View source for Philippines

{{short description|Country in Southeast Asia}}
{{redirect|Philippine|the town in the Netherlands|Philippine, Netherlands}}
{{Good article}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use Philippine English|date=February 2022}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Republic of the Philippines
| common_name            = the Philippines
| native_name            = {{native name|fil|Republika ng Pilipinas}}
| image_flag             = Flag of the Philippines.svg
| flag_size              = 130
| flag_type              = [[Flag of the Philippines|Flag]]
| image_coat             = Coat of arms of the Philippines.svg
| symbol_type            = [[Coat of arms of the Philippines|Coat of arms]]{{efn|Although the Flag and Heraldic Code of the Philippines (Republic Act 8491) passed in 1998 defined modifications to the coat of arms that removed the colonial charges, a referendum legally required to ratify the changes has not yet been called.}}
| national_motto         = <br />{{lang|fil|[[Maka-Diyos, Maka-tao, Makakalikasan at Makabansa]]}}<ref>{{cite PH act |chamber=RA |number=8491 |title=Flag and Heraldic Code of the Philippines |date=February 12, 1998 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1998/02/12/republic-act-no-8491/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525084350/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1998/02/12/republic-act-no-8491/ |archive-date=May 25, 2017 |access-date=March 8, 2014 |publisher=[[Official Gazette (Philippines)|Official Gazette of the Philippines]] |location=Metro Manila, Philippines}}</ref><br />"For God, People, Nature, and Country"
| national_anthem        = "{{lang|fil|[[Lupang Hinirang]]}}"<br />"Chosen Land"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:Philippine National Anthem, the Lupang Hinirang, Himno Nacional Filipino Unknown Artist.ogg]]}}
| other_symbol_type      = [[Great Seal of the Philippines|Great Seal]]:
| other_symbol           = [[File:Seal of the Philippines.svg|95px]]
| image_map              = {{Switcher|[[File:PHL orthographic.svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Location Philippines ASEAN.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show ASEAN|default=1}}
| map_caption            = {{map caption |location_color=green |region=[[ASEAN]] |region_color=dark grey |legend=Location Philippines ASEAN.svg}}
| capital                = [[Manila]] (''de jure'')<br />[[Metro Manila]]{{efn|name=a|While [[Manila]] is designated as [[Capital of the Philippines|the nation's capital]], the [[seat of government]] is the ''National Capital Region'', commonly known as "[[Metro Manila]]", of which the city of Manila is a part.<ref>{{Cite PH act |title=Establishing Manila as the Capital of the Philippines and as the Permanent Seat of the National Government |chamber=PD |number=940, s. 1976 |date=May 29, 1976 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1976/05/29/presidential-decree-no-940-s-1976/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525084430/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1976/05/29/presidential-decree-no-940-s-1976/ |archive-date=May 25, 2017 |access-date=April 4, 2015 |publisher=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]] |location=Manila, Philippines}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Quezon City Local Government – Background |url=https://quezoncity.gov.ph/index.php/about-the-city-government/background |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820074250/https://quezoncity.gov.ph/index.php/about-the-city-government/background |archive-date=August 20, 2020 |access-date=August 25, 2020 |publisher=Quezon City Local Government}}</ref> Many national government institutions are located on various parts of Metro Manila, aside from [[Malacañang Palace]] and other institutions/agencies that are located within the Manila capital city.}} (''de facto'')
| largest_city           = [[Quezon City]]<!--Although [[Davao City]] has the largest land area, the article on [[largest city]] says we should refer to the most populous city, which, {{As of|2006|lc=y}}, is [[Quezon City]]. See the discussion page for more information. Changing this information without citation would be reverted.-->
| official_languages     = {{hlist|[[Filipino language|Filipino]]|[[Philippine English|English]]}}
| national_languages     = Filipino
| regional_languages     = [[Languages of the Philippines|19 languages]]<ref name="GMA-DepEd-7-Languages" />
| languages_type         = National [[sign language]]
| languages              = [[Filipino Sign Language]]
| languages_sub          = yes
| languages2_type        = Other recognized languages{{efn|name=b|As per the 1987 Constitution: "Spanish and Arabic shall be promoted on a voluntary and optional basis."<ref name="GovPH-OfficialLanguage" />}}
| languages2             = [[Philippine Spanish|Spanish]] and [[Arabic]]
 <!--Do not remove Spanish and Arabic from the languages list as it is recognized as an optional language in the 1987 Constitution of the Philippines-->| languages2_sub         = yes
| ethnic_groups          = {{#invoke:list|unbulleted
  | 26.0% [[Tagalog people|Tagalog]]
  | 14.3% [[Visayans|Bisaya]]
  | 8.0% [[Ilocano people|Ilocano]]
  | 8.0% [[Cebuano people|Cebuano]] 
  | 7.9% [[Hiligaynon people|Ilonggo]]
  | 6.5% [[Bicolano people|Bicolano]]
  | 20.3% [[Ethnic groups in the Philippines|other]]
}}
| ethnic_groups_year     = 2020<ref name="PSAGovPH-Ethnicity-2020Census">{{Cite press release |title=Ethnicity in the Philippines (2020 Census of Population and Housing) |url=https://www.psa.gov.ph/statistics/population-and-housing/node/1684059978 |access-date=May 11, 2024 |website=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906202953/https://www.psa.gov.ph/statistics/population-and-housing/node/1684059978 |archive-date=September 6, 2023}}</ref><!-- using figures for 2010 given in the cited source--><!--parameter ethnic_groups_ref not supported by the infobox-->
| demonym                = [[Filipinos|Filipino]]<br />(''neutral'')<br />Filipina<br />(''feminine'')<br />
[[Pinoy]]<br />(''colloquial neutral'')<br />Pinay<br />(''colloquial feminine'')<br />
Philippine<br />(''adjective for certain common nouns'') <!-- "Philippine" is a demonym as it is used to identify natives or residents of a certain or specific place that are derived from the place name Philippines, i.e. Philippine-American War -- refer to Oxford definition of demonym(s). -->
| government_type        = Unitary [[presidential republic]]
| leader_title1          = [[President of the Philippines|President]]
| leader_name1           = [[Bongbong Marcos]]<!-- Article is at Bongbong Marcos, do NOT use Ferdinand Marcos Jr. unless the article itself is renamed. -->
| leader_title2          = [[Vice President of the Philippines|Vice President]]
| leader_name2           = [[Sara Duterte]] <!-- Article is at Sara Duterte, do NOT use Sara Duterte-Carpio unless the article itself is renamed. -->
| leader_title3          = [[President of the Senate of the Philippines|Senate President]]
| leader_name3           = ''Vacant''
| leader_title4          = [[Speaker of the House of Representatives of the Philippines|House Speaker]]
| leader_name4           = ''Vacant''
| leader_title5          = [[Chief Justice of the Philippines|Chief Justice]]
| leader_name5           = [[Alexander Gesmundo]]
| legislature            = [[Congress of the Philippines|Congress]]
| upper_house            = [[Senate of the Philippines|Senate]]
| lower_house            = [[House of Representatives of the Philippines|House of Representatives]]
| sovereignty_type       = [[Sovereignty of the Philippines|Independence]]
| sovereignty_note       = from [[Spain]] and the [[United States]]
| established_event1     = [[Philippine Declaration of Independence|Declaration]]
| established_date1      = June 12, 1898
| established_event2     = [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|Cession]]
| established_date2      = April 11, 1899
| established_event3     = [[Commonwealth of the Philippines|Self-government]]
| established_date3      = November 15, 1935
| established_event4     = [[Treaty of Manila (1946)|Recognized]]
| established_date4      = July 4, 1946
| established_event5     = [[Constitution of the Philippines|Constitution]]
| established_date5      = February 2, 1987
| area_km2               = 300000<ref name="Philippines country profile">{{cite news |title=Philippines country profile |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-67765684 |website=[[BBC News]] |date=December 19, 2023 |access-date=January 10, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219164940/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-67765684 |archive-date=December 19, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/philippines/#geography |title=Philippines |date=February 27, 2023 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |via=CIA.gov |access-date=February 24, 2023 |archive-date=January 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210110072816/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/philippines#geography |url-status=live}}</ref>{{efn|name=land-area}}
| area_footnote          = 
| area_link              = Geography of the Philippines
| area_label             = Total
| area_rank              = 72nd
| percent_water          = 0.61<ref name="CIAWorldFactBook">{{#invoke:cite|web|date=June 7, 2023 |title=Philippines |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/philippines/ |access-date=June 19, 2023 |website=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]}}</ref> (inland waters)
<!-- 
| area_label2            = [[List of countries and dependencies by area|Total land area]]
| area_data2             = {{convert|319954|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
 --> <!-- hidden since no reliable source is provided -->| population_estimate    = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 114,163,719<ref>{{cite web |url=https://psa.gov.ph/statistics/census/projected-population |title=Population Projection Statistics |date=March 28, 2021 |website=psa.gov.ph |access-date=November 15, 2023 |archive-date=December 26, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231226235925/https://psa.gov.ph/statistics/census/projected-population |url-status=live}}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2024
| population_estimate_rank = 12th
| population_census_year = 2020
| population_census      = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 109,035,343<ref name="PSAGovPH-2020Census">{{Cite press release |last=Mapa |first=Dennis S. |author-link1=Dennis Mapa |date=July 7, 2021 |title=2020 Census of Population and Housing (2020 CPH) Population Counts Declared Official by the President |url=https://psa.gov.ph/content/2020-census-population-and-housing-2020-cph-population-counts-declared-official-president |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210707104119/https://psa.gov.ph/content/2020-census-population-and-housing-2020-cph-population-counts-declared-official-president |archive-date=July 7, 2021 |publisher=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]]}}</ref>
| population_density_km2 = 363.45
| population_density_sq_mi = {{Data/popdens|Philippines|comma|areaunit=sqmi}}<!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
| population_density_rank = 36th
| GDP_PPP                = {{increase}} $1.488 trillion<ref>{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year           = 2025
| GDP_PPP_rank           = 30th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = {{increase}} $12,930<ref>{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 114th
| GDP_nominal            = {{increase}} $497.05 billion<ref>{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_nominal_year       = 2025
| GDP_nominal_rank       = 32nd
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $4,350<ref>{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april |language=en}}</ref>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 125th
| Gini                   = 40.2 <!--number only-->
| Gini_year              = 2021
| Gini_change            = decrease <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| Gini_ref               = <ref>{{Cite press release |title=Highlights of the Preliminary Results of the 2021 Annual Family Income and Expenditure Survey |publisher=[[Philippine Statistics Authority|PSA]] |url=https://psa.gov.ph/content/highlights-preliminary-results-2021-annual-family-income-and-expenditure-survey |access-date=August 15, 2022 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516030556/https://psa.gov.ph/content/highlights-preliminary-results-2021-annual-family-income-and-expenditure-survey |archive-date=May 16, 2023}}</ref>
| HDI                    = 0.720  <!--number only-->
| HDI_year               = 2023 <!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change             = increase <!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref                = <ref name="UNHDR">{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |language=en}}</ref>
| HDI_rank               = 117th
| currency               = [[Philippine peso]] ([[Philippine peso sign|₱]])
| currency_code          = PHP
| time_zone              = [[Philippine Standard Time|PhST]]
| utc_offset             = +8
| drives_on              = Right
| calling_code           = [[Telephone numbers in the Philippines|+63]]
| cctld                  = [[.ph]]
| religion               = {{#invoke:list|unbulleted|item_style=white-space:nowrap;
  |
{{Tree list}}
* 85.3% [[Christianity in the Philippines|Christianity]] <!--note that the release by the PSA sums up all statistics to 99.9%-->
** 78.8% [[Catholic Church in the Philippines|Catholicism]]{{efn|name=Catholic-2020Census|Excludes [[Catholic Charismatic Renewal|Catholic Charismatic]]s numbering 74,096 persons (0.07% of the Philippine household population in 2020)<ref name="PSAGovPH-Religion-2020Census" />}}
** 6.5% other [[Religion in the Philippines#Christianity|Christian]]
{{Tree list/end}}
  |6.4% [[Islam in the Philippines|Islam]]
  |8.2% [[Religion in the Philippines#Other religions|other]]
}}
| religion_year          = 2020
| religion_ref           = <ref name="PSAGovPH-Religion-2020Census">{{Cite press release |last=Mapa |first=Dennis |author-link1=Dennis Mapa |date=February 21, 2023 |title=Religious Affiliation in the Philippines (2020 Census of Population and Housing) |url=https://www.psa.gov.ph/system/files/phcd/1_Press%20Release%20on%20Religious%20Affiliation_RML_01272023_FJRA_PMMJ_CRD-signed_0.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=May 11, 2024 |work=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]] |page=2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812114943/https://www.psa.gov.ph/system/files/phcd/1_Press%20Release%20on%20Religious%20Affiliation_RML_01272023_FJRA_PMMJ_CRD-signed_0.pdf |archive-date=August 12, 2023}}</ref>
}}

The '''Philippines''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Philippines.ogg|ˈ|f|i|l|ᵻ|p|iː|n|z}}; {{langx|fil|Pilipinas}}, {{IPA|tl|pɪ.lɪˈpiː.nɐs}}}} officially the '''Republic of the Philippines''',{{efn|{{langx|fil|Republika ng Pilipinas|links=no}}.<br />In the recognized regional [[languages of the Philippines]]:
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* {{langx|akl|Republika it Pilipinas}}
* {{langx|bik|Republika kan Filipinas}}
* {{langx|ceb|Republika sa Pilipinas}}
* {{langx|cbk|República de Filipinas}}
* {{langx|hil|Republika sang Filipinas}}
* {{langx|ibg|Republika nat Filipinas}}
* {{langx|ilo|Republika ti Filipinas}}
* {{langx|ivv|Republika nu Filipinas}}
* {{langx|pam|Republika ning Filipinas}}
* {{langx|krj|Republika kang Pilipinas}}
* {{langx|mdh|Republika nu Pilipinas}}
* {{langx|mrw|Republika a Pilipinas}}
* {{langx|pag|Republika na Filipinas}}
* {{langx|xsb|Republika nin Pilipinas}}
* {{langx|sgd|Republika nan Pilipinas}}
* {{langx|tl|Republika ng Pilipinas}}
* {{langx|tsg|Republika sin Pilipinas}}
* {{langx|war|Republika han Pilipinas}}
* {{langx|yka|Republika si Pilipinas}}
{{div col end}}
In the recognized optional languages of the Philippines:
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* {{langx|es|República de las Filipinas}}
* {{langx|ar|جمهورية الفلبين|Jumhūriyyat al-Filibbīn}}
{{div col end}}}} is an [[Archipelagic state|archipelagic country]] in [[Southeast Asia]]. Located in the western [[Pacific Ocean]], it consists of [[List of islands of the Philippines|7,641 islands]], with a total area of roughly 300,000 square kilometers, which are broadly categorized in [[Island groups of the Philippines|three main geographical divisions]] from north to south: [[Luzon]], [[Visayas]], and [[Mindanao]]. With a population of over 110 million, it is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by population|twelfth-most-populous country]].

The Philippines is bounded by the [[South China Sea]] to the west, the [[Philippine Sea]] to the east, and the [[Celebes Sea]] to the south. It shares [[maritime border]]s with [[Taiwan]] to the north, [[Japan]] to the northeast, [[Palau]] to the east and southeast, [[Indonesia]] to the south, [[Malaysia]] to the southwest, [[Vietnam]] to the west, and [[China]] to the northwest. It has [[Ethnic groups in the Philippines|diverse ethnicities]] and [[Culture of the Philippines|a rich culture]]. [[Manila]] is [[Capital of the Philippines|the country's capital]], and [[Cities of the Philippines#Largest cities|its most populated city]] is [[Quezon City]]. Both are within [[Metro Manila]].

[[Negrito]]s, the archipelago's earliest inhabitants, were followed by [[Models of migration to the Philippines|waves]] of [[Austronesian peoples]]. The adoption of [[animism]], [[Hinduism]] with [[Buddhist]] influence, and [[Islam]] established [[History of the Philippines (900–1565)|island-kingdoms]]. Extensive overseas trade with neighbors such as the late [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] or [[Southern Song|Song]] empire brought [[Sangley|Chinese]] people to the archipelago as well, which would also gradually settle in and [[Interethnic marriage|intermix]] over the centuries. The arrival of the explorer [[Ferdinand Magellan]] marked the beginning of [[Spanish Colonization in the Philippines|Spanish colonization]]. In 1543, Spanish explorer {{Lang|es|[[Ruy López de Villalobos]]|italic=no}} named the archipelago {{lang|es|Las Islas Filipinas}} in honor of [[King Philip II of Castile]]. [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] became the dominant religion, and Manila became the western hub of [[Spanish treasure fleet|trans-Pacific trade]]. [[Spaniard|Hispanic]] immigrants from [[Latin American Asian|Latin America]] and [[Iberia]] would also selectively colonize. The [[Philippine Revolution]] began in 1896, and became entwined with the 1898 [[Spanish–American War]]. Spain ceded the territory to the United States, and [[Hong Kong Junta|Filipino revolutionaries]] declared the [[First Philippine Republic]]. The ensuing [[Philippine–American War]] ended with the United States controlling the territory until the [[Philippines campaign (1941–1942)|Japanese invasion]] of the islands during [[World War II]]. After [[Philippines campaign (1944–1945)|the United States retook the Philippines from the Japanese]], the Philippines became independent in 1946. Since then, the country notably experienced a [[Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos|period of martial law]] from 1972 to 1981 under the dictatorship of [[Ferdinand Marcos]] and his subsequent overthrow by the [[People Power Revolution]] in 1986. Since returning to democracy, the [[Constitution of the Philippines|constitution]] of the [[History of the Philippines (1986–present)|Fifth Republic]] was enacted in 1987, and the country has been governed as a unitary presidential republic. However, the country continues to struggle with issues such as inequality and endemic [[Corruption in the Philippines|corruption]].

The Philippines is an [[emerging market]] and a [[developing country|developing]] and [[newly industrialized country]], [[Economy of the Philippines|whose economy]] is transitioning from being agricultural to service- and manufacturing-centered. Its location as an island country on the Pacific [[Ring of Fire]] and close to the equator makes it prone to [[List of earthquakes in the Philippines|earthquakes]] and [[Typhoons in the Philippines|typhoons]]. The Philippines has a variety of natural resources and a globally-significant [[Megadiverse countries|level of biodiversity]]. The country is part of [[International organization membership of the Philippines|multiple international organizations and forums]].

== Etymology ==
{{main|Names of the Philippines}}
During his 1542 expedition, Spanish explorer [[Ruy López de Villalobos]] named the islands of [[Leyte]] and [[Samar]] "{{lang|es|Felipinas}}" after the [[Prince of Asturias]], later [[Philip&nbsp;II of Castile]]. Eventually, the name "{{lang|es|Las Islas Filipinas}}" would be used for the archipelago's Spanish possessions.<ref name="Scott-1994" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=15KZU-yMuisC&pg=PA6|name=6}}}} Other names, such as "{{lang|es|Islas del Poniente}}" (Western Islands), "{{lang|pt|Islas del Oriente}}" (Eastern Islands), Ferdinand Magellan's name, and "{{lang|es|San Lázaro}}" (Islands of St. Lazarus), were used by the Spanish to refer to islands in the region before Spanish rule was established.<ref>{{cite book |last=Malcolm |first=George A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tpEz7_tzzJoC |title=The Government of the Philippine Islands: Its Development and Fundamentals |series=Philippine Law Collection |date=1916 |publisher=[[Lawyers Co-operative Publishing Company]] |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |location=Rochester, N.Y. |page=[https://archive.org/details/cu31924051298937/page/2/mode/2up 3] |language=en |author-link=George A. Malcolm |oclc=578245510 |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144209/https://books.google.com/books?id=tpEz7_tzzJoC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Spate |first=Oskar H.K. |title=The Spanish Lake |date=November 2004 |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |isbn=978-0-7099-0049-8 |series=The Pacific since Magellan |volume=I |location=London, England |page=97 |chapter=Chapter 4. Magellan's Successors: Loaysa to Urdaneta. Two failures: Grijalva and Villalobos |doi=10.22459/SL.11.2004 |author-link=Oskar Spate |access-date=July 6, 2020 |orig-date=1979 |chapter-url=http://epress.anu.edu.au/spanish_lake/mobile_devices/ch04s05.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080805022835/http://epress.anu.edu.au/spanish_lake/mobile_devices/ch04s05.html |archive-date=August 5, 2008 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GIz4CDTCOwcC |title=The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia |date=1999 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-66370-0 |editor-last=Tarling |editor-first=Nicholas |volume=2: From c. 1500 to c. 1800 |location=Cambridge, England |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GIz4CDTCOwcC&pg=PA12 12] |language=en |author-link=Nicholas Tarling |access-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402114137/https://books.google.com/books?id=GIz4CDTCOwcC |url-status=live}}</ref>

During the [[Philippine Revolution]], the [[Malolos Congress]] proclaimed it the {{lang|es|República Filipina}} (the [[First Philippine Republic|Philippine Republic]]).<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=The 1899 Malolos Constitution |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1899-malolos-constitution/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170605215334/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1899-malolos-constitution/ |archive-date=June 5, 2017 |access-date=February 11, 2023 |website=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]] |at=Título I – De la República; Articulo 1 |language=es, en}}</ref> American colonial authorities referred to the country as the Philippine Islands (a translation of the Spanish name).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Constantino |first=Renato |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1ZxAAAAMAAJ |title=The Philippines: A Past Revisited |date=1975 |publisher=Tala Pub. Services |isbn=978-971-8958-00-1 |location=Quezon City, Philippines |author-link=Renato Constantino |access-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072918/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1ZxAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[United States]] began changing its nomenclature from "the Philippine Islands" to "the Philippines" in the Philippine Autonomy Act and the [[Jones Law (Philippines)|Jones Law]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|date=August 29, 1916 |title=The Jones Law of 1916 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-jones-law-of-1916/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808093938/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-jones-law-of-1916/ |archive-date=August 8, 2017 |access-date=March 12, 2021 |website=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]] |at=Section 1.―The Philippines}}</ref> The official title "Republic of the Philippines" was included in the 1935 constitution as the name of the future independent state,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=The 1935 Constitution |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1935-constitution/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625234400/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1935-constitution/ |archive-date=June 25, 2017 |access-date=February 11, 2023 |website=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]] |at=Article XVII, Section 1}}</ref> and in all succeeding constitutional revisions.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|date=January 17, 1973 |title=1973 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1973-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-2/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170625191553/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1973-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-2/ |archive-date=June 25, 2017 |access-date=March 14, 2021 |website=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]]}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|date=February 11, 1987 |title=The Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607182503/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/1987-constitution/ |archive-date=June 7, 2017 |access-date=March 14, 2021 |website=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]]}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of the Philippines}}
{{For timeline|Timeline of Philippine history}}

=== Prehistory (pre–900) ===
{{Main|Prehistory of the Philippines}}
[[File:Manunggul Jar.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Manunggul Jar|Manunggul burial jar]], one of the numerous [[burial jar]]s found on the cave system|alt=A burial jar with its lid decorated with two people on a boat|left]]
There is [[Archaeology of the Philippines|evidence]] of early [[hominins]] living in what is now the Philippines as early as 709,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ingicco |first1=T. |last2=van den Bergh |first2=G. D. |last3=Jago-on |first3=C. |last4=Bahain |first4=J. |last5=Chacón |first5=M. G. |last6=Amano |first6=N. |last7=Forestier |first7=H. |last8=King |first8=C. |last9=Manalo |first9=K. |last10=Nomade |first10=S. |last11=Pereira |first11=A. |last12=Reyes |first12=M. C. |last13=Sémah |first13=A. |last14=Shao |first14=Q. |last15=Voinchet |first15=P. |date=May 1, 2018 |title=Earliest known hominin activity in the Philippines by 709&nbsp;thousand years ago |url=https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6441&context=smhpapers |journal=Nature |publisher=[[University of Wollongong]] |volume=557 |issue=7704 |pages=233–237 |bibcode=2018Natur.557..233I |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0072-8 |pmid=29720661 |s2cid=256771231 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429133325/https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6441&context=smhpapers |archive-date=April 29, 2019 |first16=C. |last16=Falguères |first17=P.C.H. |last17=Albers |first18=M. |last18=Lising |first19=G. |last19=Lyras |first20=D. |last20=Yurnaldi |first21=P. |last21=Rochette |first22=A. |last22=Bautista |first23=J. |last23=de Vos |issn=0028-0836}}</ref> Bones from [[Callao Cave]] potentially represent an otherwise unknown species, ''[[Homo luzonensis]]'', who lived 50,000 to 67,000 years ago.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Greshko |first1=Michael |last2=Wei-Haas |first2=Maya |date=April 10, 2019 |title=New species of ancient human discovered in the Philippines |work=[[National Geographic]] |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/04/new-species-ancient-human-discovered-luzon-philippines-homo-luzonensis/ |access-date=October 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410173110/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/2019/04/new-species-ancient-human-discovered-luzon-philippines-homo-luzonensis/ |archive-date=April 10, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Rincon |first1=Paul |date=April 10, 2019 |title=New human species found in Philippines |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-47873072 |access-date=October 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410192730/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-47873072 |archive-date=April 10, 2019 |author-link1=Paul Rincon}}</ref> The oldest [[modern human]] remains on the islands are from the [[Tabon Caves]] of [[Palawan]], [[U/Th-dated]] to 47,000 ± 11–10,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Détroit |first1=Florent |last2=Dizon |first2=Eusebio |last3=Falguères |first3=Christophe |last4=Hameau |first4=Sébastien |last5=Ronquillo |first5=Wilfredo |last6=Sémah |first6=François |date=2004 |title=Upper Pleistocene ''Homo sapiens'' from the Tabon cave (Palawan, The Philippines): description and dating of new discoveries |url=http://fdetroit.free.fr/IMG/pdf/Detroit_etal_04_Tabon2.pdf |journal=Human Palaeontology and Prehistory |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=3 |issue=2004 |pages=705–712 |bibcode=2004CRPal...3..705D |doi=10.1016/j.crpv.2004.06.004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218164554/http://fdetroit.free.fr/IMG/pdf/Detroit_etal_04_Tabon2.pdf |archive-date=February 18, 2015 |doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Tabon Man]] is presumably a [[Negrito]], among the archipelago's earliest inhabitants descended from the first human migrations out of Africa via the coastal route along [[South Asia|southern Asia]] to the now-sunken landmasses of [[Sundaland]] and [[Sahul]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Jett |first=Stephen C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EgOUDgAAQBAJ |title=Ancient Ocean Crossings: Reconsidering the Case for Contacts with the Pre-Columbian Americas |date=2017 |publisher=[[University of Alabama Press]] |isbn=978-0-8173-1939-7 |location=Tuscaloosa, Ala. |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EgOUDgAAQBAJ&pg=168 168–171] |access-date=May 23, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072920/https://books.google.com/books?id=EgOUDgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>

The first Austronesians reached the Philippines from Taiwan around 2200 BC, settling the [[Batanes]] Islands (where they built stone fortresses known as ''[[ijang]]s'')<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2005-006.pdf |title=The Protected Landscape Approach: Linking Nature, Culture and Community |date=2005 |publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]] |isbn=978-2-8317-0797-6 |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=Jessica |location=Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, England |pages=101–102 |language=en |access-date=March 19, 2023 |editor-last2=Mitchell |editor-first2=Nora J. |editor-last3=Beresford |editor-first3=Michael |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180408232535/https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2005-006.pdf |archive-date=April 8, 2018}}</ref> and northern [[Luzon]]. [[Philippine jade culture|Jade artifacts]] have been dated to 2000 BC,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=William Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FSlwAAAAMAAJ |title=Prehispanic Source Materials for the Study of Philippine History |publisher=New Day Publishers |year=1984 |isbn=978-971-10-0227-5 |location=Quezon City, Philippines |page=17 |author-link=William Henry Scott (historian) |access-date=April 20, 2023 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072920/https://books.google.com/books?id=FSlwAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ness |first=Immanuel |editor-last1=Bellwood |editor-first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2HMTBwAAQBAJ |title=The Global Prehistory of Human Migration |date=2014 |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |isbn=978-1-118-97059-1 |location=Chichester, West Sussex, England |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2HMTBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA289 289] |author-link1=Immanuel Ness |editor-link1=Peter Bellwood |access-date=September 2, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072922/https://books.google.com/books?id=2HMTBwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> with [[lingling-o]] jade items made in Luzon with raw materials from Taiwan.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hung |first1=Hsiao-Chun |last2=Iizuka |first2=Yoshiyuki |last3=Bellwood |first3=Peter |last4=Nguyen |first4=Kim Dung |last5=Bellina |first5=Bérénice |last6=Silapanth |first6=Praon |last7=Dizon |first7=Eusebio |last8=Santiago |first8=Rey |last9=Datan |first9=Ipoi |last10=Manton |first10=Jonathan H. |date=December 11, 2007 |title=Ancient jades map 3,000 years of prehistoric exchange in Southeast Asia |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=104 |issue=50 |pages=19745–19750 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0707304104 |pmc=2148369 |pmid=18048347 |doi-access=free}}</ref> By 1000 BC, the inhabitants of the archipelago had developed into four societies: [[hunter-gatherer]] tribes, warrior societies, highland [[plutocracies]], and port principalities.<ref name="Legarda-2001">{{Cite journal |last=Legarda |first=Benito Jr. |author-link=Benito J. Legarda |year=2001 |title=Cultural Landmarks and their Interactions with Economic Factors in the Second Millennium in the Philippines |journal=Kinaadman (Wisdom): A Journal of the Southern Philippines |publisher=[[Xavier University – Ateneo de Cagayan]] |volume=23 |page=40}}</ref>

=== Early states (900–1565) ===
{{main|History of the Philippines (900–1565)}}
[[File:Naturales 4.png|thumb|A couple portrayed in 1590's Early Spanish colonial period of the Philippines draped in gold]]
The earliest known surviving written record in the Philippines is the 900 AD [[Laguna Copperplate Inscription]], which was written in [[Old Malay]] using the early [[Kawi alphabet|Kawi]] script.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Postma |first=Antoon |author-link=Antoon Postma |date=1992 |title=The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and Commentary |url=http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1033/1018 |journal=[[Philippine Studies (journal)|Philippine Studies]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University]] |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=182–203 |issn=0031-7837 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208053836/http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/1033/1018 |archive-date=December 8, 2015}}</ref> By the 14th century, several large coastal settlements emerged as trading centers and became the focus of [[Cultural achievements of pre-colonial Philippines|societal changes]].<ref name="deGraaf-1977">{{Cite book |last1=de Graaf |first1=Hermanus Johannes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RYQeAAAAIAAJ |title=Geschichte: Lieferung 2 |last2=Kennedy |first2=Joseph |last3=Scott |first3=William Henry |date=1977 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=978-90-04-04859-1 |location=Leiden, Switzerland |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RYQeAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA198 198] |language=en |author-link3=William Henry Scott (historian) |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306102637/https://books.google.com/books?id=RYQeAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Some [[polities]] had exchanges with other states throughout Asia.<ref name="Junker-1999">{{Cite book |last=Junker |first=Laura Lee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yO2yG0nxTtsC |title=Raiding, Trading, and Feasting: The Political Economy of Philippine Chiefdoms |date=1999 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |isbn=978-0-8248-2035-0 |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072919/https://books.google.com/books?id=yO2yG0nxTtsC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page=3}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nadeau |first=Kathleen M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kAINJWo4IJ4C |title=Liberation Theology in the Philippines: Faith in a Revolution |date=2002 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-0-275-97198-4 |location=Westport, Conn. |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kAINJWo4IJ4C&pg=PA8 8] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317084801/https://books.google.com/books?id=kAINJWo4IJ4C |url-status=live}}</ref> Trade with China began during the late [[Tang dynasty]],<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|url=https://www.nationalmuseum.gov.ph/2022/09/20/the-9th-to-10th-century-archaeological-evidence-of-maritime-relations-between-the-philippines-and-the-islands-of-southeast-asia/|title=The 9th to 10th century archaeological evidence of maritime relations between the Philippines and the islands of Southeast Asia|publisher=[[National Museum of the Philippines]]|access-date=December 4, 2023|date=n.d.}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Fox |first=Robert B. |author-link=Robert Bradford Fox |title=More Tsinoy Than We Admit: Chinese-Filipino Interactions Over the Centuries |publisher=Vibal Foundation, Inc. |year=2015 |isbn=9789719706823 |editor-last=Chu |editor-first=Richard T. |location=Quezon City |pages=10–13 |chapter=The Archaeological Record of Chinese Influences in the Philippines}}</ref> and expanded during the [[Song dynasty]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6kDm5d3cMIYC |title=Southeast Asia: From Prehistory to History |date=2004 |publisher=[[RoutledgeCurzon]] |isbn=978-0-415-29777-6 |editor-last=Glover |editor-first=Ian |location=London, England |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6kDm5d3cMIYC&pg=PA267 267] |author-link2=Peter Bellwood |editor-last2=Bellwood |editor-first2=Peter}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Pre-colonial Manila|url=http://malacanang.gov.ph/75832-pre-colonial-manila/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150724010336/http://malacanang.gov.ph/75832-pre-colonial-manila/|archive-date=July 24, 2015|access-date=December 26, 2020|website=Malacañan Palace: Presidential Museum And Library}}</ref><ref name=":0" /> Throughout the second millennium AD, some polities were part of the [[tributary system of China]].<ref name="Scott-1994">{{Cite book |last=Scott |first=William Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=15KZU-yMuisC |title=Barangay: Sixteenth-century Philippine Culture and Society |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |year=1994 |isbn=978-971-550-135-4 |location=Quezon City, Philippines |author-link=William Henry Scott (historian) |access-date=October 18, 2015 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072920/https://books.google.com/books?id=15KZU-yMuisC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|pages=177–178}}<ref name="Junker-1999" />{{rp|page=3}} With extensive trade and diplomacy, this brought [[Northern and southern China|Southern]] [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] merchants and migrants from [[Southern Fujian]],<ref>{{Cite book |last=San Buena Ventura |first=Fr. Pedro de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A8QxAQAAMAAJ |title=Vocabulario de lengua tagala: El romance castellano puesto primero |publisher=La Noble Villa de Pila |year=1613 |editor-last=de Silva |editor-first=Juan (Don.) |page=545 |language=[[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] & [[Early Modern Spanish]] |quote=Sangley) Langlang (pc) anſi llamauan los viejos deſtos [a los] ſangleyes cuando venian [a tratar] con ellos |trans-quote=Sangley) Langlang (pc) this is what the elderlies called [the] Sangleyes when they came [to deal] with them}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=San Buena Ventura |first=Fr. Pedro de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A8QxAQAAMAAJ |title=Vocabulario de lengua tagala: El romance castellano puesto primero |publisher=La Noble Villa de Pila |year=1613 |editor-last=de Silva |editor-first=Juan (Don.) |page=170 |language=[[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] & [[Early Modern Spanish]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/metsnav/common/navigate.do?pn=1&size=large&oid=VAB8326 |title=Boxer Codex (Manila Manuscript) |others=[[Boxer Codex]], once kept by Sir [[C. R. Boxer]] |year=1590s |location=Manila |pages=415 [PDF] / 204 [As Written] |language=[[Early Modern Spanish]] & [[Philippine Hokkien|Early Manila Hokkien]] |via=[[Indiana University]] Digital Library, as digitized from the [[Lilly Library]] |access-date=March 24, 2024 |archive-date=March 24, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324113344/https://webapp1.dlib.indiana.edu/metsnav/common/navigate.do?pn=1&size=large&oid=VAB8326 |url-status=live}}</ref> who would gradually settle and intermix in the Philippines. Indian cultural traits such as linguistic terms and religious practices [[Indian influences in early Philippine polities|began to spread]] in the Philippines during the 14th century, via the Indianized Hindu [[Majapahit|Majapahit Empire]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Philippines |encyclopedia=Concise Encyclopedia of World History |publisher=[[Atlantic Books|Atlantic Publishers & Distributors]] |location=New Delhi, India |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC |last=Ramirez-Faria |first=Carlos |date=2007 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC&pg=PA560 560] |isbn=978-81-269-0775-5 |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=January 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117131629/https://books.google.com/books?id=gGKsS-9h4BYC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Evangelista |first=Alfredo E. |date=1965 |title=Identifying Some Intrusive Archaeological Materials Found in Philippine Proto-historic Sites |url=https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-03-01-1965/Evangelista.pdf |journal=Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia |publisher=[[University of the Philippines Asian Center|Asian Center]], [[University of the Philippines]] |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=87–88 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429072742/https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-03-01-1965/Evangelista.pdf |archive-date=April 29, 2023 |access-date=April 29, 2023}}</ref> By the 15th century, Islam was established in the [[Sulu Archipelago]] and spread from there.<ref name="deGraaf-1977" />

