View source for Democratic-Republican Party

{{short description|American political party (1792–1834)}}
{{redirect|Democratic Republican|other uses|Democratic Republican (disambiguation)|and|Democratic Republican Party (disambiguation){{!}}Democratic Republican Party}}
{{Use American English|date=April 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2016}} 
{{Infobox political party
| colorcode        = {{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}
| name             = Democratic-Republican Party
| lang1            = Other
| name_lang1       = {{ubl|Jeffersonian Republicans{{efn-la|name=internalNameLink}}|Republican Party|Democratic Party}}
| logo             = Tricolour Cockade.svg
| founders         = {{plainlist|
*[[Thomas Jefferson]]
*[[James Madison]]}}
| founded          = {{nowrap|{{start date and age|1792|05|13}}<ref name="bill 2047"/>}}
| dissolved        = c. {{end date and age|1825}}
| predecessor      = [[Anti-Administration party]]
| successor        = {{plainlist|
*[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]
*[[National Republican Party]] |[[Whig]]
}}
| newspaper        = ''[[National Gazette]]'' (1791–1793)
| ideology         = [[Jeffersonian democracy]]<ref name="Larson 2007">{{cite book |last=Larson |first=Edward J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MXcCdlmwwecC |title=A Magnificent Catastrophe: The Tumultuous Election of 1800, America's First Presidential Campaign |year=2007 |isbn=9780743293174 |page=21 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |quote=The divisions between Adams and Jefferson were exasperated by the more extreme views expressed by some of their partisans, particularly the High Federalists led by Hamilton on what was becoming known as the political right, and the democratic wing of the Republican Party on the left, associated with New York Governor George Clinton and Pennsylvania legislator Albert Gallatin, among others. |author-link=Edward J. Larson}}</ref>
* [[Agrarianism]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ohiohistorycentral.org/w/Democratic-Republican_Party |title=Democratic-Republican Party |last=Ohio History Connection |website=[[Ohio History Central]] |access-date=August 30, 2017 |quote=Democratic-Republicans favored keeping the U.S. economy based on agriculture and said that the U.S. should serve as the agricultural provider for the rest of the world [...]. Economically, the Democratic-Republicans wanted to remain a predominantly agricultural nation, [...].}}</ref>
* [[Anti-clericalism]]<ref>{{cite journal |first=James R. |last=Beasley |date=1972 |title=Emerging Republicanism and the Standing Order: The Appropriation Act Controversy in Connecticut, 1793 to 1795 |journal=The William and Mary Quarterly |volume=29 |issue=4 |page=604 |doi=10.2307/1917394 |jstor=1917394}}</ref>
* [[Liberalism in the United States#18th and 19th century|Classical liberalism]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Adams |first=Ian |year=2001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=apstK1qIvvMC&pg=PA32 |title=Political Ideology Today |edition=reprinted, revised |location=Manchester |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |page=32|isbn=9780719060205 |quote=Ideologically, all US parties are liberal and always have been. Essentially they espouse classical liberalism, that is a form of democratized Whig constitutionalism plus the free market. The point of difference comes with the influence of social liberalism.}}</ref>
* [[Republicanism in the United States|Republicanism]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Democratic-Republican-Party |title=Democratic-Republican Party |date=July 20, 1998 |access-date=August 30, 2017 |quote=The Republicans contended that the Federalists harboured aristocratic attitudes and that their policies placed too much power in the central government and tended to benefit the affluent at the expense of the common man. |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref>

'''Factions'''
* [[Radicalism in the United States|Radicalism]]<ref name="Matthews 1984 p.">{{cite book |last=Matthews |first=Richard K. |title=The radical politics of Thomas Jefferson: a revisionist view |publisher=University Press of Kansas |location=Lawrence, KS |date=1984 |page=18 |isbn=0-7006-0256-9 |oclc=10605658}}</ref>
* [[Populism]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Wood|title=The American Revolution|page=100}}</ref>
| headquarters     = [[Washington, D.C.]]
| colors           = {{plainlist|
{{color box|#002387|border=darkgray}} [[Blue]] {{color box|#FFFFFF|border=darkgray}} [[White]] {{color box|#CC0000|border=darkgray}} [[Red]]}}
| seats1_title     = Senate ([[1822–23 United States Senate elections|1822]])
| seats1           = {{composition bar|44|48|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}} (peak)
| seats2_title     = House ([[1822–23 United States House of Representatives elections|1822]])
| seats2           = {{composition bar|189|213|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}} (peak)
| country          = the United States
}}

The '''Democratic-Republican Party''' (also referred to by historians as the '''Jeffersonian Republican Party'''),{{efn-la|name=internalNameLink|Party members generally referred to it as the Republican Party; although the word ''Republican'' is not to be confused with the modern [[History of the Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party founded in the 1850s]]. To distinguish this party from the current Republican Party, political scientists usually use the term "Democratic-Republican".}} was an [[Political parties in the United States|American political party]] founded by [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]] in the early 1790s. It championed [[Liberalism in the United States|liberalism]], [[Republicanism in the United States|republicanism]], individual liberty, equal rights, separation of church and state, freedom of religion, anti-clericalism, emancipation of religious minorities, [[decentralization]], free markets, free trade, and [[agrarianism]]. In foreign policy, it was hostile to Great Britain and in sympathy with the [[French Revolution]] and [[Napoleonic wars|Napoleonic Wars]]. The party became increasingly dominant after the [[1800 United States elections|1800 elections]] as the opposing [[Federalist Party]] collapsed.

Increasing dominance over American politics led to increasing factional splits within the party. [[Old Republicans]], led by [[John Taylor of Caroline]] and [[John Randolph of Roanoke]], believed that the administrations of Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe—and the Congresses led by [[Henry Clay]]—had in some ways betrayed the republican "[[Principles of '98]]" by expanding the size and scope of the national government. The Republicans splintered during the [[1824 United States presidential election|1824 presidential election]]. Those calling for a return to the older founding principles of the party were often referred to as "Democratic Republicans" (later [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrats]]) while those embracing the newer nationalist principles of "[[American System (economic plan)|The American System]]" were often referred to as [[National Republicans]] (later [[Whig Party (United States)|Whigs]]).<ref name="pop style">{{Cite web |url=https://nationalaffairs.com/publications/detail/populism-american-style |title=Populism, American Style |last=Olsen |first=Henry |date=Summer 2010 |access-date=30 May 2021 |publisher=National Affairs |quote="Amid the passion and the anger, Jefferson and Madison's Republican Party — the forerunner of today's Democrats — won the day; the coalition they built then proceeded to win every national election until 1824... The elections of 1828 and 1832 saw the ruling Republicans break into two factions: The minority faction — headed by incumbent president John Quincy Adams — became the National Republicans (and then the Whigs); it drew its support from the mercantile regions of the country, mainly New England and the large cities of the South. Members of the majority faction, meanwhile, renamed themselves the Democrats under the leadership of Andrew Jackson."}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/03/15/what-is-happening-to-the-republicans |title=What is Happening to the Republicans? |last=Cobb |first=Jelani |date=8 March 2021 |access-date=27 January 2022 |magazine=[[The New Yorker]] |quote=In the uproar that ensued, the Party split, with each side laying claim to a portion of its name: the smaller faction, led by Adams, became the short-lived National Republicans; the larger, led by Jackson, became the Democratic Party.}}</ref>

The Republican Party originated in [[United States Congress|Congress]] to oppose the nationalist and economically interventionist policies of [[Alexander Hamilton]], who served as [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]] under President [[George Washington]]. The Republicans and the opposing [[Federalist Party]] each became more cohesive during Washington's second term, partly as a result of the debate over the [[Jay Treaty]]. Though he was defeated by Federalist [[John Adams]] in the [[1796 United States presidential election|1796 presidential election]], Jefferson and his Republican allies came into power following the 1800 elections. As president, Jefferson presided over a reduction in the national debt and government spending, and completed the [[Louisiana Purchase]] with [[French First Republic|France]].

Madison succeeded Jefferson as president in 1809 and led the country during the largely inconclusive [[War of 1812]] with [[United Kingdom|Britain]]. After the war, Madison and his congressional allies established the [[Second Bank of the United States]] and implemented protective [[Tariffs in United States history|tariffs]], marking a move away from the party's earlier emphasis on [[states' rights]] and a strict construction of the [[United States Constitution]]. The Federalists collapsed after 1815, beginning a period known as the [[Era of Good Feelings]]. Lacking an effective opposition, the Republicans split into rival groups after the [[1824 United States presidential election|1824 presidential election]]: one faction supported President [[John Quincy Adams]] and became known as the [[National Republican Party]] which later merged into the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]], while another faction, one that believed in [[Jeffersonian democracy]], backed General [[Andrew Jackson]] and became the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]].

Republicans were deeply committed to the principles of republicanism, which they feared were threatened by the aristocratic tendencies of the Federalists. During the 1790s, the party strongly opposed Federalist programs, including the [[History of central banking in the United States|national bank]]. After the War of 1812, Madison and many other party leaders came to accept the need for a national bank and federally funded infrastructure projects. In foreign affairs, the party advocated western expansion and tended to favor France over Britain, though the party's pro-French stance faded after [[Napoleon]] took power. The Democratic-Republicans were strongest in the [[Southern United States|South]] and the [[American frontier|western frontier]], and weakest in [[New England]].

== History ==

===Founding, 1789–1796===
{{further|Presidency of George Washington|Anti-Administration party|First Party System}}
{{multiple image|align=right|total_width=300|image1=Official Presidential portrait of Thomas Jefferson (by Rembrandt Peale, 1800).jpg|image2=James Madison.jpg|caption1=[[Thomas Jefferson]], 3rd president of the United States (1801–1809)|caption2=[[James Madison]], 4th president of the United States (1809–1817)}}
In the [[1788–89 United States presidential election|1788–89 presidential election]], the first such election following the ratification of the [[United States Constitution]] in 1788, [[George Washington]] won the votes of every member of the [[United States Electoral College|Electoral College]].<ref name="GWelections">{{cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/washington/campaigns-and-elections |title=George Washington: Campaigns and Elections |last=Knott |first=Stephen |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |location=Charlottesville, Virginia |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728033729/https://millercenter.org/president/washington/campaigns-and-elections |archive-date=July 28, 2017 |access-date=July 14, 2017}}</ref> His unanimous victory in part reflected the fact that no formal [[political parties]] had formed at the national level in the [[United States]] prior to 1789, though the country had been broadly polarized between the [[Federalism in the United States#Early federalism|Federalists]], who supported ratification of the Constitution, and the [[Anti-Federalism|Anti-Federalists]], who opposed ratification.{{sfnp|Reichley|2000|pp=25, 29}} Washington selected [[Thomas Jefferson]] as [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] and [[Alexander Hamilton]] as [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]],<ref>{{harvp|Ferling|2009}}, pp. 282–284</ref> and he relied on [[James Madison]] as a key adviser and ally in Congress.<ref>{{harvp|Ferling|2009}}, pp. 292–293</ref>

