View source for Reggae

{{short description|Music genre}}
{{about|the music genre|other uses}}
{{distinguish|Reggaeton}}
{{Infobox music genre
| name              = Reggae
| image             = Bob-Marley.jpg
| caption           = Reggae artist [[Bob Marley]] in 1980
| stylistic_origins = {{hlist|[[Mento]]|[[Calypso music|calypso]]|[[Nyabinghi rhythm|nyabinghi]]|
[[Rhythm and blues|R&B]]|[[jazz]]|[[ska]]|[[rocksteady]]}}
| cultural_origins  = Late 1960s [[Jamaica]], particularly [[Kingston, Jamaica|Kingston]]
| derivatives       = {{hlist|[[Dancehall]]|[[Dub music|dub]]|[[new wave music|new wave]]|[[ragga]]|[[Jungle music|jungle]]|[[drum and bass]]}}
| subgenrelist      = Reggae genres
| subgenres         = * [[Roots reggae]]
* [[lovers rock]]
* [[reggae en Español]]
| fusiongenres      = * [[Reggaeton]]
* [[reggae fusion]]
* [[seggae]]
* [[2 Tone (music genre)|2 tone]]
* [[samba reggae]]
* [[reggaestep]]
| regional_scenes   = * [[African reggae|Africa]]
* [[Australian reggae|Australia]]
* [[Music of Guyana|Guyana]]
* [[Japanese reggae|Japan]]
* [[Reggae music in Kenya|Kenya]]
* [[New Zealand reggae|New Zealand]]
* [[Nigerian reggae|Nigeria]]
* [[Reggae en Español|Panama]]
* [[Pinoy reggae|Philippines]]
* [[Polish reggae|Poland]]
* [[Music of Trinidad and Tobago|Trinidad and Tobago]]
* [[British reggae|United Kingdom]]
* [[Music of United States|United States]]
| local_scenes      = 
| other_topics      = * [[Music of Jamaica]]
* [[list of reggae musicians]]
}}
{{Infobox intangible heritage
| ICH         = Reggae music of Jamaica
| State Party = Jamaica
| ID          = 01398
| Region      = LAC
| Year        = 2018
| Session     = 13th
| List        = Representative
}}
{{Music of Jamaica}}

'''Reggae''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|ɛ|g|eɪ|audio=En-us-reggae.ogg}}) is a [[music genre]] that originated in [[Jamaica]] during the late 1960s. The term also denotes the modern popular [[music of Jamaica]] and its [[Jamaican diaspora|diaspora]].<ref>Stephen Davis. "Reggae." ''Grove Music Online''. ''Oxford Music Online''. Oxford University Press. Web.16 Feb 2016.</ref> A 1968 single by [[Toots and the Maytals]], "[[Do the Reggay]]", was the first popular song to use the word ''reggae'', effectively naming the genre and introducing it to a global audience.<ref>{{cite web |title=Frederick "Toots" Hibbert Biography |url=http://www.biography.com/people/frederick-toots-hibbert-10673303#acclaimed-musician |url-status= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160809204903/http://www.biography.com/people/frederick-toots-hibbert-10673303#acclaimed-musician |archive-date=9 August 2016 |access-date=2 July 2016 |website=Biography.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/reggae?s=t |title=reggae |website=Dictionary.com |access-date=10 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160813063912/http://www.dictionary.com/browse/reggae?s=t |archive-date=13 August 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Reggae is rooted in traditional Jamaican Kumina, Pukkumina, Revival Zion, Nyabinghi, and burru drumming. Jamaican reggae music evolved out of the earlier genres [[mento]], [[ska]] and [[rocksteady]].<ref name="Return of Reggae">{{cite news |author=Nettleford |first=Rex |date=Spring 1994 |title=Rex Nettleford: A Voice From the Caribbean |url=https://www.caribbean-beat.com/issue-9/rex-nettleford-voice-caribbean#axzz8bWmj5QLA |access-date= |newspaper=[[Caribbean Beat]] |pages=1}}</ref> Reggae usually relates news, social gossip, and political commentary.<ref>"Reggae." ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'', 2nd ed. rev. Ed. Michael Kennedy. ''Oxford Music Online''.Oxford University Press. Web. 16 February 2016.</ref> It is recognizable from the counterpoint between the bass and drum downbeat and the offbeat rhythm section. The immediate origins of reggae were in ska and rocksteady; from the latter, reggae took over the use of the bass as a percussion instrument.<ref>Wilton, Peter. "reggae." ''The Oxford Companion to Music''. Ed. Alison Latham. ''Oxford Music Online''.Oxford University Press. Web. 16 February 2016.</ref>

Stylistically, reggae incorporates some of the musical elements of rhythm and blues, jazz, mento (a celebratory, rural folk form that served its largely rural audience as dance music and an alternative to the hymns and adapted chanteys of local church singing),<ref name="Grove Music Online">{{cite book|author=Stephen Davis |title=Reggae |publisher=The New Grove Dictionary of Jazz |edition= second }}</ref> [[Calypso music|calypso]],<ref>Anderson, Rick. "Reggae Music: A History and Selective Discography”. ''Notes'' 61.1 (2004): 206–214.</ref> and also draws influence from traditional African folk rhythms. One of the most easily recognizable elements is offbeat rhythms; [[staccato]] chords played by a guitar or piano (or both) on the offbeats of the measure. The tempo of reggae is usually slower-paced than both ska and rocksteady.<ref name="All About Jazz">{{cite web |author=May |first=Chris |date=2009-10-01 |title=Various Artists &#124; Rocksteady: The Roots Of Reggae |url=http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/article.php?id=34239 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202181642/http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/article.php?id=34239 |archive-date=2012-02-02 |access-date=2012-05-29 |website=[[All About Jazz]]}}</ref> The concept of [[call and response (music)|call and response]] can be found throughout reggae music. The genre of reggae music is led by the [[drum]] and bass.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cooper |first=Carolyn J. |title=Reggae – music |url=https://www.britannica.com/art/reggae |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318144350/https://www.britannica.com/art/reggae |archive-date=18 March 2018 |access-date=9 May 2018 |website=Britannica}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date= |title=Drums and Bass Guitar: The Foundation of Reggae Music |url=http://debate.uvm.edu/dreadlibrary/Havel.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100416170447/http://debate.uvm.edu/dreadlibrary/Havel.htm |archive-date=16 April 2010 |access-date=15 January 2022 |website=debate.uvm.edu}}</ref> Some key players in this sound are [[Jackie Jackson (bassist)|Jackie Jackson]] from Toots and the Maytals,<ref>{{cite news |last=Campbell |first=Howard |date=March 16, 2012 |title=Jackie Jackson: Bass player extraordinaire |newspaper=[[Jamaica Observer]] |url=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/entertainment/Jackie-Jackson--Bass-player-extraordinaire |url-status= |access-date=9 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206002617/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/entertainment/Jackie-Jackson--Bass-player-extraordinaire |archive-date=6 February 2018}}</ref> [[Carlton Barrett]] from [[Bob Marley and the Wailers]],<ref>{{cite magazine |date=2016-03-31 |title=100 Greatest Drummers of All Time |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/100-greatest-drummers-of-all-time-20160331/carlton-barrett-20160328 |url-status= |magazine=[[Rolling Stone]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206073510/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/100-greatest-drummers-of-all-time-20160331/carlton-barrett-20160328 |archive-date=6 February 2018 |access-date=9 May 2018}}</ref> [[Lloyd Brevett]] from [[the Skatalites]],<ref>{{cite magazine |date=3 May 2012 |title=Skatalites Bassist Lloyd Brevett Dead at 80 |url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/46331/skatalites-bassist-lloyd-brevett-dead-at-80 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180512014128/https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/46331/skatalites-bassist-lloyd-brevett-dead-at-80 |archive-date=12 May 2018 |access-date=9 May 2018 |magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]}}</ref> [[Paul Douglas (musician)|Paul Douglas]] from Toots and the Maytals,<ref>{{cite web |last=Katz |first=David |date=June 19, 2013 |title=Toots and the Maytals' Live: From Stage to Wax in 24 Hours |url=http://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2013/06/toots-and-the-maytals-live-album |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180629074330/http://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2013/06/toots-and-the-maytals-live-album |archive-date=29 June 2018 |access-date=9 May 2018 |website=Red Bull Music Academy Daily}}</ref> [[Lloyd Knibb]] from the Skatalites,<ref>"Lloyd Knibb revolutionised Jamaican drumming, says PJ". Jamaica Observer. Web. 27 May 2011. <{{cite web |url=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/entertainment/Lloyd-Knibb-revolutionised-Jamaican-drumming--says-PJ_8867991 |title=Lloyd Knibb revolutionised Jamaican drumming, says PJ - Entertainment - JamaicaObserver.com |access-date=28 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110530040025/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/entertainment/Lloyd-Knibb-revolutionised-Jamaican-drumming--says-PJ_8867991 |archive-date=30 May 2011 }}> Retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref> [[Winston Grennan]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Pareles |first=Jon |date=4 November 2000 |title=Winston Grennan, 56, Jamaican Drummer |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/04/nyregion/winston-grennan-56-jamaican-drummer.html |url-access=limited |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203184745/http://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/04/nyregion/winston-grennan-56-jamaican-drummer.html |archive-date=3 February 2018 |access-date=9 May 2018 |website=[[The New York Times]]}}</ref> [[Sly Dunbar]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Sly and Robbie |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/people/literature-and-arts/music-popular-and-jazz-biographies/sly-and-robbie |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180510193816/https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/literature-and-arts/music-popular-and-jazz-biographies/sly-and-robbie |archive-date=10 May 2018 |access-date=9 May 2018 |website=Encyclopedia.com}}</ref> and Anthony "Benbow" Creary from [[the Upsetters]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dDKfGRCq73cC&q=benbow&pg=PA308|title=Caribbean Popular Music: An Encyclopedia of Reggae, Mento, Ska, Rock Steady, and Dancehall|first=David Vlado|last=Moskowitz|date=9 May 2018|page=308|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|access-date=9 May 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=9780313331589}}</ref> The [[bass guitar]] often plays the dominant role in reggae. The bass sound in reggae is thick and heavy, and [[equalization (audio)|equalized]] so the upper frequencies are removed and the lower frequencies emphasized. The [[guitar]] in reggae usually plays on the offbeat of the rhythm.  It is common for reggae to be sung in [[Jamaican Patois]], [[Jamaican English]], and [[Iyaric]] dialects. Reggae is noted for its tradition of social criticism and religion in its lyrics,<ref>{{cite news|author=Ben Ratliff |title=It's About New Beginnings And Keeping the Faith |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=20 September 1999 |page= 5}}</ref> although many reggae songs discuss lighter, more personal subjects, such as love and socializing.

