
{{Nuclear Malayo-Polynesian languages}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Indonesian Language}}
[[Category:Indonesian language| ]]
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Indonesia]]
[[Category:Languages of Timor-Leste]]
[[Category:Languages of Malaysia]]
[[Category:Diglossia]]
[[Category:20th-century introductions]]
[[Category:Standard languages]]
[[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Languages of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Malayic languages]]