Hamilton implemented an expansive economic program, establishing the [[First Bank of the United States]],<ref>{{harvp|Ferling|2009}}, pp. 293–298</ref> and convincing Congress to [[Funding Act of 1790|assume the debts]] of state governments.<ref>{{harvp|Bordewich|2016}}, pp. 244–252</ref> Hamilton pursued his programs in the belief that they would foster a prosperous and stable country.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=44–45}} His policies engendered an opposition, chiefly concentrated in the [[Southern United States]], that objected to Hamilton's [[Anglophilia]] and accused him of unduly favoring well-connected wealthy Northern merchants and speculators. Madison emerged as the leader of the congressional opposition while Jefferson, who declined to publicly criticize Hamilton while both served in Washington's Cabinet, worked behind the scenes to stymie Hamilton's programs.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=45–48}} Jefferson and Madison, leading an [[Anti-Administration Party|Anti-Administration group]], established the ''[[National Gazette]]'', a newspaper which recast national politics not as a battle between Federalists and Anti-Federalists, but as a debate between aristocrats and republicans.<ref>{{harvp|Wood|2009}}, pp. 150–151</ref> In the [[1792 United States presidential election|1792 election]], Washington effectively ran unopposed for president, but Jefferson and Madison backed New York Governor [[George Clinton (New York)|George Clinton]]'s unsuccessful attempt to unseat Vice President [[John Adams]].{{sfnp|Thompson|1980|pp=174–175}}

Political leaders on both sides were reluctant to label their respective faction as a political party, but distinct and consistent voting blocs emerged in Congress by the end of 1793. Jefferson's followers became known as the Republicans (or sometimes as the Democratic-Republicans)<ref name="drname"/> and Hamilton's followers (the Pro-Administration group) became the [[Federalist Party|Federalists]].<ref>{{harvp|Wood|2009}}, pp. 161–162</ref> While economic policies were the original motivating factor in the growing partisan split, foreign policy became even more important as war broke out between [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] (favored by Federalists) and [[First French Republic|France]], which Republicans favored until 1799.<ref name="auto1">{{harvp|Ferling|2009}}, pp. 299–302, 309–311</ref> Partisan tensions escalated as a result of the [[Whiskey Rebellion]] and Washington's subsequent denunciation of the [[Democratic-Republican Societies]], a type of new local political societies that favored democracy and generally supported the Jeffersonian position.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=60, 64–65}} Historians use the term "Democratic-Republican" to describe these new organizations, but that name was rarely used at the time. They usually called themselves "Democratic", "Republican", "True Republican", "Constitutional", "United Freeman", "Patriotic", "Political", "Franklin", or "Madisonian".<ref>Foner found only two that used the actual term "Democratic-Republican", including the "Democratic-Republican Society of Dumfries", Virginia, 1794. Philip S. Foner, ''The Democratic-Republican Societies, 1790-1800: A Documentary Source-book of Constitutions, Declarations, Addresses, Resolutions, and Toasts'' (1977) pp 350, 370.</ref> The ratification of the [[Jay Treaty]] with Britain further inflamed partisan warfare, resulting in a hardening of the divisions between the Federalists and the Republicans.<ref name="Ferling300s">{{harvp|Ferling|2009}}, pp. 323–328, 338–344</ref>

By 1795–96, election campaigns—federal, state and local—were waged primarily along partisan lines between the two national parties, although local issues continued to affect elections, and party affiliations remained in flux.<ref>{{harvp|Ferling|2003}}, pp. 397–400</ref> As Washington declined to seek a third term, the [[1796 United States presidential election|1796 presidential election]] became the first contested president election. Having retired from Washington's Cabinet in 1793, Jefferson had left the leadership of the Democratic-Republicans in Madison's hands. Nonetheless, the Democratic-Republican [[congressional nominating caucus]] chose Jefferson as the party's presidential nominee, in the belief that he would be the party's strongest candidate; the caucus chose Senator [[Aaron Burr]] of New York as Jefferson's running mate.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=72–73, 86}} Meanwhile, an informal caucus of Federalist leaders nominated a ticket of John Adams and [[Thomas Pinckney]].<ref name="mcdonald178181" /> Though the candidates themselves largely stayed out of the fray, supporters of the candidates waged an active campaign; Federalists attacked Jefferson as a [[Francophile]] and [[atheist]], while the Democratic-Republicans accused Adams of being an anglophile and a [[Monarchism|monarchist]].<ref name="JAelections">{{cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/adams/campaigns-and-elections |title=John Adams: Campaigns and Elections |last=Taylor |first=C. James |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |location=Charlottesville, Virginia |access-date=August 3, 2017}}</ref> Ultimately, Adams won the presidency by a narrow margin, garnering 71 electoral votes to 68 for Jefferson, who became the vice president.<ref name="mcdonald178181">{{harvp|McDonald|1974}}, pp. 178–181</ref>{{efn-la|name=12thA|Prior to the ratification of the [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twelfth Amendment]] in 1804, each member of the Electoral College cast two votes, with no distinction made between electoral votes for president and electoral votes for [[Vice President of the United States|vice president]]. Under these rules, an individual who received more votes than any other candidate, and received votes from a majority of the electors, was elected as president. If neither of those conditions were met, the House of Representatives would select the president through a contingent election in which each state delegation received one vote. After the selection of the president, the individual who finished with the most votes was elected as vice president, with the Senate holding a contingent election in the case of a tie.<ref>{{Citation |last=Neale |first=Thomas H. |title=Contingent Election of the President and Vice President by Congress: Perspectives and Contemporary Analysis |date=3 November 2016 |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40504.pdf |publisher=Congressional Research Service}}</ref>}}

===Adams and the Revolution of 1800===
{{Further|Presidency of John Adams}}
[[File:ElectoralCollege1800.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Thomas Jefferson]] defeated [[John Adams]] in the 1800 presidential election, thereby becoming the first Democratic-Republican president.]]

Shortly after Adams took office, he dispatched a group of envoys to seek peaceful relations with France, which had begun seizing American merchantmen trading with Britain after the ratification of the Jay Treaty. The failure of talks, and the French demand for bribes in what became known as the [[XYZ Affair]], outraged the American public and led to the [[Quasi-War]], an undeclared naval war between France and the United States. The Federalist-controlled Congress passed measures to expand the [[United States Armed Forces|American military]] and also pushed through the [[Alien and Sedition Acts]]. These acts restricted speech critical of the government while also implementing stricter naturalization requirements.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=77–78}} Numerous journalists and other individuals aligned with the Democratic-Republicans were prosecuted under the Sedition Act, sparking a backlash against the Federalists.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=80–82}} Meanwhile, Jefferson and Madison drafted the [[Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions]], which held that state legislatures could determine the constitutionality of federal laws.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=78–79}}

In the [[1800 United States presidential election|1800 presidential election]], the Democratic-Republicans once again nominated a ticket of Jefferson and Burr. Shortly after a Federalist caucus re-nominated President Adams on a ticket with [[Charles Cotesworth Pinckney]], Adams dismissed two Hamilton allies from his Cabinet, leading to an open break between the two key figures in the Federalist Party.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=85–87}} Though the Federalist Party united against Jefferson's candidacy and waged an effective campaign in many states, the Democratic-Republicans won the election by winning most Southern electoral votes and carrying the crucial state of New York.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=86, 91–92}}

A significant element in the party's success in New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore and other east-coast cities were [[Society of United Irishmen|United Irish]] exiles, and other [[Irish Americans|Irish immigrants]], whom the Federalists regarded with distinct suspicion.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Carter |first=Edward C. |title=A "Wild Irishman" under Every Federalist's Bed: Naturalization in Philadelphia, 1789-1806 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/987049 |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=133 |issue=2 |pages=178–189 |date=1989 |issn=0003-049X |jstor=987049}}</ref><ref name="Gilmore">{{cite book |last1=Gilmore |first1=Peter |last2=Parkhill |first2=Trevor |last3=Roulston |first3=William |title=Exiles of '98: Ulster Presbyterians and the United States |url=https://www.ancestryireland.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Exiles-lo-res.pdf |publisher=Ulster Historical Foundation |location=Belfast, UK |date=2018 |pages=25–37 |access-date=16 January 2021 |isbn=9781909556621}}</ref> Among these was [[William Duane (journalist)|William Duane]] who in his newspaper, the ''[[Philadelphia Aurora]]'', exposed the details of the [[James Ross (Pennsylvania politician)|Ross Bill]], by means of which the Federalist-controlled Congress sought to establish a closed-door Grand Committee with powers to disqualify [[United States Electoral College|College electors]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Weisberger |first=Bernard A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YXU3KFC9lOcC |title=America Afire: Jefferson, Adams, and the First Contested Election |publisher=HarperCollins |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-06-211768-7 |pages=235}}</ref> Adams was to name Duane one of the three or four men most responsible for his eventual defeat.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Phillips |first=Kim T. |date=1977 |title=William Duane, Philadelphia's Democratic Republicans, and the Origins of Modern Politics |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20091178 |journal=The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography |volume=101 |issue=3 |pages=(365–387) 368 |jstor=20091178 |issn=0031-4587}}</ref>

Jefferson and Burr both finished with 73 electoral votes, more than Adams or Pinckney, necessitating a contingent election between Jefferson and Burr in the House of Representatives.{{efn-la|name=12thA}} Burr declined to take his name out of consideration, and the House deadlocked as most Democratic-Republican congressmen voted for Jefferson and most Federalists voted for Burr. Preferring Jefferson to Burr, Hamilton helped engineer Jefferson's election on the 36th ballot of the contingent election.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=92–94}} Jefferson would later describe the 1800 election, which also saw Democratic-Republicans gain control of Congress, as the "Revolution of 1800", writing that it was "as real of a revolution in the principles of our government as that of [1776] was in its form."{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=97–98}} In the final months of his presidency, Adams reached an agreement with France to end the Quasi-War<ref>{{harvp|Brown|1975}}, pp. 165–166</ref> and appointed several Federalist judges, including Chief Justice [[John Marshall]].<ref>{{harvp|Brown|1975}}, pp. 198–200</ref>

===Jefferson's presidency, 1801–1809===
{{Further|Presidency of Thomas Jefferson}}
[[File:Louisiana Purchase.png|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Louisiana Purchase]] in 1803 totaled {{convert|827,987|lk=in|sqmi|km2|abbr=off|sp=us}}, doubling the size of the United States.]]
Despite the intensity of the 1800 election, the transition of power from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans was peaceful.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=99–100}} In his inaugural address, Jefferson indicated that he would seek to reverse many Federalist policies, but he also emphasized reconciliation, noting that "every difference of opinion is not a difference of principle".{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=95–97}} He appointed a geographically balanced and ideologically moderate Cabinet that included Madison as Secretary of State and [[Albert Gallatin]] as Secretary of the Treasury; Federalists were excluded from the Cabinet, but Jefferson appointed some prominent Federalists and allowed many other Federalists to keep their positions.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=101–102}} Gallatin persuaded Jefferson to retain the First Bank of the United States, a major part of the Hamiltonian program, but other Federalist policies were scrapped.{{sfnp|Wood|2009|pp=291–296}} Jefferson and his Democratic-Republican allies eliminated the whiskey excise and other taxes,<ref>[[#Bailey2007|Bailey, 2007]], p. 216.</ref> shrank the army and the navy,<ref>[[#Chernow04|Chernow, 2004]], p. 671.</ref> repealed the Alien and Sedition Acts, and pardoned all ten individuals who had been prosecuted under the acts.{{sfnp|McDonald|1976|pp=41–42}}

With the repeal of Federalist laws and programs, many Americans had little contact with the federal government in their daily lives, with the exception of the [[United States Postal Service|postal service]].{{sfnp|Wood|2009|p=293}} Partly as a result of these spending cuts, Jefferson lowered the national debt from $83 million to $57 million between 1801 and 1809.<ref name="Meacham387">[[#Meacham|Meacham, 2012]], p. 387.</ref> Though he was largely able to reverse Federalist policies, Federalists retained a bastion of power on the Supreme Court; [[Marshall Court]] rulings continued to reflect Federalist ideals until Chief Justice Marshall's death in the 1830s.<ref name="Appleby6569">Appleby, 2003, pp. 65–69</ref> In the Supreme Court case of ''[[Marbury v. Madison]]'', the Marshall Court established the power of [[Judicial review in the United States|judicial review]], through which the [[Federal judiciary of the United States|judicial branch]] had the final word on the constitutionality of federal laws.<ref name="Appleby, 2003, pp. 7–8, 61–63">Appleby, 2003, pp. 7–8, 61–63</ref>

[[File:Albert Gallatin, by Rembrandt Peale, from life, 1805.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|[[Albert Gallatin]] served as Secretary of the Treasury under Presidents Jefferson and Madison.]]