Reggae is deeply linked to [[Rastafari]], an [[Afrocentrism|Afrocentric]] religion which developed in Jamaica in the 1930s, aiming at promoting [[pan-Africanism]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Warner |first=Keith Q. |date=1988 |title=Calypso, reggae, and Rastafarianism: Authentic Caribbean voices |journal=Popular Music and Society |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=53–62 |doi=10.1080/03007768808591306 |issn=0300-7766}}</ref><ref name="Earl-2005">{{Cite thesis |last=Earl |first=Bunn, Glenn |title=The Influence of Rastafarianism and Reggae Music on Jamaican and International Politics |date=2005 |publisher=St. John Fisher College |url=https://fisherpub.sjfc.edu/intlstudies_masters/42/ |language=en |access-date=30 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201005104/https://fisherpub.sjfc.edu/intlstudies_masters/42/ |archive-date=1 December 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Campbell |first=Horace |date=1988 |title=Rastafari as Pan Africanism in the Caribbean and Africa |journal=African Journal of Political Economy |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=75–88 |jstor=23500303}}</ref> After the Rastafarian movement appeared, the international popularity of reggae music became associated with and increased the visibility of Rastafari and spread its gospel throughout the world.<ref name="Earl-2005" /> Reggae music is an important means of transporting vital messages of Rastafari. The musician becomes the messenger, and as Rastafari see it, "the soldier and the musician are tools for change."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Davis |first=Stephen |url=https://archive.org/details/reggaebloodlines00davi |title=Reggae bloodlines : in search of the music and culture of Jamaica |date=1992 |publisher=Da Capo Press |isbn=978-0306804960 |edition=1st Da Capo Press |location=New York |oclc=26014673 |url-access=registration}}</ref>

Reggae has spread to many countries around the world, often incorporating local instruments and fusing with other genres. [[Reggae en Español]] spread from the Spanish-speaking Central American country of Panama to the mainland South American country of [[Venezuela]] and later to the rest of South America. [[Caribbean music in the United Kingdom]], including reggae, has been popular since the late 1960s, and has evolved into several subgenres and fusions. Many reggae artists began their careers in the UK, and there have been a number of European artists and bands drawing their inspiration directly from Jamaica and the Caribbean community in Europe. Reggae in Africa was boosted by the visit of [[Bob Marley]] to Zimbabwe in 1980.

==Etymology==
The 1967 edition of the ''Dictionary of [[Jamaican English]]'' lists ''reggae'' as "a recently estab. sp. for ''rege''", as in ''rege-rege'', a word that can mean either "rags, ragged clothing" or "a quarrel, a row".<ref>1967, ''Dictionary of Jamaican English'', {{ISBN|9789766401276}}</ref> ''Reggae'' as a musical term first appeared in print with the 1968 [[rocksteady]] hit "[[Do the Reggay]]" by [[Toots & the Maytals|the Maytals]] which named the genre.

Reggae historian [[Steve Barrow]] credits [[Clancy Eccles]] with altering the [[Jamaican patois]] word  ''streggae'' (loose woman) into ''reggae''.<ref name=NiceupHistory/> However, [[Toots Hibbert]] said:
<blockquote>
There's a word we used to use in Jamaica called "streggae". If a girl is walking and the guys look at her and say "Man, she's streggae" it means she don't dress well, she look raggedy. The girls would say that about the men too. This one morning me and my two friends were playing and I said, "OK man, let's do the reggay." It was just something that came out of my mouth. So we just start singing "Do the reggay, do the reggay" and created a beat. People tell me later that we had given the sound its name. Before that people had called it blue-beat and all kind of other things. Now it's in the Guinness World of Records.<ref>Sturges, Fiona (2004) "[https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/frederick-toots-hibbert-the-reggae-king-of-kingston-731003.html Frederick "Toots" Hibbert: The reggae king of Kingston] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090424021153/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/frederick-toots-hibbert-the-reggae-king-of-kingston-731003.html |date=2009-04-24 }}", ''[[The Independent]]'', 4 June 2004, retrieved 11 December 2009; cf. many similar statements by Hibbert in recent years. In earlier interviews, Hibbert used to claim the derivation was from English 'regular', in reference to the beat.</ref></blockquote>

[[Bob Marley]] said that the word ''reggae'' came from a Spanish term for "the king's music".<ref>{{cite book|title=Catch a Fire: The Life of Bob Marley|author=Timothy White|page=16|publisher=Owl Books, U.S.|edition=Revised|date=3 July 2006|isbn=978-0805080865}}</ref> The liner notes of ''To the King'', a compilation of Christian [[Gospel music|gospel]] reggae, suggest that the word ''reggae'' was derived from the Latin {{lang|la|regi}} meaning 'to the king'.<ref name="McAlpine, 2018">{{cite news |last1=McAlpine |first1=Fraser |title=The unexpected origins of music's most well-used terms – BBC Music |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/articles/dc64e24d-c4e7-4e34-b2f7-e34a00ea16ad |access-date=28 May 2019 |work=www.bbc.co.uk |publisher=BBC |date=12 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126010742/https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/articles/dc64e24d-c4e7-4e34-b2f7-e34a00ea16ad |archive-date=26 January 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==History==

===Precursors===

Reggae's direct origins are in the [[ska]] and [[rocksteady]] of 1960s Jamaica, strongly influenced by traditional Caribbean [[mento]] and [[calypso music]], as well as American [[jazz]] and [[rhythm and blues]]. Ska was originally a generic title for Jamaican music recorded between 1961 and 1967 and emerged from Jamaican R&B, which was based largely on American R&B and doo-wop.<ref>"Ska." ''Encyclopedia of Popular Music'', 4th ed. Ed. Colin Larkin. ''Oxford Music Online''. Oxford University Press. Web. 16 February 2016.</ref> Rastafari entered some countries primarily through reggae music; thus, the movement in these places is more stamped by its origins in reggae music and social milieu.<ref>Salter, Richard C.. "Sources and Chronology in Rastafari Origins". ''Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions'' 9.1 (2005): 5–31.</ref> The [[Rastafari movement]] was a significant influence on reggae, with [[Rastafarian|Rasta]] drummers like [[Count Ossie]] taking part in seminal recordings.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zqKqiSGzxQUC&pg=PA42 |title=Cut 'N' Mix: Culture, Identity, and Caribbean Music By Dick Hebdige |access-date=18 June 2013 |isbn=9780415058759 |last1=Hebdige |first1=Dick |year=1987 |publisher=Routledge |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101113902/https://books.google.com/books?id=zqKqiSGzxQUC&pg=PA42 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> One of the predecessors of reggae drumming is the [[Nyabinghi rhythm]], a style of ritual drumming performed as a communal meditative practice in the Rastafarian life.<ref>{{cite book|author=Leonard Joseph McCarthy |title=The significance of corporeal factors and choreographic rhythms in Jamaican popular music between 1957—1981 (Ska, Rocksteady, Reggae), with an historical and critical survey of all relevant literature dealing with Jamaican folk, religious and popular musics and dance |date=2007|page=151}}</ref>