Polities founded in the Philippines between the 10th and 16th centuries include [[Maynila (historical polity)|Maynila]],<ref name="Ring-1996">{{Cite book |last1=Ring |first1=Trudy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC |title=International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania |last2=Salkin |first2=Robert M. |last3=La Boda |first3=Sharon |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-884964-04-6 |location=Chicago, Ill. |pages=565–569 |name-list-style=amp |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072922/https://books.google.com/books?id=vWLRxJEU49EC |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Tondo (historical polity)|Tondo]], [[Namayan]], [[Pangasinan (historical polity)|Pangasinan]], [[Caboloan]], [[Cebu (historical state)|Cebu]], [[Butuan (historical polity)|Butuan]], [[Sultanate of Maguindanao|Maguindanao]], [[Confederate States of Lanao|Lanao]], [[Sultanate of Sulu|Sulu]], and [[Ma-i]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/historical-atlas-of-the-republic/page/n65/mode/2up |title=Historical Atlas of the Republic |date=2016 |publisher=[[Presidential Communications Group|Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office]] |isbn=978-971-95551-6-2 |editor-last=Quezon |editor-first=Manuel L. III |editor-link=Manolo Quezon |location=Manila, Philippines |page=64 |editor-last2=Goitia |editor-first2=Pocholo}}</ref> The early polities typically had a three-tier social structure: nobility, freemen, and dependent debtor-bondsmen.<ref name="Junker-1999" />{{rp|page=3}}<ref name="Wernstedt-1967">{{cite book |last1=Wernstedt |first1=Frederick L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pn0Pfh1Cl0C |title=The Philippine Island World: A Physical, Cultural, and Regional Geography |last2=Spencer |first2=Joseph Earle |date=January 1967 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=Berkeley, Calif. |isbn=978-0-520-03513-3 |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203072939/https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pn0Pfh1Cl0C |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pn0Pfh1Cl0C&pg=PA672|name=672}}}} Among the nobility were leaders known as [[datu]]s, who were responsible for ruling autonomous groups ([[Barangay state|barangays]] or dulohan).<ref>{{cite book |last=Arcilla |first=José S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uxEYobbU-D8C |title=An Introduction to Philippine History |date=1998 |edition=Fourth enlarged |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-550-261-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uxEYobbU-D8C&pg=PA15 15]}}</ref> When the barangays banded together to form a larger settlement or a geographically looser alliance,<ref name="Junker-1999" />{{rp|page=3}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Decasa |first=George C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hYNqz-1ayssC |title=The Qur'anic Concept of Umma and Its Function in Philippine Muslim Society |series=Interreligious and Intercultural Investigations |volume=1 |date=1999 |publisher=[[Pontificia Università Gregoriana]] |location=Rome, Italy |isbn=978-88-7652-812-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hYNqz-1ayssC&pg=PA328 328] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074637/https://books.google.com/books?id=hYNqz-1ayssC |url-status=live}}</ref> their more-esteemed members would be recognized as a "[[Paramount rulers in early Philippine history|paramount datu]]",<ref name="Newson">{{cite book |last=Newson |first=Linda A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ |title=Conquest and Pestilence in the Early Spanish Philippines |date=April 16, 2009 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-6197-1 |access-date=February 5, 2021 |archive-date=March 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230308195926/https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA58|name=58}}}}<ref name="Legarda-2001" /> [[rajah]] or [[sultan]],<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Carley |editor-first1=Michael |editor-last2=Jenkins |editor-first2=Paul |editor-last3=Smith |editor-first3=Harry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ycT9AQAAQBAJ |title=Urban Development and Civil Society: The Role of Communities in Sustainable Cities |year=2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Sterling, Va. |isbn=978-1-134-20050-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ycT9AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA108 108] |chapter=Chapter 7 |orig-date=2001 |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=March 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317140423/https://books.google.com/books?id=ycT9AQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> and would rule the community.<ref>{{cite book |last=Tan |first=Samuel K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pw5FWmdNmj8C |title=A History of the Philippines |date=2008 |publisher=[[University of the Philippines Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-542-568-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pw5FWmdNmj8C&pg=PA37 37] |author-link1=Samuel K. Tan}}</ref> Population density is thought to have been low during the 14th to 16th centuries<ref name="Newson" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA18|name=18}}}} due to the [[Typhoon#Frequency|frequency of typhoons]] and the Philippines' location on the Pacific [[Ring of Fire]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bankoff |first1=Greg |editor-last1=Boomgaard |editor-first1=Peter |title=A World of Water: Rain, Rivers and Seas in Southeast Asian Histories |series=Verhandelingen van het Koninklijk Instituut voor Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde |volume=240 |publisher=[[KITLV Press]] |location=Leiden, Netherlands |isbn=978-90-04-25401-5 |date=January 1, 2007 |pages=153–184 |chapter=Storms of history: Water, hazard and society in the Philippines: 1565-1930 |jstor=10.1163/j.ctt1w76vd0.9 |jstor-access=free}}</ref> Portuguese explorer [[Ferdinand Magellan]] arrived in 1521, claimed the islands for Spain, and was killed by [[Lapulapu]]'s men in the [[Battle of Mactan]].<ref name="Woods-2006">{{cite book |last=Woods |first=Damon L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C |title=The Philippines: A Global Studies Handbook |date=2006 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-85109-675-6 |language=en |author-link1=Damon Woods |access-date=December 6, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073501/https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C&pg=PT46|name=21}}}}<ref name="Guillermo-2012">{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Guillermo |first=Artemio R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC |title=Historical Dictionary of the Philippines |edition=Third |series=Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East |date=2012 |publisher=[[The Scarecrow Press]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-0-8108-7246-2 |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073356/https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC&pg=PA261|name=261}}}}

=== Spanish and American colonial rule (1565–1934) ===
{{main|History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|History of the Philippines (1898–1946)}}

[[File:Vista del Puente de Manila (1847).png|alt=See caption|thumb|[[Manila]], 1847]]
Unification and colonization by the [[Crown of Castile]] began when Spanish explorer [[Miguel López de Legazpi]] arrived from [[New Spain]] in 1565.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wing |first=J.T. |title=Roots of Empire: Forests and State Power in Early Modern Spain, c.1500–1750 |publisher=Brill |series=Brill's Series in the History of the Environment |year=2015 |isbn=978-90-04-26137-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 109] |quote=At the time of Miguel López de Legazpi's voyage in 1564-5, the Philippines were not a unified polity or nation. |access-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-date=January 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240128213911/https://books.google.com/books?id=7dQuBgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Carson |first1=Arthur L. |title=Higher Education in the Philippines |series=Bulletin |date=1961 |issue=29 |url=http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544128.pdf |publisher=[[Office of Education]], [[United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare]] |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |oclc=755650 |page=7 |access-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413085104/http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED544128.pdf |archive-date=April 13, 2015}}</ref><ref name="deBorja-2005">{{cite book |last=de Borja |first=Marciano R. |url=https://b-ok.cc/book/2577458/ffb6ff |title=Basques In The Philippines |series=The Basque Series |date=2005 |publisher=[[University of Nevada Press]] |location=Reno, Nev. |isbn=978-0-87417-590-5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220326224340/https://b-ok.cc/book/2577458/ffb6ff |archive-date=March 26, 2022 |access-date=April 25, 2023}}</ref>{{rp|pages=20–23}} Many [[Filipinos]] were brought to New Spain [[History of Spanish slavery in the Philippines|as slaves]] and forced crew,<ref>{{cite book |last=Seijas |first=Tatiana |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ |title=Asian Slaves in Colonial Mexico: From Chinos to Indians |series=Cambridge Latin American Studies |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2014 |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-107-06312-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36] |chapter=The Diversity and Reach of the Manila Slave Market |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-date=February 13, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230213113750/https://books.google.com/books?id=YCWjAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> whereas many [[Latin American Asian|Latin Americans]] were brought to the Philippines as soldiers and colonists.<ref>[https://pares.mcu.es/ParesBusquedas20/catalogo/description/431623 "Orden de enviar hombres a Filipinas desde México" (Consejo de Indias España)](English Translation from Spanish original: "Royal Decree to the Count of Coruña, Viceroy of New Spain, informing him that, according to information from Captain Gabriel de Rivera who came from the Philippines, on a journey made by Governor Gonzalo Ronquillo to the Cagayan River some Spaniards were lost, and that to make up for this lack and populate these islands it was necessary to take up to two hundred men to them. The viceroy is ordered to attend to this request and send them from New Spain, in addition to another two hundred that were entrusted to him from Lisbon."</ref> The Philippines hosts the only Latin American established districts in Asia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=West Coast of the Island Of Luzon {{pipe}} Tourist Attractions |url=http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/travel-guides/getting-to-philippines/979-tourist-attraction-city-of-manila |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161206200644/http://www.livinginthephilippines.com/travel-guides/getting-to-philippines/979-tourist-attraction-city-of-manila |archive-date=December 6, 2016 |access-date=December 6, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Colonial Latin Asia? The case for incorporating the Philippines and the Spanish Pacific into colonial Latin American studies|first=Kristie|last=Patricia Flannery|date=April 3, 2023|journal=Colonial Latin American Review|volume=32|issue=2|pages=235–242|doi=10.1080/10609164.2023.2205233|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Intramuros|Spanish Manila]] became the capital of the [[Captaincy General of the Philippines]] and the [[Spanish East Indies]] in 1571,<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Beaule |editor-first1=Christine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ |title=The Global Spanish Empire: Five Hundred Years of Place Making and Pluralism |editor-last2=Douglass |editor-first2=John G. |date=April 21, 2020 |publisher=[[University of Arizona Press]] |location=Tucson, Ariz. |isbn=978-0-8165-4084-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 204] |language=en |access-date=March 21, 2023 |archive-date=March 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321081230/https://books.google.com/books?id=1cfcDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Santiago |first=Fernando A. Jr. |year=2006 |title=Isang Maikling Kasaysayan ng Pandacan, Maynila 1589–1898 |trans-title=A Short History of Pandacan, Manila 1589–1898 |url=https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=7887 |url-status=live |journal=Malay |language=fil |publisher=[[De La Salle University]] |volume=19 |issue=2 |pages=70–87 |issn=2243-7851 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821002744/https://ejournals.ph/article.php?id=7887 |archive-date=August 21, 2020 |access-date=July 18, 2008 |via=Philippine E-Journals}}</ref> Spanish territories in Asia and the Pacific.<ref>{{cite book |last=Andrade |first=Tonio |url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/ |title=How Taiwan Became Chinese: Dutch, Spanish and Han colonialization in the Seventeenth Century |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-231-12855-1 |year=2005 |chapter=Chapter 4: La Isla Hermosa: The Rise of the Spanish Colony in Northern Taiwan |author-link=Tonio Andrade |chapter-url=http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade04.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071121160327/http://www.gutenberg-e.org/andrade/andrade04.html |archive-date=November 21, 2007 |via=Gutenberg-e}}</ref> The Spanish invaded local states using the principle of [[divide and rule|divide and conquer]],<ref name="Guillermo-2012" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC&pg=PA374|name=374}}}} bringing most of what is the present-day Philippines under one unified administration.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Giráldez |first1=Arturo |title=The Age of Trade: The Manila Galleons and the Dawn of the Global Economy |date=March 19, 2015 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-1-4422-4352-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6mCGBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mCGBwAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230402112011/https://books.google.com/books?id=6mCGBwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Acabado |first=Stephen |date=March 1, 2017 |title=The Archaeology of Pericolonialism: Responses of the "Unconquered" to Spanish Conquest and Colonialism in Ifugao, Philippines |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt3tp1p8m3/qt3tp1p8m3.pdf?t=qa7wdn |journal=[[International Journal of Historical Archaeology]] |publisher=[[Springer New York]] |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=1–26 |doi=10.1007/s10761-016-0342-9 |s2cid=254541436 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201106150313/https://escholarship.org/content/qt3tp1p8m3/qt3tp1p8m3.pdf?t=qa7wdn |archive-date=November 6, 2020 |via=Springer Link}}</ref> Disparate barangays were deliberately [[Reductions|consolidated into towns]], where [[Friars in Spanish Philippines|Catholic missionaries]] could more easily convert their inhabitants to [[Christianity]],<ref name="Abinales-2005">{{cite book |last1=Abinales |first1=Patricio N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC |title=State and Society in the Philippines |last2=Amoroso |first2=Donna J. |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-1024-1 |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073346/https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA53|name=53}}, {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA68|name=68}}}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Constantino |first1=Renato |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ |title=A History of the Philippines: From the Spanish Colonization to the Second World War |last2=Constantino |first2=Letizia R. |publisher=[[Monthly Review Press]] |location=New York, N.Y. |year=1975 |isbn=978-0-85345-394-9 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA58 58–59] |author-link1=Renato Constantino |access-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073504/https://books.google.com/books?id=kdhWCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> which was initially [[Religious Syncretism|Syncretist]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schumacher |first1=John N. |title=Syncretism in Philippine Catholicism: Its Historical Causes |journal=[[Philippine Studies (journal)|Philippine Studies]] |volume=32 |issue=3 |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |date=1984 |page=254 |url=http://philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3833/4054 |issn=2244-1093 |oclc=6015358201 |jstor=42632710 |author-link1=John N. Schumacher |access-date=October 5, 2023 |archive-date=October 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231006144446/http://philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/view/3833/4054 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Christianization]] by the [[Friars in Spanish Philippines|Spanish friars]] occurred mostly across the settled lowlands over the course of time. From 1565 to 1821, the Philippines was governed as a territory of the [[Mexico City]]-based Viceroyalty of New Spain; it was then administered from [[Madrid]] after the [[Mexican War of Independence]].<ref name="Halili-2004">{{cite book |last=Halili |first=Maria Christine N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC |title=Philippine History |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |year=2004 |edition=First |isbn=978-971-23-3934-9 |access-date=May 23, 2020 |archive-date=December 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231230123021/https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA81|name=81}}}} Manila became the western hub of [[Spanish treasure fleet|trans-Pacific trade]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Kane |first=Herb Kawainui |title=Hawaiʻ Chronicles: Island History from the Pages of Honolulu Magazine |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8248-1829-6 |editor-last=Bob Dye |volume=I |pages=25–32 |chapter=The Manila Galleons |author-link=Herb Kawainui Kane}}</ref> by [[Manila galleon]]s built in [[Bicol Region|Bicol]] and [[Cavite]].<ref>{{cite report |type=Conference proceeding |last=Bolunia |first=Mary Jane Louise A. |chapter=Astilleros: the Spanish shipyards of Sorsogon |chapter-url=http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf |title=Proceedings of the 2014 Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Conference; Session 5: Early Modern Colonialism in the Asia-Pacific Region |url=http://www.themua.org/collections/collections/show/13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413233643/http://www.themua.org/collections/files/original/34a74c76efdb951655b9bde1213812dc.pdf |archive-date=April 13, 2015 |access-date=October 26, 2015 |publisher=Asia-Pacific Regional Conference on Underwater Cultural Heritage Planning Committee |page=1 |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |oclc=892536655 |via=The Museum of Underwater Archaeology}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=McCarthy |first=William J. |date=December 1, 1995 |title=The Yards at Cavite: Shipbuilding in the Early Colonial Philippines |journal=[[International Journal of Maritime History]] |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=149–162 |doi=10.1177/084387149500700208 |s2cid=163709949}}</ref>

During its rule, Spain nearly bankrupted its treasury quelling [[Philippine revolts against Spain|indigenous revolts]]<ref name="Halili-2004" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA111|name=111–122}}}} and defending against external military attacks,<ref name="Ooi-2004">{{cite book |editor-last1=Ooi |editor-first1=Keat Gin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC |title=Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor |date=2004 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-57607-770-2 |access-date=January 29, 2021 |archive-date=January 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116094029/https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1077|name=1077}}}}<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Closmann |editor-first=Charles Edwin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=alK4QtqHpyAC&pg=PA36 |title=War and the Environment: Military Destruction in the Modern Age |date=2009 |publisher=[[Texas A&M University Press]] |location=College Station, Tex. |isbn=978-1-60344-380-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=alK4QtqHpyAC&pg=PA36 36] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306102727/https://books.google.com/books?id=alK4QtqHpyAC&pg=PA36 |url-status=live}}</ref> including [[Piracy in the Sulu and Celebes Seas|Moro piracy]],<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Klein |editor-first1=Bernhard |editor-last2=Mackenthun |editor-first2=Gesa |title=Sea Changes: Historicizing the Ocean |date=August 21, 2012 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-135-94046-1 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kbntzV53vZAC&pg=PA63 63–66] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kbntzV53vZAC |access-date=August 11, 2023 |language=en |archive-date=August 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230811080240/https://books.google.com/books?id=kbntzV53vZAC |url-status=live}}</ref> a 17th-century [[Battles of La Naval de Manila|war against the Dutch]], 18th-century [[British occupation of Manila]], and conflict with Muslims in the south.<ref name="Dolan-1991">{{cite book |date=1991 |editor-last=Dolan |editor-first=Ronald E. |title=Philippines |series=Country Studies/Area Handbook Series |url=https://countrystudies.us/philippines/41.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051109092341/http://countrystudies.us/philippines/ |archive-date=November 9, 2005 |access-date=February 13, 2023 |via=Country Studies |publisher=[[U.S. Government Publishing Office|GPO]] for the [[Library of Congress]] |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref>{{rp|loc={{plain link|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927161256/http://countrystudies.us/philippines/4.htm|name=4}}}}{{undue weight inline|date=August 2023|reason=Article assertions here may be [[WP:UNDUE]] in not considering impact of the [[Seven Year War]] on the Spanish treasury – I'm not enough of a historian to judge.}}

Administration of the Philippines was considered a drain on the economy of New Spain,<ref name="Ooi-2004" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1077|name=1077}}}} and abandoning it or trading it for other territory was debated. This course of action was opposed because of the islands' economic potential, security, and the desire to continue religious conversion in the region.<ref name="Newson" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7|name=7–8}}}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Crossley |first=John Newsome |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ |title=Hernando de los Ríos Coronel and the Spanish Philippines in the Golden Age |date=July 28, 2013 |publisher=[[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-4094-8242-0 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA168 168–169] |access-date=January 13, 2021 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211124615/https://books.google.com/books?id=jQmiAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> The colony survived on an annual subsidy from the Spanish crown<ref name="Ooi-2004" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1077|name=1077}}}} averaging 250,000 pesos,<ref name="Newson" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A40BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8|name=8}}}} usually paid as 75 tons of silver bullion from the Americas.<ref>{{cite book |last=Cole |first=Jeffrey A. |title=The Potosí Mita, 1573–1700: Compulsory Indian Labor in the Andes |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |location=Stanford, Calif. |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-8047-1256-9 |page=20}}</ref> [[British occupation of Manila|British forces occupied Manila]] from 1762 to 1764 during the [[Seven Years' War]], and Spanish rule was restored with the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)|1763 Treaty of Paris]].<ref name="deBorja-2005" />{{rp|pages=81–83}} The Spanish considered their war with the Muslims in Southeast Asia an extension of the ''[[Reconquista]]''.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Hoadley |editor-first1=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5P9bgGxfYKUC |title=Asian Security Reassessed |editor-last2=Ruland |editor-first2=Jurgen |date=2006 |publisher=[[Institute of Southeast Asian Studies]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-230-400-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5P9bgGxfYKUC&pg=PA215 215] |language=en |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319192304/https://books.google.com/books?id=5P9bgGxfYKUC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Hefner |editor-first1=Robert W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_kQ4yo-GIWUC |title=Islam in an Era of Nation-States: Politics and Religious Renewal in Muslim Southeast Asia |editor-last2=Horvatich |editor-first2=Patricia |date=September 1, 1997 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-1957-6 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_kQ4yo-GIWUC&pg=PA43 43–44] |language=en |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319192304/https://books.google.com/books?id=_kQ4yo-GIWUC |url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Spanish–Moro conflict]] lasted for several hundred years; Spain conquered portions of [[Mindanao]] and [[Jolo]] during the last quarter of the 19th century,<ref>{{cite report |last=United States War Department |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g8FMAAAAYAAJ |title=Annual Report of the Secretary of War |volume=III |date=1903 |publisher=[[U.S. Government Printing Office]] |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g8FMAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA379 379–398] |author-link=United States Department of War}}</ref> and the Muslim [[Moro people|Moro]] in the [[Sultanate of Sulu]] acknowledged Spanish sovereignty.<ref>{{cite book |last=Warren |first=James Francis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC |title=The Sulu Zone, 1768–1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State |date=2007 |edition=Second |publisher=[[NUS Press]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-9971-69-386-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC&pg=PA124 124] |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073403/https://books.google.com/books?id=VUZq93ydrrwC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Ramón de Dalmau y de Olivart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l0gMAQAAMAAJ |title=Colección de los Tratados, Convenios y Documentos Internacionales Celebrados por Nuestros Gobiernos Con los Estados Extranjeros Desde el Reinado de Doña Isabel II Hasta Nuestros Días, Vol. 4: Acompañados de Notas Historico-Criticas Sobre Su Negociación y Complimiento y Cotejados Con los Textos Originales, Publicada de Real Orden |year=1893 |publisher=El Progreso Editorial |location=Madrid, Spain |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=l0gMAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA120 120–123] |language=es |access-date=June 27, 2020 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211124613/https://books.google.com/books?id=l0gMAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Ilustrados 1890.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|alt=Photo of a large group of men on steps. Some are seated, and others are standing; several are wearing top hats.|''[[Ilustrado]]s'' in [[Madrid]] around 1890]]

Philippine ports opened to world trade during the 19th century, and Filipino society began to change.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Castro |first=Amado A. |date=1982 |title=Foreign Trade and Economic Welfare in the Last Half-Century of Spanish Rule |url=https://econ.upd.edu.ph/pre/index.php/pre/article/download/361/274 |journal=Philippine Review of Economics |publisher=[[University of the Philippines School of Economics]] |volume=19 |issue=1 & 2 |pages=97–98 |issn=1655-1516 |access-date=February 11, 2023 |author-link1=Amado Castro |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211184927/https://econ.upd.edu.ph/pre/index.php/pre/article/download/361/274 |archive-date=February 11, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Romero |first1=Ma. Corona S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ngonYm_SDSIC |title=Rizal & the Development of National Consciousness |last2=Sta. Romana |first2=Julita R. |last3=Santos |first3=Lourdes Y. |date=2006 |edition=Second |publisher=Katha Publishing Co. |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-574-103-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ngonYm_SDSIC&pg=PA25 25] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144209/https://books.google.com/books?id=ngonYm_SDSIC |url-status=live}}</ref> Social identity changed, with the term ''Filipino'' encompassing all residents of the archipelago instead of solely referring to [[Spanish Filipino|Spaniards born in the Philippines]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hedman |first1=Eva-Lotta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X_lDpY3vj60C |title=Philippine Politics and Society in the Twentieth Century: Colonial Legacies, Post-Colonial Trajectories |series=Politics in Asia |last2=Sidel |first2=John |editor-last1=Leifer |editor-first1=Michael |date=2005 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-134-75421-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=X_lDpY3vj60C&pg=PA71 71] |author-link2=John Sidel}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Steinberg |first=David Joel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6NFMDwAAQBAJ |title=The Philippines: A Singular and a Plural Place |date=2018 |series=Nations of the Modern World: Asia |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |location=Boulder, Colo. |isbn=978-0-8133-3755-5 |edition=Fourth |at=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6NFMDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT74 The New Filipinos] |chapter=Chapter 3: A Singular and a Plural Folk |doi=10.4324/9780429494383 |access-date=September 30, 2020 |archive-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218075805/https://books.google.com/books?id=6NFMDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Revolutionary sentiment grew in 1872 after 200 locally recruited [[colonial troops]] and laborers alongside [[Gomburza|three activist Catholic priests]] were executed on [[1872 Cavite mutiny|questionable grounds]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Schumacher |first=John N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6GU_Tzxu5qoC |title=The Propaganda Movement, 1880–1895: The Creation of a Filipino Consciousness, the Making of the Revolution |date=1997 |edition=Revised |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-550-209-2 |pages=8–9 |author-link1=John N. Schumacher |access-date=January 15, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073519/https://books.google.com/books?id=6GU_Tzxu5qoC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Schumacher |first=John N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=aaLh8W6_84cC |title=Revolutionary Clergy: The Filipino Clergy and the Nationalist Movement, 1850–1903 |date=1998 |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-550-121-7 |pages=23–30 |author-link1=John N. Schumacher |access-date=January 15, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073446/https://books.google.com/books?id=aaLh8W6_84cC |url-status=live}}</ref> This inspired the [[Propaganda Movement]], organized by [[Marcelo H. del Pilar]], [[José Rizal]], [[Graciano López Jaena]], and [[Mariano Ponce]], which advocated political reform in the Philippines.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Acibo |first1=Libert Amorganda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r8PCT9AB_REC |title=Jose P. Rizal: His Life, Works, and Role in the Philippine Revolution |last2=Galicano-Adanza |first2=Estela |date=1995 |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-23-1837-5 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=r8PCT9AB_REC&pg=PA46 46–47] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144211/https://books.google.com/books?id=r8PCT9AB_REC |url-status=live}}</ref> Rizal was executed on December 30, 1896, for rebellion, and his death radicalized many who had been loyal to Spain.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Owen |editor-first1=Norman G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hVGMjBzBz9cC |title=The Emergence of Modern Southeast Asia: A New History |date=January 1, 2005 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-2841-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hVGMjBzBz9cC&pg=PA156 156] |language=en}}</ref> Attempts at reform met with resistance; [[Andrés Bonifacio]] founded the [[Katipunan]] secret society, which sought independence from Spain through armed revolt, in 1892.<ref name="Halili-2004" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUt5v8ET4QYC&pg=PA137|name=137}}}}

The Katipunan [[Cry of Pugad Lawin]] began the [[Philippine Revolution]] in 1896.<ref>{{cite book |last=Borromeo-Buehler |first=Soledad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RJnMSmXLvr4C |title=The Cry of Balintawak: A Contrived Controversy: A Textual Analysis with Appended Documents |date=1998 |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-550-278-8 |page=7 |access-date=January 16, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073342/https://books.google.com/books?id=RJnMSmXLvr4C |url-status=live}}</ref> Internal disputes led to the [[Tejeros Convention]], at which Bonifacio lost his position and [[Emilio Aguinaldo]] was elected the new leader of the revolution.<ref name="Duka-2008">{{cite book |last=Duka |first=Cecilio D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC |title=Struggle for Freedom: A Textbook on Philippine History |date=2008 |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-23-5045-0 |access-date=January 16, 2021 |archive-date=September 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923144103/https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC&pg=PA147|name=145–147}}}} The 1897 [[Pact of Biak-na-Bato]] resulted in the [[Hong Kong Junta]] government in exile. The [[Spanish–American War]] began the following year, and reached the Philippines; Aguinaldo returned, resumed the revolution, and [[Philippine Declaration of Independence|declared independence]] from Spain on June 12, 1898.<ref name="Abinales-2022">{{cite book |last=Abinales |first=Patricio N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Hd3EAAAQBAJ |title=Modern Philippines |series=Understanding Modern Nations |date=July 8, 2022 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-4408-6005-8 |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144210/https://books.google.com/books?id=0Hd3EAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Hd3EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA26|name=26}}}} In December 1898, the islands were [[Treaty of Paris (1898)|ceded by Spain]] to the United States with [[Puerto Rico]] and [[Guam]] after the Spanish–American War.<ref>{{cite book |last=Draper |first=Andrew Sloan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MD8OAAAAIAAJ |title=The Rescue of Cuba: An Episode in the Growth of Free Government |date=1899 |publisher=[[Silver Burdett]] |location=New York |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MD8OAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA170 170–172] |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |oclc=9764656 |author-link1=Andrew S. Draper |access-date=February 10, 2021 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172545/https://books.google.com/books?id=MD8OAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Fantina |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AD0B560nGVIC |title=Desertion and the American Soldier, 1776–2006 |date=2006 |publisher=Algora Publishing |location=New York |isbn=978-0-87586-454-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AD0B560nGVIC&pg=PA83 83]}}</ref> [[Spain]] ruled the Philippines for 333 years.<ref>{{cite book|last=Novesteras|first=Arsenio P.|title=Isang Lahi... Isang Mithi|language=Filipino|trans-title=One Race... One Desire|year=2002|location=[[Makati]], Philippines|publisher=Salesiana Publishers, Inc.|isbn=971-522-427-X|pages=28, 137, 184}}</ref>

The [[First Philippine Republic]] was promulgated on January 21, 1899.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Starr |editor-first1=J. Barton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NTPxAQAAQBAJ |title=The United States Constitution: Its Birth, Growth, and Influence in Asia |date=September 1988 |publisher=[[Hong Kong University Press]] |location=Hong Kong, China |isbn=978-962-209-201-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NTPxAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA260 260] |access-date=January 19, 2021 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211124609/https://books.google.com/books?id=NTPxAQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Lack of recognition by the United States led to an [[Battle of Manila (1899)|outbreak of hostilities]] that, after refusal by the U.S. on-scene military commander of a cease-fire proposal and a declaration of war by the nascent Republic,{{efn|This is a summary, omitting significant detail. For more detail, see {{section link|Schurman Commission|Survey visit to the Philippines}}.}} escalated into the [[Philippine–American War]].<ref name=Nation18990504>{{cite magazine |title=The week |magazine=The Nation |volume=68 |issue=1766 |page=323 |date=May 4, 1899 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8QUDAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA323}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Linn |first=Brian McAllister |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ |title=The Philippine War, 1899–1902 |publisher=[[University Press of Kansas]] |year=2000 |location=Lawrence, Kans. |isbn=978-0-7006-1225-3 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ&pg=PA75 75–76] |author-link=Brian McAllister Linn |access-date=December 25, 2018 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073827/https://books.google.com/books?id=PSJGPgAACAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kalaw |first=Maximo Manguiat |title=The Development of Philippine politics (1872–1920) |publisher=Oriental Commercial Company, Inc. |location=Manila |year=1927 |url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/afj2233.0001.001?rgn=main;view=fulltext |pages=199–200 |access-date=December 3, 2023 |archive-date=December 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214233312/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/AFJ2233.0001.001?rgn=main;view=fulltext |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last=Paterno|first=Pedro Alejandro|author-link=Pedro Paterno|title=Pedro Paterno's Proclamation of War|work=The Philippine-American War Documents|publisher=MSC Institute of Technology, Inc.|location=San Pablo City, Philippines|date=June 2, 1899|url=http://www.msc.edu.ph/centennial/pa990602.html|access-date=December 25, 2016}}</ref>

[[File:General Gregorio del Pilar and troops in Pampanga c1898.jpg|thumb|Filipino General [[Gregorio del Pilar]] and his troops in Pampanga around 1898, during the [[Philippine-American War]]]]

The war resulted in the deaths of 250,000 to 1&nbsp;million civilians, primarily due to famine and disease.<ref name="Tucker-2009">{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Tucker |editor-first1=Spencer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of the Spanish-American and Philippine-American Wars: A Political, Social, and Military History |title=Philippine-American War |date=May 20, 2009 |edition=Illustrated |volume=I: A–L |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-85109-951-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC&pg=PA478 478] |language=en |editor-link1=Spencer C. Tucker |access-date=July 25, 2021 |archive-date=September 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230923151624/https://books.google.com/books?id=8V3vZxOmHssC |url-status=live}}</ref> Many Filipinos were transported by the Americans to [[List of concentration and internment camps#Philippines|concentration camps]], where thousands died.<ref>{{cite book |last=Briley |first=Ron |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7TbvDwAAQBAJ |title=Talking American History: An Informal Narrative History of the United States |publisher=Sunstone Press |year=2020 |location=Santa Fe, N.M. |isbn=978-1-63293-288-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7TbvDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA247 247] |access-date=December 27, 2022 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172542/https://books.google.com/books?id=7TbvDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Cocks |first1=Catherine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pvxD_LjXVRMC |encyclopedia=Historical Dictionary of the Progressive Era |series=Historical Dictionaries of U.S. Historical Eras |volume=12 |title=Philippine-American War (1899–1902) |last2=Holloran |first2=Peter C. |last3=Lessoff |first3=Alan |date=March 13, 2009 |publisher=[[The Scarecrow Press]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-0-8108-6293-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pvxD_LjXVRMC&pg=PA332 332] |access-date=December 27, 2022 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172543/https://books.google.com/books?id=pvxD_LjXVRMC |url-status=live}}</ref> After the fall of the First Philippine Republic in 1902, an [[Insular Government of the Philippine Islands|American civilian government]] was established with the [[Philippine Organic Act (1902)|Philippine Organic Act]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Gates |first=John M. |title=The U.S. Army and Irregular Warfare |date=November 2002 |chapter=Chapter 3: The Pacification of the Philippines |access-date=February 20, 2010 |chapter-url=http://www3.wooster.edu/history/jgates/book-ch3.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100805061319/http://www3.wooster.edu/history/jgates/book-ch3.html |archive-date=August 5, 2010 |via=[[College of Wooster]] |oclc=49327571}}</ref> American forces continued to secure and extend their control of the islands, suppressing an attempted [[Tagalog Republic#Sakay|extension of the Philippine Republic]],<ref name="Duka-2008" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wk8yqCEmJUC&pg=PA200|name=200–202}}}}<ref name="Tucker-2009" /> [[Kiram–Bates Treaty|securing the Sultanate of Sulu]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Abanes |first=Menandro Sarion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ir8vBQAAQBAJ |title=Ethno-religious Identification and Intergroup Contact Avoidance: An Empirical Study on Christian-Muslim Relations in the Philippines |series=Nijmegen Studies in Development and Cultural Change |date=2014 |publisher=[[LIT Verlag|LIT Verlag Münster]] |location=Zürich, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-643-90580-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ir8vBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA36 36] |language=en |access-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144209/https://books.google.com/books?id=ir8vBQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Federspiel |first=Howard M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC |title=Sultans, Shamans, and Saints: Islam and Muslims in Southeast Asia |date=January 31, 2007 |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |isbn=978-0-8248-3052-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC&pg=PA120 120] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073948/https://books.google.com/books?id=5Qf39DpguysC |url-status=live}}</ref> establishing control of interior mountainous areas which had resisted Spanish conquest,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Aguilar-Cariño |first1=Ma. Luisa |year=1994 |title=The Igorot as Other: Four Discourses from the Colonial Period |journal=[[Philippine Studies (journal)|Philippine Studies]] |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University]] |volume=42 |issue=2 |issn=0031-7837 |pages=194–209 |jstor=42633435}}</ref> and encouraging large-scale resettlement of Christians in once-predominantly-Muslim Mindanao.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Wolff |editor-first1=Stefan |editor-last2=Özkanca |editor-first2=Oya Dursun- |title=External Interventions in Civil Wars: The Role and Impact of Regional and International Organisations |date=March 16, 2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-134-91142-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WNu_CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA103 103] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNu_CwAAQBAJ |language=en |editor-link1=Stefan Wolff |access-date=March 23, 2023 |archive-date=March 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323163243/https://books.google.com/books?id=WNu_CwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Rogers |editor-first1=Mark M. |editor-last2=Bamat |editor-first2=Tom |editor-last3=Ideh |editor-first3=Julie |title=Pursuing Just Peace: An Overview and Case Studies for Faith-Based Peacebuilders |date=March 24, 2008 |publisher=[[Catholic Relief Services]] |location=Baltimore, Md. |isbn=978-1-61492-030-4 |page=119 |url=https://www.crs.org/publications/showpdf.cfm?pdf_id=56 |access-date=April 25, 2023 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208080127/https://www.crs.org/publications/showpdf.cfm?pdf_id=56 |archive-date=February 8, 2009}}</ref>