By the time Jefferson took office, Americans had settled as far west as the [[Mississippi River]].{{sfnp|Wood|2009|pp=357–359}} Many in the United States, particularly those in the west, favored further territorial expansion, and especially hoped to annex the Spanish province of [[Louisiana (New Spain)|Louisiana]].{{sfnp|Appleby|2003|pp=63–64}} In early 1803, Jefferson dispatched [[James Monroe]] to France to join ambassador [[Robert R. Livingston (chancellor)|Robert Livingston]] on a diplomatic mission to purchase New Orleans.{{sfnp|Nugent|2008|pp=61–62}} To the surprise of the American delegation, Napoleon offered to sell the entire territory of Louisiana for $15 million.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|p=108}} After Secretary of State James Madison gave his assurances that the purchase was well within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution, the [[United States Senate|Senate]] quickly ratified the treaty, and the House immediately authorized funding.<ref name="Rodriguez97">[[#Rodriguez|Rodriguez, 2002]], p. 97.</ref> The Louisiana Purchase nearly doubled the size of the United States, and Treasury Secretary Gallatin was forced to borrow from foreign banks to finance the payment to France.{{sfnp|Appleby|2003|pp=64–65}} Though the Louisiana Purchase was widely popular, some Federalists criticized it; Congressman [[Fisher Ames]] argued that "We are to spend money of which we have too little for land of which we already have too much."{{sfnp|Wood|2009|pp=369–370}}

By 1804, Vice President Burr had thoroughly alienated Jefferson, and the Democratic-Republican presidential nominating caucus chose George Clinton as Jefferson's running mate for the [[1804 United States presidential election|1804 presidential election]]. That same year, Burr challenged Hamilton to a [[Burr–Hamilton duel|duel]] after taking offense to a comment allegedly made by Hamilton; Hamilton died in the subsequent duel. Bolstered by a superior party organization, Jefferson won the 1804 election in a landslide over Federalist candidate Charles Cotesworth Pinckney.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=115–116}} In 1807, as the [[Napoleonic Wars]] continued, the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] announced the [[Orders in Council (1807)|Orders in Council]], which called for a blockade on French-controlled ports.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|p=12}} In response to subsequent British and French searches of American shipping, the Jefferson administration passed the [[Embargo Act of 1807]], which cut off American trade with Europe.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|p=13}} The embargo proved unpopular and difficult to enforce, especially in Federalist-leaning [[New England]], and expired at the end of Jefferson's second term.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=130–134}} Jefferson declined to seek a third term in the [[1808 United States presidential election|1808 presidential election]], but helped Madison triumph over George Clinton and James Monroe at the party's congressional nominating caucus. Madison won the general election in a landslide over Pinckney.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=134–135}}

===Madison's presidency, 1809–1817===
{{Further|Presidency of James Madison}}
{{multiple image|align=right|total_width=300|image1=Unsuccessful 1824 3.jpg|image2=George Peter Alexander Healy - Portrait of John C. Calhoun (ca. 1845) - Google Art Project (3x4 cropped).jpg|caption1=[[Henry Clay]]|caption2=[[John C. Calhoun]]}}
As attacks on American shipping continued after Madison took office, both Madison and the broader American public moved towards war.<ref>{{harvp|Wills|2002|pages=94–96}}.</ref> Public resentment towards Britain led to the election of a new generation of Democratic-Republican leaders, including [[Henry Clay]] and [[John C. Calhoun]], who championed high [[Tariffs in United States history|tariffs]], federally funded [[internal improvement]]s and a jingoistic attitude towards Britain.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=147–148}} On June 1, 1812, Madison asked Congress for a declaration of war.<ref>{{harvp|Wills|2002|pages=95–96}}.</ref> The declaration was passed largely along sectional and party lines, with intense opposition coming from the Federalists and some other congressmen from the Northeast.<ref name="RRA 217-224">Rutland, ''James Madison: The Founding Father'', pp. 217–24</ref> For many who favored war, national honor was at stake; [[John Quincy Adams]] wrote that the only alternative to war was "the abandonment of our right as an independent nation."{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|p=156}} George Clinton's nephew, [[DeWitt Clinton]], challenged Madison in the [[1812 United States presidential election|1812 presidential election]]. Though Clinton assembled a formidable coalition of Federalists and anti-Madison Democratic-Republicans, Madison won a close election.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=156–159}}

Madison initially hoped for a quick end to the [[War of 1812]], but the war got off to a disastrous start as multiple American invasions of [[The Canadas|Canada]] were defeated.<ref>{{harvp|Wills|2002|pages=97–98}}.</ref> The United States had more military success in 1813, and American troops under [[William Henry Harrison]] defeated [[Tecumseh's confederacy]] in the [[Battle of the Thames]] in 1814, crushing Indian resistance to [[Territorial evolution of the United States|U.S. expansion]]. Britain shifted troops to North America in 1814 following Napoleon's abdication, and British forces [[Burning of Washington|captured and burnt Washington]] in August 1814.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=160–161}} In early 1815, Madison learned that his negotiators in Europe had signed the [[Treaty of Ghent]], ending the war without major concessions by either side.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|pp=186–188}} Though it had no effect on the treaty, [[Andrew Jackson]]'s victory in the January 1815 [[Battle of New Orleans]] ended the war on a triumphant note.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=175–176}} Napoleon's defeat at the [[Battle of Waterloo]] in June 1815 brought a final end to the Napoleonic Wars and European interference with American shipping.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|pp=192, 201}} With Americans celebrating a successful "second war of independence", the Federalist Party slid towards national irrelevance.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|pp=211–212}} The subsequent period of virtually one-party rule by the Democratic-Republican Party is known as the "[[Era of Good Feelings]]."{{citation needed|date=October 2019}}

In his first term, Madison and his allies had largely hewed to Jefferson's domestic agenda of low taxes and a reduction of the national debt, and Congress allowed the national bank's charter to expire during Madison's first term.{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|pp=20, 68–70}} The challenges of the War of 1812 led many Democratic-Republicans to reconsider the role of the federal government.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=181–182}} When the [[14th United States Congress|14th Congress]] convened in December 1815, Madison proposed the re-establishment of the national bank, increased spending on the army and the navy, and a tariff designed to [[Protectionism|protect]] American goods from foreign competition. Madison's proposals were strongly criticized by strict constructionists like [[John Randolph of Roanoke|John Randolph]], who argued that Madison's program "out-Hamiltons Alexander Hamilton."{{sfnp|Rutland|1990|pp=195–198}} Responding to Madison's proposals, the 14th Congress compiled one of the most productive legislative records up to that point in history, enacting the [[Tariff of 1816]] and establishing the [[Second Bank of the United States]].{{sfnp|Howe|2007|pp=82–84}} At the party's 1816 [[congressional nominating caucus]], Secretary of State James Monroe defeated Secretary of War [[William H. Crawford]] in a 65-to-54 vote.{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=15–18}} The Federalists offered little opposition in the [[1816 United States presidential election|1816 presidential election]] and Monroe won in a landslide election.{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=18–19}}

===Monroe and Era of Good Feelings, 1817–1825===
{{Further|Presidency of James Monroe}}
[[File:James Monroe White House portrait 1819.jpg|thumb|[[James Monroe]], 5th President of the United States (1817–1825)]]
[[File:ElectoralCollege1824.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Four Democratic-Republicans sought the presidency in 1824: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, William H. Crawford, and Henry Clay.]]
Monroe believed that the existence of political parties was harmful to the United States,{{sfnp|Howe|pp=93–94}} and he sought to usher in the end of the Federalist Party by avoiding divisive policies and welcoming ex-Federalists into the fold.{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=19–21}} Monroe favored infrastructure projects to promote economic development and, despite some constitutional concerns, signed bills providing federal funding for the [[National Road]] and other projects.<ref name="JM:DA">{{Cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/monroe/domestic-affairs |title=James Monroe: Domestic Affairs |author-first1=Daniel|author-last1=Preston|date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |access-date=February 22, 2017}}</ref> Partly due to the mismanagement of national bank president [[William Jones (statesman)|William Jones]], the country experienced a prolonged economic recession known as the [[Panic of 1819]].{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=206–207}} The panic engendered a widespread resentment of the national bank and a distrust of [[banknote|paper money]] that would influence national politics long after the recession ended.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=209–210, 251–252}} Despite the ongoing economic troubles, the Federalists failed to field a serious challenger to Monroe in the [[1820 United States presidential election|1820 presidential election]], and Monroe won re-election essentially unopposed.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|p=217}}

During the proceedings over the admission of [[Missouri Territory]] as a state, Congressman [[James Tallmadge, Jr.]] of New York "tossed a bombshell into the Era of Good Feelings" by proposing amendments providing for the eventual exclusion of slavery from Missouri.{{sfnp|Howe|2007|p=147}} The amendments sparked the first major national [[slavery in the United States|slavery]] debate since the ratification of the Constitution,{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=28–29}} and instantly exposed the [[Sectionalism|sectional]] polarization over the issue of slavery.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2004|p=376|ps=: "[T]he sectional divisions among the Jeffersonian Republicans...offers historical paradoxes...in which hard-line slaveholding Southern Republicans rejected the egalitarian ideals of the slaveholder [Thomas] Jefferson while the antislavery Northern Republicans upheld them – even as Jefferson himself supported slavery's expansion on purportedly antislavery grounds.}} Northern Democratic-Republicans formed a coalition across partisan lines with the remnants of the Federalist Party in support of the amendments, while Southern Democratic-Republicans were almost unanimously against such the restrictions.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2004|pp=380, 386}} In February 1820, Congressman [[Jesse B. Thomas]] of [[Illinois]] proposed [[Missouri Compromise|a compromise]], in which Missouri would be admitted as a slave state, but slavery would be excluded in the remaining [[Territories of the United States|territories]] north of the [[parallel 36°30′ north]].{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=101–103}} A bill based on Thomas's proposal became law in April 1820.{{sfnp|Cunningham|1996|pp=103–104}}