In the latter half of the 20th century, [[Phonograph|phonograph records]] became of central importance to the Jamaican music industry, playing a significant cultural and economic role in the development of reggae music.<ref name="thevinylfactory.com">{{Cite web|url=http://thevinylfactory.com/features/from-the-vaults-the-20-best-reggae-7s-ever-made/|title=From the vaults: The 20 best reggae 7"s ever made – The Vinyl Factory|website=Thevinylfactory.com|language=en-US|access-date=17 March 2017|date=22 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318000346/http://thevinylfactory.com/features/from-the-vaults-the-20-best-reggae-7s-ever-made/|archive-date=18 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> "In the early 1950s, Jamaican entrepreneurs began issuing 78s"<ref name="thevinylfactory.com"/> but this format would soon be superseded by the 7" single, first released in 1949.<ref>{{cite news |last=Britt |first=Bruce |date=10 August 1989 |title=The 45-rpm single will soon be history |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=H1tWAAAAIBAJ&pg=6991%2C6756292 |newspaper=Spokesman-Review |agency=Los Angeles Daily News |page=C4 |access-date=31 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170315061248/https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=H1tWAAAAIBAJ&sjid=7u8DAAAAIBAJ&pg=6991%2C6756292 |archive-date=15 March 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1951 the first recordings of mento music were released as singles and showcased two styles of mento: an acoustic rural style, and a jazzy pop style.<ref>Garnice, Michael. "Bob Marley and the Wailers' Mento Roots." Beat 25.2 (2006): p.50.</ref> Other 7" singles to appear in Jamaica around this time were covers of popular American R&B hits, made by Kingston [[Sound system (Jamaican)|sound system]] operators to be played at public dances.<ref name="thevinylfactory.com"/> Meanwhile, Jamaican [[expatriate]]s started issuing 45s on small independent labels in the United Kingdom, many mastered directly from Jamaican 45s.<ref name="thevinylfactory.com"/>

Ska arose in Jamaican studios in the late 1950s, developing from this mix of American R&B, [[mento]] and [[calypso music]].<ref name=NiceupHistory>{{cite web |url=http://niceup.com/history/ja_music_59-73.html |title=History of Jamaican Music 1953–1973 |website=Niceup.com |access-date=18 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110807120821/http://niceup.com/history/ja_music_59-73.html |archive-date=7 August 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Notable for its jazz-influenced horn riffs, ska is characterized by a quarter note [[walking bass]] line, guitar and piano [[On-beat|offbeats]], and a drum pattern with cross-stick snare and bass drum on the backbeat and open hi-hat on the offbeats. When Jamaica gained independence in 1962, ska became the music of choice for young Jamaicans seeking music that was their own. Ska also became popular among [[mod (subculture)|mods]] in Britain.

In the mid-1960s, ska gave rise to [[rocksteady]], a genre slower than ska featuring more romantic lyrics and less prominent horns.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://secure.pqarchiver.com/boston/doc/405360219.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Aug+10%2C+2000&author=Muther%2C+Christopher&pub=Boston+Globe&edition=&startpage=11&desc=THE+BEAT+GOES+ON+SKA+AND+REGGAE+SCENE+SERVES+UP+SOUNDS+TO+SUIT+EVERY+TASTE |title=The Beat Goes on Ska and Reggae Scene Serves up Sounds to Suit Every Taste |website=secure.pqarchiver.com |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170422035344/https://secure.pqarchiver.com/boston/doc/405360219.html?FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT&type=current&date=Aug+10%2C+2000&author=Muther%2C+Christopher&pub=Boston+Globe&edition=&startpage=11&desc=THE+BEAT+GOES+ON+SKA+AND+REGGAE+SCENE+SERVES+UP+SOUNDS+TO+SUIT+EVERY+TASTE |archive-date=22 April 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Theories abound as to why Jamaican musicians slowed the ska tempo to create rocksteady; one is that the singer [[Hopeton Lewis]] was unable to sing his hit song "Take It Easy" at a ska tempo.<ref name=NiceupHistory/> The name "rocksteady" was codified after the release of a single by [[Alton Ellis]]. Many rocksteady rhythms later were used as the basis of reggae recordings, whose slower tempos allowed for the "double skank" guitar strokes on the offbeat.

===Emergence in Jamaica===
Reggae developed from [[ska]] and [[rocksteady]] in the late 1960s. Larry And Alvin's "Nanny Goat" and the Beltones' "No More Heartaches" were among the songs in the genre. The beat was distinctive from rocksteady in that it dropped any of the pretensions to the smooth, soulful sound that characterized slick American R&B, and instead was closer in kinship to US southern funk, being heavily dependent on the rhythm section to drive it along. Reggae's great advantage was its almost limitless flexibility: from the early, jerky sound of Lee Perry's "People Funny Boy", to the uptown sounds of Third World's "Now That We've Found Love", it was an enormous leap through the years and styles, yet both are instantly recognizable as reggae.<ref>"Reggae." ''Encyclopedia of Popular Music'', 4th ed. Ed. Colin Larkin. ''Oxford Music Online''. Oxford University Press. Web. 16 February 2016.</ref>  The shift from rocksteady to reggae was illustrated by the organ [[Swung note|shuffle]] pioneered by Jamaican musicians like [[Jackie Mittoo]] and Winston Wright and featured in transitional singles "Say What You're Saying" (1968) by [[Eric "Monty" Morris]] and "People Funny Boy" (1968) by [[Lee "Scratch" Perry]].{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}

[[File:Jimmy_Cliff_-_Festival_du_Bout_du_Monde_2012_-_022.jpg|thumb|left|[[Jimmy Cliff]]]]

Early 1968 was when the first ''bona fide'' reggae records were released: "Nanny Goat" by [[Larry Marshall (singer)|Larry Marshall]] and "No More Heartaches" by the Beltones. That same year, the newest Jamaican sound began to spawn big-name imitators in other countries. American artist [[Johnny Nash]]'s 1968 hit "[[Hold Me Tight (Johnny Nash song)|Hold Me Tight]]" has been credited with first putting reggae in the American listener charts. Around the same time, reggae influences were starting to surface in [[rock music|rock]] and [[pop music]]; one example is 1968's "[[Ob-La-Di, Ob-La-Da]]" by [[the Beatles]].<ref>Kevin O'Brien Chang, 1998, ''Reggae Routes'', p. 44.</ref>

[[The Wailers (1963–1974 band)|The Wailers]], a band started by [[Bob Marley]], [[Peter Tosh]] and [[Bunny Wailer]] in 1963, is perhaps the most recognized band that made the transition through all three stages of early Jamaican popular music: ska, rocksteady and reggae. Over a dozen Wailers songs are based on or use a line from Jamaican mento songs. Other significant ska artists who made the leap to reggae include [[Prince Buster]], [[Desmond Dekker]], [[Ken Boothe]], and [[Millie Small]], best known for her 1964 blue-beat/ska [[cover version]] of "[[My Boy Lollipop]]" which was a smash hit internationally.<ref name="amg">{{cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/millie-small-mn0000489606/biography|title=Millie Small – Biography & History – AllMusic|website=[[AllMusic]]|access-date=9 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308231443/https://www.allmusic.com/artist/millie-small-mn0000489606/biography|archive-date=8 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

Notable Jamaican producers influential in the development of ska into rocksteady and reggae include: [[Coxsone Dodd]], [[Lee "Scratch" Perry]], [[Leslie Kong]], [[Duke Reid]], [[Joe Gibbs (record producer)|Joe Gibbs]] and [[King Tubby]]. [[Chris Blackwell]], who founded [[Island Records]] in Jamaica in 1960,<ref>Sexton, Paul. "A Legend in His Own Time." Billboard – The International Newsweekly of Music, Video and Home Entertainment 113.39 (29 Sep 2001): p. C-8.</ref> relocated to England in 1962, where he continued to promote Jamaican music. He formed a partnership with [[Lee Gopthal]]'s [[Trojan Records]] in 1968, which released reggae in the UK until bought by Saga records in 1974.

===International popularity===
[[File:PeterToshWithRobbieShakespeare1978.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.75|Peter Tosh with Robbie Shakespeare, 1978]]
Reggae's influence bubbled to the top of the U.S. [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] charts in late 1972. First [[Three Dog Night]] hit No. 1 in September with a cover of [[the Maytones]]' version of "[[Black and White (Three Dog Night song)|Black and White]]". Then [[Johnny Nash]] was at No. 1 for four weeks in November with "[[I Can See Clearly Now]]". [[Paul Simon]]'s single "[[Mother And Child Reunion]]" – a track which he recorded in Kingston, Jamaica with [[Jimmy Cliff]]'s backing group – was ranked by Billboard as the No. 57 song of 1972.