===Commonwealth and World War II (1935–1946)===
Cultural developments in the Philippines strengthened a national identity,<ref name="Armes-1987">{{cite book |last=Armes |first=Roy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qFDnqIwdr8EC |title=Third World Film Making and the West |date=July 29, 1987 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=Berkeley, Calif. |isbn=978-0-520-90801-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qFDnqIwdr8EC&pg=PA152 152] |language=en |access-date=October 18, 2015 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073829/https://books.google.com/books?id=qFDnqIwdr8EC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Tofighian-2006">{{Cite thesis |last=Tofighian |first=Nadi |date=2006 |title=The role of Jose Nepomuceno in the Philippine society: What language did his silent films speak? |url=http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:200615/FULLTEXT01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309052902/http://su.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:200615/FULLTEXT01 |archive-date=March 9, 2012 |access-date=February 9, 2023 |website=[[DiVA (open archive)|DiVA portal]] |publisher=[[Stockholm University]] |oclc=1235074310}}</ref>{{rp|page=12}} and [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] began to take precedence over other local languages.<ref name="Abinales-2005" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA121|name=121}}}} Governmental functions were gradually given to Filipinos by the [[Taft Commission]];<ref name="Ooi-2004" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1081|name=1081}}, {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1117|name=1117}}}} the 1934 [[Tydings–McDuffie Act]] granted a ten-year transition to independence through the creation of the [[Commonwealth of the Philippines]] the following year,<ref name="Nadeau-2020">{{cite book |last1=Nadeau |first1=Kathleen |title=The History of the Philippines |series=The Greenwood Histories of the Modern Nations |date=April 3, 2020 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Greenwood]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-4408-7359-1 |page=76 |edition=Second |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ErEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 |access-date=October 12, 2023 |language=en |archive-date=October 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019084900/https://books.google.com/books?id=_ErEEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 |url-status=live}}</ref> with [[Manuel L. Quezon|Manuel Quezon]] president and [[Sergio Osmeña]] vice president.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Lai To |editor-first1=Lee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WCwlDwAAQBAJ |title=Regional Community Building in East Asia: Countries in Focus |series=Politics in Asia |editor-last2=Othman |editor-first2=Zarina |date=September 1, 2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-317-26556-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WCwlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA145 145] |access-date=January 29, 2021 |archive-date=February 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211172544/https://books.google.com/books?id=WCwlDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Quezon's priorities were defence, social justice, inequality, economic diversification, and national character.<ref name="Ooi-2004" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1081|name=1081}}, {{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QKgraWbb7yoC&pg=PA1117|name=1117}}}} [[Filipino language|Filipino]] (a standardized variety of Tagalog) became the national language,<ref name="Thompson-2003">{{cite book |last=Thompson |first=Roger M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1VI9AAAAQBAJ |title=Filipino English and Taglish: Language Switching From Multiple Perspectives |series=Varieties of English Around the World |date=October 16, 2003 |publisher=[[John Benjamins Publishing Company]] |location=Amsterdam, Netherlands |isbn=978-90-272-9607-8 |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=November 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201118092514/https://books.google.com/books?id=1VI9AAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W1h9oF9rj-MC&pg=PA27|name=27–29}}}} [[1937 Philippine women's suffrage plebiscite|women's suffrage was introduced]],<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Gonzales |first=Cathrine |date=April 30, 2020 |title=Celebrating 83 years of women's suffrage in the Philippines |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1267381/celebrating-83-years-of-womens-suffrage-in-the-philippines |access-date=January 29, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506193300/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1267381/celebrating-83-years-of-womens-suffrage-in-the-philippines |archive-date=May 6, 2020}}</ref><ref name="Guillermo-2012" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC&pg=PA416|name=416}}}} and [[Land reform in the Philippines|land reform]] was considered.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kwiatkowski |first=Lynn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I__EDwAAQBAJ |title=Struggling With Development: The Politics of Hunger and Gender in the Philippines |date=May 20, 2019 |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |location=Boulder, Colo. |isbn=978-0-429-96562-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=I__EDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA41 41] |access-date=January 29, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073947/https://books.google.com/books?id=I__EDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Holden |first1=William N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kcA1DgAAQBAJ |title=Mining and Natural Hazard Vulnerability in the Philippines: Digging to Development or Digging to Disaster? |series=Anthem Environmental Studies |last2=Jacobson |first2=R. Daniel |date=February 15, 2012 |publisher=Anthem Press |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-84331-396-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kcA1DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA229 229] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144208/https://books.google.com/books?id=kcA1DgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Riedinger |first=Jeffrey M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FlasRfravpEC |title=Agrarian Reform in the Philippines: Democratic Transitions and Redistributive Reform |date=1995 |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |location=Stanford, Calif. |isbn=978-0-8047-2530-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FlasRfravpEC&pg=PA87 87] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=April 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422235850/https://books.google.com/books?id=FlasRfravpEC |url-status=live}}</ref> The introduction of women's suffrage during the Commonwealth period (1935–1946) signifies a progressive step towards [[gender equality]] in the Philippines. This gave women the right to vote and participate in the country's political processes.[[File:Douglas MacArthur lands Leyte1.jpg|thumb|alt=Douglas MacArthur, Sergio Osmeña, and Osmeña's staff wading ashore in knee-deep water|[[General Douglas MacArthur]] and [[Sergio Osmeña]] ''(left)'' coming ashore during the [[Battle of Leyte]] on October 20, 1944|left]]The [[Empire of Japan]] invaded the Philippines in December 1941 [[Military history of the Philippines during World War II|during World War II]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Chamberlain |first=Sharon W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JByIDwAAQBAJ |title=A Reckoning: Philippine Trials of Japanese War Criminals |series=New Perspectives in Southeast Asian Studies |date=March 5, 2019 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |location=Madison, Wis. |isbn=978-0-299-31860-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JByIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA11 11] |access-date=February 16, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073830/https://books.google.com/books?id=JByIDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[Second Philippine Republic]] was established as a [[puppet state]] governed by [[Jose P. Laurel]].<ref>{{cite report |last1=Rankin |first1=Karl L. |author-link=Karl L. Rankin |date=November 25, 1943 |title=Document 984 |series=Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1943, The British Commonwealth, Eastern Europe, the Far East |volume=III |chapter=Introduction |url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943v03/d984 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629000417/https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1943v03/d984 |archive-date=June 29, 2017 |access-date=February 16, 2021 |publisher=[[Office of the Historian]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Abinales |first1=Patricio N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TwglDwAAQBAJ |title=State and Society in the Philippines |last2=Amoroso |first2=Donna J. |date=July 6, 2017 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-1-5381-0395-1 |edition=Second |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TwglDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA160 160] |access-date=February 16, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073954/https://books.google.com/books?id=TwglDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Beginning in 1942, the [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines]] was [[Philippine resistance against Japan|opposed]] by large-scale [[Japanese occupation of the Philippines#Resistance|underground guerrilla activity]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=The Guerrilla War |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/macarthur/sfeature/bataan_guerrilla.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170128153210/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/macarthur/sfeature/bataan_guerrilla.html |archive-date=January 28, 2017 |access-date=February 24, 2011 |website=[[American Experience]] |publisher=[[Public Broadcasting Service|PBS]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Minor |first=Colin |date=March 4, 2019 |title=Filipino Guerilla Resistance to Japanese Invasion in World War II |url=https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1044&context=legacy |journal=Legacy |volume=15 |issue=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200320025106/https://opensiuc.lib.siu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1044&context=legacy |archive-date=March 20, 2020 |access-date=February 11, 2023 |via=[[Southern Illinois University Carbondale]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Sandler |editor-first1=Stanley |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K-027Yrx12UC |encyclopedia=World War II in the Pacific: An Encyclopedia |title=Philippines, Anti-Japanese Guerrillas in |date=2001 |publisher=[[Garland Publishing]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-8153-1883-5 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=K-027Yrx12UC&pg=PA819 819–825] |access-date=February 18, 2021 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073835/https://books.google.com/books?id=K-027Yrx12UC |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Japanese war crimes|Atrocities and war crimes]] were committed during the war, including the [[Bataan Death March]] and the [[Manila massacre]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Jones |first=Jeffrey Frank |url=http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/Japanese-War-Crimes-Guide.pdf |title=Japanese War Crimes and Related Topics: A Guide to Records at the National Archives |publisher=[[National Archives and Records Administration]] |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gx9JDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1031 1031–1037] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100414092157/http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/Japanese-War-Crimes-Guide.pdf |archive-date=April 14, 2010 |via=[[ibiblio]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Li |editor-first1=Peter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2J0ZqRZw-QQC |title=Japanese War Crimes: The Search for Justice |publisher=[[Transaction Publishers]] |location=New Brunswick, N.J. |isbn=978-1-4128-2683-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2J0ZqRZw-QQC&pg=PA250 250] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002122006/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Japanese_War_Crimes/2J0ZqRZw-QQC?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=%22japanese+atrocities&pg=PA250 |archive-date=October 2, 2020}}</ref> The Philippine resistance and Allied troops [[Philippines campaign (1944–1945)|defeated the Japanese]] in 1944 and 1945. Over one&nbsp;million Filipinos were estimated to have died by the end of the war.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rottman |first=Gordon L. |title=World War II Pacific Island Guide: A Geo-Military Study |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |location=Westport, Conn. |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-313-31395-0 |author-link=Gordon L. Rottman |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC&pg=PA318 318] |access-date=October 18, 2015 |archive-date=October 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012205757/https://books.google.com/books?id=ChyilRml0hcC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Del Gallego |first=John A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=983xDwAAQBAJ |title=The Liberation of Manila: 28 Days of Carnage, February–March 1945 |date=July 17, 2020 |publisher=[[McFarland & Company|McFarland]] |location=Jefferson, N.C. |isbn=978-1-4766-3597-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=983xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 84] |language=en |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-date=February 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230217144212/https://books.google.com/books?id=983xDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> On October 11, 1945, the Philippines became a [[member states of the United Nations|founding member]] of the [[United Nations]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Founding Member States |date=September 28, 2009 |url=https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unms/founders.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091121135646/https://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unms/founders.shtml |archive-date=November 21, 2009 |publisher=[[United Nations]]}}</ref><ref name="Buhler-2001">{{cite book |last=Bühler |first=Konrad G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C |title=State Succession and Membership in International Organizations: Legal Theories versus Political Pragmatism |series=Legal Aspects of International Organization |date=February 8, 2001 |publisher=[[Kluwer Law International]] |location=The Hague, Netherlands |isbn=978-90-411-1553-9 |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=April 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405131023/https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C&pg=PA38|name=38–41}}}} On July 4, 1946, during the presidency of [[Manuel Roxas]], the country's independence was recognized by the United States with the [[Treaty of Manila (1946)|Treaty of Manila]].<ref name="Buhler-2001" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C&pg=PA38|name=38–41}}}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America; 1776–1949 |url=https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/lltreaties//lltreaties-ustbv011/lltreaties-ustbv011.pdf |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |location=United States |volume=II |year=1974 |pages=3–6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824161243/https://tile.loc.gov/storage-services/service/ll/lltreaties//lltreaties-ustbv011/lltreaties-ustbv011.pdf |archive-date=August 24, 2021}}</ref>

=== Independence (1946–present) ===
{{Main|History of the Philippines (1946–1965)|History of the Philippines (1965–1986)|History of the Philippines (1986–present)}}[[File:Philippine Independence, July 4 1946.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The raising of the [[Flag of the Philippines]] during the declaration of Philippine Independence on July 4, 1946]]

Efforts at post-war reconstruction and ending the [[Hukbalahap Rebellion]] succeeded during [[Ramon Magsaysay]]'s presidency,<ref>{{cite book |last=Goodwin |first=Jeff |url=https://archive.org/details/nootherwayout00jeff |title=No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movements, 1945–1991 |series=Cambridge Studies in Comparative Politics |date=2001 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=978-0-521-62069-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/nootherwayout00jeff/page/118 118] |author1-link=Jeff Goodwin}}</ref> but sporadic communist insurgency continued to flare up long afterward.<ref name="Tucker-2013">{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Tucker |editor-first=Spencer C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LXCjAQAAQBAJ |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Insurgency and Counterinsurgency: A New Era of Modern Warfare |title=Hukbalahap Rebellion |date=October 29, 2013 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-61069-280-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LXCjAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA244 244] |language=en |editor-link1=Spencer C. Tucker}}</ref> Under Magsaysay's successor, [[Carlos P. Garcia]], the government initiated a [[Filipino First policy]] which promoted Filipino-owned businesses.<ref name="Abinales-2005" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xiOQdEzgP9kC&pg=PA182|name=182}}}} Succeeding Garcia, [[Diosdado Macapagal]] moved Independence Day from July 4 to June 12—the date of Emilio Aguinaldo's declaration—<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Republic Day |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/republic-day/about/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180225103921/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/republic-day/about/ |archive-date=February 25, 2018 |access-date=February 12, 2023 |website=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]] |at=II. Independence Day moved from July 4 to June 12}}</ref> and pursued [[North Borneo dispute|a claim]] on eastern [[North Borneo]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Dobbs |first=Charles M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wkMaBwAAQBAJ |title=Trade and Security: The United States and East Asia, 1961–1969 |date=February 19, 2010 |publisher=[[Cambridge Scholars Publishing]] |location=Newcastle upon Tyne, England |isbn=978-1-4438-1995-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wkMaBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA222 222] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=wkMaBwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Weatherbee |first1=Donald E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4wqEC4jHl9wC |title=International Relations in Southeast Asia: The Struggle for Autonomy |last2=Emmers |first2=Ralf |last3=Pangestu |first3=Mari |last4=Sebastian |first4=Leonard C. |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-2842-0 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4wqEC4jHl9wC&pg=PA68 68–69] |access-date=October 18, 2015 |archive-date=June 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200604143037/https://books.google.com/books?id=4wqEC4jHl9wC |url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Marcos Declares Martial Law.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos|The Declaration of Martial Law]] in the headlines of the Sunday Express]]
In 1965, Macapagal [[1965 Philippine presidential election|lost]] the presidential election to [[Ferdinand Marcos]]. [[First term of the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos|Early in his presidency]], Marcos began infrastructure projects funded mostly by foreign loans; this improved the economy, and contributed to his [[1969 Philippine presidential election|reelection in 1969]].<ref name="Timberman-1991">{{cite book |last=Timberman |first=David G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NkBO2RhI4NUC |title=A Changeless Land: Continuity and Change in Philippine Politics |publisher=[[M.E. Sharpe]] |location=Armonk, N.Y. |year=1991 |isbn=978-981-3035-86-7 |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230218094758/https://books.google.com/books?id=NkBO2RhI4NUC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NkBO2RhI4NUC&pg=PA58|name=58}}}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Fernandes |first=Clinton |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mrU4FBGqCAC |title=Hot Spot: Asia and Oceania |date=June 30, 2008 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Westport, Conn. |isbn=978-0-313-35413-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6mrU4FBGqCAC&pg=PA188 188] |author-link1=Clinton Fernandes |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203073832/https://books.google.com/books?id=6mrU4FBGqCAC |url-status=live}}</ref> Near the end of his last constitutionally-permitted term, Marcos [[Proclamation No. 1081|declared martial law]] on September 21, 1972<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Declaration of Martial Law |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/declaration-of-martial-law/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170708065018/http://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/featured/declaration-of-martial-law/ |archive-date=July 8, 2017 |access-date=September 1, 2020 |website=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]]}}</ref> using the specter of communism<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Hastedt |first=Glenn P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9HpR1b5zZxwC |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of American Foreign Policy |title=Philippines |date=January 1, 2004 |publisher=[[Facts On File]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-4381-0989-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9HpR1b5zZxwC&pg=392 392] |access-date=March 17, 2023 |archive-date=May 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230510063237/https://books.google.com/books?id=9HpR1b5zZxwC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Martin |editor-first1=Gus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ClN2AwAAQBAJ |encyclopedia=The SAGE Encyclopedia of Terrorism |edition=Second |title=New People's Army |date=June 15, 2011 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |location=Thousand Oaks, Calif. |isbn=978-1-4522-6638-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ClN2AwAAQBAJ&pg=427 427] |language=en |author-link1=C. Augustus Martin |access-date=March 17, 2023 |archive-date=April 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230420100924/https://books.google.com/books?id=ClN2AwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=van der Kroef |first1=Justus M. |title=Asian Communism in the Crucible |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6XBafuPyHq8C |journal=Problems of Communism |date=1975 |publisher=Documentary Studies Section, [[International Information Administration]] |issue=March–April 1975 |volume=XXIV |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6XBafuPyHq8C&pg=PA59 59] |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212090208/https://books.google.com/books?id=6XBafuPyHq8C |url-status=live}}</ref> and began to [[rule by decree]];<ref name="TheEuropaWorldYear-2004">{{cite book |title=The Europa World Year: Kazakhstan – Zimbabwe |date=2004 |publisher=[[Europa Publications]] |location=London, England |edition=45th |volume=II |isbn=978-1-85743-255-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gP_-8rXzQs8C&pg=PA3408 3408] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gP_-8rXzQs8C |language=en |access-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-date=January 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114164345/https://books.google.com/books?id=gP_-8rXzQs8C |url-status=live}}</ref> the period was characterized by [[Political detainees under the Marcos dictatorship|political repression]], [[Journalism during the Marcos dictatorship|censorship]], and [[Human rights abuses of the Marcos dictatorship|human rights violations]].<ref>{{cite report |last1=Leary |first1=Virginia A. |url=https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/1984/01/Philippines-human-rights-mission-report-1984-eng.pdf |title=The Philippines: Human Rights After Martial Law: Report of a Mission |last2=Ellis |first2=A. A. |last3=Madlener |first3=Kurt |date=1984 |publisher=[[International Commission of Jurists]] |isbn=978-92-9037-023-9 |location=Geneva, Switzerland |chapter=Chapter 1: An Overview of Human Rights |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329103100/https://www.icj.org/wp-content/uploads/1984/01/Philippines-human-rights-mission-report-1984-eng.pdf |archive-date=March 29, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=van Erven |first=Eugène |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mWe8mLteIigC |title=The Playful Revolution: Theatre and Liberation in Asia |date=1992 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |location=Bloomington, Ind. |isbn=978-0-253-20729-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mWe8mLteIigC&pg=PA35 35] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=mWe8mLteIigC |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Monopolies in the Philippines (1965–1986)|Monopolies]] controlled by [[Cronies of Ferdinand Marcos|Marcos's cronies]] were established in key industries,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kang |first1=David C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=im465FAopWMC |title=Crony Capitalism: Corruption and Development in South Korea and the Philippines |date=January 24, 2002 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=978-0-521-00408-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=im465FAopWMC&pg=PA140 140] |language=en |author-link1=David C. Kang |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=im465FAopWMC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=White |first=Lynn T. III |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4mvfBQAAQBAJ |title=Philippine Politics: Possibilities and Problems in a Localist Democracy |series=Routledge Contemporary Southeast Asia Series |date=December 17, 2014 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-317-57422-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4mvfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA74 74] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074430/https://books.google.com/books?id=4mvfBQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Salazar |first=Lorraine Carlos |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wA2P9HBcr2YC |title=Getting a Dial Tone: Telecommunications Liberalisation in Malaysia and the Philippines |date=2007 |publisher=[[ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute|Institute of Southeast Asian Studies]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-230-382-0 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wA2P9HBcr2YC&pg=PA12 12–13] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=wA2P9HBcr2YC |url-status=live}}</ref> including [[Deforestation in the Philippines#Deforestation during the martial law era|logging]]<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Inoue |editor-first1=M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nwTuCAAAQBAJ |title=People and Forest — Policy and Local Reality in Southeast Asia, the Russian Far East, and Japan |editor-last2=Isozaki |editor-first2=H. |date=November 11, 2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |location=Dordrecht, Netherlands |isbn=978-94-017-2554-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nwTuCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA142 142] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=nwTuCAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> and broadcasting;<ref name="Guillermo-2012" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC&pg=PA120|name=120}}}} a sugar monopoly led to [[Negros famine|a famine on the island of Negros]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=September 10, 1985 |title=UCAN Special Report: What's Behind the Negros Famine Crisis |language=en |work=[[Union of Catholic Asian News]] |url=https://www.ucanews.com/story-archive/?post_name=/1985/09/11/ucan-special-report-whats-behind-the-negros-famine-crisis&post_id=33345 |access-date=February 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160322040705/https://www.ucanews.com/story-archive/?post_name=/1985/09/11/ucan-special-report-whats-behind-the-negros-famine-crisis&post_id=33345 |archive-date=March 22, 2016}}</ref> With his wife, [[Imelda Marcos|Imelda]], Marcos was accused of corruption and [[Unexplained wealth of the Marcos family|embezzling billions of dollars]] of public funds.<ref>{{cite book |last=SarDesai |first=D. R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yjNWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT206 |title=Southeast Asia: Past and Present |date=December 4, 2012 |edition=7th |publisher=[[Westview Press]] |isbn=978-0-8133-4838-4 |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=yjNWDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT206 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Vogl |first=Frank |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hBCMTGiVBYMC |title=Waging War on Corruption: Inside the Movement Fighting the Abuse of Power |date=September 2016 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Boulder, Colo. |isbn=978-1-4422-1853-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hBCMTGiVBYMC&pg=PA60 60] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103527/https://books.google.com/books?id=hBCMTGiVBYMC |url-status=live}}</ref> Marcos's heavy borrowing [[1969 Philippine balance of payments crisis|early in his presidency]] resulted in [[Economic history of the Philippines (1965–1986)|economic crashes]], exacerbated by an [[early 1980s recession]] where the economy contracted by 7.3 percent annually in 1984 and 1985.<ref name="Thompson-Batalla-2018">{{cite book |editor-last1=Thompson |editor-first1=Mark R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmkPEAAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook of the Contemporary Philippines |series=Routledge Handbooks |editor-last2=Batalla |editor-first2=Eric Vincent C. |date=February 19, 2018 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-317-48526-1 |language=en |author-link1=Mark R. Thompson |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103526/https://books.google.com/books?id=DmkPEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmkPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA212|name=212}}}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Raquiza |first=Antoinette R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g5bkhjFAzyMC |title=State Structure, Policy Formation, and Economic Development in Southeast Asia: The Political Economy of Thailand and the Philippines |series=Routledge Studies in the Growth Economies of Asia |date=June 17, 2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-136-50502-7 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g5bkhjFAzyMC&pg=PA40 40–41] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074317/https://books.google.com/books?id=g5bkhjFAzyMC |url-status=live}}</ref>

On August 21, 1983, opposition leader [[Ninoy Aquino|Benigno Aquino Jr.]] (Marcos's chief rival) was [[Assassination of Ninoy Aquino|assassinated on the tarmac]] at [[Ninoy Aquino International Airport|Manila International Airport]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Quinn-Judge |first=Paul |date=September 7, 1983 |title=Assassination of Aquino linked to power struggle for successor to Marcos |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]] |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/1983/0907/090742.html |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908131731/https://www.csmonitor.com/1983/0907/090742.html |archive-date=September 8, 2015}}</ref> Marcos called a snap [[1986 Philippine presidential election|presidential election in 1986]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Hermida |first=Ranilo Balaguer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VASXBQAAQBAJ |title=Imagining Modern Democracy: A Habermasian Assessment of the Philippine Experiment |date=November 19, 2014 |publisher=[[State University of New York Press|SUNY Press]] |location=Albany, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-4384-5387-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VASXBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103526/https://books.google.com/books?id=VASXBQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> which proclaimed him the winner, but the results were widely regarded as fraudulent.<ref>{{cite report |url=http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK494.pdf |title=A Path to Democratic Renewal |last1=Atwood |first1=J. Brian |last2=Schuette |first2=Keith E. |page=350 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512220659/http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNABK494.pdf |archive-date=May 12, 2014 |via=[[National Democratic Institute for International Affairs]] and [[International Republican Institute]] |author-link1=J. Brian Atwood}}</ref> The resulting protests led to the [[People Power Revolution]],<ref name="LATimes-3DayRevolution">{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Fineman |first=Mark |date=February 27, 1986 |title=The 3-Day Revolution: How Marcos Was Toppled |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-02-27-mn-12085-story.html |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200825042718/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1986-02-27-mn-12085-story.html |archive-date=August 25, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Burgess |first=John |date=April 21, 1986 |title=Not All Filipinos Glad Marcos Is Out |newspaper=[[Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/04/21/not-all-filipinos-glad-marcos-is-out/d90b949f-da34-410a-be2e-95056958bcb2/ |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230212085658/https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1986/04/21/not-all-filipinos-glad-marcos-is-out/d90b949f-da34-410a-be2e-95056958bcb2/ |archive-date=February 12, 2023}}</ref> which forced Marcos and his allies to flee to [[Hawaii]]. Aquino's widow, [[Corazon Aquino|Corazon]], was installed as president<ref name="LATimes-3DayRevolution" /> and a new constitution was promulgated.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Atienza |editor1-first=Maria Ela L. |title=Chronology of the 1987 Philippine Constitution |date=2019 |publisher=[[University of the Philippines]] Center for Integrative and Development Studies |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-742-119-3 |pages=4–11 |series=Public Policy Monographs |url=https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/chronology-of-the-1987-philippine-constitution.pdf |access-date=October 19, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025141304/https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/chronology-of-the-1987-philippine-constitution.pdf |archive-date=October 25, 2020}}</ref>

[[File:Pinatubo91eruption plume.jpg|thumb|alt=A huge ash cloud, seen from a distance|The June [[1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo]] was the [[List of volcanic eruptions 1500–1999|second-largest terrestrial eruption]] of the 20th&nbsp;century.<ref name=usgs>{{#invoke:cite|web|last1=Newhall |first1=Chris |last2=Hendley |first2=James W. II |last3=Stauffer |first3=Peter H. |name-list-style=amp |date=February 28, 2005 |title=The Cataclysmic 1991 Eruption of Mount Pinatubo, Philippines (U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 113-97) |series=Reducing the Risk from Volcano Hazards |url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs113-97/fs113-97.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060217063847/https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/1997/fs113-97/fs113-97.pdf |archive-date=February 17, 2006 |access-date=April 22, 2023 |publisher=[[United States Department of the Interior|U.S. Department of the Interior]]; [[United States Geological Survey|U.S. Geological Survey]] |oclc=731752857}}</ref>]]
The return of democracy and government reforms which began in 1986 were hampered by [[National debt of the Philippines|national debt]], government corruption, and [[Coup attempts against Corazon Aquino|coup attempts]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Kingsbury |first=Damien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8CQlDwAAQBAJ |title=Politics in Contemporary Southeast Asia: Authority, Democracy and Political Change |date=September 13, 2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-317-49628-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8CQlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA132 132] |author-link1=Damien Kingsbury |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212193225/https://books.google.com/books?id=8CQlDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Timberman-1991" />{{rp|pages=xii, xiii}} A [[Communist rebellion in the Philippines|communist insurgency]]<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Tan |editor-first1=Andrew T. H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZzMmpCinBYoC |title=A Handbook of Terrorism and Insurgency in Southeast Asia |date=January 2009 |publisher=[[Edward Elgar Publishing]] |location=Cheltenham, England |isbn=978-1-84720-718-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZzMmpCinBYoC&pg=PA405 405]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |date=February 14, 2011 |title=The Communist Insurgency in the Philippines: Tactics and Talks |url=https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4d5a310e2.pdf |journal=Asia Report |issue=202 |publisher=[[International Crisis Group]] |pages=5–7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806030349/https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/4d5a310e2.pdf |archive-date=August 6, 2020 |access-date=September 2, 2020 |oclc=905388916 |via=Refworld}}</ref> and military conflict with [[Moro conflict|Moro separatists]] persisted;<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Mydans |first=Seth |date=September 14, 1986 |title=Philippine Communists Are Spread Widely, but Not Thinly |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1986/09/14/weekinreview/philippine-communists-are-spread-widely-but-not-thinly.html |access-date=September 2, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524190820/https://www.nytimes.com/1986/09/14/weekinreview/philippine-communists-are-spread-widely-but-not-thinly.html |archive-date=May 24, 2015}}</ref> the administration also faced a series of disasters, including the eruption of [[Mount Pinatubo]] in June 1991.<ref name=usgs/> Aquino was succeeded by [[Fidel V. Ramos]], who [[Economic liberalization|liberalized]] the national economy with [[privatization]] and [[deregulation]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Pecotich |editor-first1=Anthony |editor-last2=Shultz |editor-first2=Clifford J. |title=Handbook of Markets and Economies: East Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand: East Asia, Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand |date=July 22, 2016 |publisher=[[M. E. Sharpe]] |location=Armonk, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-315-49875-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ySe3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PT546 |access-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322171259/https://books.google.com/books?id=ySe3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PT546 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Ortega |first1=Arnisson Andre |title=Neoliberalizing Spaces in the Philippines: Suburbanization, Transnational Migration, and Dispossession |date=September 9, 2016 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-1-4985-3052-1 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wDTVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA51 51–52] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wDTVDAAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322171253/https://books.google.com/books?id=wDTVDAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Ramos's economic gains were overshadowed by the onset of the [[1997 Asian financial crisis]].<ref name="NYTimes-Gargan-1997">{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Gargan |first=Edward A. |date=December 11, 1997 |title=Last Laugh for the Philippines; Onetime Joke Economy Avoids Much of Asia's Turmoil |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/11/business/last-laugh-for-philippines-onetime-joke-economy-avoids-much-asia-s-turmoil.html |access-date=January 25, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091228024452/https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/11/business/last-laugh-for-philippines-onetime-joke-economy-avoids-much-asia-s-turmoil.html |archive-date=December 28, 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Pempel |editor-first1=T. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sTAuUXE_ANsC |title=The Politics of the Asian Economic Crisis |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |location=Ithaca, N.Y. |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8014-8634-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sTAuUXE_ANsC&pg=163 163] |author-link1=T. J. Pempel |access-date=March 28, 2016 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074317/https://books.google.com/books?id=sTAuUXE_ANsC |url-status=live}}</ref> His successor, [[Joseph Estrada]], prioritized public housing<ref>{{cite journal |last=Rebullida |first=Ma. Lourdes G. |date=December 2003 |title=The Politics of Urban Poor Housing: State and Civil Society Dynamics |url=https://www.pssc.org.ph/wp-content/pssc-archives/Philippine%20Political%20Science%20Journal/2003/06_The%20Political%20of%20Urban%20Poor%20Housing_%20State%20and%20Civil%20Society%20Dynamics.pdf |journal=Philippine Political Science Journal |publisher=Philippine Political Science Association |volume=24 |issue=47 |page=56 |doi=10.1080/01154451.2003.9754247 |s2cid=154441392 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210511215251/https://www.pssc.org.ph/wp-content/pssc-archives/Philippine%20Political%20Science%20Journal/2003/06_The%20Political%20of%20Urban%20Poor%20Housing_%20State%20and%20Civil%20Society%20Dynamics.pdf |archive-date=May 11, 2021 |access-date=February 12, 2023}}</ref> but faced corruption allegations<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bhargava |first1=Vinay Kumar |last2=Bolongaita |first2=Emil P. |title=Challenging Corruption in Asia: Case Studies and a Framework for Action |series=Directions in Development |date=2004 |publisher=[[World Bank Publications]] |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-0-8213-5683-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gHS1bTsu2IUC&pg=PA78 78] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gHS1bTsu2IUC |language=en |access-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322171257/https://books.google.com/books?id=gHS1bTsu2IUC |url-status=live}}</ref> which led to his overthrow by the [[Second EDSA Revolution|2001 EDSA Revolution]] and the succession of Vice President [[Gloria Macapagal Arroyo]] on January 20, 2001.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Landler |first=Mark |date=February 9, 2001 |title=In Philippines, The Economy As Casualty; The President Ousted, a Credibility Repair Job |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/09/business/philippines-economy-casualty-president-ousted-credibility-repair-job.html |access-date=February 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100119090537/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/09/business/philippines-economy-casualty-president-ousted-credibility-repair-job.html |archive-date=January 19, 2010 |author-link1=Mark Landler}}</ref> Arroyo's [[Presidency of Gloria Macapagal Arroyo|nine-year administration]] was marked by economic growth,<ref name="CIAWorldFactBook" /> but was tainted by corruption and political scandals,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hutchcroft |first1=Paul D. (Paul David) |title=The Arroyo Imbroglio in the Philippines |journal=[[Journal of Democracy]] |date=2008 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=141–155 |doi=10.1353/jod.2008.0001 |issn=1086-3214 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/pub/1/article/230460 |access-date=June 16, 2023 |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |s2cid=144031968 |via=[[Project MUSE]] |url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Dizon |first=David |date=August 4, 2010 |title=Corruption was Gloria's biggest mistake: survey |work=[[ABS-CBN News]] |url=http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/08/04/10/corruption-was-glorias-biggest-mistake-survey |access-date=April 15, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806185404/http://www.abs-cbnnews.com/nation/08/04/10/corruption-was-glorias-biggest-mistake-survey |archive-date=August 6, 2010}}</ref> including [[Hello Garci scandal|electoral fraud allegations]] during the [[2004 Philippine presidential election|2004 presidential election]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=McCoy |first1=Alfred W. |author1-link=Alfred W. McCoy |title=Policing America's Empire: The United States, the Philippines, and the Rise of the Surveillance State |date=October 15, 2009 |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |location=Madison, Wis. |isbn=978-0-299-23413-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QYj6WUGsRuEC&pg=PA498 498] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYj6WUGsRuEC |access-date=October 21, 2023 |language=en}}</ref> Economic growth continued during [[Benigno Aquino III]]'s administration, which advocated good governance and transparency.<ref name="Lum-Dolven-2014">{{cite report |last1=Lum |first1=Thomas |last2=Dolven |first2=Ben |date=May 15, 2014 |title=The Republic of the Philippines and U.S. Interests—2014 |url=https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R43498/7 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417070815/https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/R/R43498/7 |archive-date=April 17, 2022 |access-date=September 14, 2020 |website=[[CRS Reports]] |publisher=[[Congressional Research Service]] |oclc=1121453557}}</ref>{{rp|pages=1, 3}}<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Lucas |first=Dax |date=June 8, 2012 |title=Aquino attributes growth to good governance |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://globalnation.inquirer.net/39227/aquino-attributes-growth-to-good-governance |access-date=September 14, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610044835/https://globalnation.inquirer.net/39227/aquino-attributes-growth-to-good-governance |archive-date=June 10, 2012}}</ref> Aquino III signed [[Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro|a peace agreement]] with the [[Moro Islamic Liberation Front]] (MILF) resulting in the [[Bangsamoro Organic Law]] establishing an autonomous [[Bangsamoro]] region, but a [[Mamasapano clash|shootout with MILF rebels in Mamasapano]] delayed passage of the law.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Buendia |first1=Rizal G. |title=The Politics of the Bangsamoro Basic Law |date=January 2015 |doi=10.13140/RG.2.1.3954.9205/1 |doi-access=free |access-date=May 10, 2024 |publisher=Yuchengco Center, [[De La Salle University]] |location=Manila, Philippines |pages=3–5 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294888285 |via=[[ResearchGate]]}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Clapano |first=Jose Rodel |date=February 3, 2016 |title=Congress buries Bangsamoro bill |work=[[The Philippine Star]] |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2016/02/03/1549507/congress-buries-bangsamoro-bill |access-date=August 24, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180920054536/https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2016/02/03/1549507/congress-buries-bangsamoro-bill |archive-date=September 20, 2018}}</ref>