By 1824, the Federalist Party had largely collapsed as a national party, and the [[1824 United States presidential election|1824 presidential election]] was waged by competing members of the Democratic-Republican Party.{{sfnp|Parsons|2009|pages=70–72}} The party's congressional nominating caucus was largely ignored, and candidates were instead nominated by state legislatures.{{sfnp|Parsons|2009|pages=79–86}} Secretary of State John Quincy Adams, former Speaker of the House Henry Clay, Secretary of the Treasury William Crawford, and General [[Andrew Jackson]] emerged as the major candidates in the election.{{sfnp|Kaplan|2014|pages=386–389}} The regional strength of each candidate played an important role in the election; Adams was popular in New England, Clay and Jackson were strong in the West, and Jackson and Crawford competed for the South.{{sfnp|Kaplan|2014|pages=386–389}}

As no candidate won a majority of the electoral vote in the 1824 election, the House of Representatives held a [[contingent election]] to determine the president.{{sfnp|Kaplan|2014|pages=391–393, 398}} Clay personally disliked Adams but nonetheless supported him in the contingent election over Crawford, who opposed Clay's nationalist policies, and Jackson, whom Clay viewed as a potential tyrant.{{efn|Clay himself was not eligible in the contingent election because the House could only choose from the top-three candidates in the electoral vote tally. Clay finished a close fourth to Crawford in the electoral vote.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=254–255}}}} With Clay's backing, Adams won the contingent election.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=254–255}} After Clay accepted appointment as Secretary of State, Jackson's supporters claimed that Adams and Clay had reached a "[[Corrupt Bargain]]" in which Adams promised Clay the appointment in return for Clay's support in the contingent election.{{sfnp|Kaplan|2014|pages=391–393, 398}} Jackson, who was deeply angered by the result of the contingent election, returned to Tennessee, where the state legislature quickly nominated him for president in the [[1828 United States presidential election|1828 election]].{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=256–257}}

=== Final years, 1825–1829 ===
{{Further|Presidency of John Quincy Adams}}
[[File:JQA Photo Crop.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|[[John Quincy Adams]] won the 1824 presidential election as a Democratic-Republican after leaving the Federalist Party earlier in his career.]]
Adams shared Monroe's goal of ending partisan conflict, and his Cabinet included individuals of various ideological and regional backgrounds.<ref>{{harvp|Parsons|2009|pages=106–107}}.</ref> In his 1825 annual message to Congress, Adams presented a comprehensive and ambitious agenda, calling for major investments in internal improvements as well as the creation of a national university, a naval academy, and a national astronomical observatory.<ref>{{harvp|Kaplan|2014|pages=402–403}}.</ref> His requests to Congress galvanized the opposition, spurring the creation of an anti-Adams congressional coalition consisting of supporters of Jackson, Crawford, and Vice President Calhoun.<ref>{{harvp|Parsons|2009|pages=114–120}}.</ref> Following the 1826 elections, Calhoun and [[Martin Van Buren]] (who brought along many of Crawford's supporters) agreed to throw their support behind Jackson in the [[1828 United States presidential election|1828 election]].<ref>{{harvp|Parsons|2009|pages=127–128}}.</ref> In the press, the two major political factions were referred to as "Adams Men" and "Jackson Men".<ref name="Howe 2007 251">{{harvp|Howe|2007|p=251}}</ref>

The [[Jacksonian democracy|Jacksonians]] formed an effective party apparatus that adopted many modern campaign techniques and emphasized Jackson's popularity and the supposed corruption of Adams and the federal government.<ref>{{harvp|Howe|2007|pp=275–277}}</ref> Though Jackson did not articulate a detailed political platform in the same way that Adams did, his coalition was united in opposition to Adams's reliance on government planning and tended to favor the opening of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] lands to white settlement.<ref>{{harvp|Howe|2007|pp=279–280}}</ref> Ultimately, Jackson won 178 of the 261 electoral votes and just under 56 percent of the popular vote.<ref>{{harvp|Parsons|2009|pages=181–183}}.</ref> Jackson won 50.3 percent of the popular vote in the free states and 72.6 percent of the vote in the slave states.<ref>{{harvp|Howe|2007|pp=281–283}}</ref> The election marked the permanent end of the Era of Good Feelings and the start of the [[Second Party System]]. The dream of non-partisan politics, shared by Monroe, Adams, and many earlier leaders, was shattered, replaced with Van Buren's ideal of partisan battles between legitimated political parties.<ref name="auto">{{harvp|Parsons|2009|pages=185–187, 195}}.</ref>

== {{anchor|Party Name}} Origins of party name ==
In the 1790s, political parties were new in the United States and people were not accustomed to having formal names for them. There was no single official name for the Democratic-Republican Party, but party members generally called themselves Republicans and voted for what they called the "Republican party", "republican ticket" or "republican interest".<ref name="Republican_name_1">For examples of original quotes and documents from various states, see Cunningham, Noble E., ''Jeffersonian Republicans: The Formation of Party Organization: 1789–1801'' (1957), pp. 48, 63–66, 97, 99, 103, 110, 111, 112, 144, 151, 153, 156, 157, 161, 163, 188, 196, 201, 204, 213, 218 and 234.<br />See also "[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbpe&fileName=rbpe09/rbpe099/09901000/rbpe09901000.db&recNum=1&itemLink=r?ammem/rbpebib:@field%28NUMBER+@band%28rbpe+09901000%29%29:&linkText=0 Address of the Republican committee of the County of Gloucester, New-Jersey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171021164216/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbpe&fileName=rbpe09%2Frbpe099%2F09901000%2Frbpe09901000.db&recNum=1&itemLink=r%3Fammem%2Frbpebib%3A%40field%28NUMBER+%40band%28rbpe+09901000%29%29%3A&linkText=0 |date=October 21, 2017 }}", Gloucester County, December 15, 1800.</ref><ref name="Republican_name_2">Jefferson used the term "republican party" in a letter to Washington in May 1792 to refer to those in Congress who were his allies and who supported the existing republican constitution. {{Cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mtj:@field%28DOCID+@lit%28tj060237%29%29 |title=Thomas Jefferson to George Washington, May 23, 1792 |access-date=October 4, 2006}} At a conference with Washington a year later, Jefferson referred to "what is called the republican party here". Bergh, ed. ''Writings of Thomas Jefferson'' (1907) 1:385, 8:345</ref> Jefferson and Madison often used the terms "republican" and "Republican party" in their letters.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mjm&fileName=05/mjm05.db&recNum=591 |title=James Madison to Thomas Jefferson, March 2, 1794 |access-date=October 14, 2006}} "I see by a paper of last evening that even in New York a meeting of the people has taken place, at the instance of the Republican party, and that a committee is appointed for the like purpose." See also: Smith, 832.<br />{{Cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mjm&fileName=11/mjm11.db&recNum=94 |title=James Madison to William Hayward, March 21, 1809. Address to the Republicans of Talbot Co. Maryland |access-date=October 27, 2006}}<br />{{Cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mtj:@field%28DOCID+@lit%28tj060237%29%29 |title=Thomas Jefferson to John Melish, January 13, 1813 |access-date=October 27, 2006}} "The party called republican is steadily for the support of the present constitution"<br />{{Cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mjm&fileName=17/mjm17.db&recNum=308 |title=James Madison to Baltimore Republican Committee, April 22, 1815 |access-date=October 27, 2006}}<br />{{Cite web |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mjm&fileName=20/mjm20.db&recNum=428 |title=James Madison to William Eustis, May 22, 1823 |access-date=October 27, 2006}} [https://books.google.com/books?id=I6tLmjLqRfAC&pg=PA317 Transcript]. "The people are now able every where to compare the principles and policy of those who have borne the name of Republicans or Democrats with the career of the adverse party and to see and feel that the former are as much in harmony with the Spirit of the Nation as the latter was at variance with both."</ref> As a general term (not a party name), the word republican had been in widespread usage from the 1770s to describe the type of government the break-away colonies wanted to form: a republic of three separate branches of government derived from some principles and structure from ancient republics; especially the emphasis on [[civic duty]] and the opposition to corruption, elitism, aristocracy and monarchy.<ref>Banning, 79–90.</ref>

The term "Democratic-Republican" was used by contemporaries only occasionally,<ref name="drname">See ''The Aurora General Advertiser'' (Philadelphia), April. 30, 1795, p. 3; ''New Hampshire Gazette'' (Portsmouth), October 15, 1796, p. 3; ''Claypoole's American Daily Advertiser'' (Philadelphia), October 10, 1797, p. 3; ''Columbian Centinel'' (Boston), September 15, 1798, p. 2; ''Alexandria (VA) Times'', October 8, 1798, p. 2; ''Daily Advertiser'' (New York), September 22, 1800, p. 2 & November 25, 1800, p. 2; ''The Oracle of Dauphin'' (Harrisburg), October 6, 1800, p. 3; ''Federal Gazette'' (Baltimore), October 23, 1800, p. 3; ''The Spectator'' (New York), October 25, 1800, p. 3; ''Poulson's American Daily Advertiser'' (Philadelphia), November 19, 1800, p. 3; ''Windham (CT) Herald'', November 20, 1800, p. 2; ''City Gazette'' (Charleston), November 22, 1800, p. 2; ''The American Mercury'' (Hartford), November 27, 1800, p. 3; and ''[[Constitutional Telegraphe]]'' (Boston), November 29, 1800, p. 3.<br/>After 1802, some local organizations slowly began merging "Democratic" into their own name and became known as the "Democratic Republicans". Examples include [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page025.db&recNum=1138 1802], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/rbpebib:@OR%28@field%28AUTHOR+@3%28Independent+Republican+Citizens,+Philadelphia+County++%29%29+@field%28OTHER+@3%28Independent+Republican+Citizens,+Philadelphia+County++%29%29%29 1803], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/S?ammem/rbpebib:@OR%28@field%28TITLE+@od1%28To+the+Democratic+Republican+electors,+of+the+State+of+Pennsylvania++Fellow+Citizens++The+choice+of+electors+of+the+President+and+Vice-President,+is+to+be+made+on+Friday,+the+2d+of+November+++++Benjamin+Franklin+Bache++%5B1804+++%29%29+@field%28ALTTITLE+@od1%28To+the+Democratic+Republican+electors,+of+the+State+of+Pennsylvania++Fellow+Citizens++The+choice+of+electors+of+the+President+and+Vice-President,+is+to+be+made+on+Friday,+the+2d+of+November+++++Benjamin+Franklin+Bache++%5B1804+++%29%29%29 1804], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(sj003543)) 1804], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/rbpebib:@OR%28@field%28AUTHOR+@3%28Democratic+Republican+corresponding+committee++Newcastle+County++Delaware++%29%29+@field%28OTHER+@3%28Democratic+Republican+corresponding+committee++Newcastle+County++Delaware++%29%29%29 1805], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page036.db&recNum=1114 1806], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page037.db&recNum=643 1807], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page041.db&recNum=667 1808], [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=mtj1&fileName=mtj1page043.db&recNum=1023 1809].</ref> but is used by modern political scientists.{{sfnp|Brown|1999|p=17}} Historians often refer to the "Jeffersonian Republicans".<ref>{{cite news |last=Onuf |first=Peter |url=https://millercenter.org/president/jefferson/impact-and-legacy |title=Thomas Jefferson: Impact and Legacy |date=August 12, 2019 |publisher=Miller Center}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/defense/energy-government-and-defense-magazines/jeffersonian-republican-party |title=Jeffersonian Republican Party |website=Encyclopedia.com |publisher=The Gale Group |access-date=August 12, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Webster |first=Noah |url=https://archive.org/details/acollectionpape00websgoog |title=A Collection of Papers on Political, Literary, and Moral Subjects |publisher=Webster & Clark |year=1843 |page=[https://archive.org/details/acollectionpape00websgoog/page/n338 332] |quote=From the time when the anti-federal party assumed the more popular appellation of republican, which was soon after the arrival of the French minister in 1793, that epithet became a powerful instrument in the process of making proselytes to the party. The influence of names on the mass of mankind, was never more distinctly exhibited, than in the increase of the democratic party in the United States. |author-link=Noah Webster}}</ref> The term "Democratic Party" was first used pejoratively by Federalist opponents.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Kenneth |last1=Janda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VZ6aBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA212 |title=The Challenge of Democracy: American Government in Global Politics 13th ed. |first2=Jeffrey M. |last2=Berry |first3=Jerry |last3=Goldman|first4=Deborah |last4=Deborah |publisher=[[Cengage Learning]] |year=2015 |isbn=9781305537439 |page=212}}</ref><ref>In a private letter in September 1798, George Washington wrote, "You could as soon as scrub the blackamore white, as to change the principles of a profest Democrat; and that he will leave nothing unattempted to overturn the Government of this Country." {{cite book |last=George Washington |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x4GyAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA474 |title=The Writings of George Washington from the Original Manuscript Sources 1745-1799 Volume 36 August 4, 1797-October 28, 1798 |year=1939 |isbn=9781623764463 |page=474| publisher=Best Books on }}</ref> Historians argue that the party died out before the present-day [[History of the Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] was formed. However, since the days of Franklin Roosevelt Democratic politicians proudly claim Jefferson as their founder.<ref name="bill 2047">{{citation|title= S.2047 – A bill to establish a commission to commemorate the bicentennial of the establishment of the Democratic Party of the United States.|author=((102nd Congress))|url=https://www.congress.gov/bill/102nd-congress/senate-bill/2047/text|year=1991}} "In 1992, the Democratic Party of the United States will celebrate the 200th anniversary of its establishment on May 13, 1792... Thomas Jefferson founded the first political party in the United States, the Democratic Party, which was originally known as the Republican Party."</ref>