In 1973, the film ''[[The Harder They Come]]'' starring [[Jimmy Cliff]] was released and introduced Jamaican music to cinema audiences outside Jamaica.<ref>Steffens, Roger. ‘The Harder They Come: 30 Years After.” The Beat 22.1 (2003): p. 36</ref> Though the film achieved cult status, its limited appeal meant that it had a smaller impact than [[Eric Clapton]]'s 1974 cover of Bob Marley's "[[I Shot the Sheriff]]" which made it onto the playlists of mainstream rock and pop radio stations worldwide. Clapton's "I Shot the Sheriff" used modern rock production and recording techniques and faithfully retained most of the original reggae elements; it was a breakthrough pastiche devoid of any parody and played an important part in bringing the music of Bob Marley to a wider rock audience.<ref name=NiceupHistory/> By the mid-1970s, authentic reggae dub plates and specials were getting some exposure in the UK on [[John Peel]]'s radio show, who promoted the genre for the rest of his career.<ref>Gaar, Gillian G. "The Beat goes on." Goldmine 38.14 (Dec 2012): p. 26-29</ref> Around the same time, British filmmaker [[Jeremy Marre]] documented the Jamaican music scene in ''Roots Rock Reggae'', capturing the heyday of [[Roots reggae]].<ref>RHYTHM OF RESISTANCE ROOTS, ROCK, REGGAE SALSA KONKOMBE
The Beat8.3 (1989): 59–62.</ref>

While the quality of Reggae records produced in Jamaica took a turn for the worse following the oil crisis of the 1970s, reggae produced elsewhere began to flourish.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120219/cleisure/cleisure4.html|title=Oil prices under threat|website=Jamaica-gleaner.com|language=en|access-date=17 March 2017|date=19 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170318002454/http://jamaica-gleaner.com/gleaner/20120219/cleisure/cleisure4.html|archive-date=18 March 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="thevinylfactory.com"/> In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the UK [[punk rock]] scene flourished, and reggae was a notable influence. The DJ [[Don Letts]] would play reggae and punk tracks at clubs such as [[The Roxy (London)|The Roxy]]. Punk bands such as [[the Clash]], [[the Ruts]], [[the Members]], [[the Police]] and [[the Slits]] played many reggae-influenced songs. Around the same time, reggae music took a new path in the UK; one that was created by the multiracial makeup of England's inner cities and exemplified by groups like [[Steel Pulse]], [[Aswad (band)|Aswad]] and [[UB40]], as well as artists such as [[Smiley Culture]] and [[Carroll Thompson]]. The Jamaican ghetto themes in the lyrics were replaced with UK [[inner city]] themes, and Jamaican [[patois]] became intermingled with [[Cockney]] slang. In South London around this time, a new subgenre of [[lovers rock]], was being created. Unlike the Jamaican music of the same name which was mainly dominated by male artists such as [[Gregory Isaacs]], the South London genre was led by female singers like Thompson and [[Janet Kay]]. The UK Lovers Rock had a softer and more commercial sound.Other reggae artists who enjoyed international appeal in the early 1980s include [[Third World (band)|Third World]], [[Black Uhuru]] and [[Sugar Minott]]. The Grammy Awards introduced the [[Grammy Award for Best Reggae Album]] category in 1985.

[[File:Ruhr Reggae Summer Mülheim 2014 Tanya Stephens 04.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.7|[[Tanya Stephens]] in 2014 at a German Reggae festival]]
Women also play a role in the reggae music industry personnel such as Olivia Grange, president of Specs-Shang Musik; Trish Farrell, president of Island/Jamaica; Lisa Cortes, president of Loose Cannon; Jamaican-American Sharon Gordon, who has worked in the independent reggae music industry.<ref>Oumano, E. (27 January 1996). Women increase number, scope of roles in reggae.''Billboard – the International Newsweekly of Music, Video and Home Entertainment, 108'', 1–1, 37.</ref>

=== Reggae heritage ===

Jamaican Prime Minister [[Bruce Golding]] made February 2008 the first annual Reggae Month in Jamaica. To celebrate, the Recording Industry Association of Jamaica (RIAJam) held its first Reggae Academy Awards on 24 February 2008. In addition, Reggae Month included a six-day Global Reggae conference, a reggae film festival, two radio station award functions, and a concert tribute to the late Dennis Brown, who Bob Marley cited as his favorite singer. On the business side, RIAJam held events focused on reggae's employment opportunities and potential international revenue. .<ref>Meschino, P. (15 March 2008). Music: Reggae – reclaiming reggae revenue. ''Billboard – the International Newsweekly of Music, Video and Home Entertainment, 120'', 36.</ref> Reggae Month 2019 in Jamaica was welcomed with multiple events ranging from corporate reggae functions to major celebrations in honour of Bob Marley's Birthday on 6 February to a tribute concert in honour of Dennis Brown on 24 February along with a sold-out concert by 2019 Reggae Grammy nominated artiste Protoje for his A Matter of Time Live held at Hope Gardens in Kingston on 23 February.

In November 2018 "reggae music of Jamaica" was added to the [[UNESCO]]'s [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists|Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity]] the decision recognised reggae's "contribution to international discourse on issues of injustice, resistance, love and humanity underscores the dynamics of the element as being at once cerebral, socio-political, sensual and spiritual."<ref name="unesco" />

==== {{anchor|cod reggae}}Cod reggae ====
The term '''cod reggae''' is popularly used to describe reggae done by non-Caribbean people, often in a disparaging manner because of perceived [[Authenticity in art|inauthenticity]]. [[Boy George]] has been described as “one of the great cod reggae artists of all time.”<ref name="g-cod">{{cite news |last=Haynes |first=Gavin |date=26 October 2018 |title=Cod complex: why Boy George is one of 'inauthentic' reggae's all-time greats |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/oct/26/cod-complex-why-boy-george-is-one-of-inauthentic-reggaes-all-time-greats |url-status=live |access-date=7 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001143327/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/oct/26/cod-complex-why-boy-george-is-one-of-inauthentic-reggaes-all-time-greats |archive-date=1 October 2019}}</ref>

==Musical characteristics==
{{more citations needed section|date=April 2018}}
[[File:Reggae double riff on D and Em64.png|thumb|right|upright=1.6|[[Skank guitar]] rhythm often considered "'the' reggae beat"<ref>Johnston, Richard (2004). ''How to Play Rhythm Guitar'', p.72. {{ISBN|0-87930-811-7}}.</ref>{{audio|Reggae double riff on D and Em64 straight.mid|Play straight}} or {{audio|Reggae double riff on D and Em64 shuffle.mid|Play shuffle}}.]]

Stylistically, reggae incorporates some of the musical elements of [[rhythm and blues]] (R&B), [[jazz]], [[mento]], [[calypso music|calypso]], African, and Latin American music, as well as other genres. Reggae scenes consist of two guitars, one for rhythm and one for lead—drums, congas, and keyboards, with a couple of vocalists.<ref>Lynn, V. M. (18 February 1973). Sound. ''Chicago Tribune''</ref>

Reggae is played in [[time signature|{{music|time|4|4}} time]] because the symmetrical rhythmic pattern does not lend itself to other time signatures such as {{music|time|3|4}}. One of the most easily recognizable elements is offbeat rhythms; staccato chords played by a guitar or piano (or both) on the offbeats of the measure, often referred to as the [[Ska stroke|skank]].<ref>Hombach, Jean-Pierre (2010). ''Bob Marley the Father of Music'', p.14. {{ISBN|9781471620454}}. "Reggae is most easily recognized by...the skank."</ref>

This rhythmic pattern accents the second and fourth beats in each [[bar (music)|bar]] and combines with the drum's emphasis on beat three to create a unique sense of phrasing. The reggae offbeat can be counted so that it falls between each count as an "and" (example: 1 and 2 and 3 and 4 and ... , etc.) or counted as a half-time feel at twice the tempo so it falls on beats 2 and 4. This is in contrast to the way most other popular genres focus on beat one, the "downbeat".<ref>Levitin, Daniel J. (2006). ''[[This Is Your Brain On Music]]'', pp. 113–114 {{ISBN|978-0-452-28852-2}}.</ref>

The tempo of reggae is usually slower than both [[ska]] and [[rocksteady]].<ref name="All About Jazz"/> It is this slower tempo, the guitar/piano offbeats, the emphasis on the third beat, and the use of [[Syncopation|syncopated]], melodic bass lines that differentiate reggae from other music, although other musical styles have incorporated some of these innovations.

===Drums and other percussion===
[[File:One drop sixteenth-note pattern.png|thumb|right|230px|"One drop" sixteenth-note drum pattern]]
[[File:SlyDunbar1979.png|thumb|left|Sly Dunbar]]
Reggae drummers often involved these three tips for other reggae performers: (1) go for open, ringing tones when playing ska and rocksteady, (2) use any available material to stuff the bass drum so that it tightens up the kick to a deep, punchy thud, and (3) go without a ride cymbal, focusing on the hi-hat for timekeeping and thin crashes with fast decay for accents.<ref>Dawson, M. (2012, 08). Jamaican drum sounds. ''Modern Drummer, 36'', 70.</ref>

===Bass===
[[File:RobbieShakespeare1978.png|thumb|upright|Robbie Shakespeare in 1978]]
[[File:Reggae Bass Line.jpg|thumb|right|280px|In this typical reggae bass line, the roots of the chords are emphasized, with musical interest created by going from the root down to the fifth of the chord. A dotted quarter note and eighth note rhythm is used repeatedly.]]

===Guitars===
[[File:Al Anderson1978.png|thumb|upright=0.85|Al Anderson]]
The [[guitar]] in reggae usually plays on the off beat of the rhythm. So if one is counting in {{music|time|4|4}} time and counting "1 and 2 and 3 and 4 and ...", one would play a downstroke on the "and" part of the beat.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reggaeguitarlessons.com/|title=Reggae Guitar Lessons|website=Reggaeguitarlessons.com|access-date=9 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531070416/http://www.reggaeguitarlessons.com/|archive-date=31 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> A musical figure known as [[skank (guitar)|skank]] or the 'bang" has a very dampened, short and scratchy [[chop chord|chop]] sound, almost like a percussion instrument. Sometimes a double chop is used when the guitar still plays the off beats, but also plays the following eighth-note beats on the up-stroke. An example is the intro to "[[Stir It Up]]" by the Wailers. Artist and producer [[Derrick Harriott]] says, "What happened was the musical thing was real widespread, but only among a certain sort of people. It was always a down-town thing, but more than just hearing the music. The equipment was so powerful and the vibe so strong that we feel it."<ref>Bradley, Lloyd. ''This Is Reggae Music: The Story Of Jamaica's Music.'' New York : Grove Press, 2001</ref>

===Keyboards===
The reggae organ-shuffle is unique to reggae. In the original version of reggae, the drummer played a reggae groove that was used in the four bar introduction, allowing the piano to serve as a percussion instrument.<ref>Simon, A. (2006, Summer). Jazz piano stylings: A contemporary approach. ''Piano Today, 26'', 38.</ref>

===Horns===
The three-piece horn section, consisting of trumpet, trombone, and saxophone, creates harmonies that are distinctive of reggae music. Dub horn sections found with artists like [[John Brown's Body (band)|John Brown's Body]] create a soundscape that is unmistakable.