Growing public frustration with post-[[People Power Revolution|EDSA]] governance led to the [[2016 Philippine presidential election|2016 election]]<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Alberto-Masakayan |first=Thea |date=May 27, 2016 |title=Duterte, Robredo win 2016 polls |work=[[ABS-CBN News]] |url=http://news.abs-cbn.com/halalan2016/nation/05/27/16/duterte-robredo-win-2016-polls/ |access-date=May 27, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160528141509/http://news.abs-cbn.com/halalan2016/nation/05/27/16/duterte-robredo-win-2016-polls/ |archive-date=May 28, 2016}}</ref> of populist [[Rodrigo Duterte]],<ref name="CasipleEtAl-2016">{{Cite journal |last1=Casiple |first1=Ramon C. |last2=McCargo |first2=Duncan |last3=Aspinall |first3=Edward |last4=Davidson |first4=Michael W. |last5=Hicken |first5=Allen |last6=Weiss |first6=Meredith L. |last7=Villegas |first7=Bernardo M. |last8=Manzano |first8=George |last9=Baviera |first9=Aileen S. P. |date=August 31, 2016 |title=Roundtable: The 2016 Philippine Presidential Election |url=https://bookshop.iseas.edu.sg/component/get/18862 |journal=Contemporary Southeast Asia |publisher=[[ISEAS-Yusof Ishak Institute]] |volume=38 |issue=2 |pages=180–181 |doi=10.1355/cs38-2a |s2cid=157111016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319034802/https://bookshop.iseas.edu.sg/component/get/18862 |archive-date=March 19, 2022|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:Cite|news |last=Garrido |first=Marco |date=May 5, 2022 |title=Analysis; Filipinos don't long for the Marcos era. Why is his son in the lead? |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/05/05/bongbong-marcos-philippines-election-may9-democracy-duterte/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220505174059/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/2022/05/05/bongbong-marcos-philippines-election-may9-democracy-duterte/ |archive-date=May 5, 2022}}</ref> whose [[Presidency of Rodrigo Duterte|presidency]] saw the decline of [[liberalism in the Philippines|liberalism in the country]] albeit largely retaining liberal economic policies.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Horner |first1=Lindsey K. |title=Oscillating between populism and liberalism in the Philippines: participatory education's role in addressing stubborn inequalities |journal=Globalisation, Societies and Education |date=March 14, 2024 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=337–339 |doi=10.1080/14767724.2022.2048799 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/epdf/10.1080/14767724.2022.2048799?needAccess=true |access-date=October 19, 2024 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |hdl=20.500.11820/6014417b-a302-4966-ab51-5410e818c8e9 |hdl-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Beauchamp-2022" /> Among Duterte's priorities was [[Build! Build! Build!|aggressively increasing infrastructure spending]] to spur economic growth;<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Nicolas |first=Fiona |date=November 4, 2016 |title=Big projects underway in 'golden age' of infrastructure |work=[[CNN Philippines]] |url=https://cnnphilippines.com/news/2016/11/04/golden-age-infrastructure-Duterte-administration-Arthur-Tugade-Mark-Villar-Ernesto-Pernia-Vince-Dizon.html |access-date=September 13, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161107131039/https://cnnphilippines.com/news/2016/11/04/golden-age-infrastructure-Duterte-administration-Arthur-Tugade-Mark-Villar-Ernesto-Pernia-Vince-Dizon.html |archive-date=November 7, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=de Vera |first=Ben O. |date=August 6, 2020 |title=Build, Build, Build's 'new normal': 13 projects added, 8 removed |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://business.inquirer.net/304612/build-build-builds-new-normal-8-projects-added-13-removed |access-date=September 13, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817063018/https://business.inquirer.net/304612/build-build-builds-new-normal-8-projects-added-13-removed |archive-date=August 17, 2020}}</ref> the enactment of the Bangsamoro Organic Law;<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Maitem |first=Jeoffrey |date=January 25, 2019 |title=It's Official: Majority in So. Philippines Backs Muslim Autonomy Law |language=en |work=[[BenarNews]] |url=https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/philippine/BOL-plebiscite-01252019131530.html |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126214617/https://www.benarnews.org/english/news/philippine/BOL-plebiscite-01252019131530.html |archive-date=January 26, 2019}}</ref> an intensified crackdown on crime and communist insurgencies;<ref>{{#invoke:Cite|news |last=Nepomuceno |first=Priam |date=July 7, 2022 |title=Duterte admin made significant gains vs. NPA: AFP |language=en |work=[[Philippine News Agency]] |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1178431 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707084355/https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1178431 |archive-date=July 7, 2022}}</ref> and [[Philippine drug war|an anti-drug campaign]] that reduced drug proliferation<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Caliwan |first=Christopher Lloyd |date=March 30, 2022 |title=Over 24K villages 'drug-cleared' as of February: PDEA |language=en |work=[[Philippine News Agency]] |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1171001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220331184448/https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1171001 |archive-date=March 31, 2022}}</ref> but that has also led to [[extrajudicial killing]]s.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Romero |first=Alexis |date=December 26, 2017 |title=Duterte gov't probing over 16,000 drug war-linked deaths as homicide, not EJK |work=[[The Philippine Star]] |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2017/12/26/1771944/duterte-govt-probing-over-16000-drug-war-linked-deaths-homicide-not-ejk |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171226113810/https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2017/12/26/1771944/duterte-govt-probing-over-16000-drug-war-linked-deaths-homicide-not-ejk |archive-date=December 26, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Kabiling |first=Genalyn |date=March 5, 2021 |title=Duterte unfazed by drug war criticisms: 'You want me to go prison? So be it' |work=[[Manila Bulletin]] |url=https://mb.com.ph/2021/03/05/duterte-unfazed-by-drug-war-criticisms-you-want-me-to-go-prison-so-be-it/ |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305123210/https://mb.com.ph/2021/03/05/duterte-unfazed-by-drug-war-criticisms-you-want-me-to-go-prison-so-be-it/ |archive-date=March 5, 2021}}</ref> In early 2020, the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines|COVID-19 pandemic]] reached the Philippines,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=January 30, 2020 |title=Philippines confirms first case of new coronavirus |work=[[ABS-CBN News]] |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/01/30/20/philippines-confirms-first-case-of-new-coronavirus |access-date=January 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200130083057/https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/01/30/20/philippines-confirms-first-case-of-new-coronavirus |archive-date=January 30, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Cordero |first=Ted |date=March 7, 2020 |title=DOH recommends declaration of public health emergency after COVID-19 local transmission |work=[[GMA News Online]] |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/728715/doh-recommends-declaration-of-public-health-emergency-after-covid-19-local-transmission/story/ |access-date=March 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200308064057/https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/news/nation/728715/doh-recommends-declaration-of-public-health-emergency-after-covid-19-local-transmission/story/ |archive-date=March 8, 2020}}</ref> necessitating [[COVID-19 community quarantines in the Philippines|nationwide lockdowns]] that caused a brief but severe [[COVID-19 recession|economic recession]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Venzon |first=Cliff |date=January 28, 2021 |title=Philippines GDP shrinks 9.5% in 2020, worst since 1947 |work=[[Nikkei Asia]] |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Economy/Philippines-GDP-shrinks-9.5-in-2020-worst-since-1947 |access-date=January 31, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128061938/https://asia.nikkei.com/Economy/Philippines-GDP-shrinks-9.5-in-2020-worst-since-1947 |archive-date=January 28, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news |last1=Morales |first1=Neil Jerome |last2=Lema |first2=Karen |title=Philippines economy on recovery path, but policy seen remaining loose |url=https://www.reuters.com/markets/currencies/philippine-gdp-grows-77-yy-q4-beats-forecast-2022-01-27/ |access-date=October 19, 2024 |work=[[Reuters]] |date=January 27, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204094028/https://www.reuters.com/markets/currencies/philippine-gdp-grows-77-yy-q4-beats-forecast-2022-01-27/ |archive-date=February 4, 2022}}</ref> Under a promise of continuing Duterte's policies,<ref name="Beauchamp-2022">{{cite news |last1=Beauchamp |first1=Zack |title=The Philippine election is the latest example of illiberalism's popularity |url=https://www.vox.com/2022/5/17/23068682/marcos-duterte-philippine-election-2022-illiberalism |access-date=October 19, 2024 |work=[[Vox (website)|Vox]] |date=May 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517160207/https://www.vox.com/2022/5/17/23068682/marcos-duterte-philippine-election-2022-illiberalism |archive-date=May 17, 2022}}</ref> Marcos's son, [[Bongbong Marcos]], ran with Duterte's daughter, [[Sara Duterte|Sara]], and won the [[2022 Philippine presidential election|2022 election]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=May 10, 2022 |title=Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos wins the Philippine presidency in a landslide |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |url=https://www.economist.com/asia/ferdinand-bongbong-marcos-wins-the-philippine-presidency-in-a-landslide/21809220 |access-date=June 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220510114935/https://www.economist.com/asia/ferdinand-bongbong-marcos-wins-the-philippine-presidency-in-a-landslide/21809220 |archive-date=May 10, 2022}}</ref> Marcos's renewal of a pro-US foreign policy, however, has been viewed as a reversal of Duterte's cordiality with China, and [[territorial disputes in the South China Sea]] have since escalated.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Storey |first1=Henry |title=Marcos vs Duterte: Domestic politics meets grand strategy |url=https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/marcos-vs-duterte-domestic-politics-meets-grand-strategy |website=[[Lowy Institute]] |date=August 5, 2024 |access-date=October 19, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240914110341/https://www.lowyinstitute.org/the-interpreter/marcos-vs-duterte-domestic-politics-meets-grand-strategy |archive-date=September 14, 2024 |language=en}}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of the Philippines|List of islands of the Philippines}}
[[File:Relief Map Of The Philippines.png|thumb|upright=1.1|alt=Map of the Philippines, color-coded by elevation|The Philippines is generally mountainous; uplands make up 65 percent of the country's total land area.<ref name="Wernstedt-1967" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pn0Pfh1Cl0C&pg=PA38|name=38}}}}<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2dIXAAAAYAAJ |title=A Pocket Guide to the Philippines |date=1982 |publisher=[[American Forces Information Service]], [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |location=Washington, D.C. |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2dIXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA7 7] |language=en |oclc=989862194 |access-date=February 22, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103622/https://books.google.com/books?id=2dIXAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live}} {{No ISBN}}</ref>]]

The Philippines is an [[archipelago]] of about 7,641 [[List of islands of the Philippines|islands]],<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|date=June 4, 2019 |title=Know before you go: the Philippines |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/partner-content-know-before-you-go-the-philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210217161952/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/article/partner-content-know-before-you-go-the-philippines |archive-date=February 17, 2021 |access-date=April 4, 2021 |website=[[National Geographic]]}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=February 20, 2016 |title=More islands, more fun in PH |work=[[CNN Philippines]] |url=http://cnnphilippines.com/videos/2016/02/20/More-islands-more-fun-in-PH.html |access-date=July 5, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620024729/http://cnnphilippines.com/videos/2016/02/20/More-islands-more-fun-in-PH.html |archive-date=June 20, 2018}}</ref> covering a total area (including inland bodies of water) of about {{convert|300000|km2|sqmi|sp=us|0}}.<ref name="NAMRIAGovPH-InfoMapper-1991">{{Cite journal |date=December 1991 |title=Land Use and Land Classification of the Philippines |url=http://www.namria.gov.ph/jdownloads/Info_Mapper/00a_im_dec911.pdf |journal=Infomapper |publisher=[[National Mapping and Resource Information Authority]] |volume=1 |issue=2 |page=10 |issn=0117-1674 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122012339/http://www.namria.gov.ph/jdownloads/Info_Mapper/00a_im_dec911.pdf |archive-date=January 22, 2021}}</ref><ref name="Boquet-2017">{{Cite book |last=Boquet |first=Yves |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ |title=The Philippine Archipelago |publisher=[[Springer International Publishing|Springer]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-3-319-51926-5 |series=Springer Geography |location=Cham, Switzerland |access-date=April 25, 2023 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074433/https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page=15}}<ref name="CIAWorldFactBook" />{{efn|name=land-area|The actual area of the Philippines is {{convert|343448|km2|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}} according to some sources.<ref>{{cite report |title=Achieving Sustainable Urban Development Project; Philippines; Summary Report |url=http://unhabitat.org.ph/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Volume-1-ASUD-4-HIRES.compressed.pdf |publisher=[[United Nations Human Settlements Programme|UN-Habitat]] |access-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826232930/http://unhabitat.org.ph/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Volume-1-ASUD-4-HIRES.compressed.pdf |archive-date=August 26, 2018 |page=1 |date=2016}}</ref>}} Stretching {{convert|1850|km|sp=us}} north to south,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Philippines – Places in the News |url=https://www.loc.gov/today/placesinthenews/archive/2008arch/20080624_philippines.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080625233633/https://www.loc.gov/today/placesinthenews/archive/2008arch/20080624_philippines.html |archive-date=June 25, 2008 |access-date=March 13, 2023 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]]}}</ref> from the [[South China Sea]] to the [[Celebes Sea]],<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Hogan |first=C. Michael |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Earth]] |date=August 19, 2011 |title=Celebes Sea |url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Celebes_Sea?topic=49523 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120729042251/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Celebes_Sea?topic=49523 |archive-date=July 29, 2012 |access-date=February 5, 2023}}</ref> the Philippines [[Borders of the Philippines|is bordered]] by the [[Philippine Sea]] to the east,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=[[Encarta]] |title=Philippine Sea |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580288/Philippine_Sea.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090820123304/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580288/Philippine_Sea.html |archive-date=August 20, 2009}} on August 20, 2009).</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |title=Philippine Sea |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Philippine-Sea |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714194604/https://www.britannica.com/place/Philippine-Sea |archive-date=July 14, 2015 |access-date=February 9, 2021}}</ref> and the [[Sulu Sea]] to the southwest.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Philippines – A country profile |url=https://www.eyeonasia.gov.sg/asean-countries/know/overview-of-asean-countries/philippines-a-country-profile/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200926140334/https://www.eyeonasia.gov.sg/asean-countries/know/overview-of-asean-countries/philippines-a-country-profile/ |archive-date=September 26, 2020 |access-date=February 26, 2023 |website=Eye on Asia |publisher=[[Government of Singapore]] |language=en}}</ref> The [[List of islands of the Philippines|country's 11 largest islands]] are [[Luzon]], [[Mindanao]], [[Samar]], [[Negros]], [[Palawan (island)|Palawan]], [[Panay]], [[Mindoro]], [[Leyte]], [[Cebu (island)|Cebu]], [[Bohol]] and [[Masbate (island)|Masbate]], about 95 percent of its total land area.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chaffee |first1=Frederic H. |last2=Aurell |first2=George E. |last3=Barth |first3=Helen A. |last4=Betters |first4=Elinor C. |last5=Cort |first5=Ann S. |last6=Dombrowski |first6=John H. |last7=Fasano |first7=Vincent J. |last8=Weaver |first8=John O. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=83UsAAAAYAAJ |title=Area Handbook for the Philippines |date=February 1969 |publisher=[[U.S. Government Printing Office]] |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |location=Washington, D.C. |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=83UsAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA6 6] |language=en |oclc=19734 |access-date=March 9, 2023 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407033448/https://books.google.com/books?id=83UsAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live}} {{No ISBN}}</ref> The Philippines' coastline measures {{convert|36289|km|mi|sp=us}}, the world's [[List of countries by length of coastline|fifth-longest]],<ref><!--says the coastline is 36,289&nbsp;km and that only Canada, Russia, Indonesia, and Greenland have longer coastlines-->{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Field Listing – Coastline |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2060.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613004524/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2060.html |archive-date=June 13, 2007 |access-date=February 5, 2023 |website=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> and the [[exclusive economic zone of the Philippines|country's exclusive economic zone]] covers {{convert|2263816|km²|sqmi|abbr=on|sp=us}}.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Fisheries, Ecosystems and Biodiversity; Catches by Taxon in the waters of Philippines |url=http://www.seaaroundus.org/data/#/eez/608?chart=catch-chart&dimension=taxon&measure=tonnage&limit=10 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230205081936/http://www.seaaroundus.org/data/%23/eez/608?chart=catch-chart&dimension=taxon&measure=tonnage&limit=10 |archive-date=February 5, 2023 |access-date=February 5, 2023 |publisher=[[Sea Around Us (organization)|Sea Around Us]]}}</ref>

Its [[List of mountains in the Philippines|highest mountain]] is [[Mount Apo]] on Mindanao, with an altitude of {{convert|2954|m|ft|sp=us}} above sea level.<ref name="CIAWorldFactBook" /> The Philippines' [[List of rivers of the Philippines|longest river]] is the [[Cagayan River]] in northern Luzon, which flows for about {{convert|520|km||abbr=|sp=us}}.<ref>{{cite report |last=College of Forestry and Natural Resources, [[University of the Philippines Los Baños]] |title=Climate-Responsive Integrated Master Plan for Cagayan River Basin; Volume I – Executive Summary |url=https://riverbasin.denr.gov.ph/masterplans/cagayanexecutivesummary.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200730173552/https://riverbasin.denr.gov.ph/masterplans/cagayanexecutivesummary.pdf |archive-date=July 30, 2020 |access-date=July 30, 2020 |website=River Basin Control Office |publisher=[[Department of Environment and Natural Resources]] |page=5}}</ref> [[Manila Bay]], on which is the capital city of [[Manila]],<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Wolanski |editor-first1=Eric |title=The Environment in Asia Pacific Harbours |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=udK-kt3cQCsC |date=2006 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |location=Dordrecht, Netherlands |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=udK-kt3cQCsC&pg=PA309 309–328] |chapter=Chapter 19: Manila Bay: Environmental Challenges and Opportunities |isbn=978-1-4020-3654-5 |access-date=March 21, 2023 |archive-date=March 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321055842/https://books.google.com/books?id=udK-kt3cQCsC |url-status=live}}</ref> is connected to [[Laguna de Bay]]<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Laguna de Bay |url=https://llda.gov.ph/laguna-de-bay/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200618040407/https://llda.gov.ph/laguna-de-bay/ |archive-date=June 18, 2020 |access-date=August 18, 2007 |publisher=[[Laguna Lake Development Authority]]}}</ref> (the country's [[List of lakes of the Philippines|largest lake]]) by the [[Pasig River]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last1=Murphy |first1=Denis |last2=Anana |first2=Ted |date=2004 |title=Pasig River Rehabilitation Program |url=http://www.hic-net.org/document.asp?PID=197 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071012123338/http://www.hic-net.org/document.asp?PID=197 |archive-date=October 12, 2007 |publisher=[[Habitat International Coalition]]}}</ref>

On the western fringes of the Pacific [[Ring of Fire]], the Philippines has frequent seismic and volcanic activity.<ref name="Rodell-2002">{{cite book |last=Rodell |first=Paul A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC |title=Culture and Customs of the Philippines |series=Culture and Customs of Asia |date=2002 |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |location=Westport, Conn. |isbn=978-0-313-30415-6 |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074324/https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC&pg=PA4|name=4}}}} The region is [[Seismology|seismically]] active, and has been [[Subduction tectonics of the Philippines|constructed by plates]] converging towards each other from multiple directions.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Berckhemer |editor-first1=H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4jQavSJCro4C |title=Alpine-Mediterranean Geodynamics |series=Geodynamics Series |volume=7 |editor-last2=Hsü |editor-first2=K. |date=1982 |publisher=[[American Geophysical Union]] |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-978-087-590-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4jQavSJCro4C&pg=RA1-PA31 31] |language=en |access-date=March 11, 2022 |archive-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212195929/https://books.google.com/books?id=4jQavSJCro4C |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Frohlich |first=Cliff |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-lZGdmBwSPkC |title=Deep Earthquakes |date=May 4, 2006 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=978-0-521-82869-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-lZGdmBwSPkC&pg=PA421 421] |access-date=March 11, 2022 |archive-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212195927/https://books.google.com/books?id=-lZGdmBwSPkC |url-status=live}}</ref> About five earthquakes are recorded daily, although most are too weak to be felt.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rantucci |first1=Giovanni |last2=Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology |author-link2=Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology |date=1994 |title=Geological Disasters in the Philippines; The July 1990 Earthquake and the June 1991 Eruption of Mount Pinatubo; Description, Effects, and Lessons Learned |chapter=Chapter 2: Overview of Past and Recent Disasters in the Philippines |url=https://www.eird.org/estrategias/pdf/eng/doc13258/doc13258-2.pdf |publisher=[[Presidency of the Council of Ministers (Italy)|Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri]], Dipt. per l'Informazione e l'Editoria |location=Rome, Italy |isbn=978-1-4752-3936-2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530050031/https://www.eird.org/estrategias/pdf/eng/doc13258/doc13258-2.pdf |archive-date=May 30, 2012 |access-date=February 25, 2022 |via=[[United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction]] |page=24}}</ref> The [[List of earthquakes in the Philippines|last major earthquakes]] were in 1976 in the [[1976 Moro Gulf earthquake|Moro Gulf]] and in 1990 on [[1990 Luzon earthquake|Luzon]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Rinard Hinga |first=Bethany D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VHq1BgAAQBAJ |encyclopedia=Ring of Fire: An Encyclopedia of the Pacific Rim's Earthquakes, Tsunamis, and Volcanoes |title=Philippines |date=March 17, 2015 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-61069-297-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VHq1BgAAQBAJ&pg=PA249 249]}}</ref> The Philippines has [[List of active volcanoes in the Philippines|23 active volcanoes]]; of them, [[Mayon]], [[Taal Volcano|Taal]], [[Mount Canlaon|Canlaon]], and [[Mount Bulusan|Bulusan]] have the largest number of recorded eruptions.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Volcanoes of the Philippines |url=https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php/volcano-hazard/volcanoes-of-the-philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806190713/https://www.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/index.php/volcano-hazard/volcanoes-of-the-philippines |archive-date=August 6, 2017 |access-date=July 24, 2020 |publisher=[[Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology]]}}</ref><ref name="Boquet-2017" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA26|name=26}}}}

The country has valuable<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Esplanada |first=Jerry E. |date=March 1, 2012 |title=Philippines sits on $840B of mine—US |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://business.inquirer.net/47013/philippines-sits-on-840-b-of-mine—us |access-date=July 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120302194026/https://business.inquirer.net/47013/philippines-sits-on-840-b-of-mine%E2%80%94us |archive-date=March 2, 2012}}</ref> mineral deposits as a result of its complex geologic structure and high level of seismic activity.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Bryner |first=Leonid |date=September 1, 1969 |title=Ore Deposits of the Philippines Their Geology |journal=[[Economic Geology (journal)|Economic Geology]] |publisher=Economic Geology Publishing Company |volume=64 |issue=6 |pages=645–647 |citeseerx=10.1.1.875.7878 |doi=10.2113/gsecongeo.64.6.644}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Santos |first=Gabriel Jr. |title=Metallogenetische und Geochemische Provinzen / Metallogenetic and Geochemical Provinces |chapter=Mineral Distribution and Geological Features of the Philippines |date=1974 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |volume=1 |page=89 |doi=10.1007/978-3-7091-4065-9_8 |isbn=978-3-211-81249-5}}</ref> It is thought to have the world's second-largest gold deposits (after South Africa), large copper deposits,<ref name="NYTimes-Miners">{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Greenlees |first1=Donald |date=May 14, 2008 |title=Miners shun mineral wealth of the Philippines |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/14/business/worldbusiness/14iht-mine.1.12876764.html |access-date=July 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511224056/https://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/14/business/worldbusiness/14iht-mine.1.12876764.html |archive-date=May 11, 2011}}</ref> and the world's largest deposits of [[palladium]].<ref name="Inquirer-FirmSeesMetal">{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Cinco |first=Maricar |date=June 3, 2016 |title=Firm sees metal costlier than gold in Romblon sea |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/788940/firm-sees-metal-costlier-than-gold-in-romblon-sea |access-date=July 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724163335/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/788940/firm-sees-metal-costlier-than-gold-in-romblon-sea |archive-date=July 24, 2020}}</ref> The country's gold production in 2015 is 21 metric tonnes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gold production |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gold-production?tab=table |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231129233804/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/gold-production?tab=table |archive-date=November 29, 2023 |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=Our World in Data |url-status=live}}</ref> Other minerals include [[chromium]], [[nickel]], [[molybdenum]], [[platinum]], and [[zinc]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Ramos |editor-first1=Socorro B. |editor-last2=Quiniquini |editor-first2=Salvador M. |title=The Philippines: a Handbook of Economic Facts and General Information |date=1966 |publisher=[[Department of Trade and Industry (Philippines)|Department of Commerce and Industry]], Research and Information Division |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |location=Manila, Philippines |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vjmxAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA51 51] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vjmxAAAAIAAJ |language=en |oclc=63394 |access-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-date=April 18, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230418081259/https://books.google.com/books?id=vjmxAAAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> However, poor management and law enforcement, opposition from indigenous communities, and past environmental damage have left these resources largely untapped.<ref name="NYTimes-Miners" /><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Schneider |first=Keith |date=June 8, 2017 |title=The Philippines, a nation rich in precious metals, encounters powerful opposition to mining |work=[[Mongabay]] |url=https://news.mongabay.com/2017/06/the-philippines-a-nation-rich-in-precious-metals-encounters-powerful-opposition-to-mining/ |access-date=July 18, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710043841/https://news.mongabay.com/2017/06/the-philippines-a-nation-rich-in-precious-metals-encounters-powerful-opposition-to-mining/ |archive-date=July 10, 2017}}</ref>

=== Biodiversity ===
{{Main|Wildlife of the Philippines}}
{{See also|List of threatened species of the Philippines}}
[[File:Carabao.jpg|thumb|alt=Water buffalo with large, curved horns, seen from above|The [[carabao]] is the national animal of the Philippines. It symbolizes, strength, power, efficiency, perseverance and hard work.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Philippine Historical Association |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W4C6AAAAIAAJ |title=Philippine Presidents: 100 Years |last2=New Day Publishers |publisher=[[Philippine Historical Association]] |year=1999 |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-10-1027-0 |page=338 |access-date=March 11, 2023 |archive-date=March 11, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311174135/https://books.google.com/books?id=W4C6AAAAIAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>]]

The Philippines is a [[megadiverse countries|megadiverse country]],<ref name="Berba-Matias-2022">{{cite journal |last1=Berba |first1=Carmela Maria P. |last2=Matias |first2=Ambrocio Melvin A. |title=State of biodiversity documentation in the Philippines: Metadata gaps, taxonomic biases, and spatial biases in the DNA barcode data of animal and plant taxa in the context of species occurrence data |journal=[[PeerJ]] |date=March 21, 2022 |volume=10 |doi=10.7717/peerj.13146 |pmid=35341040 |at=Introduction |pmc=8944339 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |last1=Williams |first1=Jann |url=http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/biodiversity/biodiversity01-3.html |title=Biodiversity Theme Report: The Meaning, Significance and Implications of Biodiversity (continued) |last2=Read |first2=Cassia |last3=Norton |first3=Tony |last4=Dovers |first4=Steve |last5=Burgman |first5=Mark |last6=Proctor |first6=Wendy |last7=Anderson |first7=Heather |publisher=[[CSIRO]] on behalf of the Australian Government [[Department of the Environment and Heritage]] |year=2001 |location=Collingwood, Victoria, Australia |isbn=978-0-643-06749-3 |access-date=November 6, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070514125559/http://www.environment.gov.au/soe/2001/publications/theme-reports/biodiversity/biodiversity01-3.html |archive-date=May 14, 2007 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> with some of the world's highest rates of discovery and [[List of ecoregions with high endemism|endemism]] (67 percent).<ref name="OECD-2017April">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E6-gDgAAQBAJ |title=OECD Food and Agricultural Reviews Agricultural Policies in the Philippines |date=April 7, 2017 |publisher=[[OECD|OECD Publishing]] |location=Paris, France |isbn=978-92-64-26908-8 |doi=10.1787/9789264269088-en |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E6-gDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 78] |language=en |access-date=March 9, 2023 |archive-date=May 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230509130815/https://books.google.com/books?id=E6-gDgAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia of Earth]] |date=January 10, 2008 |title=Biological diversity in the Philippines |url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Biological_diversity_in_the_Philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218154050/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Biological_diversity_in_the_Philippines |archive-date=February 18, 2008 |access-date=May 4, 2013 |editor-last1=McGinley |editor-first1=Mark}}</ref> With an [[Flora of the Philippines|estimated 13,500 plant species]] in the country (3,500 of which are endemic),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clemen-Pascual |first1=Lydia M. |last2=Macahig |first2=Rene Angelo S. |last3=Rojas |first3=Nina Rosario L. |title=Comparative toxicity, phytochemistry, and use of 53 Philippine medicinal plants |journal=Toxicology Reports |publisher=[[Elsevier|Elsevier Scientific Publishers Ireland]] |date=2022 |volume=9 |pages=22–35 |doi=10.1016/j.toxrep.2021.12.002 |pmid=34976744 |pmc=8685920 |issn=2214-7500 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022ToxR....9...22C}}</ref> Philippine rain forests have an array of flora:<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|date=February 18, 2014 |title=Hub of Life: Species Diversity in the Philippines |url=http://fpe.ph/biodiversity.html/view/hub-of-life-species-diversity-in-the-philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916011731/http://fpe.ph/biodiversity.html/view/hub-of-life-species-diversity-in-the-philippines |archive-date=September 16, 2015 |access-date=July 5, 2020 |publisher=Foundation for the Philippine Environment}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Taguinod |first=Fioro |date=November 20, 2008 |title=Rare flower species found only in northern Philippines |language=en |work=[[GMA News Online|GMANews.TV]] |url=http://www.gmanews.tv/story/134682/Rare-flower-species-found-only-in-northern-Philippines |access-date=February 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219210524/http://www.gmanews.tv/story/134682/Rare-flower-species-found-only-in-northern-Philippines |archive-date=February 19, 2009}}</ref> about 3,500 species of trees,<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Schulte |editor-first1=Andreas |editor-last2=Schöne |editor-first2=Dieter Hans-Friedrich |title=Dipterocarp Forest Ecosystems: Towards Sustainable Management |date=1996 |publisher=[[World Scientific]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-02-2729-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=oHNzvs02F5wC&pg=PA494 494] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oHNzvs02F5wC |language=en}}</ref> 8,000 [[flowering plant]] species, 1,100 [[fern]]s, and 998 [[List of the orchids of the Philippines|orchid]] species<ref>{{cite journal |last=Agoo |first=Esperanza Maribel G. |date=June 2007 |title=Status of Orchid Taxonomy Research in the Philippines |url=http://asbp.org.ph/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/907-3032-2-PB.pdf |journal=Philippine Journal of Systematic Biology |publisher=Association of Systematic Biologists of the Philippines |volume=1 |issue=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407154939/https://asbp.org.ph/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/907-3032-2-PB.pdf |archive-date=April 7, 2020 |access-date=July 23, 2020}}</ref> have been identified.<ref name="Sajise-2010">{{cite book |editor-last1=Sajise |editor-first1=Percy E. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=orX6zp38uwAC |title=Moving Forward: Southeast Asian Perspectives on Climate Change and Biodiversity |editor-last2=Ticsay |editor-first2=Mariliza V. |editor-last3=Saguiguit |editor-first3=Gil Jr. C. |date=February 10, 2010 |publisher=[[ISEAS - Yusof Ishak Institute|Institute of Southeast Asian Studies]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-230-978-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=orX6zp38uwAC&pg=PA147 147] |language=en |access-date=February 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306103904/https://books.google.com/books?id=orX6zp38uwAC |url-status=live}}</ref> The Philippines has 167 terrestrial [[mammal]]s (102 endemic species), 235 [[reptile]]s (160 endemic species), 99 [[amphibian]]s (74 endemic species), 686 [[List of birds of the Philippines|birds]] (224 endemic species),<ref>{{cite book |type=Conference proceeding |editor-last1=Nishizaki |editor-first1=Shin-ya |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hdCwDwAAQBAJ |title=Theory and Practice of Computation: Proceedings of the Workshop on Computation: Theory and Practice (WCTP 2018), September 17–18, 2018, Manila, The Philippines |editor-last2=Numao |editor-first2=Masayuki |editor-last3=Caro |editor-first3=Jaime |editor-last4=Suarez |editor-first4=Merlin Teodosia |date=2019 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |location=Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, England |isbn=978-0-429-53694-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hdCwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA94 94] |language=en |access-date=March 9, 2023 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407131327/https://books.google.com/books?id=hdCwDwAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> and over 20,000 [[insect]] species.<ref name="Sajise-2010" />

As an important part of the [[Coral Triangle]] ecoregion,<ref>{{cite report |last1=Green |first1=Alison L. |last2=Mous |first2=Peter J. |title=Delineating the Coral Triangle, its Ecoregions and Functional Seascapes: Version 5.0 |series=TNC Coral Triangle Program |issue=Report No. 1/08 |url=https://www.conservationgateway.org/Documents/Green%20and%20Mous%202008%20CT%20Delineation%20v5%200.pdf |website=Conservation Gateway |publisher=[[The Nature Conservancy]] |access-date=May 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518123930/https://www.conservationgateway.org/Documents/Green%20and%20Mous%202008%20CT%20Delineation%20v5%200.pdf |archive-date=May 18, 2019 |pages=vii–viii, 1, 4, 6–7 |date=September 2008}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Leman |first=Jennifer |date=February 11, 2019 |title=What Is the Coral Triangle? |work=[[Live Science]] |url=https://www.livescience.com/64738-coral-triangle.html |access-date=July 24, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200429190233/https://www.livescience.com/64738-coral-triangle.html |archive-date=April 29, 2020}}</ref> Philippine waters have unique, diverse marine life<ref name="CalAcademyOrg-2015">{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Bowling |first1=Haley |title=Over 100 New Marine Species Discovered in the Philippines |url=https://www.calacademy.org/explore-science/over-100-new-marine-species-discovered-in-the-philippines |access-date=April 2, 2023 |work=[[California Academy of Sciences]] |date=July 17, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906071328/https://www.calacademy.org/explore-science/over-100-new-marine-species-discovered-in-the-philippines |archive-date=September 6, 2015 |language=en}}</ref> and the world's greatest diversity of shore-fish species.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Carpenter |first1=Kent E. |last2=Springer |first2=Victor G. |name-list-style=amp |date=April 2005 |title=The center of the center of marine shore fish biodiversity: the Philippine Islands |journal=[[Environmental Biology of Fishes]] |publisher=[[Springer Netherlands]] |volume=74 |issue=2 |pages=467–480 |doi=10.1007/s10641-004-3154-4 |bibcode=2005EnvBF..72..467C |s2cid=8280012 |author-link1=Kent E. Carpenter |author-link2=Victor G. Springer}}</ref> The country has over 3,200 fish species (121 endemic).<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last1=Ani |first1=Princess Alma B. |last2=Castillo |first2=Monica B. |date=March 18, 2020 |title=Revisiting the State of Philippine Biodiversity And The Legislation on Access and Benefit Sharing |url=https://ap.fftc.org.tw/article/1836 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201114110925/https://ap.fftc.org.tw/article/1836 |archive-date=November 14, 2020 |access-date=March 20, 2023 |website=FFTC Agricultural Policy Platform (FFTC-AP) |publisher=[[Food and Fertilizer Technology Center|Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region]] |at=The Philippine Biodiversity |language=en |location=Taipei}}</ref> Philippine waters sustain [[Aquaculture in the Philippines|the cultivation]] of fish, crustaceans, oysters, and seaweeds.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=National Aquaculture Sector Overview: Philippines |url=http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/naso_philippines/en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010173033/http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/naso_philippines/en |archive-date=October 10, 2008 |access-date=August 17, 2020 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |title=Rural Aquaculture in the Philippines |series=RAP Publication |issue=1999/20 |last1=Yap |first1=Wilfredo G. |date=1999 |at=Background |url=https://www.fao.org/3/x6943e/x6943e.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921005507/https://www.fao.org/3/x6943e/x6943e.pdf |archive-date=September 21, 2021 |access-date=April 17, 2023 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]}}</ref>

Eight major types of forests are distributed throughout the Philippines: [[Dipterocarpaceae|dipterocarp]], [[beach]] forest,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Primavera |first1=J. H. |last2=Montilijao |first2=C. L. |title=Field Guide to Philippine Beach Forest Species |date=2017 |publisher=[[Zoological Society of London]] – CMRP Philippines |location=Iloilo City, Philippines |isbn=978-621-95325-1-8 |url=https://cms.zsl.org/sites/default/files/2023-02/12%20Field%20guide%20-%20Philippine%20Beach%20Forest%20Species.pdf |access-date=April 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225115902/https://cms.zsl.org/sites/default/files/2023-02/12%20Field%20guide%20-%20Philippine%20Beach%20Forest%20Species.pdf |archive-date=February 25, 2023}}</ref> [[pine]] forest, [[Vitex parviflora|molave]] forest, [[Montane ecosystems|lower montane forest]], upper montane (or [[Cloud forest|mossy forest]]), [[mangrove]]s, and [[Ultramafic rock|ultrabasic]] forest.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wikramanayake |first1=Eric D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_VGRBWqIG2gC |title=Terrestrial Ecoregions of the Indo-Pacific: A Conservation Assessment |last2=Dinerstein |first2=Eric |last3=Loucks |first3=Colby J. |date=2002 |publisher=[[Island Press]] |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-1-55963-923-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_VGRBWqIG2gC&pg=PA480 480] |author-link1=Eric Wikramanayake}}</ref> According to official estimates, the Philippines had {{convert|7000000|ha|sqmi}} of forest cover in 2023.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Domingo |first1=Katrina |title=DENR targets to reforest 1 to 2 million hectares in PH |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/06/27/23/denr-targets-to-reforest-1-to-2-million-hectares-in-ph |access-date=August 30, 2023 |work=[[ABS-CBN News]] |date=June 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627063837/https://news.abs-cbn.com/news/06/27/23/denr-targets-to-reforest-1-to-2-million-hectares-in-ph |archive-date=June 27, 2023}}</ref> Logging had been systemized during the American colonial period<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dauvergne |first1=Peter |title=Shadows in the Forest: Japan and the Politics of Timber in Southeast Asia |date=1997 |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=978-0-262-54087-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wyXMKFa7kCcC |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wyXMKFa7kCcC&pg=PA157 157] |access-date=August 30, 2023 |language=en |archive-date=August 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830215429/https://books.google.com/books?id=wyXMKFa7kCcC |url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Deforestation in the Philippines|deforestation]] continued after independence, accelerating during the [[Martial law under Ferdinand Marcos|Marcos presidency]] due to unregulated logging concessions.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kahl |first1=Colin H. |title=States, Scarcity, and Civil Strife in the Developing World |year=2006 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |location=Princeton, N.J. |isbn=978-0-691-12406-3 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ltWfu4quplgC&pg=PA85 85–86] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ltWfu4quplgC |access-date=January 22, 2021 |language=en |archive-date=August 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830213647/https://books.google.com/books?id=ltWfu4quplgC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=The Japan Environmental Council |title=The State of the Environment in Asia: 2002/2003 |date=December 6, 2012 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer Verlag]] |location=Tokyo, Japan |isbn=978-4-431-70345-7 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZPGPBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA106 106–107] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZPGPBAAAQBAJ |access-date=January 22, 2021 |language=en |archive-date=August 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830213647/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZPGPBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Forest cover declined from 70 percent of the Philippines' total land area in 1900 to about 18.3 percent in 1999.<ref name="FAO-Forests">{{cite report |type=Conference proceeding |last=Peralta |first=Eleno O. |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/af349e/af349e0n.htm |title=Proceedings of the workshop: Forests for Poverty Reduction: Changing Role for Research, Development and Training Institutions, 17–18 June 2003, Dehradun, India |series=RAP Publication |issue=2005/19 |date=2005 |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]], Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific |isbn=978-974-7946-76-5 |location=Bangkok, Thailand |chapter=Chapter 21: Forests for poverty alleviation: the response of academic institutions in the Philippines |access-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018084729/http://www.fao.org/docrep/008/af349e/af349e0n.htm |archive-date=October 18, 2007 |editor-last1=Sim |editor-first1=H. C. |editor-last2=Appanah |editor-first2=S. |editor-last3=Hooda |editor-first3=N.}}</ref> Rehabilitation efforts have had marginal success.<ref>{{cite report |date=December 2019 |title=National Greening Program (PAO-2019-01); Reforestation Remains an Urgent Concern but Fast-Tracking its Process Without Adequate Preparation and Support by and Among Stakeholders Led to Waste of Resources |url=https://www.intosai.org/fileadmin/downloads/focus_areas/SDG_atlas_reports/Philippines/Philippines_2019_E_15_FuRep_NGP.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210502140810/https://www.intosai.org/fileadmin/downloads/focus_areas/SDG_atlas_reports/Philippines/Philippines_2019_E_15_FuRep_NGP.pdf |archive-date=May 2, 2021 |access-date=February 22, 2023 |publisher=[[Commission on Audit (Philippines)|Commission on Audit]] |page=26}}</ref>

The Philippines is a [[biodiversity hotspot|priority hotspot for biodiversity conservation]];<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Philippines |url=https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/philippines |publisher=[[Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund]] |access-date=April 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190205015021/https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots/philippines |archive-date=February 5, 2019 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Berba-Matias-2022" /> it has [[List of protected areas of the Philippines|more than 200 protected areas]],<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Establishment and Management of National Integrated Protected Areas System (NIPAS) (as of October 31, 2011) |url=http://www.pawb.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=120:establishing-and-managing-protected-areas&catid=58:protected-area-management |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111201105841/http://www.pawb.gov.ph/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=120:establishing-and-managing-protected-areas&catid=58:protected-area-management |archive-date=December 1, 2011 |access-date=February 22, 2023 |publisher=[[Department of Environment and Natural Resources|Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau]]}}</ref> which was expanded to {{convert|7790000|ha|sqmi}} {{as of|2023|lc=y}}.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=List of Protected Areas |url=https://bmb.gov.ph/index.php/list-of-protected-areas |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230222202956/https://bmb.gov.ph/index.php/list-of-protected-areas |archive-date=February 22, 2023 |access-date=February 22, 2023 |publisher=[[Department of Environment and Natural Resources|Biodiversity Management Bureau]]}}</ref> [[List of World Heritage Sites in the Philippines|Three sites]] in the Philippines have been included on the UNESCO World Heritage List: the [[Tubbataha Reef]] in the Sulu Sea,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Tubbataha Reefs Natural Park |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/653/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060210154057/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/653/ |archive-date=February 10, 2006 |access-date=August 17, 2020 |publisher=[[UNESCO World Heritage Centre]]}}</ref> the [[Puerto Princesa Subterranean River National Park|Puerto Princesa Subterranean River]],<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Puerto-Princesa Subterranean River National Park |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/652 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051119122807/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/652 |archive-date=November 19, 2005 |access-date=July 18, 2020 |publisher=[[UNESCO World Heritage Centre]]}}</ref> and the [[Mount Hamiguitan]] Wildlife Sanctuary.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Philippines – UNESCO World Heritage Convention |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/ph |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223081604/https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/ph |archive-date=February 23, 2023 |access-date=March 3, 2023 |publisher=[[UNESCO World Heritage Centre]] |language=en}}</ref>

=== Climate ===
{{Main|Climate of the Philippines}}
[[File:Thunderstorms-Philippines.jpg|thumb|Evening thunderstorms bringing rain over the Philippines is common from June to November.]]