== Ideology ==
{{Further|Jeffersonian democracy|Thomas Jefferson#Political, social and religious views}}
{{liberalism US|parties}}
The Democratic-Republican Party saw itself as a champion of republicanism and denounced the Federalists as supporters of monarchy and aristocracy.<ref name="sharp/">James Roger Sharp, ''American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis'' (1993).</ref>{{page needed|date=October 2019}} Ralph Brown writes that the party was marked by a "commitment to broad principles of personal liberty, social mobility, and westward expansion."{{sfnp|Brown|1999|p=19}} Political scientist James A. Reichley writes that "the issue that most sharply divided the Jeffersonians from the Federalists was not states rights, nor the national debt, nor the national Bank... but the question of social equality."{{sfnp|Reichley|2000|p=52}} In a world in which few believed in democracy or egalitarianism, Jefferson's belief in political equality stood out from many of the other leaders who held that the wealthy should lead society. His opponents, says Susan Dunn{{who|date=November 2022}}, warned that Jefferson's "Republicans would turn America upside down, permitting the [[hoi polloi]] to govern the nation and unseating the wealthy social elite, long accustomed to wielding political power and governing the nation."<ref>Susan Dunn, ''Jefferson's second revolution: the election crisis of 1800 and the triumph of republicanism'' (HMH, 2004) p 1.</ref> Jefferson advocated a philosophy that historians call [[Jeffersonian democracy]], which was marked by his belief in [[agrarianism]] and [[limited government|strict limits on the national government]].{{sfnp|Appleby|2003|pp=1–5}} Influenced by the Jeffersonian belief in equality, by 1824 all but three states had removed property-owning requirements for voting.{{sfnp|Reichley|2000|p=57}}

Though open to some redistributive measures, Jefferson saw a strong centralized government as a threat to freedom.{{sfnp|Reichley|2000|pp=55–56}} Thus, the Democratic-Republicans opposed Federalist efforts to build a strong, centralized state, and resisted the establishment of a national bank, the build-up of the army and the navy, and passage of the Alien and Sedition Acts.{{sfnp|Reichley|2000|pp=51–52}} Jefferson was especially averse to a national debt, which he believed to be inherently dangerous and immoral.{{sfnp|McDonald|1976|pp=42–43}} After the party took power in 1800, Jefferson became increasingly concerned about foreign intervention and more open to programs of economic development conducted by the federal government. In an effort to promote economic growth and the development of a diversified economy, Jefferson's Democratic-Republican successors would oversee the construction of numerous federally funded infrastructure projects and implement protective tariffs.{{sfnp|Brown|1999|pp=19–20}}

While economic policies were the original catalyst to the partisan split between the Democratic-Republicans and the Federalists, foreign policy was also a major factor that divided the parties. Most Americans supported the French Revolution prior to the [[Execution of Louis XVI]] in 1793, but Federalists began to fear the radical egalitarianism of the revolution as it became increasingly violent.<ref name="auto1"/> Jefferson and other Democratic-Republicans defended the French Revolution{{Sfnp|Reichley|2000|pp=35–36}} until [[Napoleon]] ascended to power.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|p=108}} Democratic-Republican foreign policy was marked by support for expansionism, as Jefferson championed the concept of an "[[Empire of Liberty]]" that centered on the acquisition and settlement of western territories.{{sfnp|Wood|2009|pp=357–358}} Under Jefferson, Madison, and Monroe, the United States completed the Louisiana Purchase, acquired [[Spanish Florida]], and reached a treaty with Britain providing for shared sovereignty over [[Oregon Country]].{{citation needed|date=October 2019}} In 1823, the Monroe administration promulgated the [[Monroe Doctrine]], which reiterated the traditional [[United States non-interventionism|U.S. policy of neutrality]] with regard to European wars and conflicts, but declared that the United States would not accept the recolonization of any country by its former European master.<ref name="JMforeign">{{cite web |url=https://millercenter.org/president/monroe/foreign-affairs |title=James Monroe: Foreign Affairs |date=October 4, 2016 |publisher=Miller Center of Public Affairs, University of Virginia |access-date=February 25, 2017}}</ref>

=== Slavery ===
From the foundation of the party, slavery divided the Democratic-Republicans. Many Southern Democratic-Republicans, especially from the Deep South, defended the institution. Jefferson and many other Democratic-Republicans from Virginia held an ambivalent view on slavery; Jefferson believed it was an immoral institution, but he opposed the immediate emancipation of all slaves on social and economic grounds. Instead, he favored gradual phasing out of the institution.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=136–137}} Meanwhile, Northern Democratic-Republicans often took stronger anti-slavery positions than their Federalist counterparts, supporting measures like the abolition of slavery in Washington. In 1807, with President Jefferson's support, Congress [[Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves|outlawed]] the [[Atlantic slave trade|international slave trade]], doing so at the earliest possible date allowed by the Constitution.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=218–221}}

After the War of 1812, Southerners increasingly came to view slavery as a beneficial institution rather than an unfortunate economic necessity, further polarizing the party over the issue.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=218–221}} Anti-slavery Northern Democratic-Republicans held that slavery was incompatible with the equality and individual rights promised by the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. They further held that slavery had been permitted under the Constitution only as a local and impermanent exception, and thus, slavery should not be allowed to spread outside of the original thirteen states. The anti-slavery positions developed by Northern Democratic-Republicans would influence later anti-slavery parties, including the [[Free Soil Party]] and the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]].{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=225–227}} Some Democratic-Republicans from the border states, including [[Henry Clay]], continued to adhere to the Jeffersonian view of slavery as a necessary evil; many of these leaders joined the [[American Colonization Society]], which proposed the voluntary recolonization of Africa as part of a broader plan for the gradual emancipation of slaves.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=228–229}}

== Base of support ==
[[File:First Party System.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|Presidential election results from 1796 to 1824. Darker shades of green indicate that the state generally supported the Democratic-Republicans, and darker shades of brown indicate that the state generally supported the Federalists.]]

Madison and Jefferson formed the Democratic-Republican Party from a combination of former Anti-Federalists and supporters of the Constitution who were dissatisfied with the Washington administration's policies.{{sfnp|Reichley|2000|pp=36–37}} Nationwide, Democratic-Republicans were strongest in the South, and many of party's leaders were wealthy Southern slaveowners. The Democratic-Republicans also attracted middle class Northerners, such as artisans, farmers, and lower-level merchants, who were eager to challenge the power of the local elite.{{sfnp|Wood|2009|pp=166–168}} Every state had a distinct political geography that shaped party membership; in Pennsylvania, the Republicans were weakest around [[Philadelphia]] and strongest in [[Scots-Irish American|Scots-Irish]] settlements in the west.<ref>Klein, 44.</ref> The Federalists had broad support in New England, but in other places they relied on wealthy merchants and landowners.{{sfnp|Wood|2009|pp=168–171}} After 1800, the Federalists collapsed in the South and West, though the party remained competitive in New England and in some [[Mid-Atlantic (United States)|Mid-Atlantic]] states.{{sfnp|Reichley|2000|p=54}}

== Factions ==
[[File:John Wesley Jarvis - John Randolph - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|[[John Randolph of Roanoke]] was a prominent member of a group of Southern plantation owners known as the [[Old Republican]]s.]]
Historian [[Sean Wilentz]] writes that, after assuming power in 1801, the Democratic-Republicans began to factionalize into three main groups: moderates, radicals, and [[Old Republicans]].{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|p=100}} The Old Republicans, led by [[John Randolph of Roanoke|John Randolph]], were a loose group of influential Southern plantation owners who strongly favored states' rights and denounced any form of compromise with the Federalists. The radicals consisted of a wide array of individuals from different sections of the country who were characterized by their support for far-reaching political and economic reforms; prominent radicals include [[William Duane (journalist)|William Duane]] and [[Michael Leib]], who jointly led a powerful [[political machine]] in Philadelphia. The moderate faction consisted of many former supporters of the ratification of the Constitution, including James Madison, who were more accepting of Federalist economic programs and sought conciliation with moderate Federalists.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=105–107}}

After 1810, a younger group of nationalist Democratic-Republicans, led by Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun, rose to prominence. These nationalists favored federally funded internal improvements and high tariffs, positions that would form the basis for Clay's [[American System (economic plan)|American System]].{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=144–148}} In addition to its base among the leaders of Clay and Calhoun's generation, nationalist policies also proved attractive to many older Democratic-Republicans, including James Monroe.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=202–203}} The Panic of 1819 sparked a backlash against nationalist policies, and many of those opposed to the nationalist policies rallied around William H. Crawford until he had a major stroke in 1823.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=241–242}} After the 1824 election, most of Crawford's followers, including Martin Van Buren, gravitated to Andrew Jackson, forming a major part of the coalition that propelled Jackson to victory in the 1828 election.{{sfnp|Wilentz|2005|pp=294–296}}