===Vocals===
[[File:Ali Campbell at Raggamuffin 2009 cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[UB40]]'s former frontman [[Ali Campbell]] performing in 2009.]]

====Lyrical themes====
Reggae is noted for its tradition of social criticism in its lyrics, although many reggae songs discuss lighter, more personal subjects, such as love and socializing. Many early reggae bands covered [[Motown]] or [[Atlantic Records|Atlantic]] soul and [[funk]] songs. Some reggae lyrics attempt to raise the political consciousness of the audience, such as by criticizing [[Economic materialism|materialism]], or by informing the listener about controversial subjects such as [[apartheid]]. Many reggae songs promote the use of [[cannabis (drug)|cannabis]] (also known as ''herb'', ''ganja'', or ''[[sinsemilla]]''), considered a sacrament in the [[Rastafari#Reggae|Rastafari movement]]. There are many artists who utilize religious themes in their music – whether it be discussing a specific religious topic, or simply giving praise to God ([[Jah]]). Other common socio-political topics in reggae songs include [[black nationalism]], [[anti-racism]], anti-[[colonialism]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.manioc.org/fichiers/HASH5cd4cf20c65d4a87ecfcf5 |title=The 1970's Reggae Revolution: resistance against Western Imperialism by Jeremie Kroubo-Dagnini |website=Manioc.org |date=21 January 2010 |access-date=18 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130704024850/http://www.manioc.org/fichiers/HASH5cd4cf20c65d4a87ecfcf5 |archive-date=4 July 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[anti-capitalism]] and criticism of political systems and [[Rastafarian vocabulary#Other words|"Babylon"]].

In recent years, Jamaican (and non-Jamaican) reggae musicians have used more positive themes in reggae music. The music is widely considered a treasured cultural export for Jamaica, so musicians who still desire progress for their island nation have begun focusing on themes of hopefulness, faith, and love. For elementary children, reggae songs such as "Give a Little Love", "One Love", or "Three Little Birds", all written by Bob Marley, can be sung and enjoyed for their optimism and cheerful lyrics.<ref>Mills, Susan W. "Reggae For Standards-Based Music Learning." ''General Music Today'' 17.1 (2003): 11–17. ''Music Index''. Web. 15 February 2016.</ref>

====Criticism of dancehall and reggae lyrics====
{{See also|Stop Murder Music}}
Some dancehall and ragga artists have been criticised for [[homophobia]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.towleroad.com/2007/06/reggae_stars_re.html |title=Reggae Stars Renounce Homophobia, Condemn Anti-gay Violence |website=Towleroad.com |date=13 June 2007 |access-date=18 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080925105032/http://www.towleroad.com/2007/06/reggae_stars_re.html |archive-date=25 September 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> including threats of violence.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=The Most Homophobic Place on Earth?|url=http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1182991,00.html|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=12 April 2006|access-date=18 June 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619081126/http://www.time.com/time/world/article/0,8599,1182991,00.html|archive-date=19 June 2006|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Buju Banton]]'s song "Boom Bye-Bye" states that gays "haffi dead" (have to die). Other notable dancehall artists who have been accused of homophobia include [[Elephant Man (musician)|Elephant Man]], [[Bounty Killer]] and [[Beenie Man]]. The controversy surrounding anti-gay lyrics has led to the cancellation of UK tours by Beenie Man and Sizzla. Toronto, Canada has also seen the cancellation of concerts due to artists such as Elephant Man and Sizzla refusing to conform to similar censorship pressures.<ref>{{cite news |title=Reggae's Elephant Man nixed from Toronto concert |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/entertainment/reggae-s-elephant-man-nixed-from-toronto-concert-1.864382 |work=CBC News |date=30 July 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dancehall.mobi/2009/04/09/sizzla-refuses-to-bow-toronto-show-cancelled/ |title=Sizzla Refuses To 'Bow' – Toronto Show Cancelled |website=Dancehall.mobi |access-date=18 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202221302/https://www.dancehall.mobi/2009/04/09/sizzla-refuses-to-bow-toronto-show-cancelled/ |archive-date=2 December 2013 }}</ref>

After lobbying from the [[Stop Murder Music]] coalition, the dancehall music industry agreed in 2005 to stop releasing songs that promote hatred and violence against gay people.<ref>Flick, Larry, [https://web.archive.org/web/20050715235727/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1589/is_2005_April_12/ai_n13606969 "Gay vs. reggae: the reggae music industry makes changes in response to gay activists' protesting violently homophobic lyrics. The artists have no comment"], The Advocate, 12 April 2005</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/reggae%20industry%20to%20ban%20homophobia |title=Sizzl – Reggae Industry to Ban Homophobia |website=Contactmusic.com |date=8 February 2005 |access-date=18 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112152526/http://www.contactmusic.com/new/xmlfeed.nsf/mndwebpages/reggae%20industry%20to%20ban%20homophobia |archive-date=12 January 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2007, Beenie Man, [[Sizzla]] and [[Capleton]] signed up to the Reggae Compassionate Act, in a deal brokered with top dancehall promoters and Stop Murder Music activists. They renounced homophobia and agreed to "not make statements or perform songs that incite hatred or violence against anyone from any community". Five artists targeted by the anti-homophobia campaign did not sign up to the act, including Elephant Man, [[T.O.K.|TOK]], Bounty Killa and [[Vybz Kartel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jamaicans.com/news/announcements/Reggaestarsrenouncehomophobia062007.shtml |title=Reggae stars renounce homophobia – Beenie Man, Sizzla and Capleton sign deal |website=Jamaicans.com |access-date=18 June 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130429190141/http://www.jamaicans.com/news/announcements/Reggaestarsrenouncehomophobia062007.shtml |archive-date=29 April 2013 }}</ref> Buju Banton and Beenie Man both gained positive press coverage around the world for publicly renouncing homophobia by signing the Reggae Compassion Act. However, both of these artists have since denied any involvement in anti-homophobia work and both deny having signed any such act.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pinknews.co.uk/news/articles/2005-5028.html/ |title=Peter Tatchell stands by Beenie Man and Banton signatures |website=PinkNews.co.uk |date=26 July 2007 |access-date=29 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629101413/http://www.pinknews.co.uk/news/articles/2005-5028.html |archive-date=29 June 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Global significance==
{{more citations needed section|date=April 2018}}
Reggae has spread to many countries around the world, often incorporating local instruments and fusing with other genres.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Jérémie Kroubo Dagnini|date=2010|title=The importance of Reggae music in the worldwide cultural universe|journal=Revue Études Caribéennes|volume=16|url=https://etudescaribeennes.revues.org/4740|access-date=22 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923004500/https://etudescaribeennes.revues.org/4740|archive-date=23 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> In November 2018 [[UNESCO]] added the "reggae music of Jamaica" to the [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists|Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity]].<ref name="unesco">{{cite web |title=Reggae music of Jamaica |url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/reggae-music-of-jamaica-01398 |publisher=UNESCO Culture Sector |access-date=28 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129090119/https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/reggae-music-of-jamaica-01398 |archive-date=29 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/nov/29/un-adds-reggae-music-to-list-of-international-cultural-treasures|title=UN adds reggae music to list of international cultural treasures|last=Snapes|first=Laura|date=29 November 2018|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|language=en|access-date=30 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129205955/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/nov/29/un-adds-reggae-music-to-list-of-international-cultural-treasures|archive-date=29 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Americas===
[[File:Coachella Toots and the Maytals.jpg|thumb|[[Toots and the Maytals]] performing at the 2017 [[Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival|Coachella festival]]]]
[[Reggae en Español]] spread from mainland South American Caribbean from [[Venezuela]] and [[Guyana]] to the rest of South America.  It does not have any specific characteristics other than being sung in Spanish, usually by artists of Latin American origin. [[Samba reggae]] originated in [[Brazil]] as a blend of [[samba]] with Jamaican reggae. Reggae also has a presence in [[Veracruz]], [[Mexico]]. The most notable [[Jarocho]] reggae group being Los Aguas Aguas from [[Xalapa]]. Some of the most popular reggae groups across Latin America come from the Southern Cone, such as the Chilean band [[Gondwana (band)|Gondwana]], and the Argentinian band Los Cafres. The Puerto Rican band [[Cultura Profética]] is also widely recognized in the region. Hispanic reggae includes three elements: the incorporation of the Spanish language; the use of translations and versions based on known riddims and background music; and regional consciousness. It is a medium of rebellious contestation rising from the underground. Hispanic reggae is related to rap, sharing characteristics that can be found not only in the social conditions in which they developed in the region but also in the characteristics of social sectors and classes that welcome them.<ref>Davis, S. F. (2009). Reggae in Cuba and the Hispanic Caribbean: Fluctuations and representations of identities. ''Black Music Research Journal, 29''(1), 25–49.</ref>

Brazilian samba-reggae utilized themes such as the [[civil rights movement]] and the Black Soul movement, and especially the Jamaican independence movement since the 1960s and its messages in reggae and Rastafari. Thus, the sudden popularity of reggae music and musicians in Bahia, Brazil, was not the result of the effects of the transnational music industry, but of the need to establish cultural and political links with black communities across the Americas that had faced and were facing similar sociopolitical situations.<ref>Béhague, G. (2006). Globalization/Modernization – rap, reggae, rock, or samba: The local and the global in Brazilian popular music (1985–95). ''Latin American Music Review/Revista de Música Latinoamericana, 27''(1), 79–90.</ref>

Musically, it was the bloco afro [[Olodum]] and its lead percussionist, [[Neguinho do Samba]], that began to combine the basic samba beat of the blocos with merengue, salsa, and reggae rhythms and debuted their experimentations in the carnival of 1986. The new {{lang|pt|toques}} (drumming patterns) were labeled "samba-reggae" and consisted basically of a pattern in which the [[surdo]] bass drums (four of them at minimum) divided themselves into four or five interlocking parts.