The Philippines has a tropical maritime climate which is usually hot and humid. There are three seasons: a hot [[dry season]] from March to May, a [[Wet season|rainy season]] from June to November, and a cool dry season from December to February.<ref name="LocGov-Philippines" /> The southwest [[monsoon]] (known as the {{lang|fil|habagat}}) lasts from May to October, and the northeast monsoon ({{lang|fil|[[amihan]]}}) lasts from November to April.<ref name="Carating-2014">{{cite book |last1=Carating |first1=Rodelio B. |last2=Galanta |first2=Raymundo G. |last3=Bacatio |first3=Clarita D. |title=The Soils of the Philippines |series=World Soils Book Series |date=April 23, 2014 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |location=Dordrecht, Netherlands |isbn=978-94-017-8682-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sY7EBAAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=March 20, 2023 |archive-date=March 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320145709/https://books.google.com/books?id=sY7EBAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sY7EBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24|name=24–25}}}} The coolest month is January, and the warmest is May. Temperatures at sea level across the Philippines tend to be in the same range, regardless of latitude; average annual temperature is around {{convert|26.6|C|F}} but is {{convert|18.3|C|F}} in [[Baguio]], {{convert|1500|m|sp=us}} above sea level.<ref name="PAGASA-Climate">{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Climate of the Philippines |url=http://bagong.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/information/climate-philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180418140425/http://bagong.pagasa.dost.gov.ph/information/climate-philippines |archive-date=April 18, 2018 |access-date=July 24, 2020 |publisher=[[Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration]]}}</ref> The country's average [[humidity]] is 82 percent.<ref name="Carating-2014" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sY7EBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24|name=24–25}}}} Annual rainfall is as high as {{convert|5000|mm|sp=us}} on the mountainous east coast, but less than {{convert|1000|mm|sp=us}} in some sheltered valleys.<ref name="LocGov-Philippines" />

The [[Philippine Area of Responsibility]] has 19 [[Typhoons in the Philippines|typhoons]] in a typical year,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Chong |first1=Kee-Chai |url=http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80346e/80346E00.htm |title=Economics of the Philippine Milkfish Resource System |last2=Smith |first2=Ian R. |last3=Lizarondo |first3=Maura S. |publisher=[[United Nations University Press]] |date=February 1982 |location=Tokyo, Japan |isbn=978-92-808-0346-4 |chapter=Chapter III: The transformation sub-system: cultivation to market size in fishponds |access-date=July 4, 2020 |chapter-url=http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80346e/80346E06.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719181709/http://archive.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80346e/80346E00.htm |archive-date=July 19, 2011 |name-list-style=amp}}</ref> usually from July to October;<ref name="LocGov-Philippines">{{#invoke:cite|web|date=March 2005 |title=Country Profile: Philippines |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Philippines.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050717172656/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Philippines.pdf |archive-date=July 17, 2005 |access-date=February 4, 2023 |publisher=[[Library of Congress]] – [[Federal Research Division]] |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> eight or nine of them make [[landfall]].<ref>{{cite report |last=[[Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration]] (PAGASA) |date=January 2009 |title=Member Report to the ESCAP/WMO Typhoon Committee, 41st Session |url=http://www.typhooncommittee.org/41st/docs/TC2_MemberReport2008_PHILIPPINES1.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090320001056/http://www.typhooncommittee.org/41st/docs/TC2_MemberReport2008_PHILIPPINES1.pdf |archive-date=March 20, 2009 |access-date=December 17, 2009 |publisher=[[ESCAP/WMO Typhoon Committee]] |page=4}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Digital Typhoon: Monthly Typhoon Tracking Charts (Active Typhoon Maps) |url=http://agora.ex.nii.ac.jp/digital-typhoon/reference/monthly/index.html.en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080421190314/http://agora.ex.nii.ac.jp/digital-typhoon/reference/monthly/index.html.en |archive-date=April 21, 2008 |access-date=April 12, 2023 |publisher=KITAMOTO Asanobu / [[National Institute of Informatics]] |language=en}}</ref> The wettest recorded typhoon to hit the Philippines dropped {{convert|2210|mm|sp=us}} in Baguio from July 14 to 18, 1911.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/hwrp/publications/PMP/WMO%201045%20en.pdf |title=Manual on Estimation of Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) |date=2009 |publisher=[[World Meteorological Organization]] |isbn=978-92-63-11045-9 |location=Geneva, Switzerland |page=223 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160802160749/http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/hwrp/publications/PMP/WMO%201045%20en.pdf |archive-date=August 2, 2016}}</ref> The country [[Climate change in the Philippines|is among]] the world's ten most [[Climate change vulnerability|vulnerable to climate change]].<ref>{{cite report |last1=Øverland |first1=Indra |last2=Vakulchuk |first2=Roman |display-authors=et al |title=Impact of Climate Change on ASEAN International Affairs: Risk and Opportunity Multiplier |date=2017 |hdl=11250/2465067}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Kapucu |editor-first1=Naim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PFW6BAAAQBAJ |title=Disaster and Development: Examining Global Issues and Cases |series=Environmental Hazards |editor-last2=Liou |editor-first2=Kuotsai Tom |date=April 11, 2014 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |location=New York |isbn=978-3-319-04468-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PFW6BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA292 292] |language=en |access-date=February 22, 2023 |archive-date=March 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306104213/https://books.google.com/books?id=PFW6BAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Politics of the Philippines|Government of the Philippines}}
{{See also|Political history of the Philippines}}
[[File:Malacañang Palace (local img).jpg|thumb|alt=Large white-and-red building on a river|[[Malacañang Palace]] is the president's official residence.]]

The Philippines has a [[democracy|democratic]] government, a constitutional [[republic]] with a [[presidential system]].<ref name="Rose-Ackerman">{{cite journal |last1=Rose-Ackerman |first1=Susan |last2=Desierto |first2=Diane A. |last3=Volosin |first3=Natalia |date=2011 |title=Hyper-Presidentialism: Separation of Powers without Checks and Balances in Argentina and Philippines |url=https://openyls.law.yale.edu/bitstream/handle/20.500.13051/3618/29BerkeleyJIntlL246.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y |journal=[[Berkeley Journal of International Law]] |publisher=[[UC Berkeley School of Law]] |volume=29 |oclc=8092527577 |pages=246–333 |author-link1=Susan Rose-Ackerman |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126072232/https://openyls.law.yale.edu/bitstream/handle/20.500.13051/3618/29BerkeleyJIntlL246.pdf?sequence=2&isAllowed=y |archive-date=January 26, 2022}}</ref> The [[President of the Philippines|president]] is [[head of state]] and [[head of government]],<ref name="Banlaoi-2009"/> and is the [[commander-in-chief]] of the [[Armed Forces of the Philippines|armed forces]].<ref name="Rose-Ackerman" /> The president [[Presidential elections in the Philippines|is elected]] through [[direct election]] by the [[Philippine nationality law|citizens of the Philippines]] for a six-year term.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Teehankee |first1=Julio C. |author-link1=Julio C. Teehankee |last2=Thompson |first2=Mark R. |date=October 2016 |title=The Vote in the Philippines: Electing A Strongman |url=https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/the-vote-in-the-philippines-electing-a-strongman/ |journal=[[Journal of Democracy]] |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |volume=27 |issue=4 |issn=1086-3214 |pages=124–134 |doi=10.1353/jod.2016.0068 |author-link2=Mark R. Thompson |access-date=December 30, 2020 |archive-date=January 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117011258/https://www.journalofdemocracy.org/articles/the-vote-in-the-philippines-electing-a-strongman/ |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The president appoints and presides over the [[Cabinet of the Philippines|cabinet]] and officials of various national government agencies and institutions.<ref name="Lazo-2009">{{cite book |last=Lazo |first=Ricardo S. Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fMszAErMRKYC |title=Philippine Governance and the 1987 Constitution |date=2009 |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-23-4546-3 |edition=2006 |access-date=December 30, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074324/https://books.google.com/books?id=fMszAErMRKYC |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fMszAErMRKYC&pg=213|name=213–214}}}} The [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] [[Congress of the Philippines|Congress]] is composed of the [[Senate of the Philippines|Senate]] (the [[upper house]], with members [[Philippine Senate elections|elected to a six-year term]]) and the [[House of Representatives of the Philippines|House of Representatives]], the [[lower house]], with members elected to a three-year term.<ref name="CarterCenterOrg-2010-Elections">{{cite report |title=Carter Center Limited Mission to the May 2010 Elections in the Philippines Final Report |url=https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/news/peace_publications/election_reports/philippines-may%202010-elections-finalrpt.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323212046/https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/news/peace_publications/election_reports/philippines-may%202010-elections-finalrpt.pdf |archive-date=March 23, 2012 |publisher=[[The Carter Center]] |location=Atlanta, Ga. |oclc=733049273}}</ref>

Senators are elected [[at-large]],<ref name="CarterCenterOrg-2010-Elections" /> and representatives are elected from [[Legislative districts of the Philippines|legislative districts]] and [[Party-list representation in the House of Representatives of the Philippines|party lists]].<ref name="Lazo-2009" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fMszAErMRKYC&pg=162|name=162–163}}}} Judicial authority is vested in the [[Supreme Court of the Philippines|Supreme Court]], composed of a [[Chief Justice of the Philippines|chief justice]] and fourteen [[Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines|associate justices]],<ref>{{cite book |date=March 2001 |editor-last=Pangalangan |editor-first=Raul C. |title=The Philippine Judicial System |url=https://aboutphilippines.org/doc-pdf-ppt-etc/05_Philippine-Judicial-System.pdf |series=Asian Law Series |publisher=[[Institute of Developing Economies]] |location=Chiba, Japan |oclc=862953657 |pages=6, 39 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305185845/https://aboutphilippines.org/doc-pdf-ppt-etc/05_Philippine-Judicial-System.pdf |archive-date=March 5, 2021 |author-link1=Raul Pangalangan}}</ref> who are appointed by the president from nominations submitted by the [[Judicial and Bar Council]].<ref name="Rose-Ackerman" />

[[Constitutional reform in the Philippines|Attempts to change]] the government to a [[Federation|federal]], [[Unicameralism|unicameral]], or [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary government]] have been made since the [[Presidency of Fidel V. Ramos|Ramos administration]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=He |editor-first1=Baogang |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nXf9C2xbKsYC |title=Federalism in Asia |editor-last2=Galligan |editor-first2=Brian |editor-last3=Inoguchi |editor-first3=Takashi |date=January 2009 |publisher=[[Edward Elgar Publishing]] |location=Cheltenham, England |isbn=978-1-84720-702-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nXf9C2xbKsYC&pg=PA176 176] |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230212201623/https://books.google.com/books?id=nXf9C2xbKsYC |url-status=live}}</ref> Philippine politics tends to be dominated by [[List of political families in the Philippines|well-known families]], such as [[Political dynasties in the Philippines|political dynasties]] or [[Celebrity influence in politics|celebrities]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=David |first1=Clarissa C. |last2=Atun |first2=Jenna Mae L. |title=Celebrity Politics: Correlates of Voting for Celebrities in Philippine Presidential Elections |journal=Social Science Diliman |date=December 2015 |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages=1–2, 16–17 |url=http://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/socialsciencediliman/article/download/4796/4328 |access-date=May 10, 2023 |publisher=[[University of the Philippines]] |language=en |issn=1655-1524 |oclc=8539228072 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170925043652/http://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/socialsciencediliman/article/download/4796/4328 |archive-date=September 25, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=David |first1=Clarissa C. |last2=San Pascual |first2=Ma. Rosel S. |date=December 21, 2016 |title=Predicting vote choice for celebrity and political dynasty candidates in Philippine national elections |url=https://brill.com/view/journals/ppsj/37/2/article-p82_1.xml |journal=Philippine Political Science Journal |publisher=Philippine Political Science Association |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=82–93 |doi=10.1080/01154451.2016.1198076 |s2cid=156251503 |access-date=January 1, 2021 |archive-date=April 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417044320/https://brill.com/view/journals/ppsj/37/2/article-p82_1.xml |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}</ref> and [[party switching]] is widely practiced.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Hicken |editor-first1=Allen |editor-last2=Kuhonta |editor-first2=Erik Martinez |title=Party System Institutionalization in Asia: Democracies, Autocracies, and the Shadows of the Past |date=2015 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-107-04157-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GZmiBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA316 316] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GZmiBQAAQBAJ |access-date=August 15, 2024 |language=en}}</ref> [[Corruption in the Philippines|Corruption is significant]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Robles |first1=Alan C. |date=July–August 2008 |title=Civil service reform: Whose service? |url=http://www.inwent.org/ez/articles/077943/index.en.shtml |journal=[[D+C Development and Cooperation]] |volume=49 |pages=285–289 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202113453/http://www.inwent.org/ez/articles/077943/index.en.shtml |archive-date=December 2, 2008 |access-date=July 18, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |date=May 2020 |title=The Philippines Corruption Report |url=https://www.ganintegrity.com/portal/country-profiles/the-philippines/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812233543/https://www.ganintegrity.com/portal/country-profiles/the-philippines/ |archive-date=August 12, 2022 |access-date=August 7, 2020 |website=GAN Integrity}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Batalla |first=Eric V. C. |date=June 10, 2020 |title=Grand corruption scandals in the Philippines |journal=Public Administration and Policy |publisher=[[Emerald Group Publishing|Emerald Publishing Limited]] |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=73–86 |doi=10.1108/PAP-11-2019-0036 |issn=2517-679X |doi-access=free}}</ref> attributed by some historians to the Spanish colonial period's [[padrino system]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Sriwarakuel |editor-first1=Warayuth |title=Cultural Traditions and Contemporary Challenges in Southeast Asia: Hindu and Buddhist |series=Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change. Series IIID, South East Asia |volume=3 |date=2005 |publisher=Council for Research in Values and Philosophy |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-1-56518-213-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BnxpmvgAwcQC&pg=PA294 294] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BnxpmvgAwcQC |editor-last2=Dy |editor-first2=Manuel B. |editor-last3=Haryatmoko |editor-first3=J. |editor-last4=Chuan |editor-first4=Nguyen Trong |editor-last5=Yiheang |editor-first5=Chhay |language=en |access-date=March 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 18, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318171623/https://books.google.com/books?id=BnxpmvgAwcQC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Quah |first=Jon S. T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7qV6un8vKNUC |title=Curbing Corruption in Asian Countries: An Impossible Dream? |series=Research in Public Policy Analysis and Management |volume=20 |date=2011 |publisher=[[Emerald Group Publishing]] |location=Bingley, West Yorkshire, England |isbn=978-0-85724-820-6 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7qV6un8vKNUC&pg=115 115–117] |access-date=September 28, 2020 |archive-date=February 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240203074650/https://books.google.com/books?id=7qV6un8vKNUC |url-status=live}}</ref> The Roman Catholic church exerts considerable but waning<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Strother |first1=Jason |title=Power of the Catholic Church slipping in Philippines |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-Pacific/2013/0306/Power-of-the-Catholic-Church-slipping-in-Philippines |access-date=July 25, 2023 |work=[[The Christian Science Monitor]] |date=March 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307075323/https://www.csmonitor.com/World/Asia-Pacific/2013/0306/Power-of-the-Catholic-Church-slipping-in-Philippines |archive-date=March 7, 2013}}</ref> influence in political affairs, although a constitutional provision for the [[separation of Church and State]] exists.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Batalla |first1=Eric |last2=Baring |first2=Rito |title=Church-State Separation and Challenging Issues Concerning Religion |journal=[[Religions (journal)|Religions]] |date=March 15, 2019 |volume=10 |issue=3 |doi=10.3390/rel10030197 |at=Chapter 3: The Secular State and Church-State Separation, Chapter 4: Changing Church-State Relations |publisher=[[MDPI]] |language=en |issn=2077-1444 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of the Philippines}}
[[File:Diplomatic missions of the Philippines.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|alt=Color-coded world map|[[List of diplomatic missions of the Philippines|Philippine diplomatic missions worldwide]]]]

A [[Philippines and the United Nations|founding and active member]] of the United Nations,<ref name="Buhler-2001" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ty7NAG1Jl-8C&pg=PA37|name=37–38}}}} the Philippines has been a non-permanent member of the [[United Nations Security Council|Security Council]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=The Philippines and the UN Security Council |url=http://www.un.int/philippines/security_council/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030423092237/http://www.un.int/philippines/security_council/ |archive-date=April 23, 2003 |access-date=February 3, 2023 |publisher=Permanent Mission of the Republic of the Philippines to the United Nations}}</ref> The country participates in [[peacekeeping]] missions, particularly in [[United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor|East Timor]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last1=Morada |first1=Noel |title=Contributor Profile: The Philippines |url=https://www.ipinst.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/ipi-pub-ppp-Philippines.pdf |publisher=[[International Peace Institute]] |pages=1–4 |access-date=May 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321073939/https://www.ipinst.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/ipi-pub-ppp-Philippines.pdf |archive-date=March 21, 2022 |date=December 2013}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=August 30, 2014 |title=In the know: Filipino peacekeepers |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://globalnation.inquirer.net/110218/in-the-know-filipino-peacekeepers |access-date=January 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140831201046/https://globalnation.inquirer.net/110218/in-the-know-filipino-peacekeepers |archive-date=August 31, 2014}}</ref> The Philippines is a [[ASEAN Declaration|founding]] and active member of [[ASEAN]] (Association of Southeast Asian Nations)<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=ASEAN Structure |url=http://www.summit99.ops.gov.ph/asean_structure.htm |website=3rd ASEAN Informal Summit |publisher=[[Office of the Press Secretary (Philippines)|Office of the Press Secretary]] |date=1999 |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030109213038/http://www.summit99.ops.gov.ph/asean_structure.htm |archive-date=January 9, 2003 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Keyuan |editor-first1=Zou |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iWBCEAAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook of the South China Sea |date=2021 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, England |isbn=978-1-000-39613-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iWBCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA337 337] |language=en |access-date=March 9, 2023 |archive-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407033455/https://books.google.com/books?id=iWBCEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> and a member of the [[East Asia Summit]],<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=East Asia Summit (EAS) |url=https://www.dfat.gov.au/international-relations/regional-architecture/eas/Pages/east-asia-summit-eas |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726165059/https://www.dfat.gov.au/international-relations/regional-architecture/eas/Pages/east-asia-summit-eas |archive-date=July 26, 2020 |access-date=July 26, 2020 |website=[[Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade]] |publisher=[[Australian Government]]}}</ref> the [[Group of 24]],<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=International Economic Cooperation: Intergovernmental Group of Twenty-Four (on International Monetary Affairs and Development (G-24) |url=https://www.bsp.gov.ph/Pages/AboutTheBank/WhoWeAre/MandateFunctionsAndResponsibilities/InternationalEconomicCooperation/InternationalEconomicCooperationIGTF.aspx |access-date=July 17, 2022 |publisher=[[Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229140058/https://www.bsp.gov.ph/Pages/AboutTheBank/WhoWeAre/MandateFunctionsAndResponsibilities/InternationalEconomicCooperation/InternationalEconomicCooperationIGTF.aspx |archive-date=December 29, 2022}}</ref> and the [[Non-Aligned Movement]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=About NAM |url=http://cns.miis.edu/nam/index.php/site/about |website=Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) Disarmament Database |publisher=[[James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies]], [[Middlebury Institute of International Studies at Monterey]] |access-date=April 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200928052527/http://cns.miis.edu/nam/index.php/site/about |archive-date=September 28, 2020}}</ref> The country has sought to obtain observer status in the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] since 2003,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Lee-Brago |first1=Pia |title=RP seeks observer status in OIC |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2003/05/30/208100/rp-seeks-observer-status-oic |access-date=March 22, 2023 |work=[[The Philippine Star]] |date=May 30, 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322181401/https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2003/05/30/208100/rp-seeks-observer-status-oic |archive-date=March 22, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last1=Sevilla |first1=Henelito A. Jr. |title=The Philippines' Elusive Quest for Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) Observer Status |url=https://www.mei.edu/publications/philippines-elusive-quest-organization-islamic-conference-oic-observer-status |publisher=[[Middle East Institute]] |access-date=March 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121161216/https://www.mei.edu/publications/philippines-elusive-quest-organization-islamic-conference-oic-observer-status |archive-date=November 21, 2018 |language=en |date=May 20, 2013}}</ref> and was a member of [[SEATO]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Tucker |editor-first1=Spencer C. |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of the Vietnam War: A Political, Social, and Military History |edition=Second |volume=I: A–G |title=Philippines |date=May 20, 2011 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-85109-961-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qh5lffww-KsC&pg=PA907 907] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qh5lffww-KsC |language=en |editor-link1=Spencer C. Tucker |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-date=July 31, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230731183806/https://books.google.com/books?id=qh5lffww-KsC |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Liow |first1=Joseph Chinyong |encyclopedia=Dictionary of the Modern Politics of Southeast Asia |edition=Fourth |title=SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) 1955–77 |date=November 20, 2014 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Abingdon, Oxon, England |isbn=978-1-317-62233-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G5KLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA334 334] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G5KLBQAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319184926/https://books.google.com/books?id=G5KLBQAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref> Over 10&nbsp;million Filipinos [[Overseas Filipinos|live]] and [[Overseas Filipino Worker|work in 200 countries]],<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Sahoo |editor-first1=Ajaya K. |title=Routledge Handbook of Asian Diaspora and Development |series=Routledge Handbooks |date=March 30, 2021 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Abingdon, Oxon, England |isbn=978-1-000-36686-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7xsfEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA255 255] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7xsfEAAAQBAJ |language=en |access-date=March 18, 2023 |archive-date=March 18, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230318185509/https://books.google.com/books?id=7xsfEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |title=Stock Estimate of Filipinos Overseas As of December 2013 |url=http://www.cfo.gov.ph/images/stories/pdf/StockEstimate2013.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207092932/http://www.cfo.gov.ph/images/stories/pdf/StockEstimate2013.pdf |archive-date=February 7, 2017 |access-date=July 6, 2020 |publisher=[[Philippine Overseas Employment Administration]]}}</ref> giving the Philippines [[soft power]].<ref name="Thompson-Batalla-2018" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmkPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA207|name=207}}}}

During the 1990s, the Philippines began to seek [[economic liberalization]] and [[free trade]]<ref name="ILOOrg-2019">{{cite report |title=The Impact of Trade on Employment in the Philippines: Country Report |date=April 2019 |publisher=[[International Labour Organization]] |location=Makati, Philippines |isbn=978-92-2-133021-9 |url=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_742567.pdf |access-date=March 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124055119/https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_742567.pdf |archive-date=January 24, 2022}}</ref>{{rp|pages=7–8}} to help spur [[foreign direct investment]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Venzon |first1=Cliff |title=Philippines eases Asia's toughest FDI rules with new retail entry law |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Retail/Philippines-eases-Asia-s-toughest-FDI-rules-with-new-retail-entry-law |access-date=April 2, 2023 |work=[[Nikkei Asia]] |date=January 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220117055231/https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Retail/Philippines-eases-Asia-s-toughest-FDI-rules-with-new-retail-entry-law |archive-date=January 17, 2022}}</ref> It is a member of the [[World Trade Organization]]<ref name="ILOOrg-2019" />{{rp|page=8}} and the [[Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Philippines |url=https://www.apec.org/groups/committee-on-trade-and-investment/market-access-group/ntm/philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717043955/https://www.apec.org/groups/committee-on-trade-and-investment/market-access-group/ntm/philippines |archive-date=July 17, 2022 |access-date=July 17, 2022 |publisher=[[Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation]]}}</ref> The Philippines entered into the [[ASEAN Free Trade Area|ASEAN Trade in Goods Agreement]] in 2010<ref>{{cite book |title=Impact of the ASEAN Trade in Goods Agreement (ATIGA) on Intra-ASEAN Trade |date=August 2021 |publisher=[[Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia]] |location=Jakarta, Indonesia |isbn=978-602-5460-19-7 |url=https://www.eria.org/uploads/media/Books/2021-Impact-of-the-ATIGA-on-Intra-ASEAN-Trade/Impact-of-the-ATIGA-on-Intra-ASEAN-Trade.pdf |access-date=June 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824114701/https://www.eria.org/uploads/media/Books/2021-Impact-of-the-ATIGA-on-Intra-ASEAN-Trade/Impact-of-the-ATIGA-on-Intra-ASEAN-Trade.pdf |archive-date=August 24, 2021 |chapter=Chapter 2: Background and Objectives}}</ref> and the [[Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership]] [[free trade agreement]] (FTA) in 2023.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Tan |first1=Alyssa Nicole O. |title=Senate concurs with Philippines' RCEP ratification |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/top-stories/2023/02/22/506166/senate-concurs-with-philippines-rcep-ratification/ |access-date=March 28, 2023 |work=[[BusinessWorld]] |date=February 21, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230223061750/https://www.bworldonline.com/top-stories/2023/02/22/506166/senate-concurs-with-philippines-rcep-ratification/ |archive-date=February 23, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=Philippines Ratifies RCEP Agreement: Opportunities for Businesses |url=https://www.aseanbriefing.com/news/philippines-ratifies-rcep-agreement-opportunities-for-businesses/ |access-date=March 28, 2023 |work=ASEAN Briefing |publisher=Dezan Shira & Associates |date=March 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230322221610/https://www.aseanbriefing.com/news/philippines-ratifies-rcep-agreement-opportunities-for-businesses/ |archive-date=March 22, 2023 |language=en}}</ref> Through ASEAN, the Philippines has signed FTAs with [[ASEAN–China Free Trade Area|China]], [[ASEAN–India Free Trade Area|India]], Japan, South Korea, Australia and New Zealand.<ref name="ILOOrg-2019" />{{rp|page=15}} The country has bilateral FTAs with [[Japan–Philippines Economic Partnership Agreement|Japan]], South Korea,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Mangaluz |first1=Jean |title=PH signs free trade agreement with South Korea |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1828353/ph-signs-free-trade-agreement-with-sokor |access-date=September 20, 2023 |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |date=September 7, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907140509/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1828353/ph-signs-free-trade-agreement-with-sokor |archive-date=September 7, 2023 |language=en}}</ref> and [[European Free Trade Association|four European states]]: Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland.<ref name="ILOOrg-2019" />{{rp|pages=9–10, 15}}
[[Image:2 Filipino soldiers painting friendship flags 070217-N-4198C-001 0V7HO.jpg|thumb|Filipino soldiers painting a U.S. and Philippine flag]]
The Philippines has a long [[Philippines–United States relations|relationship with the United States]], involving economics, [[CIA activities in the Philippines|security]], and interpersonal relations.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|date=December 15, 2016 |title=U.S. Relations With the Philippines |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122194536/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2794.htm |archive-date=January 22, 2017 |access-date=July 6, 2020 |publisher=[[United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State]]. [[Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs]]}}</ref> The Philippines' location [[United States bases in the Philippines|serves]] an [[First island chain|important role]] in the United States' [[island chain strategy]] in the West Pacific;<ref>{{cite book |author1=[[United States Department of State]] |title=Foreign Relations of the United States: 1950 |volume=VI: East Asia and the Pacific |date=1976 |publisher=[[U.S. Government Printing Office]] |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |location=Washington, D.C. |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DeUtAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA1516 1516] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DeUtAAAAYAAJ |language=en |oclc=7165200 |access-date=April 14, 2023 |archive-date=May 4, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230504064117/https://books.google.com/books?id=DeUtAAAAYAAJ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cronin |first1=Patrick M. |title=Rethinking Asian Alliances |journal=Joint Force Quarterly |date=September 1993 |issue=2 |publisher=Institute for National Strategic Studies, [[National Defense University (Washington, D.C.)|National Defense University]] |page=121 |url=https://ndupress.ndu.edu/portals/68/Documents/jfq/jfq-2.pdf |access-date=April 14, 2023 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140410212247/https://ndupress.ndu.edu/portals/68/Documents/jfq/jfq-2.pdf |archive-date=April 10, 2014}}</ref> a [[Mutual Defense Treaty (United States–Philippines)|Mutual Defense Treaty]] between the two countries was signed in 1951, and was supplemented with the [[Philippines–United States Visiting Forces Agreement|1999 Visiting Forces Agreement]] and the 2016 [[Enhanced Defense Cooperation Agreement]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Advincula-Lopez |first1=Leslie V. |title=Challenges and Gains in Military Relations between the Philippines and the United States |journal=Asia Pacific Bulletin |date=June 13, 2022 |issue=586 |url=https://www.eastwestcenter.org/sites/default/files/private/586.1030-al-pdf.pdf |publisher=[[East–West Center]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430123136/https://www.eastwestcenter.org/sites/default/files/private/586.1030-al-pdf.pdf |archive-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref> The country supported American policies during the [[Cold War]] and participated in the [[Korean War|Korean]] and [[Vietnam War|Vietnam]] wars.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jagel |first1=Matthew |title="Showing Its Flag": The United States, The Philippines, and the Vietnam War |journal=Past Tense: Graduate Review of History |date=July 11, 2013 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=18, 28–38 |url=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/91307/1/showing%20its%20flag_19836-Article%20Text-46661-1-10-20130711.pdf |access-date=May 9, 2023 |publisher=[[University of Toronto]] |language=en-ca |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200731043832/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/bitstream/1807/91307/1/showing%20its%20flag_19836-Article%20Text-46661-1-10-20130711.pdf |archive-date=July 31, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Sanders |first=Vivienne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YOQqCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT44 |title=The Cold War in Asia 1945–93 |edition=Second |series=Access to History |date=2015 |publisher=[[Hodder Education]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-4718-3880-4}}</ref> In 2003, the Philippines was designated a major non-NATO ally.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Garamone |first=Jim |date=May 19, 2003 |title=Philippines to Become Major non-NATO Ally, Bush Says |work=[[American Forces Press Service]] |publisher=[[United States Department of Defense]] |url=https://archive.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=28968 |access-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809092207/https://archive.defense.gov/news/newsarticle.aspx?id=28968 |archive-date=August 9, 2020}}</ref> [[Presidency of Rodrigo Duterte|Under President Duterte]], ties with the United States weakened in favor of improved relations with China and [[Philippines–Russia relations|Russia]].<ref name="DeCastro-2022">{{cite journal |last1=De Castro |first1=Renato Cruz |title=Caught Between Appeasement and Limited Hard Balancing: The Philippines' Changing Relations With the Eagle and the Dragon |journal=[[Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs]] |date=August 2022 |volume=41 |issue=2 |pages=262–272 |doi=10.1177/18681034221081143 |issn=1868-1034 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last1=Chang |first1=Felix K. |title=Hot and Cold: The Philippines' Relations with China (and the United States) |url=https://www.fpri.org/article/2021/07/hot-and-cold-the-philippines-relations-with-china-and-the-united-states/ |website=Policy Commons |publisher=[[Foreign Policy Research Institute]] |access-date=April 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430125452/https://policycommons.net/artifacts/1805035/hot-and-cold/2537128/ |archive-date=April 30, 2023 |date=July 7, 2021}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last1=Heydarian |first1=Richard Javad |title=Duterte's Pivot to Russia |url=https://amti.csis.org/dutertes-pivot-to-russia/ |website=Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative |publisher=[[Center for Strategic and International Studies]] |access-date=April 30, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019023259/https://amti.csis.org/dutertes-pivot-to-russia/ |archive-date=October 19, 2019 |date=October 17, 2019}}</ref> The Philippines relies heavily on the United States for its external defense;<ref name="Lum-Dolven-2014" />{{rp|page=11}} the U.S. has made regular assurances to defend the Philippines,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Ismael |first1=Javier Joe |last2=Baroña |first2=Franco Jose C. |last3=Mendoza |first3=Red |title=US to 'invoke' defense pact in attack on PH |url=https://www.manilatimes.net/2023/10/01/news/national/us-to-invoke-defense-pact-in-attack-on-ph/1912561 |access-date=October 24, 2023 |work=[[The Manila Times]] |date=October 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231001012654/https://www.manilatimes.net/2023/10/01/news/national/us-to-invoke-defense-pact-in-attack-on-ph/1912561 |archive-date=October 1, 2023 |language=en}}</ref> including the [[South China Sea]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Moriyasu |first=Ken |date=January 29, 2021 |title=US vows to defend Philippines, including in South China Sea |work=[[Nikkei Asia]] |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/South-China-Sea/US-vows-to-defend-Philippines-including-in-South-China-Sea |access-date=February 2, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128202512/https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/South-China-Sea/US-vows-to-defend-Philippines-including-in-South-China-Sea |archive-date=January 28, 2021}}</ref>