== {{anchor|Organizational Strategy}} Organizational strategy ==
The Democratic-Republican Party invented campaign and organizational techniques that were later adopted by the Federalists and became standard American practice. It was especially effective in building a network of [[History of American newspapers|newspapers]] in major cities to broadcast its statements and editorialize its policies.<ref>Jeffrey L. Pasley. ''"The Tyranny of Printers": Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic'' (2003)</ref> [[Fisher Ames]], a leading Federalist, used the term "[[Jacobin (politics)|Jacobin]]" to link members of Jefferson's party to the radicals of the [[French Revolution]]. He blamed the newspapers for electing Jefferson and wrote they were "an overmatch for any Government.... The Jacobins owe their triumph to the unceasing use of this engine; not so much to skill in use of it as by repetition".{{sfnp|Cunningham|1957|p=167}}

As one historian explained: "It was the good fortune of the Republicans to have within their ranks a number of highly gifted political manipulators and propagandists. Some of them had the ability... to not only see and analyze the problem at hand but to present it in a succinct fashion; in short, to fabricate the apt phrase, to coin the compelling slogan and appeal to the electorate on any given issue in language it could understand". Outstanding propagandists included editor William Duane (1760–1835) and party leaders [[Albert Gallatin]], [[Thomas Cooper (American politician, born 1759)|Thomas Cooper]] and Jefferson himself.<ref>Tinkcom, 271.</ref> Just as important was effective party organization of the sort that [[John J. Beckley]] pioneered. In 1796, he managed the Jefferson campaign in Pennsylvania, blanketing the state with agents who passed out 30,000 hand-written tickets, naming all 15 electors (printed tickets were not allowed). Beckley told one agent: "In a few days a select republican friend from the City will call upon you with a parcel of tickets to be distributed in your County. Any assistance and advice you can furnish him with, as to suitable districts & characters, will I am sure be rendered". Beckley was the first American professional campaign manager and his techniques were quickly adopted in other states.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Cunningham |first=Noble E. |year=1956 |title=John Beckley: An Early American Party Manager |journal=The William and Mary Quarterly |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=40–52 |doi=10.2307/1923388 |jstor=1923388}}</ref>

The emergence of the new organizational strategies can be seen in the politics of [[Connecticut]] around 1806, which have been well documented by Cunningham. The Federalists dominated Connecticut, so the Republicans had to work harder to win. In 1806, the state leadership sent town leaders instructions for the forthcoming elections. Every town manager was told by state leaders "to appoint a district manager in each district or section of his town, obtaining from each an assurance that he will faithfully do his duty". Then the town manager was instructed to compile lists and total the number of taxpayers and the number of eligible voters, find out how many favored the Republicans and how many the Federalists and to count the number of supporters of each party who were not eligible to vote but who might qualify (by age or taxes) at the next election. These highly detailed returns were to be sent to the county manager and in turn were compiled and sent to the state manager. Using these lists of potential voters, the managers were told to get all eligible people to town meetings and help the young men qualify to vote. The state manager was responsible for supplying party newspapers to each town for distribution by town and district managers.<ref>Cunningham (1963), 129.</ref> This highly coordinated "[[get out the vote|get-out-the-vote]]" drive would be familiar to future political campaigners, but was the first of its kind in world history.

=={{anchor|Claims to the Party's Heritage}} Legacy==
{{further|Second Party System}}
{{see also|Thomas Jefferson#Legacy}}
[[File:Andrew jackson head.jpg|thumb|upright=1|[[Andrew Jackson]] led a faction of Democratic-Republicans that ultimately coalesced into the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]].]]
The Federalists collapsed after 1815, beginning a period known as the [[Era of Good Feelings]]. After the [[1824 United States presidential election|1824 presidential election]] the Democratic-Republicans split into factions. The coalition of Jacksonians, Calhounites, and Crawfordites built by [[Andrew Jackson]] and [[Martin Van Buren]] coalesced into the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], which dominated presidential politics in the decades prior to the Civil War. Supporters of [[John Quincy Adams]] and [[Henry Clay]] would form the main opposition to Jackson as the [[National Republican Party]], which in turn eventually formed part of the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]], which was the second major party in the United States between the 1830s and the early 1850s.<ref name="auto" /> The diverse and changing nature of the Democratic-Republican Party allowed both major parties to claim that they stood for Jeffersonian principles.{{sfnp|Brown|1999|pp=18–19}} Historian [[Daniel Walker Howe]] writes that Democrats traced their heritage to the "Old Republicanism of [[Nathaniel Macon|Macon]] and [[William H. Crawford|Crawford]]", while the Whigs looked to "the new Republican nationalism of [[James Madison|Madison]] and [[Albert Gallatin|Gallatin]]."{{sfnp|Howe|2007|p=582}}

The Whig Party fell apart in the 1850s due to divisions over the expansion of slavery into new territories. The modern [[History of the United States Republican Party|Republican Party]] was formed in 1854 to oppose the expansion of slavery, and many former Whig Party leaders joined the newly formed anti-slavery party.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://content.wisconsinhistory.org/cdm4/document.php?CISOROOT=/tp&CISOPTR=46379&CISOSHOW=46363 |title=''The Origin of the Republican Party'', A.F. Gilman, Ripon College, 1914 |publisher=Content.wisconsinhistory.org |access-date=January 17, 2012}}</ref> The Republican Party sought to combine Jefferson and Jackson's ideals of liberty and equality with Clay's program of using an active government to modernize the economy.<ref>Gould (2003), p. 14.</ref> The Democratic-Republican Party inspired the name and ideology of the Republican Party, but is not directly connected to that party.{{sfnp|Howe|2007|pp=66, 275, 897}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lipset |first=Seymour Martin |url=https://archive.org/stream/politicalmansoci00inlips#page/292/mode/2up |title=Political Man: The Social Bases of Politics |publisher=Garden City, N.Y.,: Doubleday |year=1960 |page=292 |author-link=Seymour Martin Lipset}}</ref>

Fear of a large debt is a major legacy of this party. Andrew Jackson believed the national debt was a "national curse" and he took special pride in paying off the entire national debt in 1835.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Remini |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D8VbWdnrWmkC&pg=PA180 |title=Andrew Jackson |publisher=Macmillan |year=2008 |isbn=9780230614703 |page=180 |first=Robert V.}}</ref> Politicians ever since have used the issue of a high national debt to denounce the other party for profligacy and a threat to fiscal soundness and the nation's future.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nagel |first=Stuart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xJHKeXEhn4MC&pg=PA503 |title=Encyclopedia of Policy Studies |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=1994 |isbn=9780824791421 |edition=2nd |pages=503–504}}</ref>

== Electoral history ==
===Presidential elections===
{{Main|List of Democratic-Republican Party presidential tickets}}

{|class="sortable wikitable"
|-
! rowspan=2 | Election
! colspan=2 | Ticket
! Popular vote
! colspan=2 | [[United States Electoral College|Electoral vote]]

|-
! Presidential nominee
! Running mate
! Percentage
! class=unsortable | Electoral votes
! Ranking
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1796 United States presidential election|1796]]
|rowspan=3|'''[[Thomas Jefferson]]'''{{efn-ua|In his first presidential run, Jefferson did not win the presidency, and Burr did not win the vice presidency. However, under the pre-[[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|12th Amendment]] election rules, Jefferson won the vice presidency due to dissension among Federalist electors.}}
|rowspan=2|'''[[Aaron Burr]]'''{{efn-ua|In their second presidential run, Jefferson and Burr received the same number of electoral votes. Jefferson was subsequently chosen as President by the House of Representatives.}}
| style="text-align:center;"|46.6
|align="left"|{{composition bar|68|138|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}}
| 2
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1800 United States presidential election|1800]]
| style="text-align:center;"|61.4
|align="left"|{{composition bar|73|138|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}}
| 1
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1804 United States presidential election|1804]]
|rowspan=2|'''[[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]]'''
| style="text-align:center;"|72.8
|align="left"|{{composition bar|162|176|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}}
| 1
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1808 United States presidential election|1808]]
|rowspan=2|'''[[James Madison]]'''
| style="text-align:center;"|64.7
|align="left"|{{composition bar|122|176|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}}
| 1
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|[[1812 United States presidential election|1812]]
|'''[[Elbridge Gerry]]'''
| style="text-align:center;"|50.4
|align="left"|{{composition bar|128|217|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}}
| 1
|-
|[[DeWitt Clinton]]{{efn-ua|While commonly labeled as the Federalist candidate, Clinton technically ran as a Democratic-Republican and was not nominated by the Federalist party itself, the latter simply deciding not to field a candidate. This did not prevent endorsements from state Federalist parties (such as in Pennsylvania), but he received the endorsement from the New York state Democratic-Republicans as well.}}
|[[Jared Ingersoll]]
| style="text-align:center;"|47.6
|align="left"|{{composition bar|89|217|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}}
| 2
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1816 United States presidential election|1816]]
|rowspan=2|'''[[James Monroe]]'''
|rowspan=2|'''[[Daniel D. Tompkins]]'''
| style="text-align:center;"|68.2
|align="left"|{{composition bar|183|217|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}}
| 1
|-
| style="text-align:center;"|[[1820 United States presidential election|1820]]
| style="text-align:center;"|80.6
|align="left"|{{composition bar|231|232|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}}
| 1
|-
| rowspan="4" style="text-align:center;"|[[1824 United States presidential election|1824]]{{efn-ua|[[William H. Crawford]] and [[Albert Gallatin]] were nominated for president and vice-president by a group of 66 Congressmen that called itself the "Democratic members of Congress".<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbpe&fileName=rbpe19/rbpe192/1920070a/rbpe1920070a.db&recNum=0 |title=Anti-Caucus/Caucus |date=February 6, 1824 |access-date=November 17, 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170831001556/http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=rbpe&fileName=rbpe19%2Frbpe192%2F1920070a%2Frbpe1920070a.db&recNum=0 |archive-date=August 31, 2017 |publisher=Washington Republican}}</ref> Gallatin later withdrew from the contest. [[Andrew Jackson]], [[John Quincy Adams]] and [[Henry Clay]] ran as Republicans, although they were not nominated by any national body. While Jackson won a plurality in the electoral college and popular vote, he did not win the constitutionally required majority of electoral votes to be elected president. The contest was thrown to the House of Representatives, where Adams won with Clay's support. The electoral college chose [[John C. Calhoun]] for vice president.}}
|[[Andrew Jackson]]
|rowspan=2|'''[[John C. Calhoun]]'''
| style="text-align:center;"|41.4
|align="left"|{{composition bar|99|261|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}}
| 1
|-
|'''[[John Quincy Adams]]'''
| style="text-align:center;"|30.9
|align="left"|{{composition bar|84|261|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}}
| 2
|-
|[[William H. Crawford]]
|[[Nathaniel Macon]]
| style="text-align:center;"|11.2
|align="left"|{{composition bar|41|261|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}}
| 3
|-
|[[Henry Clay]]
|[[Nathan Sanford]]
| style="text-align:center;"|13
|align="left"|{{composition bar|37|261|hex={{party color|Democratic-Republican Party}}}}
| 4
|}
{{notelist-ua}}