In the state of [[Maranhão]], in northeastern [[Brazil]], reggae is a very popular genre. [[São Luís, Maranhão|São Luís]], the state capital, is known as the Brazilian Jamaica. The city has more than 200 {{lang|pt|radiolas}}, the name given to sound teams formed by DJs and sound systems with dozens of powerful amplifiers stacked. Reggae in Maranhão has its own characteristics, such as melody and dance style, as well as having its own radio and television programs. In 2018, the [[Reggae Maranhão Museum|Reggae Museum of Maranhão]] was inaugurated, the second reggae museum in the world (after [[Jamaica]]), with the objective of preserving the state's reggae cultural history.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://oimparcial.com.br/cultura/2018/01/museu-do-reggae-esta-aberto-ao-publico/|title=Museu do Reggae está aberto ao público {{!}} O Imparcial|date=22 January 2018|website=Oimparcial.com.br|access-date=3 May 2018|language=pt-BR|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180404073358/https://oimparcial.com.br/cultura/2018/01/museu-do-reggae-esta-aberto-ao-publico/|archive-date=4 April 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the United States, bands like [[Rebelution (band)|Rebelution]], [[Slightly Stoopid]], [[Dirty Heads]], and [[Iration]] are the leading bands in a growing genre. Other bands like The Movement, The Elovaters, Artikal Sound 
[[File:Logan Rex-Artikal Sound System.jpg|thumb|left|Logan Rex of Artikal Sound System performs at a reggae show. The band is part of a burgeoning movement of newer American Reggae bands that has been growing over the past decade. ]]
System, Soja, Fortunate Youth, Hirie, Common Kings and Tribal Seeds have enthusiastic followings and typically provide a fantastic experience opening for more established acts or in early sets at larger reggae festivals. The live experience is a major part of the American Reggae world and the presence of so many emerging bands to combine with established international acts has allowed the movement to grow in recent years. 

The American reggae scene is heavily centred in [[Southern California]], with large scenes also in [[New York City]], [[Washington, D.C.]], [[Chicago]], [[Miami]], and [[Honolulu]]. For decades, Hawaiian reggae has had a big following on the Hawaiian islands and the West coast of the US.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mele.com/music/genre/reggae/ |title=Reggae Musicians from Hawaii |website=Mele.com |access-date=18 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060327012357/http://www.mele.com/music/genre/reggae/ |archive-date=27 March 2006 |url-status=live }}</ref> On the east coast upstate NY has seen a rise in original roots reggae bands such as [[Giant Panda Guerilla Dub Squad]] and [[John Brown's Body (band)|John Brown's Body]] who were inspired by Jamaican reggae bands that performed in the area in the 1980s and 1990s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ithaca Reggae Festival History|url=http://www.ithacareggaefest.com/history.html|website=Ithacareggaefestival.com|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170626121533/http://www.ithacareggaefest.com/history.html|archive-date=26 June 2017}}</ref> [[Matisyahu]] gained prominence by blending traditional Jewish themes with reggae.<ref>{{cite web|last=Merica|first=Dan|title=Q and A with Matisyahu: 'Hasidic reggae superstar' sans the Hasidim|url=http://religion.blogs.cnn.com/2012/12/26/q-and-a-with-matisyahu-hasidic-reggae-superstar-sans-the-hasidim/|website=Religion.blogs.cnn.com|access-date=22 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130324082400/http://religion.blogs.cnn.com/2012/12/26/q-and-a-with-matisyahu-hasidic-reggae-superstar-sans-the-hasidim/|archive-date=24 March 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> Compounding his use of the [[hazzan]] style, Matisyahu's lyrics are mostly English with more than occasional use of [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Yiddish language|Yiddish]]. There is a large Caribbean presence in [[Toronto]] and [[Montreal]], [[Canada]], with English and French influences on the reggae genre.{{clarify|date=May 2014}}{{citation needed|date=May 2014}} Canadian band [[Magic!]]'s 2013 single "[[Rude (song)|Rude]]" was an international hit.

In 2017, [[Toots and the Maytals]] became the second reggae-based group to ever perform at the [[Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival|Coachella festival]], after [[Chronixx]] in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/entertainment/music/coachella/2016/04/24/chronixx-brings-roots-reggae-coachella/83450350/|title=Chronixx brings roots reggae to Coachella|website=USA Today |access-date=9 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022120244/https://www.usatoday.com/story/life/entertainment/music/coachella/2016/04/24/chronixx-brings-roots-reggae-coachella/83450350/|archive-date=22 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/music-festivals/7760520/coachella-2017-day-3-toots-and-the-maytals-sofi-tukker-skepta|title=Coachella Day 3: Toots and the Maytals, Sofi Tukker, Skepta & More Midday Highlights|website=Billboard.com|date=17 April 2017|access-date=9 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022234119/https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/music-festivals/7760520/coachella-2017-day-3-toots-and-the-maytals-sofi-tukker-skepta|archive-date=22 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/entertainment/Toots-for-Coachella-fest_85633|title=Toots for Coachella fest|newspaper=[[Jamaica Observer]]|access-date=9 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181022113241/http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/entertainment/Toots-for-Coachella-fest_85633|archive-date=22 October 2018|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Europe===
The UK was a primary destination for Caribbean people looking to emigrate as early as the 1950s. Because of this, [[Caribbean music in the United Kingdom]], including reggae, has been popular since the late 1960s, and has evolved into several subgenres and fusions. Most notable of these is [[lovers rock]], but this fusion of Jamaican music into English culture was seminal in the formation of other musical forms like [[drum and bass]] and [[dubstep]]. The UK became the base from which many Jamaican artists toured Europe and due to the large number of Jamaican musicians emigrating there, the UK is the root of the larger European scene that exists today. Many of the world's most famous reggae artists began their careers in UK. Singer and Grammy Award-winning reggae artist [[Maxi Priest]] began his career with seminal British sound system [[Saxon Studio International]].

Three reggae-tinged singles from [[the Police]]'s 1978 debut album, ''[[Outlandos d'Amour]]'', laid down the template for the basic structure of a lot of rock/reggae songwriting: a reggae-infused verse containing upstrokes on guitar or keyboards and a more aggressive, on-the-beat punk/rock attack during the chorus. The end of the 1970s featured a ska revival in the UK. By the end of the 1970s, a revival movement had begun in England, with such bands as the Specials, Madness, the (English) Beat, and the Selecter. The Specials' leader and keyboardist, [[Jerry Dammers]], founded the 2 Tone record label, which released albums from the aforementioned racially integrated groups and was instrumental in creating a new social and cultural awareness. The 2 Tone movement referenced reggae's godfathers, popular styles (including the genre's faster and more dance-oriented precursors, ska and rocksteady), and previous modes of dress (such as black suits and porkpie hats) but updated the sound with a faster tempo, more guitar, and more attitude.<ref>Stemkovsky, I. (2012, 08). Reggae-core. ''Modern Drummer, 36'', 60–62.</ref>
[[File:UB40in2010.jpg|thumb|right|UB40 perform in Birmingham, 2010]]
[[Birmingham]] based reggae/[[pop music]] band [[UB40]] were main contributors to the British reggae scene throughout the 1980s and 1990s. The achieved international success with hits such as "[[Red Red Wine]]", "[[Kingston Town (song)|Kingston Town]]" and "[[Can't Help Falling in Love#UB40 version|(I Can't Help) Falling in Love with You]]."

Other UK-based artists that had international impact include [[Aswad (band)|Aswad]], [[Misty in Roots]], [[Steel Pulse]], [[Janet Kay]], [[Tippa Irie]], [[Smiley Culture]] and more recently [[Bitty McLean]]. There have been a number of European artists and bands drawing their inspiration directly from Jamaica and the Caribbean community in Europe, whose music and vocal styles are almost identical to contemporary Jamaican music. The best examples might be [[Alborosie]] (Italy) and [[Gentleman (musician)|Gentleman]] (Germany). Both Gentleman and Alborosie have had a significant chart impact in Jamaica, unlike many European artists. They have both recorded and released music in Jamaica for Jamaican labels and producers and are popular artists, likely to appear on many [[riddim]]s. Alborosie has lived in Jamaica since the late 1990s and has recorded at Bob Marley's famous [[Tuff Gong]] Studios. Since the early 1990s, several Italian reggae bands have emerged, including Africa Unite, [[Gaudi (musician)|Gaudi]], Reggae National Tickets, [[Sud Sound System]], [[Pitura Freska]] and [[B.R. Stylers]].