Since 1975, the Philippines has valued its [[China–Philippines relations|relations with China]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Banlaoi |first1=Rommel C. |author1-link=Rommel Banlaoi |title=Security Aspects of Philippines-China Relations: Bilateral Issues and Concerns in the Age of Global Terrorism |date=2007 |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-23-4929-4 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PgmV5quo0UMC&pg=PA53 53–55] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PgmV5quo0UMC |language=en}}</ref>—its top trading partner,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Cacho |first1=Katlene O. |title=China leads PH export, import market; envoy vows to deepen ties with Cebu |url=https://www.sunstar.com.ph/cebu/business/china-leads-ph-export-import-market-envoy-vows-to-deepen-ties-with-cebu |access-date=November 2, 2023 |work=[[SunStar]] |date=October 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102194950/https://www.sunstar.com.ph/cebu/business/china-leads-ph-export-import-market-envoy-vows-to-deepen-ties-with-cebu |archive-date=November 2, 2023 |language=en}}</ref> and cooperates significantly with the country.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Storey |first1=Ian |title=Southeast Asia and the Rise of China: The Search for Security |series=Routledge Security in Asia Series |date=August 21, 2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-136-72297-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=WO59snyW0HIC&pg=PA251 251] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WO59snyW0HIC |language=en}}</ref><ref name="DeCastro-2022" /> Japan is the biggest bilateral contributor of [[official development assistance]] to the Philippines;<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Brutas |first=Ma Karen |date=November 18, 2016 |title=Top development aid donors to the Philippines 2015 |work=[[Devex]] |url=https://www.devex.com/news/top-development-aid-donors-to-the-philippines-2015-89091 |access-date=July 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161119112216/https://www.devex.com/news/top-development-aid-donors-to-the-philippines-2015-89091 |archive-date=November 19, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sigit |last2=Lo |first2=Shyntia |last3=Setiawan |first3=Theofilus Jose |title=Japanese Official Development Assistance as International Bribery for the Comfort Woman Issue in the Philippines |journal=Thai Journal of East Asian Studies |date=June 30, 2022 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=89–95 |url=https://so02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/easttu/article/view/251724/172850 |access-date=May 16, 2023 |publisher=Institute of East Asian Studies, [[Thammasat University]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207191123/https://so02.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/easttu/article/view/251724/172850 |archive-date=December 7, 2022}}</ref> although some tension exists because of [[World War II]], much animosity has faded.<ref name="Dolan-1991" />{{rp|loc={{plain link|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927161330/http://countrystudies.us/philippines/93.htm|name=93}}}} Historical and cultural ties continue to affect [[Philippines–Spain relations|relations with Spain]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Santos |first=Matikas |date=September 15, 2014 |title=PH-Spain bilateral relations in a nutshell |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=http://globalnation.inquirer.net/111122/ph-spain-bilateral-relations-in-a-nutshell-2 |access-date=July 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140917001506/http://globalnation.inquirer.net/111122/ph-spain-bilateral-relations-in-a-nutshell-2 |archive-date=September 17, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|title=Madrid Embassy commemorates PHL-Spain relations' anniversary |url=https://businessmirror.com.ph/2022/11/17/madrid-embassy-commemorates-phl-spain-relations-anniversary/ |access-date=May 10, 2023 |work=[[BusinessMirror]] |date=November 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116165209/https://businessmirror.com.ph/2022/11/17/madrid-embassy-commemorates-phl-spain-relations-anniversary/ |archive-date=November 16, 2022}}</ref> Relations with Middle Eastern countries are shaped by the high number of Filipinos working in those countries,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Berlinger |first1=Joshua |last2=Sharma |first2=Akanksha |date=January 7, 2020 |title=The Philippines is particularly vulnerable to any Middle Eastern conflict. Here's why |work=[[CNN]] |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2020/01/07/asia/philippines-middle-east-tensions-intl-hnk/index.html |access-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107090831/https://edition.cnn.com/2020/01/07/asia/philippines-middle-east-tensions-intl-hnk/index.html |archive-date=January 7, 2020}}</ref> and by issues related to the Muslim minority in the Philippines;<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sevilla |first=Henelito A. Jr. |date=June 2011 |title=Middle East Security Issues and Implications for the Philippines |journal=Indian Journal of Asian Affairs |volume=24 |issue=1/2 |issn=0970-6402 |pages=49–61 |jstor=41950511}}</ref> concerns have been raised about domestic abuse and war affecting the approximately 2.5&nbsp;million overseas Filipino workers in the region.<ref>{{cite report |last1=Jabar |first1=Melvin |last2=Jesperson |first2=Sasha |title=Analysis of labour migrants' vulnerabilities to trafficking in persons and labour exploitation in the Philippines |series=Trafficking in persons and labour exploitation: A political economy analysis |date=March 2024 |publisher=[[ODI (think tank)|ODI]] |location=London, England |pages=37–38, 46, 51 |url=https://odi.cdn.ngo/media/documents/Analysis_of_labour_migrants_vulnerabilities_to_TIP_and_labour_exploitation_in__rVyk7Ub.pdf |access-date=August 14, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330213250/https://odi.cdn.ngo/media/documents/Analysis_of_labour_migrants_vulnerabilities_to_TIP_and_labour_exploitation_in__rVyk7Ub.pdf |archive-date=March 30, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Tarrazona |first=Noel T. |date=October 17, 2018 |title=For skilled Filipinos, Middle East remains a career destination |work=[[Al Arabiya]] |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/en/features/2018/10/17/For-skilled-Filipinos-Middle-East-continues-to-remain-a-career-destination |access-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201002122006/https://english.alarabiya.net/en/features/2018/10/17/For-skilled-Filipinos-Middle-East-continues-to-remain-a-career-destination |archive-date=October 2, 2020}}</ref>

The Philippines [[Spratly Islands dispute|has claims]] in the [[Spratly Islands]] which overlap with claims by China, Malaysia, Taiwan, and Vietnam.<ref>{{cite report |last1=Joyner |first1=Christopher C. |editor-last1=Singh |editor-first1=Ranjeet K. |title=Investigating Confidence-Building Measures in the Asia-Pacific Region |date=1999 |publisher=[[Stimson Center]] |page=56 |chapter=The Spratly Islands Dispute in the South China Sea: Problems, Policies, and Prospects for Diplomatic Accommodation |author-link1=Christopher C. Joyner |jstor=resrep10935.8 |jstor-access=free}}</ref> The largest of [[Philippines and the Spratly Islands|its controlled islands]] is [[Thitu Island]], which contains the [[Kalayaan, Palawan|Philippines' smallest town]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Pitlo |first=Lucio Blanco III |date=May 27, 2020 |title=Philippines bolsters posture in South China Sea after navy ship docks at new Spratly Islands port |work=[[South China Morning Post]] |url=https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/opinion/article/3086253/philippines-bolsters-posture-south-china-sea-after-navy-ship |access-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200527030224/https://www.scmp.com/week-asia/opinion/article/3086253/philippines-bolsters-posture-south-china-sea-after-navy-ship |archive-date=May 27, 2020}}</ref> The 2012 [[Scarborough Shoal standoff]], after China seized the shoal from the Philippines, led to an [[Philippines v. China|international arbitration case]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=De Castro |first1=Renato Cruz |title=The Limits of Intergovernmentalism: The Philippines' Changing Strategy in the South China Sea Dispute and Its Impact on the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) |journal=[[Journal of Current Southeast Asian Affairs]] |date=December 2020 |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=338–346 |doi=10.1177/1868103420935562 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]] |doi-access=free}}</ref> which the Philippines eventually won;<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=July 12, 2016 |title=PH wins maritime arbitration case vs. China |work=[[CNN Philippines]] |url=https://www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2016/07/12/PH-wins-maritime-arbitration-case-vs-China.html |access-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160713171115/https://www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2016/07/12/PH-wins-maritime-arbitration-case-vs-China.html |archive-date=July 13, 2016}}</ref> China rejected the result,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Phillips |first1=Tom |last2=Holmes |first2=Oliver |last3=Bowcott |first3=Owen |date=July 12, 2016 |title=Beijing rejects tribunal's ruling in South China Sea case |language=en |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/12/philippines-wins-south-china-sea-case-against-china |access-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160712120247/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/12/philippines-wins-south-china-sea-case-against-china |archive-date=July 12, 2016}}</ref> and made the shoal a prominent symbol of the broader dispute.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Carpio |first=Antonio T. |author-link=Antonio Carpio |date=July 23, 2020 |title=Scarborough Shoal – a redline |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://opinion.inquirer.net/132035/scarborough-shoal-a-redline |access-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200724111626/https://opinion.inquirer.net/132035/scarborough-shoal-a-redline |archive-date=July 24, 2020}}</ref>

China has rejected new Philippine maritime laws aimed at strengthening sovereignty in the South China Sea, stating they infringe on Chinese territorial claims and vowing to defend its interests in contested areas.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Cao |first1=Ella |date=10 November 2024 |title=China opposes new Philippine maritime law, vows to protect South China Sea 'sovereignty' |newspaper=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/china-opposes-new-philippine-maritime-law-vows-protect-south-china-sea-2024-11-10/ |access-date=11 November 2024}}</ref>

=== Military ===
{{Main|Armed Forces of the Philippines}}
[[File:BRP Jose Rizal at RIMPAC 2020 005.jpg|thumb|alt=Gray ship|[[BRP Jose Rizal (FF-150)|BRP ''Jose Rizal'' (FF-150)]] is the [[lead ship]] of [[Jose Rizal-class frigate|her class]] of [[Philippine Navy]] [[guided missile frigate]]s.]]

The [[Volunteer military|volunteer]] Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP) consist of three branches: the [[Philippine Air Force]], the [[Philippine Army]], and the [[Philippine Navy]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=AFP Organization |url=http://www.afp.mil.ph/org3.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050307023417/http://www.afp.mil.ph/org3.html |archive-date=March 7, 2005 |access-date=July 6, 2020 |publisher=[[Armed Forces of the Philippines]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Casey-Maslen |editor-first1=Stuart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VjvKBQAAQBAJ |title=The War Report: Armed Conflict in 2013 |date=2014 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford, England |isbn=978-0-19-103764-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VjvKBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA180 180]}}</ref> Civilian security is handled by the [[Philippine National Police]] under the [[Department of the Interior and Local Government]].<ref>{{Cite PH act |title=Department of the Interior and Local Government Act of 1990 |chamber=RA |number=6975 |date=December 13, 1990 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1990/12/13/republic-act-no-6975/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829090530/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1990/12/13/republic-act-no-6975/ |archive-date=August 29, 2017 |access-date=February 3, 2023 |publisher=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]] |location=Metro Manila, Philippines}}</ref> The AFP had a total manpower of around 280,000 {{as of|2022|lc=y}}, of which 130,000 were active military personnel, 100,000 were reserves, and 50,000 were [[Citizen Armed Force Geographical Unit|paramilitaries]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Baclig |first=Cristina Eloisa |date=January 20, 2022 |title=PH 51st on list of world's most powerful militaries |language=en |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1542851/ph-51st-on-list-of-worlds-most-powerful-militaries-2 |access-date=February 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120053550/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1542851/ph-51st-on-list-of-worlds-most-powerful-militaries-2 |archive-date=January 20, 2022}}</ref>

In 2023, {{currency|477&nbsp;million|USD|linked=no|passthrough=yes}} (1.4 percent of GDP) was spent on the Philippine military.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news |last1=Guild |first1=James |title=The Philippines' $35 Billion Military Modernization Plan, Explained |url=https://thediplomat.com/2024/05/the-philippines-35-billion-military-modernization-plan-explained/ |access-date=October 21, 2024 |work=[[The Diplomat (magazine)|The Diplomat]] |date=May 17, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240517144924/https://thediplomat.com/2024/05/the-philippines-35-billion-military-modernization-plan-explained/ |archive-date=May 17, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news |title=How does the Philippines compare in the region in terms of military expenditure as share of GDP? |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/infographics/2024/08/20/614989/how-does-the-philippines-compare-in-the-region-in-terms-of-military-expenditure-as-share-of-gdp/ |access-date=October 21, 2024 |work=[[BusinessWorld]] |date=August 20, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240820024146/https://www.bworldonline.com/infographics/2024/08/20/614989/how-does-the-philippines-compare-in-the-region-in-terms-of-military-expenditure-as-share-of-gdp/ |archive-date=August 20, 2024}}</ref> Most of the country's defense spending is on the Philippine Army, which leads operations against internal threats such as [[Communist armed conflicts in the Philippines|communist]] and [[Moro conflict|Muslim]] separatist insurgencies; its preoccupation with internal security contributed to the decline of [[List of equipment of the Philippine Navy|Philippine naval capability]] which began during the 1970s.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Till |editor-first1=Geoffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_bNtAAAAQBAJ |title=Naval Modernisation in South-East Asia: Nature, Causes and Consequences |series=Cass Series: Naval Policy and History |editor-last2=Chan |editor-first2=Jane |date=August 15, 2013 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Oxfordshire, England |isbn=978-1-135-95394-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_bNtAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA150 150] |language=en |author-link1=Geoffrey Till}}</ref> [[AFP Modernization Act|A military modernization program]] began in 1995<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Wu |editor-first1=Shicun |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qM5ZAgAAQBAJ |title=Securing the Safety of Navigation in East Asia: Legal and Political Dimensions |series=Chandos Asian Studies Series |editor-last2=Zou |editor-first2=Keyuan |date=November 21, 2013 |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |location=Oxford, England |isbn=978-1-78242-160-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qM5ZAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA35 35] |language=en}}</ref> and expanded in 2012 to build a more capable defense system.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=December 11, 2012 |title=Aquino signs revised AFP Modernization Act |work=[[The Philippine Star]] |url=https://www.philstar.com/pilipino-star-ngayon/headlines/2012/12/11/884844/aquino-signs-revised-afp-modernization-act |access-date=March 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421114944/https://www.philstar.com/pilipino-star-ngayon/headlines/2012/12/11/884844/aquino-signs-revised-afp-modernization-act |archive-date=April 21, 2022}}</ref>

The Philippines has long struggled against [[Civil conflict in the Philippines|local insurgencies]], [[Separatism in the Philippines|separatism]], and [[Terrorism in the Philippines|terrorism]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Arnold |first=Guy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L3TqDAAAQBAJ |title=Wars in the Third World Since 1945 |series=History and Politics in the 20th Century: Conflict: Bloomsbury Academic Collections |date=2016 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-4742-9101-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=L3TqDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA497 497] |language=en |author-link1=Guy Arnold}}</ref><ref name="Croissant-2017">{{cite book |last1=Croissant |first1=Aurel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=77xEDwAAQBAJ |title=Comparative Politics of Southeast Asia: An Introduction to Governments and Political Regimes |last2=Lorenz |first2=Philip |date=2017 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |location=Cham, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-319-68182-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=77xEDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA243 243] |author-link1=Aurel S. Croissant}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=GTD Search Results; Philippines |url=https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?page=1&casualties_type=&casualties_max=&country=160&charttype=line&chart=overtime&ob=GTDID&od=desc&expanded=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315083451/https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd/search/Results.aspx?page=1&casualties_type=&casualties_max=&country=160&charttype=line&chart=overtime&ob=GTDID&od=desc&expanded=yes |archive-date=March 15, 2023 |access-date=March 15, 2023 |website=Global Terrorism Database |publisher=[[University of Maryland]]}}</ref> [[Bangsamoro]]'s largest separatist organizations, the [[Moro National Liberation Front]] and the [[Moro Islamic Liberation Front]], signed final peace agreements with the government in [[1996 Final Peace Agreement|1996]] and [[Comprehensive Agreement on the Bangsamoro|2014]] respectively.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=MMP: Moro National Liberation Front |url=https://cisac.fsi.stanford.edu/mappingmilitants/profiles/moro-national-liberation-front#text_block_20212 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101073611/https://cisac.fsi.stanford.edu/mappingmilitants/profiles/moro-national-liberation-front |archive-date=November 1, 2022 |access-date=February 14, 2023 |website=[[Center for International Security and Cooperation]] |publisher=[[Stanford University]] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Esguerra |first1=Christian V. |author-link=Christian Esguerra |last2=Burgonio |first2=TJ |date=March 28, 2014 |title=Philippines, MILF sign peace agreement |language=en |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/589706/bangsamoro-rising |access-date=February 14, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328040452/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/589706/bangsamoro-rising |archive-date=March 28, 2014}}</ref> Other, more-militant groups such as [[Abu Sayyaf]] and [[Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters]]<ref name="CTCSentinel-BIFF">{{cite journal |last1=Chalk |first1=Peter |title=The Bangsamoro Islamic Freedom Fighters: The Newest Obstacles to Peace in the Southern Philippines? |journal=CTC Sentinel |date=November 2013 |volume=6 |issue=11–12 |pages=15–17 |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA590315.pdf |access-date=June 18, 2023 |publisher=[[Combating Terrorism Center|Combating Terrorism Center at West Point]] |oclc=872740536 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230619003423/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA590315.pdf |archive-date=June 19, 2023 |via=[[Defense Technical Information Center]]}}</ref> have kidnapped foreigners for ransom, particularly in the Sulu Archipelago<ref>{{cite book |author1=[[International Institute for Strategic Studies]] |title=Armed Conflict Survey 2021 |date=September 20, 2021 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Abingdon, Oxon, England |isbn=978-1-000-54558-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xONDEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT539 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Ciment |editor-first1=James |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Conflicts Since World War II |title=Philippines: War on Islamic Militants Since 1990 |date=March 27, 2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Abingdon, Oxon, England |edition=2nd |volume=One–Four |isbn=978-1-317-47186-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BpGXBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA662 662] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BpGXBwAAQBAJ}}</ref> and [[Maguindanao]],<ref name="CTCSentinel-BIFF" /> but their presence has been reduced.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schiavo-Campo |first1=Salvatore |last2=Judd |first2=Mary |date=February 2005 |title=The Mindanao Conflict in the Philippines: Roots, Costs, and Potential Peace Dividend |url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTCPR/214578-1111996036679/20482477/WP24_Web.pdf |series=Working Papers Series |publisher=[[The World Bank]] |issue=Paper No. 24 |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |oclc=992235323 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091007105619/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTCPR/214578-1111996036679/20482477/WP24_Web.pdf |archive-date=October 7, 2009 |access-date=February 3, 2023}} {{No ISBN}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Nepomuceno |first=Priam |date=October 10, 2020 |title=PH Army keen to end terror threat with arrest of 3 terrorists |work=[[Philippine News Agency]] |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1118108 |access-date=December 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030144543/https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1118108 |archive-date=October 30, 2020}}</ref> The [[Communist Party of the Philippines]] (CPP) and its military wing, the [[New People's Army]] (NPA), have been waging [[New People's Army rebellion|guerrilla warfare]] against the government since the 1970s and have [[Timeline of the communist rebellion in the Philippines|engaged]] in ambushes, bombings, and assassinations of government officials and security forces;<ref name="CIAWorldFactBook-2022-2023">{{cite book |last=Central Intelligence Agency |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BOFIEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT4659 |title=CIA World Factbook 2022–2023 |date=June 21, 2022 |publisher=[[Skyhorse Publishing]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-5107-7119-2 |language=en |author-link=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> although shrinking militarily and politically after the return of democracy in 1986,<ref name="Croissant-2017" /><ref>{{cite book |last=White |first=Jonathan R. |edition=Seventh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LWF-twYVE7sC |title=Terrorism and Homeland Security |date=2011 |publisher=[[Wadsworth Cengage Learning]] |location=Belmont, Calif. |isbn=978-0-495-91336-8 |page=363}}</ref> the CPP-NPA, through the [[National Democratic Front of the Philippines]], continues to gather public support in urban areas by setting up [[communist front]]s, infiltrating sectoral organizations, and rallying public discontent and increased militancy against the government.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gibert |first1=Stephen P. |title=Security In Northeast Asia: Approaching The Pacific Century |date=2019 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-000-31112-9 |at=The Nature of the Internal Crisis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OMzKDwAAQBAJ |access-date=August 11, 2024 |language=en}}</ref> The Philippines ranked 104th out of 163 countries in the 2024 [[Global Peace Index]].<ref>{{cite report |title=Global Peace Index 2024: Measuring Peace in a Complex World |date=June 2024 |publisher=[[Institute for Economics & Peace]] |location=Sydney, Australia |isbn=978-0-646-87920-8 |page=9 |url=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf |access-date=August 19, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240611125528/https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf |archive-date=June 11, 2024}}</ref>

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of the Philippines}}
[[File:Ph regions and provinces.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Color-coded political map of the Philippines|The Philippines' regions and provinces]]

The Philippines is divided into 18 [[Regions of the Philippines|regions]], 82 [[Provinces of the Philippines|provinces]], 149 [[Cities of the Philippines|cities]], 1,493 [[Municipalities of the Philippines|municipalities]], and 42,011 [[barangay]]s.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Provincial Summary: Number of Provinces, Cities, Municipalities and Barangays, by Region as of September 30, 2016 |url=http://nap.psa.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/SUMWEBPROV-SEPT2016-CODED-HUC-FINAL.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170110151057/http://nap.psa.gov.ph/activestats/psgc/SUMWEBPROV-SEPT2016-CODED-HUC-FINAL.pdf |archive-date=January 10, 2017 |access-date=January 5, 2017 |publisher=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]]}}</ref> Regions other than [[Bangsamoro]] are divided for administrative convenience.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Tusalem |first=Rollin F |date=April 9, 2019 |title=Imperial Manila: How institutions and political geography disadvantage Philippine provinces |journal=Asian Journal of Comparative Politics |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=8–9, 11–12 |doi=10.1177/2057891119841441 |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing|SAGE Publications Ltd]] |s2cid=159099808}}</ref> [[Calabarzon]] was the region with the greatest population {{as of|2020|lc=y}}, and the [[Metro Manila|National Capital Region]] (NCR) was the most densely populated.<ref name="PSA-2020-Census-Highlights">{{cite report |last=Mapa |first=Dennis S. |author-link1=Dennis Mapa |date=July 23, 2021 |title=Highlights of the Population Density of the Philippines 2020 Census of Population and Housing (2020 CPH) |url=https://psa.gov.ph/content/highlights-population-density-philippines-2020-census-population-and-housing-2020-cph |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726073127/https://psa.gov.ph/content/highlights-population-density-philippines-2020-census-population-and-housing-2020-cph |archive-date=July 26, 2021 |access-date=February 12, 2023 |publisher=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]]}}</ref>

The Philippines is a [[unitary state]], with the exception of the Bangsamoro Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (BARMM),<ref>{{cite journal |last=de Villiers |first=Bertus |date=2015 |title=Special regional autonomy in a unitary system – preliminary observations on the case of the Bangsomoro homeland in the Philippines |journal=Verfassung und Recht in Übersee / Law and Politics in Africa, Asia and Latin America |publisher=[[Nomos Publishing House|Nomos-Verlagsgesellschaft]] |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=205–226 |doi=10.5771/0506-7286-2015-2-205 |issn=0506-7286 |jstor=26160114}}</ref> although there have been [[Federalism in the Philippines|steps towards decentralization]];<ref>{{cite journal |last=Buendia |first=Rizal G. |date=April 1989 |title=The Prospects of Federalism in the Philippines: A Challenge to Political Decentralization of the Unitary State |url=https://www.pssc.org.ph/wp-content/pssc-archives/Philippine%20Journal%20of%20Public%20Administration/1989/Num%202/06_The%20Prospects%20of%20Federalism%20in%20the%20Philippines.pdf |journal=Philippine Journal of Public Administration |publisher=[[University of the Philippines]] |volume=33 |issue=2 |pages=121–122 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917050906/https://www.pssc.org.ph/wp-content/pssc-archives/Philippine%20Journal%20of%20Public%20Administration/1989/Num%202/06_The%20Prospects%20of%20Federalism%20in%20the%20Philippines.pdf |archive-date=September 17, 2021 |access-date=April 2, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Tigno |first=Jorge V. |date=2017 |title=Beg Your Pardon? The Philippines is Already Federalized in All but Name |url=https://cids.up.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/ppj-16-17-tigno-2017.pdf |journal=Philippine Journal of Public Policy: Interdisciplinary Development Perspectives |volume=16 and 17 |pages=1–14 |publisher=[[University of the Philippines|University of the Philippines Center for Integrative and Development Studies]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210116032627/https://cids.up.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/ppj-16-17-tigno-2017.pdf |archive-date=January 16, 2021 |access-date=August 8, 2020}}</ref> a 1991 law [[devolution|devolved]] some powers to [[Local government in the Philippines|local governments]].<ref>{{cite report |last1=Atienza |first1=Maria Ela L. |url=https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/constitutional-performance-assessment-1987-philippine-constitution.pdf |title=Constitutional Performance Assessment of the 1987 Philippine Constitution: Summary of Findings |last2=Arugay |first2=Aries A. |last3=Dee |first3=Francis Joseph A. |last4=Encinas-Franco |first4=Jean |last5=Go |first5=Jan Robert R. |last6=Panao |first6=Rogelio Alicor L. |last7=Jimenez |first7=Alinia Jesam D. |date=2020 |publisher=[[International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance]]; [[University of the Philippines|University of the Philippines Center for Integrative and Development Studies]] |location=Stockholm, Sweden and Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-91-7671-299-3 |doi=10.31752/idea.2020.2 |editor-last=Atienza |editor-first=Maria Ela L. |page=37 |access-date=December 1, 2020 |editor-last2=Cats-Baril |editor-first2=Amanda |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210328053237/https://www.idea.int/sites/default/files/publications/constitutional-performance-assessment-1987-philippine-constitution.pdf |archive-date=March 28, 2021}}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of the Philippines}}

The Philippine economy is the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|34th largest]], with an estimated {{as of|2025|bare=yes}} nominal [[gross domestic product]] of {{currency|507.7&nbsp;billion|USD|linked=no|passthrough=yes}}.<ref name="IMFWEO.PH">{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/April/weo-report?c=566,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2024 Edition. (Philippines) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |date=April 16, 2024 |access-date=April 17, 2024 |archive-date=April 16, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240416221054/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2024/April/weo-report?c=566,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,NGDPDPC,PPPPC,&sy=2022&ey=2029&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 |url-status=live}}</ref> As a [[newly industrialized country]],<ref name="FederalRegister-Vol78" /><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Yu Chang |editor-first1=Albert Vincent Y. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N9Ii3nTZ37AC |title=A Legal Guide to Doing Business in the Asia-Pacific |editor-last2=Thorson |editor-first2=Andrew |date=2010 |publisher=[[American Bar Association]] |location=Chicago, Ill. |isbn=978-1-60442-843-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N9Ii3nTZ37AC&pg=PA288 288]}}</ref> the Philippine economy has been transitioning from an agricultural base to one with more emphasis on services and manufacturing.<ref name="FederalRegister-Vol78">{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EIG4iINKSOgC |journal=Federal Register |title=Commercial Setting: The Philippines |date=March 15, 2013 |publisher=[[Office of the Federal Register]], National Archives and Records Service, [[General Services Administration]] |volume=78 |issue=51 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EIG4iINKSOgC&pg=PA16468 16468]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite press release |date=January 26, 2023 |title=GDP Expands by 7.2 Percent in the Fourth Quarter of 2022, and by 7.6 Percent in Full-year 2022 |url=https://psa.gov.ph/national-accounts |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230130010406/https://psa.gov.ph/national-accounts |archive-date=January 30, 2023 |access-date=March 13, 2023 |publisher=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]]}}</ref> The country's labor force was around 50&nbsp;million {{as of|2023|lc=y}}, and its [[List of sovereign states by unemployment rate|unemployment rate]] was 3.1 percent.<ref name="PSAGovPH-UnemploymentDec2023">{{Cite press release |last=Mapa |first=Dennis S. |author-link1=Dennis Mapa |title=Unemployment Rate in December 2023 was Estimated at 3.1 Percent |url=https://psa.gov.ph/content/unemployment-rate-december-2023-was-estimated-31-percent |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240207091631/https://psa.gov.ph/content/unemployment-rate-december-2023-was-estimated-31-percent |archive-date=February 7, 2024 |publisher=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]] |url-status=live}}</ref> Gross international reserves totaled {{currency|103.406&nbsp;billion|USD|linked=no|passthrough=yes}} {{as of|2024|January|lc=y}}.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Gross International Reserves |url=https://www.bsp.gov.ph/Statistics/sdds/table12_data.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215120950/https://www.bsp.gov.ph/Statistics/sdds/table12_data.aspx |archive-date=February 15, 2024 |publisher=[[Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas]] |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Debt-to-GDP ratio]] decreased to 60.2 percent at the end of 2023 from a 17-year high 63.7 percent at the end of the third quarter of that year, and indicated resiliency during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines|COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Gonzalez |first=Anna Leah |title=PH debt-to-GDP improves in 2023 |work=[[Philippine News Agency]] |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1217973 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240131074513/https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1217973 |archive-date=January 31, 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> The country's unit of [[currency]] is the [[Philippine peso]] (₱<ref>{{#invoke:cite|book|section=Executive Order No. 66 |title=Executive Orders and Proclamations Issued by the Governor-General [1903] |date=August 3, 1903 |url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/ACD6603.1903.001/91 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200817095343/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/ACD6603.1903.001/91 |archive-date=August 17, 2020 |access-date=August 17, 2020 |page=89 |publisher=Bureau of Public Prints}}</ref> or PHP<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|date=August 29, 2018 |title=List one: Currency, fund and precious metal codes |url=https://www.currency-iso.org/dam/downloads/lists/list_one.xls |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200511031332/https://www.currency-iso.org/dam/downloads/lists/list_one.xls |archive-date=May 11, 2020 |access-date=August 17, 2020 |publisher=[[International Organization for Standardization|ISO 4217 Maintenance Agency]] |format=XLS}}</ref>).<ref>{{cite report |last=International Monetary Fund. Monetary and Capital Markets Department |url=https://www.elibrary.imf.org/downloadpdf/book/9781451942804/9781451942804.pdf |title=Annual Report on Exchange Arrangements and Exchange Restrictions 1999 |date=September 17, 1999 |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-1-4519-4280-4 |page=683 |access-date=April 17, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409193323/https://www.elibrary.imf.org/downloadpdf/book/9781451942804/9781451942804.pdf |archive-date=April 9, 2023}}</ref>

The Philippines is a net importer,<ref name="ILOOrg-2019" />{{rp|pages=55–56,61–65,77,83,111}}<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Gadon |first1=Bernadette Therese M. |title=2021 trade deficit widest in 3 years |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/top-stories/2022/04/22/443881/2021-trade-deficit-widest-in-3-years/ |access-date=April 22, 2023 |work=[[BusinessWorld]] |date=April 21, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421200131/https://www.bworldonline.com/top-stories/2022/04/22/443881/2021-trade-deficit-widest-in-3-years/ |archive-date=April 21, 2022}}</ref> and a [[Net international investment position|debtor nation]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|year=2022|title=Philippines Net International Investment Position |publisher=CEIC |url=https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/philippines/net-international-investment-position |access-date=May 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311060132/https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/philippines/net-international-investment-position |archive-date=March 11, 2023}}</ref> {{as of|2020}}, the country's main export markets were China, the United States, Japan, Hong Kong, and Singapore;<ref name="OECWorld-PH">{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Philippines (PHL) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners |url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/phl |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205044653/https://oec.world/en/profile/country/phl |archive-date=December 5, 2022 |access-date=February 26, 2023 |publisher=[[Observatory of Economic Complexity]] |language=en}}</ref> primary exports included [[integrated circuit]]s, office machinery and parts, electrical transformers, insulated wiring, and [[semiconductor]]s.<ref name="OECWorld-PH" /> Its primary import markets that year were China, Japan, South Korea, the United States, and Indonesia.<ref name="OECWorld-PH" /> Major export crops include [[Coconut production in the Philippines|coconuts]], [[Banana industry#Production and export|bananas]], and [[List of countries by pineapple production|pineapples]]; it is the world's largest producer of [[abaca]],<ref name="Boquet-2017" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA226|name=226–242}}}} and was the world's second biggest exporter of [[nickel|nickel ore]] in 2022,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-01-30/philippines-may-tax-nickel-exports-to-follow-indonesia-s-success#xj4y7vzkg |url-access=subscription |title=Nickel Gets Fresh Supply Risk as Philippines Mulls Export Tax
 |last1=Serapio |first1=Manolo Jr. |last2=Calonzo |first2=Andreo |date=January 30, 2023 |work=[[Bloomberg News|Bloomberg]] |language=en |access-date=May 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230131145135/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-01-30/philippines-may-tax-nickel-exports-to-follow-indonesia-s-success |archive-date=January 31, 2023}}</ref> as well as the biggest exporter of gold-clad metals and the biggest importer of [[copra]] in 2020.<ref name="OECWorld-PH" />

[[File:0123jfCalipahan Sicsican Rice Fields San Pascual Talavera Ecijafvf 04.JPG|thumb|alt=Two people planting rice plants in water|Filipinos planting rice. [[Agriculture in the Philippines|Agriculture employed 24 percent of the Filipino workforce]] {{As of|2022|lc=y}}.<ref name="PSAGovPH-UnemploymentDec2022">{{Cite press release |last=Mapa |first=Dennis S. |author-link1=Dennis Mapa |title=Employment situation as of December 2022 |url=https://psa.gov.ph/content/unemployment-rate-december-2022-estimated-43-percent |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208062354/https://psa.gov.ph/content/unemployment-rate-december-2022-estimated-43-percent |archive-date=February 8, 2023 |access-date=February 8, 2023 |publisher=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]]}}</ref>]]
With an average annual growth rate of six to seven percent since around 2010, the Philippines has emerged as one of the world's fastest-growing economies,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Biswas |first1=Rajiv |title=Philippines amongst world's fastest growing emerging markets |url=https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/mi/research-analysis/philippines-amongst-worlds-fastest-growing-emerging-markets-Mar23.html |access-date=April 2, 2023 |work=[[IHS Markit]] |date=March 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311221015/https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/mi/research-analysis/philippines-amongst-worlds-fastest-growing-emerging-markets-Mar23.html |archive-date=March 11, 2023}}</ref> driven primarily by its increasing reliance on the service sector.<ref name=OECD-SMEPolicyIndex2018>{{cite book |title=SME Policy Index: ASEAN 2018: Boosting Competitiveness and Inclusive Growth |date=September 21, 2018 |chapter=The Philippines |pages=371–373 |publisher=[[OECD Publishing]]; [[Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia]] |location=Paris, France; Jakarta, Indonesia |isbn=978-92-64-30531-1 |url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/development/sme-policy-index-asean-2018_9789264305328-en |chapter-url=https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/docserver/9789264305328-22-en.pdf |access-date=May 12, 2023 |language=en |doi=10.1787/9789264305328-22-en |doi-access=free}}</ref> Regional development is uneven, however, with Manila (in particular) gaining most of the new economic growth.<ref>{{cite journal |type=Conference proceeding |date=2018 |title=Critical Perspectives on Federalism for Regional Development (Proceedings of the Third Annual Public Policy Conference 2017) |url=https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/CDN/PUBLICATIONS/pidsbk2018-appc2017.pdf |journal=Appc 2017 |location=Quezon City, Philippines |publisher=[[Philippine Institute for Development Studies]] |page=xvii |issn=2546-1761 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208162326/https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/CDN/PUBLICATIONS/pidsbk2018-appc2017.pdf |archive-date=February 8, 2023 |access-date=February 8, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Fajardo |first=Fernando |date=March 5, 2014 |title=Poverty and regional development imbalance |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=http://cebudailynews.inquirer.net/22630/poverty-and-regional-development-imbalance |access-date=July 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150222102526/http://cebudailynews.inquirer.net/22630/poverty-and-regional-development-imbalance |archive-date=February 22, 2015}}</ref> [[Remittance]]s from [[overseas Filipinos]] contribute significantly to the country's economy;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Seriño |first1=Moises Neil V. |title=Effects of International Remittances on the Philippine Economy: A Cointegration Analysis |journal=DLSU Business & Economics Review |date=2012 |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=47–48 |url=https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/EffectsofInternationalRemittancesonthePhilippineEconomy_ACointegrationAnalysis.pdf |access-date=April 30, 2023 |publisher=[[De La Salle University]] |oclc=855102346 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430132943/https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/EffectsofInternationalRemittancesonthePhilippineEconomy_ACointegrationAnalysis.pdf |archive-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref><ref name=OECD-SMEPolicyIndex2018 /> they reached a record {{currency|37.20&nbsp;billion|USD|linked=no|passthrough=yes}} in 2023, accounting for 8.5 percent of GDP.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Gonzalez |first=Anna Leah |title=OFW remittances hit all-time high in 2023 |work=[[Philippine News Agency]] |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1218913 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215073743/https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1218913 |archive-date=February 15, 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> The Philippines is the world's primary [[Business process outsourcing in the Philippines|business process outsourcing]] (BPO) center.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=December 2, 2010 |title=Phl overtakes India as world's BPO leader |work=[[The Philippine Star]] |url=https://www.philstar.com/business/2010/12/02/634901/phl-overtakes-india-worlds-bpo-leader |access-date=September 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200901193030/https://www.philstar.com/business/2010/12/02/634901/phl-overtakes-india-worlds-bpo-leader |archive-date=September 1, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Stevens |first=Andrew J. R. |series=Routledge Advances in Sociology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CZ0sAwAAQBAJ |title=Call Centers and the Global Division of Labor: A Political Economy of Post-Industrial Employment and Union Organizing |date=2014 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-135-11868-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=CZ0sAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}}</ref> About 1.3&nbsp;million Filipinos work in the BPO sector, primarily in [[customer service]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Arenas |editor-first1=Guillermo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dFWYEAAAQBAJ |title=A New Dawn for Global Value Chain Participation in the Philippines |series=International Development in Focus |editor-last2=Coulibaly |editor-first2=Souleymane |date=2022 |publisher=[[World Bank Publications]] |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-1-4648-1848-6 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dFWYEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 28–29] |language=en}}</ref>