===Congressional representation===
{{see also|Party divisions of United States Congresses}}
The affiliation of many Congressmen in the earliest years is an assignment by later historians. The parties were slowly coalescing groups; at first there were many independents. Cunningham noted that only about a quarter of the House of Representatives up until 1794 voted with Madison as much as two-thirds of the time and another quarter against him two-thirds of the time, leaving almost half as fairly independent.{{sfnp|Cunningham|1957|p=82}}

{|class=wikitable style="text-align:center;"
|- valign=bottom
! rowspan=2  | Congress
! rowspan=2  | Years
! rowspan=25 | 
! colspan=5  | Senate<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.senate.gov/history/partydiv.htm |title=Party Division |website=United States Senate}}</ref>
! rowspan=25 | 
! colspan=5  | House of Representatives<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://history.house.gov/Institution/Party-Divisions/Party-Divisions/ |title=Party Divisions of the House of Representatives, 1789 to Present |website=United States House of Representatives}}</ref>
! rowspan=25 | 
! rowspan=2  | President

|- valign=bottom
! Total
! {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | [[Anti-Administration party|Anti-<br/>Admin]]
! {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | [[Federalist Party|Pro-<br/>Admin]]
! [[List of political parties in the United States|Others]]
! Vacancies
! Total
! {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | Anti-<br/>Admin
! {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | Pro-<br/>Admin
! Others
! Vacancies

|-
| [[1st United States Congress|1st]]
| 1789–1791
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | 26
| {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | 8
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | '''18'''
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | 65
| {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | 28
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | '''37'''
| —
| —
| rowspan=3 | [[George Washington]]

|-
| [[2nd United States Congress|2nd]]
| 1791–1793
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | 30
| {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | 13
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | '''16'''
| —
| 1
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | 69
| {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | 30
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | '''39'''
| —
| —

|-
| [[3rd United States Congress|3rd]]
| 1793–1795
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | 30
| {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | 14
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | '''16'''
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | 105
| {{Party shading/Anti-Administration}} | '''54'''
| {{Party shading/Pro-Administration}} | 51
| —
| —

|- valign=bottom
! Congress
! Years
! Total
! {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | [[Democratic-Republican Party (United States)|Democratic-<br/>Republicans]]
! {{Party shading/Federalist}} | [[Federalist Party (United States)|Federalists]]
! Others
! Vacancies
! Total
! {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | Democratic-<br/>Republicans
! {{Party shading/Federalist}} | Federalists
! Others
! Vacancies
! President

|-
| [[4th United States Congress|4th]]
| 1795–1797
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 32
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 11
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | '''21'''
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 106
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''59'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 47
| —
| —
| [[George Washington]]

|-
| [[5th United States Congress|5th]]
| 1797–1799
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 32
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 10
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | '''22'''
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 106
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 49
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | '''57'''
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Federalist}}99 rowspan=2 | [[John Adams]]

|-
| [[6th United States Congress|6th]]
| 1799–1801
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 32
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 10
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | '''22'''
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 106
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 46
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | '''60'''
| —
| —

|-
| [[7th United States Congress|7th]]
| 1801–1803
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 34
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''17'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 15
| —
| 2
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 107
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''68'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 38
| —
| 1
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} rowspan=4 | [[Thomas Jefferson]]

|-
| [[8th United States Congress|8th]]
| 1803–1805
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 34
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''25'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 9
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 142
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''103'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 39
| —
| —

|-
| [[9th United States Congress|9th]]
| 1805–1807
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 34
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''27'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 7
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 142
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''114'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 28
| —
| —

|-
| [[10th United States Congress|10th]]
| 1807–1809
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 34
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''28'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 6
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 142
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''116'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 26
| —
| —

|-
| [[11th United States Congress|11th]]
| 1809–1811
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 34
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''27'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 7
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 142
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''92'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 50
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} rowspan=4 | [[James Madison]]

|-
| [[12th United States Congress|12th]]
| 1811–1813
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 36
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''30'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 6
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 143
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''107'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 36
| —
| —

|-
| [[13th United States Congress|13th]]
| 1813–1815
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 36
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''28'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 8
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 182
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''114'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 68
| —
| —

|-
| [[14th United States Congress|14th]]
| 1815–1817
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 38
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''26'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 12
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 183
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''119'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 64
| —
| —

|-
| [[15th United States Congress|15th]]
| 1817–1819
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 42
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''30'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 12
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 185
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''146'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 39
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} rowspan=4 | [[James Monroe]]

|-
| [[16th United States Congress|16th]]
| 1819–1821
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 46
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''37'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 9
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 186
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''160'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 26
| —
| —

|-
| [[17th United States Congress|17th]]
| 1821–1823
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 48
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''44'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 4
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 187
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''155'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 32
| —
| —

|-
| [[18th United States Congress|18th]]
| 1823–1825
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 48
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''43'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 5
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | 213
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} | '''189'''
| {{Party shading/Federalist}} | 24
| —
| —

|- valign=bottom
! Congress
! Years
! Total
! {{Party shading/Democratic}} | Pro-Jackson
! {{Party shading/National Republican}} | Pro-Adams
! Others
! Vacancies
! Total
! {{Party shading/Democratic}}| Pro-Jackson
! {{Party shading/National Republican}} | Pro-Adams
! Others
! Vacancies
! President

|-
| [[19th United States Congress|19th]]
| 1825–1827
| {{Party shading/Democratic}} | 48
| {{Party shading/Democratic}} | '''26'''
| {{Party shading/National Republican}} | 22
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/National Republican}} | 213
| {{Party shading/Democratic}} | 104
| {{Party shading/National Republican}} | '''109'''
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Democratic-Republican}} rowspan=2 | [[John Quincy Adams]]

|-
| [[20th United States Congress|20th]]
| 1827–1829
| {{Party shading/Democratic}} | 48
| {{Party shading/Democratic}} | '''27'''
| {{Party shading/National Republican}} | 21
| —
| —
| {{Party shading/Democratic}} | 213
| {{Party shading/Democratic}} | '''113'''
| {{Party shading/National Republican}} | 100
| —
| —

|-
! colspan=2 | 
! colspan=5 | Senate
! colspan=5 | House of Representatives
!
|}

== See also ==
* [[American Enlightenment]]
* [[Anti-Federalism]]
* [[History of the Democratic Party (United States)]]
* [[History of U.S. foreign policy, 1801–1829]]
* [[Jacksonian democracy]]
* [[Liberal-Conservative Party]]
* [[List of political parties in the United States]]

== Explanatory notes ==
{{notelist-la}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

=== Works cited ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
*{{Cite book |last=Appleby |first=Joyce Oldham |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7hWOpH0d3E8C |title=Thomas Jefferson: The American Presidents Series: The 3rd President, 1801–1809 |publisher=Henry Holt and Company |year=2003 |isbn=978-0805069242 }}
*{{Cite book |last=Bailey |first=Jeremy D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mWu7GGgkDJUC |title=Thomas Jefferson and Executive Power |publisher=Twenty-First Century Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-1139466295 |ref=Bailey2007}}
* {{cite book | last=Banning |first=Lance |title=The Jeffersonian Persuasion: Evolution of a Party Ideology |year=1978}} [https://archive.org/details/jeffersonianpers0000bann online]
* {{Cite book |last=Bordewich |first=Fergus M. |title=The First Congress |date=2016 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |isbn=978-1-45169193-1 |location=New York }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=David |date=1999 |title=Jeffersonian Ideology and the Second Party System |journal=The Historian |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=17–30 |doi=10.1111/j.1540-6563.1999.tb01431.x |jstor=24450533 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Ralph A. |url=https://archive.org/details/presidencyofjohn0000brow |title=The Presidency of John Adams |date=1975 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=0-7006-0134-1 |series=American Presidency Series |url-access=registration}}
*{{Cite book |last=Chernow |first=Ron |url=https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto00cher |title=Alexander Hamilton |publisher=Penguin Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-1594200090 |ref=Chernow04 |author-link=Ron Chernow |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Noble |title=The Presidency of James Monroe |date=1996 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=0-7006-0728-5 }}
* {{cite book |last=Cunningham | first=Noble E. Jr. |title=The Jeffersonian Republicans: The formation of Party Organization, 1789–1801 |year=1957 |isbn=978-0-835-73909-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/jeffersonianrepu0000cunn | publisher=University of North Carolina Press |location=Chapel Hill, North Carolina}}
* {{cite book |last=Cunningham | first=Noble E. Jr. |title=The Jeffersonian Republicans in Power: Party Operations 1801–1809 |year=1963}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ferling |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/leapindark00ferl |title=A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic |date=2003 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-515924-1 |location=New York |author-link=John E. Ferling}}
* {{Cite book |last=Ferling |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/ascentofgeorgewa00ferl |title=The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an American Icon |date=2009 |publisher=Bloomsbury Press |isbn=978-1-59691-465-0 |location=New York |author-link=John E. Ferling}}
* {{cite book | last=Gould |first=Lewis |title=Grand Old Party: A History of the Republicans |year=2003 |publisher=Random House |isbn=0-375-50741-8}} concerns the party founded in 1854.
* {{Cite book |last=Howe |first=Daniel Walker |url=https://archive.org/details/whathathgodwroug00howe |title=What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America, 1815–1848 |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-507894-7 |series=Oxford History of the United States |oclc=122701433 |ref={{sfnRef|Howe}} |author-link=Daniel Walker Howe}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kaplan |first=Fred |title=John Quincy Adams: American Visionary |date=2014 |publisher=HarperCollins }}
* {{Cite book |last=McDonald |first=Forrest |title=The Presidency of George Washington |date=1974 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0-7006-0359-6 |series=American Presidency |author-link=Forrest McDonald}}
* {{Cite book |last=McDonald |first=Forrest |url=https://archive.org/details/presidencyofthom0000mcdo |title=The Presidency of Thomas Jefferson |date=1976 |publisher=University Press of Kansas |isbn=978-0700603305 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Meacham |first=Jon |url=https://archive.org/details/thomasjeffersona00meac |title=Thomas Jefferson: The Art of Power |publisher=Random House LLC |year=2012 |isbn=978-0679645368 |ref=Meacham |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nugent |first=Walter |url=https://archive.org/details/habitsofempirehi00nuge |title=Habits of Empire: A History of American Expansion |date=2008 |publisher=Knopf |isbn=978-1400042920 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Parsons |first=Lynn H. |url=https://archive.org/details/birthofmodernpol00lynn |title=The Birth of Modern Politics: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams, and the Election of 1828 |publisher=Oxford Univ. Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-531287-4 |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Reichley |first=A. James |title=The Life of the Parties: A History of American Political Parties |date=2000 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |isbn=0-7425-0888-9 |edition=Paperback |orig-year=1992}}
* {{Cite book | last=Rutland |first=Robert A |title=The Presidency of James Madison |publisher=Univ. Press of Kansas |year=1990 |isbn=978-0700604654}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Thompson |first=Harry C. |date=1980 |title=The Second Place in Rome: John Adams as Vice President |journal=Presidential Studies Quarterly |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=171–178 |jstor=27547562}}
* {{cite book | last=Tinkcom |first=Harry M. |title=The Republicans and Federalists in Pennsylvania, 1790–1801 |year=1950}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Wilentz |first=Sean |author-link=Sean Wilentz |date=September 2004 |title=Jeffersonian Democracy and the Origins of Political Antislavery in the United States: The Missouri Crisis Revisited |journal=Journal of the Historical Society |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=375–401 |doi=10.1111/j.1529-921X.2004.00105.x }}
* {{Cite book |last=Wilentz |first=Sean |title=The Rise of American Democracy: Jefferson to Lincoln |date=2005 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=0-393-05820-4}}
* {{cite book | last=Wills |first=Garry |title=James Madison: The American Presidents Series: The 4th President, 1809-1817 |publisher=Times Books |year=2002}}
* {{Cite book |last=Wood |first=Gordon S. |url=https://archive.org/details/empireoflibertyh00wood |title=Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789-1815 |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-503914-6 |series=Oxford History of the United States }}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|30em}}