Reggae appeared on the [[Popular music in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslav popular music scene]] in the late 1970s, through sporadic songs by various rock acts, most prominently by [[New wave music|new wave]] bands [[Haustor]], [[Šarlo Akrobata]], [[Aerodrom (band)|Aerodrom]], [[Laboratorija Zvuka]], [[Piloti (band)|Piloti]], [[Zana (band)|Zana]], [[Du Du A]] and [[Grupa I]]. In the mid-1980s appeared [[Del Arno Band]], often considered the first Yugoslav band whose sound was primarily reggae-oriented, remaining one of the most notable reggae acts in the region of former Yugoslavia.<ref name="janjatović77">{{cite book|last=Janjatović|first=Petar|title=Ex YU rock enciklopedija 1960–2023|year=2024|publisher=self-released / Makart|location=Belgrade|page=77}}</ref>

The first homegrown [[Polish reggae]] bands started in the 1980s with groups like [[Izrael (band)|Izrael]]. Singer and songwriter [[Alexander Barykin]] was considered the father of Russian reggae.<ref>{{in lang|ru}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20080930011306/http://www.superstar.su/players/22/ Superstar 2008. Team of USSR ALEXANDER BARYKIN]</ref> In Sweden, [[Uppsala Reggae Festival]] attracts attendees from across Northern Europe and features Swedish reggae bands such as [[Rootvälta]] and [[Svenska Akademien (band)|Svenska Akademien]] as well as many popular Jamaican artists. [[Summerjam]], Europe's biggest reggae festival, takes place in [[Cologne]], [[Germany]], and sees crowds of 25,000 or more. [[Rototom Sunsplash]], a week-long festival which used to take place in [[Osoppo]], [[Italy]], until 2009, is now held in [[Benicassim]], [[Spain]], and gathers up to 150,000 visitors every year.

In Iceland reggae band [[Hjálmar]] is well established having released six CDs in Iceland. They were the first reggae band in Iceland, but few Icelandic artists had written songs in the reggae style before their arrival on the Icelandic music scene. The Icelandic reggae scene is expanding and growing at a fast rate. RVK Soundsystem is the first Icelandic [[Sound system (Jamaican)|sound system]], counting five DJs. They hold reggae nights in Reykjavík every month at clubs Hemmi og Valdi and more recently in Faktorý as the crowd has grown so much.

In Germany, the three successful Reggae Summerjam open-air festivals were crucial parts of the renaissance of Caribbean music in Germany but in 1990, conflict broke out between the two main German promoters who had cooperated so well during the previous seasons. With a lot of infighting and personal quarrels, each of them pursued his own preparations for a big summer festival. The result was that two open-air events look place on the same day.

The 1990 Reggae Summerjam was staged as usual, but for only one day. The event took place at the Lorelei Rock amphitheater, with artists like Mad Professor's Ariwa Posse with Macka B and Kofi, Mutabaruka, the Mighty Diamonds, the Twinkle Brothers, Manu Dibango and Fela Kuti.

The other, ex-partner of the once-united promoters succeeded in bringing the original Sunsplash package to Germany for the first time. Close to the Main River in the little village of Gemaunden deep in rural south-central Germany, they staged a two-day festival that drew a bigger crowd. About 10,000 people came from all over the country as well as from neighboring states like trance{{clarify|date=February 2023}} and, for the first time, East Germany to see the lineup of top reggae artists.<ref>Habekost, C. ". (1990, REGGAE SUNSPLASH GERMANY. ''The Beat, 9'', 26–27.</ref>

===Africa===
Reggae in Africa was much boosted by the visit of Bob Marley to Zimbabwe on Independence Day 18 April 1980. [[Nigerian reggae]] had developed in the 1970s with artists such as [[Majek Fashek]] proving popular.  In [[South Africa]], reggae music has played a unifying role amongst cultural groups in [[Cape Town]]. During the years of [[Apartheid]], the music bonded people from all demographic groups. [[Lucky Dube]] recorded 25 albums, fusing reggae with [[Mbaqanga]]. The Marcus Garvey Rasta camp in Phillipi is regarded by many to be the reggae and [[Rastafari movement|Rastafari]] center of Cape Town. Reggae bands play regularly at community centres such as the Zolani center in [[Nyanga, Cape Town|Nyanga]].

In [[Uganda]] musician [[Papa Cidy]] is very popular. Arthur Lutta is also a [[Ugandan]] gospel reggae drummer known for his reggae style drumming. In [[Ethiopia]], Dub Colossus and Invisible System emerged in 2008 sharing core members, and have received wide acclaim.<ref>{{cite web |last=Cibula |first=Matt |url=https://popmatters.com/pm/feature/165332-why-2012-is-the-year-of-ethiopian-hybrid-music/ |title=Why 2012 Is the Year of Ethiopian Hybrid Music |website=PopMatters.com |date=7 January 2013 |access-date=18 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121117231726/http://www.popmatters.com/pm/feature/165332-why-2012-is-the-year-of-ethiopian-hybrid-music |archive-date=17 November 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://pitchfork.com/reviews/albums/12582-a-town-called-addis/ |title=Pitchfork media review of Ethiopia's Dub Collosus |website=Pitchfork.com |date=15 January 2009 |access-date=18 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604182350/http://pitchfork.com/reviews/albums/12582-a-town-called-addis/ |archive-date=4 June 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author=Robin Denselow |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2008/nov/21/dub-colossus-town-called-addis |title=The Guardian's review of Dub Collosus |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=21 November 2008 |access-date=18 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029230935/http://www.theguardian.com/music/2008/nov/21/dub-colossus-town-called-addis |archive-date=29 October 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> In Mali, Askia Modibo fuses reggae with [[Malian music]]. In [[Malawi]], [[Black Missionaries]] produced nine albums. In [[Ivory Coast]] a country where reggae music is extremely popular, [[Tiken Jah Fakoly]] fuses reggae with traditional music. [[Alpha Blondy]] from Ivory Coast sings reggae with religious lyrics. In [[Sudan]], beats, drums and bass guitar from reggae have been adopted by local music. Reggae is very popular there among generations from young to old; some spiritual (religious) groups grow dreadlocks and feature reggae beats in their chants.

===Asia===
In the Philippines, several bands and sound systems play reggae and dancehall music. Their music is called [[Pinoy reggae]]. [[Japanese reggae]] emerged in the early 1980s. Reggae is becoming more prevalent in Thailand as well. Reggae music is quite popular in [[Sri Lanka]]. Aside from the reggae music and Rastafari influences seen ever more on Thailand's islands and beaches, a true reggae sub-culture is taking root in Thailand's cities and towns. Many Thai artists, such as Job 2 Do, keep the tradition of reggae music and ideals alive in Thailand.

Famous Indian singer [[Kailash Kher]] and music producer [[Clinton Cerejo]] created ''Kalapi'', a rare fusion piece of reggae and Indian music for [[Coke Studio India]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://cokestudioindia.mobi/season3/e03-s03.html?WT.cl=1&WT.mn=Kalapi |title=Kalapi |access-date=9 December 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20131209205531/http://cokestudioindia.mobi/season3/e03-s03.html?WT.cl=1&WT.mn=Kalapi |archive-date=9 December 2013 }}</ref> Other than this high-profile piece, reggae is confined to a small, emerging scene in India.<ref name="Reggae in India-2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.reggae-vibes.com/concert/reggaeindia/reggaeindia.htm|title=Reggae in India|date=28 December 2012|access-date=13 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121228053351/http://www.reggae-vibes.com/concert/reggaeindia/reggaeindia.htm|archive-date=28 December 2012}}</ref> [[Reggae Rajahs]] are a reggae and bass music sound system crew based out of New Delhi, India.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bigg |first=Margot |date=2010-08-10 |title=Inna Reggae Rajahs Style |url=https://rollingstoneindia.com/inna-reggae-rajahs-style/ |access-date=2024-02-21 |website=Rolling Stone India |language=en-US}}</ref> They are the first Jamaican style sound system in India and creators of [[Goa Sunsplash]] Festival.<ref name="Reggae in India-2012" /> [[Thaikkudam Bridge]], a neo-Indian band based in Kerala, India, is known for introducing reggae into Indian regional blues.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Bridge|first1=Thaikkudam|title=Thaikkudam Bridge, reggae|url=http://thaikkudambridge.com/|website=Thaikkudambridge.com|publisher=Govind Menon, Siddhart Menon|access-date=5 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314191633/http://thaikkudambridge.com/|archive-date=14 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Australia and the Pacific===
[[Reggae in Australia]] originated in the 1980s. Australian reggae groups include [[Sticky Fingers (band)|Sticky Fingers]], [[Blue King Brown]] and [[Astronomy Class]].

By the end of the 1980s, the local music scene in Hawaii was dominated by [[Jawaiian]] music, a local form of reggae.