=== Science and technology ===
{{Main|Science and technology in the Philippines|Philippine space program}}
[[File:Head Quarters of the International Rice Research Institute in Los Baños - panoramio.jpg|thumb|alt=Modern, landscaped office building|Headquarters of the [[International Rice Research Institute]] in [[Los Baños, Laguna]]]]

The Philippines has one of the largest agricultural-research systems in Asia, despite relatively low spending on agricultural research and development.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Baconguis |first=Rowena T. |date=February 14, 2022 |title=Agricultural Technology: Why Does the Level of Agricultural Production Remain Low Despite Increased Investments in Research and Extension? |url=https://think-asia.org/bitstream/handle/11540/14877/pidsdps2206.pdf?sequence=1 |journal=PIDS Discussion Paper Series |publisher=[[Philippine Institute for Development Studies]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |oclc=1302730898 |page=6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230224005936/https://think-asia.org/bitstream/handle/11540/14877/pidsdps2206.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-date=February 24, 2023 |access-date=February 24, 2023 |via=Think Asia}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |last1=Stads |first1=Gert-Jan |last2=Faylon |first2=Patricio S. |last3=Buendia |first3=Leah J. |title=Key trends in agricultural R&D investments in the Philippines |url=https://ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/collection/p15738coll2/id/32328 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230224011436/https://ebrary.ifpri.org/digital/collection/p15738coll2/id/32328 |date=March 2007 |archive-date=February 24, 2023 |access-date=February 24, 2023 |publisher=[[International Food Policy Research Institute]], [[Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic, and Natural Resources Research and Development|Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development]]}}</ref> The country has developed new varieties of crops, including [[Rice production in the Philippines|rice]],<ref>{{cite book |type=Conference proceeding |editor-last1=Virmani |editor-first1=S. S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xA1jRdqJJzcC |title=Advances in Hybrid Rice Technology: Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Hybrid Rice, 14–16 November 1996, Hyderabad, India |editor-last2=Siddiq |editor-first2=E. A. |editor-last3=Muralidharan |editor-first3=K. |date=1998 |publisher=[[International Rice Research Institute]] |location=Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines |isbn=978-971-22-0115-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xA1jRdqJJzcC&pg=PA341 341] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Ricroch |editor-first1=Agnès |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VzkqBAAAQBAJ |title=Plant Biotechnology: Experience and Future Prospects |editor-last2=Chopra |editor-first2=Surinder |editor-last3=Fleischer |editor-first3=Shelby J. |date=July 11, 2014 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |location=Cham, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-319-06892-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VzkqBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA256 256] |language=en}}</ref> coconuts,<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Cumo |editor-first1=Christopher |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ja7WAQAAQBAJ |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Cultivated Plants: From Acacia to Zinnia |volume=I: A–F |title=Coconut |date=April 25, 2013 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-59884-775-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Ja7WAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA298 298] |language=en}}</ref> and bananas.<ref>{{cite book |type=Conference proceeding |editor-last1=Molina |editor-first1=A. B. |editor-last2=Roa |editor-first2=V. N. |editor-last3=Maghuyop |editor-first3=M. A. G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xnY61doEaJUC |title=Advancing banana and plantain R & D in Asia and the Pacific Vol. 10: Proceedings of the 10th INIBAP-ASPNET Regional Advisory Committee meeting held at Bangkok, Thailand, 10–11 November 2000 |date=2001 |publisher=[[International Network for the Improvement of Banana and Plantain]] |location=Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines |isbn=978-971-91751-5-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xnY61doEaJUC&pg=PA53 53] |language=en}}</ref> Research organizations include the [[Philippine Rice Research Institute]]<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=June 1, 2022 |title=Philippine Rice Research and Technological Advancements |work=[[BusinessMirror]] |url=https://businessmirror.com.ph/2022/06/01/nsic-okays-14-rice-varieties-developed-by-irri-philrice/ |access-date=February 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220601083727/https://businessmirror.com.ph/2022/06/01/nsic-okays-14-rice-varieties-developed-by-irri-philrice/ |archive-date=June 1, 2022}}</ref> and the [[International Rice Research Institute]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Philippines |url=https://www.irri.org/where-we-work/countries/philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714103217/https://www.irri.org/where-we-work/countries/philippines |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |access-date=February 9, 2023 |publisher=[[International Rice Research Institute]] |language=en}}</ref>

The [[Philippine Space Agency]] maintains the [[Philippine space program|country's space program]],<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Verspieren |editor-first1=Quentin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OQdZEAAAQBAJ |title=ASEAN Space Programs: History and Way Forward |editor-last2=Berthet |editor-first2=Maximilien |editor-last3=Coral |editor-first3=Giulio |editor-last4=Nakasuka |editor-first4=Shinichi |editor-last5=Shiroyama |editor-first5=Hideaki |date=January 12, 2022 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-16-7326-9 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OQdZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57–58] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kim |first=Doo Hwan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KUIoEAAAQBAJ |title=Global Issues Surrounding Outer Space Law and Policy |series=Advances in Public Policy and Administration (APPA) Book Series |date=2021 |publisher=IGI Global |location=Hershey, Pa. |isbn=978-1-7998-7409-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KUIoEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA69 69] |language=en}}</ref> and the country bought its first [[List of Philippine satellites|satellite]] in 1996.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=July 25, 1996 |title=Mabuhay acquires Indon satellite; sets new orbit |page=9 |work=[[Manila Standard]] |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1370&dat=19960725&id=9mUVAAAAIBAJ&pg=6158,3894648 |access-date=July 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728061150/https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1370&dat=19960725&id=9mUVAAAAIBAJ&pg=6158,3894648 |archive-date=July 28, 2020 |via=[[Google News]]}}</ref> [[Diwata-1]], its first [[Small satellite#Microsatellites|micro-satellite]], was launched on the United States' [[Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus]] spacecraft in 2016.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Ronda |first=Rainier Allan |date=March 24, 2016 |title=US aircraft with Philippines's first microsatellite launched into space |work=[[The Philippine Star]] |url=http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2016/03/24/1566175/us-aircraft-philippiness-first-microsatellite-launched-space |access-date=March 24, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327120259/http://www.philstar.com/headlines/2016/03/24/1566175/us-aircraft-philippiness-first-microsatellite-launched-space |archive-date=March 27, 2016}}</ref>

The Philippines has a [[List of countries by smartphone penetration|high concentration]] of [[Mobile phone|cellular-phone]] users,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pertierra |first1=Raul |title=We Reveal Ourselves to Ourselves: The New Communication Media in the Philippines |journal=Social Science Diliman |date=June 2013 |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=25 |url=https://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/socialsciencediliman/article/view/3920/3573 |access-date=July 1, 2023 |publisher=[[University of the Philippines]] |issn=1655-1524 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225214150/https://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/socialsciencediliman/article/view/3920/3573 |archive-date=February 25, 2017}}</ref> and a high level of [[mobile commerce]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Teves |first=Oliver |date=September 29, 2007 |title=Cell phones double as electronic wallets in Philippines |work=[[USA Today]] |agency=[[Associated Press]] |url=https://www.usatoday.com/tech/wireless/phones/2007-09-29-philippines-cell-phones_N.htm |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025035722/https://www.usatoday.com/tech/wireless/phones/2007-09-29-philippines-cell-phones_N.htm |archive-date=October 25, 2007}}</ref> [[Text messaging]] is a popular form of communication, and the nation sent an average of one&nbsp;billion [[SMS]] messages per day in 2007.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Francisco |first=Rosemarie |date=March 4, 2008 |title=Filipinos sent 1 billion text messages daily in 2007 |language=en |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |agency=[[Reuters]] |url=http://technology.inquirer.net/infotech/infotech/view/20080304-122775/Filipinos-sent-1-billion-text-messages-daily-in-2007 |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080308115828/http://technology.inquirer.net/infotech/infotech/view/20080304-122775/Filipinos-sent-1-billion-text-messages-daily-in-2007 |archive-date=March 8, 2008}}</ref> The [[Telecommunications in the Philippines|Philippine telecommunications industry]] had been dominated by the [[PLDT]]-[[Globe Telecom]] duopoly for more than two decades,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Elliott |first1=Vittoria |last2=Deck |first2=Andrew |date=November 2, 2020 |title=Duterte, Dito, and the Duopoly |work=Rest of World |url=https://restofworld.org/2020/duterte-dito-and-the-duopoly/ |access-date=February 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102142904/https://restofworld.org/2020/duterte-dito-and-the-duopoly/ |archive-date=November 2, 2020}}</ref> and the 2021 entry of [[Dito Telecommunity]] improved the country's telecommunications service.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Cuyco |first=Jan |date=July 1, 2022 |title=No longer a duopoly, Philippines' mobile market sees improved 4G, 5G availability – Ookla |work=[[The Philippine Star]] |url=https://www.philstar.com/business/2022/07/01/2192313/no-longer-duopoly-philippines-mobile-market-sees-improved-4g-5g-availability-ookla |access-date=February 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701073711/https://www.philstar.com/business/2022/07/01/2192313/no-longer-duopoly-philippines-mobile-market-sees-improved-4g-5g-availability-ookla |archive-date=July 1, 2022}}</ref>

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in the Philippines}}
[[File:Chocolate Hills and tourists.jpg|thumb|alt=People on an observation deck overlooking hills|Tourists at [[Chocolate Hills]], conical [[karst]] hills in [[Bohol]]]]
The Philippines is a popular retirement destination for foreigners because of its climate and low cost of living.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Frost |first=Charles |date=May 31, 2015 |title=Best Place to Retire |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/best-places-to-retire-abroad-the-philippines-1432827258 |access-date=July 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601033128/https://www.wsj.com/articles/best-places-to-retire-abroad-the-philippines-1432827258 |archive-date=June 1, 2015}}</ref> The country's main tourist attractions are [[List of beaches in the Philippines|its numerous beaches]];<ref name="Woods-2006" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eajOEAAAQBAJ&pg=109|name=109}}}}<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zafra |first1=Maria Angela G. |title=Developing the Philippine Blue Economy: Opportunities and Challenges in the Ocean Tourism Sector |url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/761906/adbi-wp1291.pdf |publisher=[[Asian Development Bank Institute]] |access-date=May 14, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104111713/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/761906/adbi-wp1291.pdf |archive-date=January 4, 2022 |location=Tokyo, Japan |pages=8–9 |date=December 2021 |journal=ADBI Working Paper Series |issue=1291}}</ref> the Philippines is also a top destination for diving enthusiasts.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Nordquist |editor-first1=Myron H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Gny9DwAAQBAJ |title=Cooperation and Engagement in the Asia-Pacific Region |editor-last2=Moore |editor-first2=John Norton |editor-last3=Long |editor-first3=Ronán |date=November 11, 2019 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |location=Leiden, Netherlands |isbn=978-90-04-41202-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Gny9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 72] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Rocamora |first=Joyce Ann L. |date=December 16, 2021 |title=PH still world's leading dive destination in 2021: WTA |language=en |work=[[Philippine News Agency]] |url=https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1162963 |access-date=February 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216093702/https://www.pna.gov.ph/articles/1162963 |archive-date=December 16, 2021}}</ref> [[List of tourist attractions in the Philippines|Tourist spots]] include [[Boracay]], called the best island in the world by ''[[Travel + Leisure]]'' in 2012;<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Malig |first=Jojo |date=July 9, 2012 |title=Boracay named 2012 world's best island |work=[[ABS-CBN News]] |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/lifestyle/07/06/12/boracay-named-2012-worlds-best-island |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160218054435/https://news.abs-cbn.com/lifestyle/07/06/12/boracay-named-2012-worlds-best-island |archive-date=February 18, 2016}}</ref> [[Coron, Palawan|Coron]] and [[El Nido, Palawan|El Nido]] in Palawan; [[Cebu]]; [[Siargao]], and [[Bohol]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Zubiri |first=Stephanie |date=November 18, 2022 |title=Beyond the beaches: five adventure experiences in the Philippines |language=en-gb |work=[[National Geographic]] |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/travel/bc/2022/11/beyond-the-beaches-five-unusual-experiences-in-the-philippines |access-date=February 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221128091050/https://www.nationalgeographic.co.uk/travel/bc/2022/11/beyond-the-beaches-five-unusual-experiences-in-the-philippines |archive-date=November 28, 2022}}</ref>

Tourism contributed 5.2 percent to the Philippine GDP in 2021 (lower than 12.7 percent in 2019, before the COVID-19 pandemic),<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Ochave |first=Revin Mikhael D. |date=June 21, 2022 |title=Philippine tourism industry seen to reach pre-pandemic levels by 2024 |work=[[BusinessWorld]] |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/top-stories/2022/06/22/456578/philippine-tourism-industry-seen-to-reach-pre-pandemic-levels-by-2024/ |access-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621174641/https://www.bworldonline.com/top-stories/2022/06/22/456578/philippine-tourism-industry-seen-to-reach-pre-pandemic-levels-by-2024/ |archive-date=June 21, 2022}}</ref> and provided 5.7&nbsp;million jobs in 2019.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=October 21, 2020 |title=Inbound int'l tourism may pick up starting late 2021 |work=[[BusinessWorld]] |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/editors-picks/2020/10/22/324125/inbound-intl-tourism-may-pick-up-starting-late-2021/ |access-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111072858/https://www.bworldonline.com/editors-picks/2020/10/22/324125/inbound-intl-tourism-may-pick-up-starting-late-2021/ |archive-date=November 11, 2022}}</ref> The Philippines attracted 5.45&nbsp;million international visitors in 2023, 30 percent lower than the 8.26 million record in pre-pandemic 2019; most tourists came from South Korea (26.4 percent), United States (16.5 percent), Japan (5.6 percent), Australia (4.89 percent), and China (4.84 percent).<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Arnaldo |first1=Ma. Stella F. |title=International tourists spent $8.69 billion in PHL in 2023–DOT |url=https://businessmirror.com.ph/2024/01/03/international-tourists-spent-8-69-billion-in-phl-in-2023-dot/ |access-date=January 3, 2024 |work=[[BusinessMirror]] |date=January 3, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240102185145/https://businessmirror.com.ph/2024/01/03/international-tourists-spent-8-69-billion-in-phl-in-2023-dot/ |archive-date=January 2, 2024}}</ref>

== Infrastructure ==

=== Transportation ===
[[File:Traditional and modern jeepneys in Diliman, Quezon City on March 16, 2023.jpg|thumb|alt=Two white buses side by side, one larger than the other|Traditional ''(left)'' and modern [[jeepney]]s in [[Quezon City]]. Public utility vehicles older than 15 years are [[Public Utility Vehicle Modernization Program|gradually being phased out]] in favor of eco-friendly [[European emission standards|Euro 4]]-compliant vehicles.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Malasique |first1=Arion Mari P. |last2=Rubio |first2=Windsor Redz C. |last3=Rosete |first3=Marie Antoinette L. |title=Analyzing the Implementation of the Public Utility Vehicle Modernization Program (PUVMP) to the Employment of PUV Drivers in the Philippines |journal=Journal of Industrial Engineering & Management Research |date=February 4, 2022 |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=45, 48 |url=https://jiemar.org/index.php/jiemar/article/view/250/190 |access-date=April 30, 2023 |issn=2722-8878 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430050528/https://jiemar.org/index.php/jiemar/article/download/250/190/ |archive-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref>]]

[[Transportation in the Philippines]] is by road, air, rail and water. Roads are the dominant form of transport, carrying 98 percent of people and 58 percent of cargo.<ref name="ADBOrg-PH-Transport">{{cite report |url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/33700/files/philippines-transport-assessment.pdf |title=Philippines: Transport Sector Assessment, Strategy, and Road Map |date=2012 |publisher=[[Asian Development Bank]] |location=Mandaluyong, Philippines |isbn=978-92-9092-855-3 |pages=1–2 |access-date=August 9, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160803210126/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/institutional-document/33700/files/philippines-transport-assessment.pdf |archive-date=August 3, 2016}}</ref> In December 2018, there were {{convert|210528|km|mi|sp=us}} of roads in the country.<ref>{{cite report |date=February 22, 2019 |title=Department of Public Works and Highways; Strategic Infrastructure Programs and Policies |url=https://iro.ph/article_doc/eaaa3b67_Philippine%20Economic%20Briefing%20(Osaka,Japan)%20-%20DPWH%20Presentation.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200827174411/https://iro.ph/article_doc/eaaa3b67_Philippine%20Economic%20Briefing%20%28Osaka,Japan%29%20-%20DPWH%20Presentation.pdf |archive-date=August 27, 2020 |access-date=September 2, 2020 |website=Investor Relations Office |publisher=[[Department of Public Works and Highways (Philippines)|Department of Public Works and Highways]] |page=2}}</ref> The backbone of land-based transportation in the country is the [[Pan-Philippine Highway]], which connects the islands of Luzon, Samar, Leyte, and Mindanao.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wvYCDAAAQBAJ |title=The Report: Philippines 2015 |date=2015 |publisher=Oxford Business Group |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-910068-26-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wvYCDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA152E 152]}}</ref> Inter-island transport is by the {{convert|919|km|mi|adj=on|sp=us}} [[Strong Republic Nautical Highway]], an integrated set of highways and [[ferry]] routes linking 17 cities.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Odchimar |first1=Anita II |last2=Hanaoka |first2=Shinya |title=Intermodal Road-RoRo Transport in the Philippines, its Development and Position in the Domestic Shipping |journal=Journal of the Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies |date=2015 |volume=11 |pages=741–746 |doi=10.11175/easts.11.739 |url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/easts/11/0/11_739/_pdf/-char/ja |access-date=May 10, 2023 |publisher=Eastern Asia Society for Transportation Studies |issn=1881-1124 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230510102758/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/easts/11/0/11_739/_pdf/-char/ja |archive-date=May 10, 2023 |via=[[J-STAGE]] |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.adb.org/publications/bridges-across-oceans-initial-impact-assessment-philippines-nautical-highway-system-and |title=Bridges across Oceans: Initial Impact Assessment of the Philippines Nautical Highway System and Lessons for Southeast Asia |date=April 2010 |publisher=[[Asian Development Bank]] |location=Metro Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-561-896-0 |pages=11–17 |access-date=February 25, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225182806/https://www.adb.org/publications/bridges-across-oceans-initial-impact-assessment-philippines-nautical-highway-system-and |archive-date=February 25, 2023}}</ref> [[Jeepney]]s are a popular, iconic public utility vehicle;<ref name="Boquet-2017" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA496|name=496–497}}}} other public land transport includes [[List of bus companies of the Philippines|buses]], [[UV Express]], {{abbr|TNVS|transport network vehicle service}}, Filcab, [[Taxis of the Philippines|taxi]]s, and [[Motorized tricycle (Philippines)|tricycle]]s.<ref>{{cite report |last1=Department of Transportation |url=https://www.dilg.gov.ph/PDF_File/reports_resources/dilg-reports-resources-2017112_2cf0f97098.pdf |title=Local Public Transport Route Plan Manual |volume=1 |last2=Department of the Interior and Local Government |last3=Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board |date=October 2017 |pages=7, 16 |access-date=August 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801043749/https://www.dilg.gov.ph/PDF_File/reports_resources/dilg-reports-resources-2017112_2cf0f97098.pdf |archive-date=August 1, 2020 |author1-link=Department of Transportation (Philippines) |author2-link=Department of the Interior and Local Government |author3-link=Land Transportation Franchising and Regulatory Board}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Hansen |editor-first1=Arve |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FC4lDwAAQBAJ |title=Cars, Automobility and Development in Asia: Wheels of change |series=Routledge Studies in Transport, Environment and Development |editor-last2=Nielsen |editor-first2=Kenneth Bo |date=2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-317-39672-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FC4lDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA125 125]}}</ref> Traffic is a significant issue [[Traffic in Metro Manila|in Manila]] and on arterial roads to the capital.<ref>{{cite report |date=December 2017 |title=Preparing the Metro Manila Transport Project, Phase 1: Project Preparatory Technical Assistance Report |url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/linked-documents/51117-002-ld-01.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707035400/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/linked-documents/51117-002-ld-01.pdf |archive-date=July 7, 2022 |access-date=February 10, 2023 |publisher=[[Asian Development Bank]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Santos |first=Luis Pocholo A. |date=December 2020 |title=Influence of Traffic Congestion in Business Development: A Literature Review |url=https://ijesc.org/upload/2440a2983ccced0de91c9f08a3a6c875.Influence%20of%20Traffic%20Congestion%20in%20Business%20Development%20A%20Literature%20Review.pdf |journal=International Journal of Engineering Science and Computing |volume=10 |issue=12 |pages=27497–27498 |issn=2321-3361 |access-date=February 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230210080714/https://ijesc.org/upload/2440a2983ccced0de91c9f08a3a6c875.Influence%20of%20Traffic%20Congestion%20in%20Business%20Development%20A%20Literature%20Review.pdf |archive-date=February 10, 2023}}</ref>

Despite wider historical use,<ref>{{cite journal |date=1908 |title=The Railway Age |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hqA9AQAAMAAJ |journal=[[Railroad Gazette]] |language=en |volume=XLV |issue=5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hqA9AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA148 148] |issn=0149-4430 |oclc=675807010}}</ref> [[rail transportation in the Philippines]] is limited<ref name="Boquet-2017" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA491|name=491}}}} to [[Rail transportation in the Greater Manila Area|transporting passengers within Metro Manila]] and the provinces of [[Laguna (province)|Laguna]]<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Cinco |first=Maricar |date=September 20, 2019 |title=PNR extends train trips to Los Baños |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1166894/pnr-extends-train-trips-to-los-banos |access-date=August 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920094211/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1166894/pnr-extends-train-trips-to-los-banos |archive-date=September 20, 2019}}</ref> and [[Quezon]],<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Barroga |first=Gienel |date=June 26, 2022 |title=PNR San Pablo-Lucena line reopens |work=[[CNN Philippines]] |url=https://www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2022/6/26/PNR-San-Pablo-Lucena-line-reopens.html |access-date=August 19, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626062944/https://www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2022/6/26/PNR-San-Pablo-Lucena-line-reopens.html |archive-date=June 26, 2022}}</ref> with a short track in the [[Bicol Region]].<ref name="Boquet-2017" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA491|name=491}}}} The country had a railway footprint of only {{convert|79|km|sp=us}} {{as of|2019|lc=y}}, which it planned to expand to {{convert|244|km|sp=us}}.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Galang |first1=Vincent Mariel P. |date=June 20, 2019 |title=JICA still has 900B yen to fund rail expansion in Philippines |work=[[BusinessWorld]] |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/jica-still-has-900b-yen-to-fund-rail-expansion-in-philippines/ |access-date=June 21, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621011358/https://www.bworldonline.com/jica-still-has-900b-yen-to-fund-rail-expansion-in-philippines/ |archive-date=June 21, 2019}}</ref> A revival of [[freight rail]] is planned to reduce road congestion.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Yee |first=Jovic |date=March 12, 2018 |title=PNR to offer freight service soon |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/974414/pnr-to-offer-freight-service-soon |access-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180312023448/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/974414/pnr-to-offer-freight-service-soon |archive-date=March 12, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Amojelar |first=Darwin G. |date=October 4, 2018 |title=DOTr to revive Manila-Laguna cargo rail project |work=[[Manila Standard]] |url=https://manilastandard.net/business/transport-tourism/277153/dotr-to-revive-manila-laguna-cargo-rail-project.html |access-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109033602/https://manilastandard.net/business/transport-tourism/277153/dotr-to-revive-manila-laguna-cargo-rail-project.html |archive-date=November 9, 2020}}</ref>

The Philippines had [[List of airports in the Philippines|90 national government-owned airports]] {{as of|2022|lc=y}}, of which eight are [[international airport|international]].<ref name="PIDSGovPH-Francisco-Lim">{{cite journal |last1=Francisco |first1=Kris A. |last2=Lim |first2=Valerie L. |date=December 2022 |title=Philippine Air Transport Infrastructure: State, Issues, Government Strategies |url=https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/CDN/document/pidsdps2262.pdf |journal=PIDS Discussion Paper Series |location=Quezon City, Philippines |publisher=[[Philippine Institute for Development Studies]] |pages=3–5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103074218/https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/CDN/document/pidsdps2262.pdf |archive-date=January 3, 2023 |access-date=February 21, 2023}}</ref> [[Ninoy Aquino International Airport]], formerly known as Manila International Airport, has the [[List of the busiest airports in the Philippines|greatest number of passengers]].<ref name="PIDSGovPH-Francisco-Lim" /> The 2017<!-- see p. 149 in the supporting 2017 cite--> [[List of airlines of the Philippines|air domestic market]] was dominated by [[Philippine Airlines]], the country's [[flag carrier]] and Asia's oldest commercial airline,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Park |first1=Seung Ho |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6u6SDQAAQBAJ |title=ASEAN Champions: Emerging Stalwarts in Regional Integration |last2=Ungson |first2=Gerardo Rivera |last3=Francisco |first3=Jamil Paolo S. |date=2017 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=978-1-107-12900-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6u6SDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 80] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=About PAL |url=http://www.philippineairlines.com/about_pal/about_pal.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207160631/http://philippineairlines.com/about_pal/about_pal.jsp |archive-date=February 7, 2009 |access-date=May 4, 2013 |publisher=[[Philippine Airlines]]}}.</ref> and [[Cebu Pacific]] (the country's leading [[low-cost carrier]]).<ref>{{cite report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eY-Oq1IGzdMC |title=The Report: Philippines 2009 |publisher=Oxford Business Group |year=2009 |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-902339-12-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eY-Oq1IGzdMC&pg=PA97 97]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Doria |first1=Sheena DC. |last2=De Vera |first2=Leo P. Jr. |last3=Parel |first3=Danice Angelee C. |title=Business Models and Selected Performance Metrics of Philippine Airlines and Cebu Pacific: An Exploratory Comparative Analysis |journal=Southeast Asian Journal of Science and Technology |date=2017 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=148–149 |url=https://www.sajst.org/online/index.php/sajst/article/download/197/144/ |access-date=April 7, 2023 |publisher=[[Pangasinan State University]]-Lingayen Campus |issn=2672-2992 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407184736/https://www.sajst.org/online/index.php/sajst/article/download/197/144/ |archive-date=April 7, 2023}}</ref>

A variety of boats are used throughout the Philippines;<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last=Roxas-Lim |first=Aurora |url=http://www.ichcap.org/eng/ek/sub3/pdf_file/domain5/091_Traditional_Boatbuilding_and_Philippine_Maritime_Culture.pdf |title=Traditional Boatbuilding and Philippine Maritime Culture |publisher=Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region, [[United Nations]] |access-date=August 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212173603/http://www.ichcap.org/eng/ek/sub3/pdf_file/domain5/091_Traditional_Boatbuilding_and_Philippine_Maritime_Culture.pdf |archive-date=December 12, 2019 |pages=219–222 }}</ref> most are [[outrigger boat|double-outrigger]] vessels known as ''banca''<ref name="Aguilar-2004">{{cite book |last1=Aguilar |first1=Glenn D. |title=In Turbulent Seas: The Status of Philippine Marine Fisheries |publisher=[[Department of Agriculture (Philippines)|Department of Agriculture]]-[[Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources]] |location=Cebu City, Philippines |year=2004 |isbn=978-971-92753-4-3 |editor-last1=Silvestre |editor-first1=Geronimo |pages=118–121 |chapter=Philippine Fishing Boats |editor-last2=Green |editor-first2=Stuart J. |editor-last3=White |editor-first3=Alan T. |editor-last4=Armada |editor-first4=Nygiel |editor-last5=Luna |editor-first5=Cesar |editor-last6=Cruz-Trinidad |editor-first6=Annabelle |editor-last7=Carreon |editor-first7=Marciano F. III |chapter-url=https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PBAAB124.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170429082453/https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PBAAB124.pdf |archive-date=April 29, 2017 |via=[[United States Agency for International Development]] |access-date=April 2, 2023}}</ref> or {{lang|fil|[[Bangka (boat)|bangka]]}}.<ref name="Funtecha-2000">{{cite journal |last=Funtecha |first=Henry F. |date=2000 |title=The history and culture of boats and boat-building in the Western Visayas |journal=Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society |publisher=[[University of San Carlos]] |volume=28 |issue=2 |issn=0115-0243 |pages=111–132 |jstor=29792457}}</ref> Modern ships use plywood instead of logs, and motor engines instead of sails;<ref name="Aguilar-2004" /> they are used for fishing and inter-island travel.<ref name="Funtecha-2000" /> The Philippines has [[List of ports in the Philippines|over 1,800 seaports]];<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=San Juan |first=Andrea E. |date=November 3, 2022 |title=Expert presents options to resolve Philippine seaports' 'inadequacy' |work=[[BusinessMirror]] |url=https://businessmirror.com.ph/2022/11/03/expert-presents-options-to-resolve-philippine-seaports-inadequacy/ |access-date=February 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102195328/https://businessmirror.com.ph/2022/11/03/expert-presents-options-to-resolve-philippine-seaports-inadequacy/ |archive-date=November 2, 2022}}</ref> of these, the principal seaports of [[Port of Manila|Manila]] (the country's chief, and busiest, port),<ref>{{cite tech report |last1=Ali |first1=Mubarik |last2=Porciuncula |first2=Fe |title=Urban and Peri-urban Agriculture in Metro Manila: Resources and Opportunities for Food Production |date=December 1, 2001 |publisher=[[World Vegetable Center|AVRDC – The World Vegetable Center]] |isbn=978-92-9058-121-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=neSXAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=neSXAgAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> [[Batangas International Port|Batangas]], [[Port of Subic Bay|Subic Bay]], [[Port of Cebu|Cebu]], [[Port of Iloilo|Iloilo]], [[Port of Davao|Davao]], [[Port of Cagayan de Oro|Cagayan de Oro]], [[Port of General Santos|General Santos]], and [[Port of Zamboanga|Zamboanga]] are part of the ASEAN Transport Network.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/30420/regional-and-subregional-program-links.pdf |title=Regional and subregional program links: Mapping the links between ASEAN and the GMS, BIMP-EAGA, and IMT-GT |date=September 2013 |publisher=[[Asian Development Bank]] |location=Mandaluyong, Philippines |isbn=978-92-9254-203-0 |page=27 |access-date=August 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801035953/https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/30420/regional-and-subregional-program-links.pdf |archive-date=August 1, 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |last=PDP Australia Pty Ltd/Meyrick and Associates |date=March 1, 2005 |title=Promoting Efficient and Competitive Intra-ASEAN Shipping Services – The Philippines Country Report |url=https://www.asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Philippines.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801041010/https://www.asean.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/10/Philippines.pdf |archive-date=August 1, 2020 |access-date=August 1, 2020 |publisher=[[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] |page=11}}</ref>

=== Energy ===
{{Main|Energy in the Philippines}}
[[File:Ambuklao Dam captured by Mitchell Yumul.jpeg|thumb|alt=A large dam, seen from above|The [[Ambuklao Dam]] on the [[Agno River]] in [[Bokod, Benguet]]]]

The Philippines had a total installed power capacity of 26,882 [[Watt|MW]] in 2021; 43 percent was generated from [[Coal mining in the Philippines|coal]], 14 percent from [[oil]], 14 percent [[hydropower]], 12 percent from [[natural gas]], and seven percent from [[Geothermal power|geothermal]] sources.<ref>{{cite report |title=2021 Power Statistics |url=https://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/energy_statistics/2021_power_statistics_02_installed_and_dependable_capacity_per_plant_type_per_grid.pdf |publisher=[[Department of Energy (Philippines)|Department of Energy]] |access-date=May 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221042947/https://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/energy_statistics/2021_power_statistics_02_installed_and_dependable_capacity_per_plant_type_per_grid.pdf |archive-date=December 21, 2022}}</ref> It is the world's third-biggest [[Geothermal power in the Philippines|geothermal-energy producer]], behind the United States and Indonesia.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2022_Full_Report.pdf |title=Renewables 2022: Global Update Report |publisher=[[REN21]] Secretariat |location=Paris, France |year=2022 |isbn=978-3-948393-04-5 |page=108 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616033736/https://www.ren21.net/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/GSR2022_Full_Report.pdf |archive-date=June 16, 2022}}</ref> The country's largest dam is the {{convert|1.2|km|mi|adj=mid|-long|sp=us}} [[San Roque Dam (Philippines)|San Roque Dam]] on the [[Agno River]] in [[Pangasinan]].<ref>{{cite report |url=https://gcc.re/documents/GCC_Annual_Review_2021Final.pdf |title=GCC Annual Review 2021 |publisher=The Green Certificate Company Limited |page=16 |access-date=February 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219225148/https://gcc.re/documents/GCC_Annual_Review_2021Final.pdf |archive-date=February 19, 2023}}</ref> The [[Malampaya gas field]], discovered in the early 1990s off the coast of Palawan, reduced the Philippines' reliance on imported oil; it provides about 40 percent of Luzon's energy requirements, and 30 percent of the country's energy needs.<ref name="Boquet-2017" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA347|name=347}}}}<ref>{{cite report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GZ4oDwAAQBAJ |title=The Report: Philippines 2016 |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford Business Group |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-910068-55-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GZ4oDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 122] |language=en}}</ref>

The Philippines has three [[electrical grid]]s, one each for Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao.<ref name="Ma-2016">{{#invoke:cite|web|last1=Ma |first1=Zheng |last2=Jørgensen |first2=Bo Nørregaard |last3=Billanes |first3=Joy Dalmacio |title=Smart Energy in the Philippines |url=https://findresearcher.sdu.dk/ws/files/141095725/CFEI_Report_Smart_Energy_in_Philippines.pdf |website=SDU's Research Portal |publisher=[[University of Southern Denmark]] |access-date=August 31, 2023 |pages=14, 24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230831194551/https://findresearcher.sdu.dk/ws/files/141095725/CFEI_Report_Smart_Energy_in_Philippines.pdf |archive-date=August 31, 2023 |date=September 2016}}</ref> The [[National Grid Corporation of the Philippines]] manages [[Electricity sector in the Philippines|the country's power grid]] since 2009<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Gatdula |first1=Donnabelle L. |title=National Grid takes over TransCo |url=https://www.philstar.com/business/2009/01/15/431441/national-grid-takes-over-transco |access-date=August 31, 2023 |work=[[The Philippine Star]] |date=January 15, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531011538/https://www.philstar.com/business/2009/01/15/431441/national-grid-takes-over-transco |archive-date=May 31, 2023}}</ref> and provides [[overhead power line|overhead transmission line]]s across the country's islands. Electric distribution to consumers [[List of electric distribution utilities in the Philippines|is provided]] by privately owned distribution utilities and government-owned [[electric cooperative]]s.<ref name="Ma-2016" /> As of end-2021, the Philippines' household electrification level was about 95.41%.<ref>{{cite report |title=40th Electric Power Industry Reform Act (EPIRA) Implementation Status Report (For the Report Period April 2022) |url=https://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/electric_power/40th-EPIRA-Status_Report-FINAL.pdf |website=[[Department of Energy (Philippines)|Department of Energy]] |access-date=August 31, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501231703/https://www.doe.gov.ph/sites/default/files/pdf/electric_power/40th-EPIRA-Status_Report-FINAL.pdf |archive-date=May 1, 2023 |page=69}}</ref>