* Beard, Charles A. ''Economic Origins of Jeffersonian Democracy'' (1915). [https://archive.org/details/economicorigins01beargoog online]
* Brown, Stuart Gerry. ''The First Republicans: Political Philosophy and Public Policy in the Party of Jefferson and Madison'' 1954.
* Chambers, Wiliam Nisbet. ''Political Parties in a New Nation: The American Experience, 1776–1809'' (1963). [https://archive.org/details/politicalparties0000cham_r7n3 online]
* Cornell, Saul. ''The Other Founders: Anti-Federalism and the Dissenting Tradition in America, 1788–1828'' (1999) ({{ISBN|0-8078-2503-4}}).
* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. ''The Process of Government Under Jefferson'' (1978).
* Dawson, Matthew Q. ''Partisanship and the Birth of America's Second Party, 1796–1800: Stop the Wheels of Government.'' Greenwood, 2000.
* Dougherty, Keith L. "TRENDS: Creating Parties in Congress: The Emergence of a Social Network." ''Political Research Quarterly'' 73.4 (2020): 759–773. [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Keith-Dougherty/publication/342499908_Creating_Parties_in_Congress_The_Emergence_of_a_Social_Network/links/6079ed11881fa114b409faef/Creating-Parties-in-Congress-The-Emergence-of-a-Social-Network.pdf online]
* [[Stanley Elkins|Elkins, Stanley M.]] and Eric McKitrick. ''The Age of Federalism'' (1995), detailed political history of 1790s.
* Ferling, John. ''Adams Vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800'' (2004) ({{ISBN|0-19-516771-6}}).
* {{Cite book |last=Ferling |first=John |url=https://archive.org/details/ascentofgeorgewa00ferl |title=The Ascent of George Washington: The Hidden Political Genius of an American Icon |date=2009 |publisher=Bloomsbury Press |isbn=978-1-59691-465-0 |location=New York |author-link=John E. Ferling |ref=none}}
* Goodman, Paul, ed. ''The Federalists vs. the Jeffersonian Republicans'' (1977) [https://archive.org/details/federalistsvsjef0000good/mode/1up online], short excerpts by leading historians
* {{Cite book |last=Howe |first=Daniel Walker |url=https://archive.org/details/whathathgodwroug00howe |title=What Hath God Wrought: The Transformation of America 1815–1848 |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195078947 |url-access=registration}}
* Klein, Philip Shriver. ''Pennsylvania Politics, 1817–1832: A Game without Rules'' 1940.
* {{Cite book |last=Morison |first=Samuel Eliot |url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordhistoryof00mori |title=The Oxford History of the American People |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1965 |location=New York |ref={{sfnRef|Morrison}} |author-link=Samuel Eliot Morison |url-access=registration}}
* Onuf, Peter S., ed. ''Jeffersonian Legacies.'' (1993) ({{ISBN|0-8139-1462-0}}).
* Pasley, Jeffrey L. et al. eds. ''Beyond the Founders: New Approaches to the Political History of the Early American Republic'' (2004).
* Ray, Kristofer. "The Republicans Are the Nation? Thomas Jefferson, William Duane, and the Evolution of the Republican Coalition, 1809–1815." ''American Nineteenth Century History'' 14.3 (2013): 283–304.
* Risjord, Norman K.; ''The Old Republicans: Southern Conservatism in the Age of Jefferson'' (1965) on the Randolph faction.
* {{Cite book |last=Rodriguez |first=Junius |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qs7GAwwdzyQC |title=The Louisiana Purchase: a historical and geographical encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2002 |isbn=978-1576071885 |ref=Rodriguez}}
* Sharp, James Roger. ''American Politics in the Early Republic: The New Nation in Crisis'' (1993) detailed narrative of 1790s.
* Smelser, Marshall. ''The Democratic Republic 1801–1815'' (1968), survey of political history.
* Van Buren, Martin. Van Buren, Abraham, Van Buren, John, ed. [https://archive.org/details/inquiryintoorig00buregoog ''Inquiry Into the Origin and Course of Political Parties in the United States''] (1867) ({{ISBN|1-4181-2924-0}}).
* Wiltse, Charles Maurice. ''The Jeffersonian Tradition in American Democracy'' (1935).
* {{Cite journal |last=Wilentz |first=Sean |author-link=Sean Wilentz |date=September 2004 |title=Jeffersonian Democracy and the Origins of Political Antislavery in the United States: The Missouri Crisis Revisited |journal=Journal of the Historical Society |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=375–401 |doi=10.1111/j.1529-921X.2004.00105.x |ref={{sfnRef|Wilentz, 2004}}}}
* Wills, Garry. ''Henry Adams and the Making of America'' (2005), a close reading of Henry Adams (1889–1891).

=== Biographies ===
* {{Cite book |last=Ammon |first=Harry |url=https://archive.org/details/jamesmonroequest00ammo |title=James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity |publisher=McGraw-Hill |year=1971 |isbn=9780070015821 |url-access=registration}}
* Cunningham, Noble E. ''In Pursuit of Reason The Life of Thomas Jefferson'' ({{ISBN|0-345-35380-3}}) (1987).
* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr. "John Beckley: An Early American Party Manager", ''William and Mary Quarterly,'' 13 (January 1956), 40–52, [https://doi.org/10.2307/1923388 online]
* Miller, John C. ''Alexander Hamilton: Portrait in Paradox'' (1959), full-scale biography. [https://archive.org/details/alexanderhamilto0000unse_t5i8/page/n7/mode/2up online]
* Peterson; Merrill D. ''Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation: A Biography'' (1975), full-scale biography.
* Remini, Robert. ''Henry Clay: Statesman for the Union'' (1991), a standard biography.
* Rutland, Robert A., ed. ''James Madison and the American Nation, 1751–1836: An Encyclopedia'' (1994).
* Schachner, Nathan. ''Aaron Burr: A Biography'' (1961), full-scale biography.
* [[Harlow Unger|Unger, Harlow G]].. "''[https://web.archive.org/web/20160306132439/http://dacapopress.com/book/paperback/the-last-founding-father/9780306819186 The Last Founding Father: James Monroe and a Nation's Call to Greatness]''" (2009)
* Wiltse, Charles Maurice. ''John C. Calhoun, Nationalist, 1782–1828'' (1944).

=== State studies ===
* Beeman, Richard R. ''The Old Dominion and the New Nation, 1788–1801'' (1972), on Virginia politics.
* Formisano, Ronald P. ''The Transformation of Political Culture. Massachusetts Parties, 1790s–1840s'' (1984) ({{ISBN|0-19-503509-7}}).
* Gilpatrick, Delbert Harold. ''Jeffersonian Democracy in North Carolina, 1789–1816'' (1931).
* Goodman, Paul. ''The Democratic-Republicans of Massachusetts'' (1964).
* {{cite book|first=Richard P.|last=McCormick|year=1966|title=The Second Party System: Party Formation in the Jacksonian Era}} details the collapse state by state.
* Prince, Carl E. ''New Jersey's Jeffersonian Republicans: The Genesis of an Early Party Machine, 1789–1817'' (1967).
* Risjord; Norman K. ''Chesapeake Politics, 1781–1800'' (1978) on Virginia and Maryland.
* Young, Alfred F. ''The Democratic Republicans of New York: The Origins, 1763–1797'' (1967).

=== Newspapers ===

* Hale, Matthew Rainbow. "On their tiptoes: Political time and Newspapers during the Advent of the Radicalized French Revolution, circa 1792-1793." ''Journal of the Early Republic'' 29.2 (2009): 191–218. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/40208197 online]
* Humphrey, Carol Sue ''The Press of the Young Republic, 1783–1833'' (1996).
* Knudson, Jerry W. ''Jefferson And the Press: Crucible of Liberty'' (2006) how 4 Republican and 4 Federalist papers covered election of 1800; Thomas Paine; Louisiana Purchase; Hamilton-Burr duel; impeachment of Chase; and the embargo.
* Laracey, Mel. "The presidential newspaper as an engine of early American political development: The case of Thomas Jefferson and the election of 1800." ''Rhetoric & Public Affairs'' 11.1 (2008): 7-46.  [https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/26/article/240259/summary excerpt]
* Pasley, Jeffrey L. "The Two National" Gazettes": Newspapers and the Embodiment of American Political Parties." ''Early American Literature'' 35.1 (2000): 51-86. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/25057179 online]
* Pasley, Jeffrey L. '' 'The Tyranny of Printers': Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic'' (2003) ({{ISBN|0-8139-2177-5}}). [https://archive.org/details/tyrannyofprinter00jeff online]
* Scherr, Arthur. " 'A Genuine Republican': Benjamin Franklin Bache's Remarks (1797), the Federalists, and Republican Civic Humanism." ''Pennsylvania History'' 80.2 (2013): 243-298. [https://journals.psu.edu/phj/article/download/61464/61089 online]
* Stewart, Donald H. ''The Opposition Press of the Federalist Era'' (1968), highly detailed study of Republican newspapers.
* The complete text, searchable, of all early American newspapers are [http://www.newsbank.com/readex/?content=96 online] at Readex America's Historical Newspapers, available at research libraries.

=== Primary sources ===
* Adams, John Quincy. [https://books.google.com/books?id=LsLzXcnfWWwC ''Memoirs of John Quincy Adams: Comprising Portions of His Diary from 1795 to 1848''] Volume VII (1875) edited by Charles Francis Adams; ({{ISBN|0-8369-5021-6}}). Adams, son of the Federalist president, switched and became a Republican in 1808.
* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr., ed. ''The Making of the American Party System 1789 to 1809'' (1965) excerpts from primary sources.
* Cunningham, Noble E., Jr., ed. ''Circular Letters of Congressmen to Their Constituents 1789–1829'' (1978), 3 vol; reprints the political newsletters sent out by congressmen.
* Kirk, Russell ed. ''John Randolph of Roanoke: A study in American politics, with selected speeches and letters'', 4th ed., Liberty Fund, 1997, 588 pp.&nbsp; {{ISBN|0-86597-150-1}}; Randolph was a leader of the "Old Republican" faction.
* McColley, Robert, ed. ''Federalists, Republicans, and foreign entanglements, 1789-1815'' (1969) [https://archive.org/details/federalistsrepub00mcco/mode/thumb online], primary sources on foreign policy
* Smith, James Morton, ed. ''The Republic of Letters: The Correspondence of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, 1776–1826'' Volume 2 (1994).
{{refend}}

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080725105911/http://dca.tufts.edu/features/aas/ A New Nation Votes: American Election Returns 1787–1825]
* [https://voteview.com/parties/13/democratic-republican-party Democratic-Republican Party ideology over time]

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