[[New Zealand reggae]] was heavily inspired by [[Bob Marley]]'s [[Babylon by Bus Tour|1979 tour]] of the country and early reggae groups such as [[Herbs (band)|Herbs]].<ref>[http://www.vidarasta.com/frases-de-bob-marley/ Bob Marley Quotes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160520025030/http://www.vidarasta.com/frases-de-bob-marley/ |date=20 May 2016 }} – The online biography</ref> The genre has seen many bands like [[Fat Freddy's Drop]], [[Salmonella Dub]], [[the Black Seeds]] and [[Katchafire]] emerging in more recent times, often involving fusion with electronica.<ref>Weiss, M. (2006, Reggae in paradise: New Zealand vibes. ''The Beat, 25'', 40–41.</ref>

In 2017<ref>{{Cite web|title=New interactive music chart for dancehall and reggae launched|url=https://scoop.com.au/dancehall-reggae-chart-launched/|date=2017-09-16|website=Scoop|language=en-AU|access-date=2020-05-09}}</ref> the first-ever chart dedicated to reggae and dancehall music was established in Australia by radio presenter [[DJ Ragz]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=DJ Ragz charts destiny (Jamaica Observer)|url=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/splash/dj-ragz_109624?profile=1116|website=Jamaica Observer|access-date=2020-05-09}}</ref> music producer [[DJ Wade]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jamaica Observer Limited|url=http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/entertainment/keeping-the-beat-alive-down-under_111016?profile=1116|access-date=2020-12-05|website=Jamaica Observer}}</ref> and [[Dancehall Reggae Australia]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Australia |first1=Dancehall Reggae |title=Australia's first music chart dedicated to Dancehall and Reggae. |url=https://dancehallreggae.com.au/australian-dancehall-reggae-chart/ |publisher=Dancehall Reggae Australia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-09-16|title=New interactive music chart for dancehall and reggae launched|url=https://scoop.com.au/dancehall-reggae-chart-launched/|access-date=2020-10-02|website=Scoop|language=en-AU}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Jamaica|Music}}
* [[List of dub artists]]
* [[List of reggae compilation albums]]
* [[List of reggae festivals|Reggae festivals]]
* [[Reggae genres]]
* [[Cannabis (drug)|Cannabis]]
* [[Rastafari]]
* [[Skinhead]]
* [[Skanking]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* Jérémie Kroubo Dagnini (2008). ''Les origines du reggae: retour aux sources. Mento, ska, rocksteady, early reggae'', L'Harmattan, coll. Univers musical. {{ISBN|978-2-296-06252-8}} {{in lang|fr}}
* Jérémie Kroubo Dagnini (2011). ''Vibrations jamaïcaines. L'Histoire des musiques populaires jamaïcaines au XXe siècle'', Camion Blanc. {{ISBN|978-2-35779-157-2}} {{in lang|fr}}
* {{cite book|author=Manuel, Peter, with Kenneth Bilby and Michael Largey|title=Caribbean Currents: Caribbean Music from Rumba to Reggae (2nd edition). Temple University Press, 2006|isbn=978-1-59213-463-2|year=2006|publisher=Temple University Press|location=Philadelphia, PA|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/caribbeancurrents00manuel}}
* {{cite book |author1=O'Brien Chang, Kevin  |author2=Chen, Wayne  |name-list-style=amp | title=Reggae Routes: The Story of Jamaican Music | publisher=Ian Randle Publishers | year=1998 | isbn=978-976-8100-67-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Leymarie |first=Isabelle |author-link=Isabelle Leymarie |title = Du tango au reggae: musiques noires d'Amérique latine et des Caraïbes |publisher = Flammarion |year = 1996 |location = Paris |isbn = 978-2082108133}}
* {{cite book |last=Leymarie |first=Isabelle |author-link=Isabelle Leymarie |title = Músicas del Caribe |publisher = Akal |year = 1998 |location = Madrid |isbn = 978-8440677051}}
* {{cite book | editor=Larkin, Colin | title=The Virgin Encyclopedia of Reggae | publisher=Virgin | year= 1998| isbn=978-0-7535-0242-6}}
* {{cite book | author=[[Steve Barrow|Barrow, Steve]] & Dalton, Peter | title=The Rough Guide to Reggae | publisher=Rough Guides | year=2004 | edition=3rd | isbn=978-1-84353-329-0 | url=https://archive.org/details/roughguidetoregg00barr }}
* {{cite book | author=Morrow, Chris | title=Stir It Up: Reggae Cover Art | publisher=Thames & Hudson | year= 1999| isbn=978-0-500-28154-3}}
* {{cite book  |author1=Jahn, Brian  |author2=Weber, Tom  |name-list-style=amp  |title=Reggae Island: Jamaican Music in the Digital Age  |publisher=Da Capo Press  |year=1998  |isbn=978-0-306-80853-1  |url=https://archive.org/details/reggaeislandjama00jahn  }}
* {{cite book | editor=Hurford, Ray | title=More Axe | publisher=Erikoispaino Oy | year=1987 | isbn=978-951-99841-4-8 | url=https://archive.org/details/moreaxe00blac }}
* {{cite book | editor=Potash, Chris | title=Reggae, Rasta, Revolution: Jamaican Music from Ska to Dub | publisher=Schirmer Books | year= 1997| isbn=978-0-8256-7212-5}}
* {{cite book |author1=Baek, Henrik  |author2=Hedegard, Hans  |name-list-style=amp | title=Dancehall Explosion, Reggae Music into the Next Millennium | publisher=Samler Borsen Publishing, Denmark | year=1999 | isbn=978-87-981684-3-0}}
* {{cite book | author=Katz, David | title=People Funny Boy: The Genius of Lee Scratch Perry | publisher=Payback Press, UK | year=2000 | isbn=978-0-86241-854-0 | author-link=David Katz (author) | url=https://archive.org/details/peoplefunnyboy00katz }}
* {{cite book | author=Lesser, Beth | title=King Jammy's | publisher=ECW Press | year=2002 | isbn=978-1-55022-525-9 | url=https://archive.org/details/kingjammys00less }}
* {{cite book | author=Stolzoff, Norman C. | title=Wake The Town And Tell The People | publisher=[[Duke University Press]], USA | year=2000 | isbn=978-0-8223-2514-7 | url=https://archive.org/details/waketowntellpeop00stol }}
* {{cite book | author1=Davis, Stephen | author2=Simon, Peter | name-list-style=amp | title=Reggae Bloodlines: In Search of the Music and Culture of Jamaica | publisher=Da Capo Press | year=1979 | isbn=978-0-306-80496-0 | url=https://archive.org/details/reggaebloodlines00davi }}
* {{cite book | author=Katz, David | title=Solid Foundation - An Oral history of Reggae | url=https://archive.org/details/solidfoundationo00katz | url-access=registration | publisher=Bloomsburry, UK | year=2003 | isbn=978-1-58234-143-9}}
* {{cite book | author-link1=Michael de Koningh |last1=de Koningh |first1=Michael |author-link2=Laurence Cane-Honeysett |last2=Cane-Honeysett |first2=Laurence | title=Young Gifted and Black - The Story of Trojan Records | publisher=Sanctuary Publishing, UK | year=2003 | isbn=978-1-86074-464-8 | url=https://archive.org/details/younggiftedblack00deko }}
* {{cite book |author1=de Koningh, Michael  |author2=Griffiths, Marc  |name-list-style=amp | title=Tighten Up - The History of Reggae in the UK | publisher=Sanctuary Publishing, UK | year=2003 | isbn=978-1-86074-559-1}}
* {{cite book | author=Bradley, Lloyd | title=Bass Culture. When Reggae Was King | publisher=Penguin Books Ltd, UK | year=2001 | isbn=978-0-14-023763-4 | author-link=Lloyd Bradley}}
* {{cite book | author=Bradley, Lloyd | title=This Is Reggae Music. The Story of Jamaica's Music | publisher=Penguin Books Ltd, UK | year=2000 | isbn=978-0-802-13828-6 | author-link=Lloyd Bradley | url=https://archive.org/details/thisisreggaemusi00brad }}
* {{cite book | author= Chang, Jeff | title=Can't Stop, Won't Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation | publisher= St. Martin's Press, 2005 |isbn=978-0-312-30143-9 | year= 2005 | author-link= Jeff Chang (journalist) | title-link=Can't Stop, Won't Stop: A History of the Hip-Hop Generation }}

==Further reading==
* Bradley, Lloyd (1996). ''Reggae on CD: The Essential Collection''. London: Kyle-Cathie. 368 p. {{ISBN|1-85636-577-8}}. The ISBN is from the back cover; the ISBN on the verso of the t.p. is incomplete.
* Smith, Horane. ''Reggae Silver''  Bedside Books. 2004. https://www.jamaicaobserver.com/art-culture/bookends-feb-05-2012page-one-inside-checking-in-with-horane-smithpage-twobookshelfchecking-in-with-horane-smith/

==External links==
*{{wikiquote-inline}}

{{Reggae}}
{{UNESCO Oral and Intangible music}}
{{Rastafari}}
{{ska}}
{{Calypso music}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Reggae| ]]
[[Category:Jamaican styles of music]]
[[Category:Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity]]
[[Category:1960s in music]]