Plans to harness [[Nuclear power in the Philippines|nuclear energy]] began during the early 1970s during the [[presidency of Ferdinand Marcos]] in response to the [[1973 oil crisis]].<ref name="WorldNuclearOrg-Philippines">{{#invoke:cite|web|date=February 2023 |title=Nuclear Power in the Philippines |url=https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-o-s/philippines.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219230358/https://www.world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-o-s/philippines.aspx |archive-date=February 19, 2023 |access-date=February 19, 2023 |publisher=[[World Nuclear Association]]}}</ref> The Philippines completed [[Bataan Nuclear Power Plant|Southeast Asia's first nuclear power plant]] in [[Bataan]] in 1984.<ref name="Pekkanen-2021">{{cite book |editor-last1=Pekkanen |editor-first1=Robert J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wRpREAAAQBAJ |title=The Oxford Handbook of Japanese Politics |editor-last2=Pekkanen |editor-first2=Saadia |date=October 25, 2021 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-19-005099-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wRpREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA311 311] |language=en}}</ref> Political issues following Marcos' ouster and safety concerns after the 1986 [[Chernobyl disaster]] prevented the plant from being commissioned,<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Mochizuki |editor-first1=Mike |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TXCPDAAAQBAJ |title=Nuclear Debates in Asia: The Role of Geopolitics and Domestic Processes |editor-last2=Ollapally |editor-first2=Deepa M. |date=2016 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-1-4422-4700-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TXCPDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA194 194] |language=en |author-link2=Deepa M. Ollapally}}</ref><ref name="WorldNuclearOrg-Philippines" /> and plans to operate it remain controversial.<ref name="Pekkanen-2021" /><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Tan |first1=Rebecca |last2=Enano |first2=Jhesset O. |date=January 25, 2023 |title=Clean-energy push puts abandoned Philippine nuclear plant back in spotlight |language=en |newspaper=[[Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/01/25/philippines-nuclear-marcos-climate-change/ |access-date=February 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230126032945/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2023/01/25/philippines-nuclear-marcos-climate-change/ |archive-date=January 26, 2023}}</ref>

=== Water supply and sanitation ===
{{Main|Water supply and sanitation in the Philippines}}
[[File:Banate Water District.jpg|thumb|alt=A low, blue building|A water-district office in [[Banate, Iloilo]]]]

Water supply and sanitation outside Metro Manila is provided by the government through local [[water district]]s in cities or towns.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Franceys |editor-first1=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=57QeBAAAQBAJ |title=Regulating Water and Sanitation for the Poor: Economic Regulation for Public and Private Partnerships |editor-last2=Gerlach |editor-first2=Esther |date=May 4, 2012 |publisher=[[Earthscan]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-136-55889-4 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=57QeBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA146 146] |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Kohsaka-2007">{{cite book |editor-last1=Kohsaka |editor-first1=Akira |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e9MqBgAAQBAJ |title=Infrastructure Development in the Pacific Region |date=2007 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Abingdon, Oxon, England |isbn=978-1-134-22761-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=e9MqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA227 227] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=McDonald |editor-first1=David A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=luZiDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT118 |title=Rethinking Corporatization and Public Services in the Global South |date=April 10, 2014 |publisher=[[Zed Books]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-78360-020-5 |language=en}}</ref> Metro Manila is served by [[Manila Water]] and [[Maynilad Water Services]]. Except for shallow wells for domestic use, groundwater users are required to obtain a permit from the [[National Water Resources Board]].<ref name="Kohsaka-2007" /> In 2022, the total water withdrawals increased to {{convert|91|e9m3|sp=us}} from {{convert|89|e9m3|sp=us}} in 2021 and the total expenditures on water were amounted to ₱{{#expr:59.37+47.12+38.32}}&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite press release |last1=Del Prado |first1=Divina Gracia L. |title=Country's Overall Water Use Efficiency increased by 5.5 percent in 2022 |date=October 5, 2023 |publisher=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]] |url=https://psa.gov.ph/content/countrys-overall-water-use-efficiency-increased-55-percent-2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231005062929/https://psa.gov.ph/content/countrys-overall-water-use-efficiency-increased-55-percent-2022 |archive-date=October 5, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Most sewage in the Philippines flows into septic tanks.<ref name="Kohsaka-2007" /> In 2015, the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] noted that 74 percent of the Philippine population had access to [[improved sanitation]] and "good progress" had been made between 1990 and 2015.<ref>{{cite report |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KFA0DgAAQBAJ |title=Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment |date=2015 |publisher=[[World Health Organization]] |location=Geneva, Switzerland |isbn=978-92-4-150914-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KFA0DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 68]}}</ref> Ninety-six percent of Filipino households had an improved source of drinking water and 92 percent of households had sanitary toilet facilities {{as of|2016|lc=y}}; connections of toilet facilities to appropriate sewerage systems remain largely insufficient, however, especially in rural and urban poor communities.<ref name="DOH-2018" />{{rp|page=46}}

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of the Philippines}}
{{see also|List of cities in the Philippines}}

As of May 1, 2020, the Philippines had a population of 109,035,343.<ref name="PSAGovPH-2020Census"/> More than 60 percent of the country's population live in the [[coastal zone]]<ref>{{cite book |author1=Department of Environment and Natural Resources |author2=Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources of the Department of Agriculture |author3=Department of the Interior and Local Government |author1-link=Department of Environment and Natural Resources |author2-link=Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources |author3-link=Department of the Interior and Local Government |title=Coastal Management Orientation and Overview |series=Philippine Coastal Management Guidebook Series |volume=1 |url=https://faspselib.denr.gov.ph/sites/default/files/Publication%20Files/crmguidebook1.pdf |via=Foreign-Assisted and Special Projects Service (FASPS) eLibrary |publisher=Coastal Resource Management Project of the [[Department of Environment and Natural Resources]] |access-date=August 7, 2024 |location=Cebu City, Philippines |date=2001 |isbn=978-971-92289-0-5 |pages=4, 9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712173748/https://faspselib.denr.gov.ph/sites/default/files/Publication%20Files/crmguidebook1.pdf |archive-date=July 12, 2018}}</ref> and in 2020, 54 percent lived in [[urban area]]s.<ref name="PSAGovPH-2020-Urban">{{cite press release |last1=Mapa |first1=Dennis S. |author-link1=Dennis Mapa |title=Urban Population of the Philippines (2020 Census of Population and Housing) |url=https://psa.gov.ph/content/urban-population-philippines-2020-census-population-and-housing |publisher=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]] |access-date=May 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705104809/https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/hsd/pressrelease/1_PR_Urban%20Population_RML_063022_ONS-signed.pdf |archive-date=July 5, 2022 |date=July 4, 2022}}</ref> [[Manila]], its capital, and [[Quezon City]] (the country's most populous city) are in [[Metro Manila]]. About 13.48&nbsp;million people ({{#expr: (13484462/109033245)*100 round 0}} percent of the Philippines' population) live in Metro Manila,<ref name="PSAGovPH-2020-Urban" /> the [[List of metropolitan areas in the Philippines|country's most populous metropolitan area]]<ref>{{cite report |year=2017 |title=Philippine Development Plan, 2017–2022 |url=https://pdp.neda.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/PDP-2017-2022-10-03-2017.pdf |chapter=Chapter 3: Overlay of Economic Growth, Demographic Trends, and Physical Characteristics |chapter-url=http://pdp.neda.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Chapter-03.pdf |publisher=[[National Economic and Development Authority]] |location=Pasig, Philippines |issn=2243-7576 |pages=31, 34–35 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226035525/https://pdp.neda.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/PDP-2017-2022-10-03-2017.pdf |archive-date=February 26, 2020 |access-date=April 23, 2023}}</ref> and the world's [[List of largest cities|fifth most populous]].<ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf |title=Demographia World Urban Areas |date=July 2022 |publisher=[[Demographia]] |edition=18th Annual |page=23 |access-date=February 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203065121/http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf |archive-date=February 3, 2023}}</ref> Between 1948 and 2010, the population of the Philippines increased almost fivefold from 19&nbsp;million to 92&nbsp;million.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Population of the Philippines: Census Years 1799 to 2010 |url=http://www.nscb.gov.ph/secstat/d_popn.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704171010/http://www.nscb.gov.ph/secstat/d_popn.asp |archive-date=July 4, 2012 |website=[[Philippine Statistics Authority|National Statistical Coordination Board]] |access-date=July 24, 2023}}</ref>

The [[List of countries by median age|country's median age]] is 25.3, and 63.9 percent of its population is between 15 and 64 years old.<ref>{{cite press release |last1=Mapa |first1=Dennis S. |author-link1=Dennis Mapa |title=Age and Sex Distribution in the Philippine Population (2020 Census of Population and Housing) |url=https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/hsd/pressrelease/1_Press%20Release%20on_Age%20Sex_RML_18July22_rev_mpe_RRDH_CRD-signed.pdf |access-date=May 19, 2023 |work=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]] |date=August 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812232228/https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/hsd/pressrelease/1_Press%20Release%20on_Age%20Sex_RML_18July22_rev_mpe_RRDH_CRD-signed.pdf |archive-date=August 12, 2022}}</ref> The Philippines' average annual population growth rate is decreasing,<ref>{{cite journal |date=June 2018 |title=2015 Census of Population |url=http://www.psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/_2015_Census%20Facts%20and%20Figures_Philippines_MERGE.pdf |journal=Census Facts and Figures |location=Quezon City, Philippines |publisher=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]] |page=11 |issn=0117-1453 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814193607/https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/_2015_Census%20Facts%20and%20Figures_Philippines_MERGE.pdf |archive-date=August 14, 2022 |access-date=July 25, 2020}}</ref> although government attempts to further reduce population growth have been [[Reproductive Health Bill (Philippines)|contentious]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=September 29, 2010 |title=Bishops threaten civil disobedience over RH bill |work=[[GMA News Online|GMANews.TV]] |url=http://www.gmanews.tv/100days/story/202186/bishops-threaten-civil-disobedience-over-rh-bill |access-date=October 16, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110221140718/http://www.gmanews.tv/100days/story/202186/bishops-threaten-civil-disobedience-over-rh-bill |archive-date=February 21, 2011}}</ref> The country reduced its [[Poverty in the Philippines|poverty rate]] from 49.2 percent in 1985<ref name="WorldBank-Poverty-2023">{{cite report |title=Overcoming Poverty and Inequality in the Philippines; Past, Present, and Prospects for the Future |url=https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099325011232224571/pdf/P17486101e29310810abaf0e8e336aed85a.pdf |publisher=[[The World Bank]] |access-date=April 2, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206083125/https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099325011232224571/pdf/P17486101e29310810abaf0e8e336aed85a.pdf |archive-date=December 6, 2022 |page=3}}</ref> to 18.1 percent in 2021,<ref>{{Cite press release |last1=Mapa |first1=Claire Dennis S. |author-link1=Dennis Mapa |date=August 15, 2022 |title=Proportion of Poor Filipinos was Recorded at 18.1 Percent in 2021 |work=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]] |url=https://psa.gov.ph/poverty-press-releases/nid/167972 |access-date=November 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816035933/https://psa.gov.ph/poverty-press-releases/nid/167972 |archive-date=August 16, 2022}}</ref> and its [[Income inequality in the Philippines|income inequality]] began to decline in 2012.<ref name="WorldBank-Poverty-2023" />

{{Largest cities of the Philippines|class=info}}

=== Ethnicity ===
{{Main|Ethnic groups in the Philippines}}
{{See also|Filipinos|Pinoy|Genetic and anthropology studies on Filipinos}}
[[File:Peoples of the Philippines en.svg|thumb|alt=Another color-coded map|Dominant ethnic groups by province]]

The country has substantial ethnic diversity, due to foreign influence and the archipelago's division by water and topography.<ref name="Banlaoi-2009">{{cite book |last=Banlaoi |first=Rommel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hi_NBQAAQBAJ |title=Philippine Security in the Age of Terror: National, Regional, and Global Challenges in the Post-9/11 World |date=2009 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |location=Boca Raton, Fla. |isbn=978-1-4398-1551-9 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hi_NBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31–32] |author-link1=Rommel Banlaoi}}</ref> According to the 2020 census, the Philippines' largest ethnic groups were [[Tagalog people|Tagalog]] (26.0 percent), [[Visayans]] [excluding the [[Cebuano people|Cebuano]], [[Hiligaynon people|Hiligaynon]], and [[Waray people|Waray]]] (14.3 percent), [[Ilocano people|Ilocano]] and Cebuano (both eight percent), Hiligaynon (7.9 percent), [[Bicolano people|Bikol]] (6.5 percent), and Waray (3.8 percent).<ref name="PSAGovPH-Ethnicity-2020Census" /> The [[Indigenous peoples of the Philippines|country's indigenous peoples]] consisted of 110 enthnolinguistic groups,<ref>{{cite report |date=February 2010 |title=Fast Facts: Indigenous Peoples in the Philippines |url=https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/ph/fastFacts6---Indigenous-Peoples-in-the-Philippines-rev-1.5.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225201804/https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/migration/ph/fastFacts6---Indigenous-Peoples-in-the-Philippines-rev-1.5.pdf |archive-date=February 25, 2023 |access-date=February 25, 2023 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]}}</ref> with a combined population of 15.56&nbsp;million, in 2020;<ref name="PSAGovPH-Ethnicity-2020Census" /> they include the [[Igorot people|Igorot]], [[Lumad]], [[Mangyan]], and the [[Peoples of Palawan|indigenous peoples of Palawan]].<ref>{{Cite tech report |last=Cariño |first=Jacqueline K. |date=November 2012 |title=Country Technical Note on Indigenous Peoples' Issues; Republic of the Philippines |url=https://www.ifad.org/documents/38714170/40224860/philippines_ctn.pdf/ae0faa4a-2b65-4026-8d42-219db776c50d |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210809025044/https://www.ifad.org/documents/38714170/40224860/philippines_ctn.pdf/ae0faa4a-2b65-4026-8d42-219db776c50d |archive-date=August 9, 2021 |access-date=November 11, 2022 |publisher=[[International Fund for Agricultural Development]] |pages=3–5, 31–47}}</ref>

[[Negrito]]s are thought to be among the islands' earliest inhabitants.<ref name="Dolan-1991" />{{rp|loc={{plain link|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927160916/http://countrystudies.us/philippines/35.htm|name=35}}}} These minority aboriginal settlers are an [[Australo-Melanesian|Australoid]] group, a remnant of the [[Southern Dispersal|first human migration from Africa to Australia]] who were probably displaced by later waves of migration.<ref>{{cite book |last=Flannery |first=Tim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eIW5aktgo0IC |title=The Future Eaters: An Ecological History of the Australasian Lands and People |date=2002 |publisher=[[Grove Press]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-8021-3943-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eIW5aktgo0IC&pg=PA147 147] |author-link1=Tim Flannery}}</ref> Some Philippine Negritos have a [[Denisovan]] admixture in their [[genome]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=August 31, 2012 |title=Extinct humanoid species may have lived in PHL |language=en |work=[[GMA News Online]] |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/scitech/science/272046/extinct-humanoid-species-may-have-lived-in-phl/story/ |access-date=February 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227040611/https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/scitech/science/272046/extinct-humanoid-species-may-have-lived-in-phl/story/ |archive-date=December 27, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reich |first1=David |last2=Patterson |first2=Nick |last3=Kircher |first3=Martin |last4=Delfin |first4=Frederick |last5=Nandineni |first5=Madhusudan R. |last6=Pugach |first6=Irina |last7=Ko |first7=Albert Min-Shan |last8=Ko |first8=Ying-Chin |last9=Jinam |first9=Timothy A. |last10=Phipps |first10=Maude E. |last11=Saitou |first11=Naruya |last12=Wollstein |first12=Andreas |last13=Kayser |first13=Manfred |last14=Pääbo |first14=Svante |last15=Stoneking |first15=Mark |date=October 2011 |title=Denisova Admixture and the First Modern Human Dispersals into Southeast Asia and Oceania |journal=[[American Journal of Human Genetics]] |volume=89 |issue=4 |pages=516–528 |doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.09.005 |pmc=3188841 |pmid=21944045 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Ethnic Filipinos generally belong to several Southeast Asian ethnic groups, classified linguistically as [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesians]] speaking [[Malayo-Polynesian languages]].<ref name="Ethnologue-PH" /> The Austronesian population's origin is uncertain, but relatives of [[Taiwanese indigenous peoples|Taiwanese aborigines]] probably brought their language and mixed with the region's existing population.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Capelli |first1=Christian |last2=Wilson |first2=James F. |last3=Richards |first3=Martin |last4=Stumpf |first4=Michael P.H. |last5=Gratrix |first5=Fiona |last6=Oppenheimer |first6=Stephen |last7=Underhill |first7=Peter |last8=Ko |first8=Tsang-Ming |year=2001 |title=A Predominantly Indigenous Paternal Heritage for the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples of Insular South Asia and Oceania |url=http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf |journal=[[American Journal of Human Genetics]] |volume=68 |issue=2 |pages=432–443 |doi=10.1086/318205 |pmc=1235276 |pmid=11170891 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511201051/http://hpgl.stanford.edu/publications/AJHG_2001_v68_p432.pdf |archive-date=May 11, 2011 |access-date=December 18, 2009 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Soares |first1=Pedro A. |last2=Trejaut |first2=Jean A. |last3=Rito |first3=Teresa |last4=Cavadas |first4=Bruno |last5=Hill |first5=Catherine |last6=Eng |first6=Ken Khong |last7=Mormina |first7=Maru |last8=Brandão |first8=Andreia |last9=Fraser |first9=Ross M. |last10=Wang |first10=Tse-Yi |last11=Loo |first11=Jun-Hun |last12=Snell |first12=Christopher |last13=Ko |first13=Tsang-Ming |last14=Amorim |first14=António |last15=Pala |first15=Maria |last16=Macaulay |first16=Vincent |last17=Bulbeck |first17=David |last18=Wilson |first18=James F. |last19=Gusmão |first19=Leonor |last20=Pereira |first20=Luísa |last21=Oppenheimer |first21=Stephen |last22=Lin |first22=Marie |last23=Richards |first23=Martin B. |title=Resolving the ancestry of Austronesian-speaking populations |journal=[[Human Genetics (journal)|Human Genetics]] |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |date=March 2016 |volume=135 |issue=3 |pages=309–326 |doi=10.1007/s00439-015-1620-z |pmc=4757630 |pmid=26781090 |doi-access=free}}</ref> The Lumad and [[Sama-Bajau]] ethnic groups have an ancestral affinity with the [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic-]] and [[Mlabri language|Mlabri-speaking]] [[Lua people|Htin]] peoples of mainland Southeast Asia. Westward expansion from [[Papua New Guinea]] to eastern Indonesia and Mindanao has been detected in the [[Blaan people]] and the [[Sangir language]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Larena |first1=Maximilian |last2=Sanchez-Quinto |first2=Federico |last3=Sjödin |first3=Per |last4=McKenna |first4=James |last5=Ebeo |first5=Carlo |last6=Reyes |first6=Rebecca |last7=Casel |first7=Ophelia |last8=Huang |first8=Jin-Yuan |last9=Hagada |first9=Kim Pullupul |last10=Guilay |first10=Dennis |last11=Reyes |first11=Jennelyn |date=March 30, 2021 |title=Multiple migrations to the Philippines during the last 50,000 years |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |publisher=[[National Academy of Sciences]] |volume=118 |issue=13 |pages=e2026132118 |bibcode=2021PNAS..11826132L |doi=10.1073/pnas.2026132118 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=8020671 |pmid=33753512 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Immigrants arrived in the Philippines from elsewhere in the Spanish Empire, especially [[Latin American Asian|from the Spanish Americas]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mawson |first=Stephanie J. |date=June 15, 2016 |title=Convicts or Conquistadores? Spanish Soldiers in the Seventeenth-Century Pacific |url=https://academic.oup.com/past/article/232/1/87/1752419 |journal=[[Past & Present (journal)|Past & Present]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |issue=232 |pages=87–125 |doi=10.1093/pastj/gtw008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180603111934/https://academic.oup.com/past/article/232/1/87/1752419 |archive-date=June 3, 2018 |access-date=July 28, 2020 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Mehl-2016">{{cite book |last=Mehl |first=Eva Maria |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/forced-migration-in-the-spanish-pacific-world/22713BE2A688A4F8DFF62EDE85BE427E |title=Forced Migration in the Spanish Pacific World: From Mexico to the Philippines, 1765–1811 |date=2016 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=978-1-316-48012-0 |doi=10.1017/CBO9781316480120}}</ref>{{rp|loc={{plain link|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614082235/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/forced-migration-in-the-spanish-pacific-world/unruly-mexicans-in-manila/EF2599210A0715A5A91B23BB9D84B96C|name=Chpt. 6}}}}<ref name= "Intercolonial">{{cite book |last=Park |first=Paula C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Jg5cEAAAQBAJ |title=Intercolonial Intimacies: Relinking Latin/o America to the Philippines, 1898–1964 |date=2022 |publisher=[[University of Pittsburgh Press]] |location=Pittsburgh, Pa. |isbn=978-0-8229-8873-1 |language=en |chapter=3: On the Globality of Mexico and the Manila Galleon}}</ref> A 2016 [[Geno 2.0 Next Generation|National Geographic]] project [[Genetic studies on Filipinos|concluded]] that people living in the Philippine archipelago carried [[genetic marker]]s in the following percentages: 53 percent [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Oceania]], 36 percent [[East Asia|Eastern Asia]], 5 percent [[Southern Europe]], 3 percent [[South Asia|Southern Asia]], and 2 percent Native American (from [[Latin America]]).<ref name="Mehl-2016" />{{rp|loc={{plain link|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614082235/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/forced-migration-in-the-spanish-pacific-world/unruly-mexicans-in-manila/EF2599210A0715A5A91B23BB9D84B96C|name=Chpt. 6}}}}<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Reference Populations – Geno 2.0 Next Generation |url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations-next-gen/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160704204736/https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations-next-gen/ |archive-date=July 4, 2016 |website=[[National Geographic]]}}</ref>

Descendants of mixed-race couples are known as [[Filipino Mestizos|Mestizos]] or {{lang|fil|tisoy}},<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=McFerson |editor-first=Hazel M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7FPLWmaGQpEC |title=Mixed Blessing: The Impact of the American Colonial Experience on Politics and Society in the Philippines |series=Contributions in Comparative Colonial Studies |date=2002 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]] |location=Westport, Conn. |isbn=978-0-313-30791-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7FPLWmaGQpEC&pg=PA23 23]}}</ref> which during the [[History of the Philippines (1565–1898)|Spanish colonial times]], were mostly composed of [[Sangley|Chinese mestizos]] ({{lang|es|Mestizos de Sangley}}), [[Spanish Filipino|Spanish mestizos]] ({{lang|es|Mestizos de Español}}) and the mix thereof ({{lang|es|[[Torna atrás|tornatrás]]}}).<ref>{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |last1=Villaraza |first1=Lily Ann B. |title=Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow: A Study of Aurelio Tolentino's Articulation of Nationalism and Identity through Theatre in the Philippines during the American Colonial Period |url=https://huskiecommons.lib.niu.edu/allgraduate-thesesdissertations/6759/ |website=Huskie Commons |publisher=[[Northern Illinois University]] |access-date=July 24, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724162046/https://huskiecommons.lib.niu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=7758&context=allgraduate-thesesdissertations |archive-date=July 24, 2023 |pages=52–54 |date=January 1, 2017 |oclc=1257957511}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|date=December 8, 2015 |title=Sheer Realities: A Celebration of Philippine Culture |url=https://greyartgallery.nyu.edu/exhibition/sheer-realities-022300-042200/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117194046/https://greyartgallery.nyu.edu/exhibition/sheer-realities-022300-042200/ |archive-date=January 17, 2017 |access-date=March 4, 2023 |website=[[Grey Art Gallery]] |publisher=[[New York University]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Chu |first=Richard T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PRewCQAAQBAJ |title=Chinese and Chinese Mestizos of Manila: Family, Identity, and Culture, 1860s–1930s |date=January 25, 2010 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |location=Leiden, Netherlands |isbn=978-90-474-2685-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PRewCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA240 240] |language=en}}</ref> The modern [[Chinese Filipino]]s are well-integrated into Filipino society.<ref name="Banlaoi-2009" /><ref>{{Cite thesis |last=Carter |first=Lauren Louise |date=April 1995 |type=M.A. thesis |title=The ethnic Chinese variable in domestic and foreign policies in Malaysia and Indonesia |url=http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6689/b1744892x.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181101131721/http://summit.sfu.ca/system/files/iritems1/6689/b1744892x.pdf |archive-date=November 1, 2018 |access-date=July 16, 2020 |website=Summit Research Repository |publisher=[[Simon Fraser University]] |pages=5, 96}}</ref> Primarily the descendants of immigrants from [[Fujian]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Wong |first=Kwok-Chu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QZQ0aAAAZ4cC |title=The Chinese in the Philippine Economy, 1898–1941 |date=1999 |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-550-323-5 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QZQ0aAAAZ4cC&pg=PA15 15–16]}}</ref> the pure ethnic Chinese Filipinos during the [[History of the Philippines (1898–1946)|American colonial era]] (early 1900s) purportedly numbered about 1.35&nbsp;million; while an estimated 22.8&nbsp;million (around 20 percent) of Filipinos have half or partial Chinese ancestry from precolonial, colonial, and 20th century [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese migrants]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Guanqun |first=Wang |date=August 23, 2009 |title=Chinese lunar new year might become national holiday in Philippines too |work=[[Xinhua]] |url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-08/23/content_11930729.htm |access-date=February 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090826194926/http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2009-08/23/content_11930729.htm |archive-date=August 26, 2009}}</ref><ref name="senate.gov.ph">{{Cite press release |title=Senate declares Chinese New Year as special working holiday |date=January 21, 2013 |publisher=PRIB, Office of the Senate Secretary, Senate of the Philippines |url=http://www.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp |last1=Macrohon |first1=Pilar |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516035425/http://legacy.senate.gov.ph/press_release/2013/0121_prib1.asp |archive-date=May 16, 2021}}</ref> During the Hispanic era (late 1700s), the tribute-census showed [[Spanish Filipino|mixed Spanish Filipinos]] made up a moderate ratio (around 5 percent) of all citizens.<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Zúñiga |first1=Joaquín Martínez |last2=Retana |first2=Wenceslao Emilio |title=Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas: Ó, Mis Viajes Por Este País; Tomo Primero |date=December 1893 |publisher=Imp. de la Viuda de M. Minuesa de los Ríos |location=Madrid, Spain |edition=Spanish |url=http://www.xeniaeditrice.it/zu%C3%B1igaIocrpdf.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721063037/http://www.xeniaeditrice.it/zu%C3%B1igaIocrpdf.pdf |archive-date=July 21, 2015 |language=es}}</ref>{{rp|539}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=de Zúñiga |first1=Joaquín Martínez |last2=Retana |first2=Wenceslao Emilio |title=Estadismo de las Islas Filipinas: Ó, Mis Viajes Por Este País; Tomo Segundo |date=December 1893 |publisher=Imp. de la Viuda de M. Minuesa de los Ríos |location=Madrid, Spain |edition=Spanish |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_ElhFAAAAYAAJ_2 |language=es}}</ref>{{rp|31,54,113}} Meanwhile, [[Mexican settlement in the Philippines|a smaller proportion (2.33 percent) of the population were Mexican Filipinos]].<ref name= "Intercolonial" />{{rp|100}} Almost 300,000 [[Americans in the Philippines|American citizens]] live in the country {{As of|2023|lc=y}},<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|date=March 3, 2022 |title=U.S. Relations With the Philippines |url=https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-the-philippines/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230207062435/https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-the-philippines/ |archive-date=February 7, 2023 |access-date=February 8, 2023 |publisher=[[United States Department of State]]}}</ref> and up to 250,000 [[Amerasian]]s are scattered across the cities of [[Angeles City|Angeles]], Manila, and [[Olongapo]].<ref>{{Cite press release |title=200,000–250,000 or More Military Filipino Amerasians Alive Today in Republic of the Philippines according to USA-RP Joint Research Paper Finding |date=November 5, 2012 |url=http://amerasianresearch.org/releases/amerasianresearch-2012-09.pdf |access-date=July 11, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101212827/http://amerasianresearch.org/releases/amerasianresearch-2012-09.pdf |archive-date=November 1, 2013 |work=Amerasian Research Network, Ltd.}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|type=Academic paper presented at 9th International Conference on the Philippines (ICOPHIL-9) |last1=Kutschera |first1=P. C. |last2=Caputi |first2=Marie A. |date=October 2012 |title=The Case for Categorization of Military Filipino Amerasians as Diaspora |url=http://amerasianresearch.org/pdf/ICOPHIL-9FINALFilipinoDiaspora-Kutschera-Caputi.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101213421/http://amerasianresearch.org/pdf/ICOPHIL-9FINALFilipinoDiaspora-Kutschera-Caputi.pdf |archive-date=November 1, 2013 |access-date=July 11, 2016 |publisher=[[Michigan State University]] |location=E. Lansing, Mich. |via=AmerasianResearch.org}}</ref> Other significant non-indigenous minorities include [[Indian Filipino|Indians]]<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Daboo |editor-first1=Jerri |editor-last2=Sinthuphan |editor-first2=Jirayudh |title=Mapping Migration: Culture and Identity in the Indian Diasporas of Southeast Asia and the UK |date=October 1, 2018 |publisher=[[Cambridge Scholars Publishing]] |location=Newcastle upon Tyne, England |isbn=978-1-5275-1775-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UOpwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOpwDwAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> and [[Arabs in the Philippines|Arabs]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sevilla |first1=Henelito Jr. |title=West Asian Communities in the Philippines: An Exploratory Study of Migrant Iranians, Jews, Arabs, and Turkish |journal=Asian Studies: Journal of Critical Perspectives on Asia |publisher=[[University of the Philippines Asian Center|Asian Center, University of the Philippines Diliman]] |date=2015 |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=98, 100 |url=https://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-51-1-2015/West%20Asian%20Communities%20in%20the%20Philippines%20-%20Migrant%20Iranians%20Jews%20Arabs%20and%20Turkish.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150911231845/https://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-51-1-2015/West%20Asian%20Communities%20in%20the%20Philippines%20-%20Migrant%20Iranians%20Jews%20Arabs%20and%20Turkish.pdf |archive-date=September 11, 2015 |access-date=April 18, 2023}}</ref> [[Japanese in the Philippines|Japanese Filipinos]] include escaped Christians ([[Kirishitan]]) who [[Martyrs of Japan|fled persecutions by Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Terpstra |editor-first1=Nicholas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8uuYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT64 |title=Global Reformations: Transforming Early Modern Religions, Societies, and Cultures |date=2019 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-0-429-67825-7}}</ref>

=== Languages ===
{{main|Languages of the Philippines}}
<!--List of top five languages ONLY is suitable for this article. The complete list is what the link to Main topic just above is for.-->''[[Ethnologue]]'' lists 186 languages for the Philippines, 182 of which are [[living language]]s; the other four no longer have any known speakers. Most native languages are part of the [[Philippine languages|Philippine branch]] of the [[Malayo-Polynesian languages]], which is a branch of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language family]].<ref name="Ethnologue-PH">{{#invoke:cite|web|date=2013 |title=Philippines |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/PH |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309171641/http://www.ethnologue.com/country/PH |archive-date=March 9, 2013 |access-date=February 8, 2023 |website=[[Ethnologue]] |publisher=[[SIL International]] |language=en |location=Dallas, TX}}</ref> Spanish-based [[Creole language|creole]] varieties, collectively known as [[Chavacano]], are also spoken.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Asher |editor-first1=R. E. |editor-last2=Moseley |editor-first2=Christopher |title=Atlas of the World's Languages |edition=Second |date=April 19, 2018 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Florence, Ky. |isbn=978-1-317-85108-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R0xWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP226 |language=en}}</ref> Many [[Philippine Negrito languages#Unique vocabulary|Philippine Negrito languages]] have unique vocabularies which survived Austronesian acculturation.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Reid |first=Lawrence A. |date=June 1, 1994 |title=Possible Non-Austronesian Lexical Elements in Philippine Negrito Languages |url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f88d1c43-3ab9-4d31-b1ab-d717149582e8/content |journal=[[Oceanic Linguistics]] |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |publisher=[[University of Hawaiʻi Press]] |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=37–72 |doi=10.2307/3623000 |jstor=3623000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711143411/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/f88d1c43-3ab9-4d31-b1ab-d717149582e8/content |archive-date=July 11, 2022 |access-date=February 18, 2023 |via=[[ScholarSpace]] |author-link1=Lawrence A. Reid |hdl=10125/32986 |hdl-access=free}}</ref>

[[Filipino language|Filipino]] and [[Philippine English|English]] are the country's official languages.<ref name="GovPH-OfficialLanguage" /> Filipino, a [[Standard language|standardized version]] of [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]], is spoken primarily in Metro Manila.<ref>{{cite book |last=Takacs |first=Sarolta |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u1TrBgAAQBAJ |title=The Modern World: Civilizations of Africa, Civilizations of Europe, Civilizations of the Americas, Civilizations of the Middle East and Southwest Asia, Civilizations of Asia and the Pacific |date=2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-317-45572-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=u1TrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA659 659]}}</ref> Filipino and English are used in government, education, print, broadcast media, and business, often with a third local language;<ref name="Brown-Ganguly-2003">{{cite book |editor-last1=Brown |editor-first1=Michael Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fcoDezu1ABoC |title=Fighting Words: Language Policy and Ethnic Relations in Asia |series=BCSIA Studies in International Security |editor-last2=Ganguly |editor-first2=Sumit |date=2003 |publisher=[[MIT Press]] |location=Cambridge, Mass. |isbn=978-0-262-52333-2 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fcoDezu1ABoC&pg=PA323 323–325] |editor-link2=Sumit Ganguly}}</ref> [[code-switching]] between English and other local languages, notably [[Taglish|Tagalog]], is common.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bautista |first1=Maria Lourdes S. |title=Tagalog-English Code Switching as a Mode of Discourse |journal=Asia Pacific Education Review |date=June 2004 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=226–231 |doi=10.1007/BF03024960 |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ720543.pdf |access-date=July 3, 2023 |publisher=Education Research Institute, [[Seoul National University]] |issn=1598-1037 |oclc=425894528 |s2cid=145684166}}</ref> The Philippine constitution provides for [[Philippine Spanish|Spanish]] and Arabic on a voluntary, optional basis.<ref name="GovPH-OfficialLanguage">{{Cite constitution |article=XIV |section=7 |polity=the Philippines |date=1987 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-article-xiv/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170609073807/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-article-xiv/ |archive-date=June 9, 2017 |access-date=February 11, 2023 |website=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]]}}</ref> Spanish, a widely used [[lingua franca]] during the late nineteenth century, [[Spanish language in the Philippines|has declined greatly in use]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Stewart |first=Miranda |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfaUqzf1ht8C |title=The Spanish Language Today |date=2012 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-134-76548-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tfaUqzf1ht8C&pg=PA9 9]}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Weedon |first=Alan |date=August 10, 2019 |title=The Philippines is fronting up to its Spanish heritage, and for some it's paying off |work=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]] |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]] |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-10/inside-the-push-to-bring-back-spanish-into-the-philippines/11356590 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190810044706/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-08-10/inside-the-push-to-bring-back-spanish-into-the-philippines/11356590 |archive-date=August 10, 2019 |access-date=March 31, 2023}}</ref> although Spanish [[loanword]]s are still present in Philippine languages.<ref>{{cite book |type=Conference proceeding |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wG08AAAAIAAJ |title=Pidginization and Creolization of Languages; Proceedings of a Conference Held at the University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica, April 1968 |date=1971 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=978-0-521-09888-5 |editor-last=Hymes |editor-first=Dell |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wG08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA223 223] |author-link1=Dell Hymes}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Aspillera |first1=Paraluman S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y8bZAwAAQBAJ |title=Basic Tagalog for Foreigners and Non-Tagalogs (with Online Audio) |edition=Revised Third |last2=Hernandez |first2=Yolanda Canseco |date=July 1, 2014 |publisher=[[Tuttle Publishing]] |location=North Clarendon, Vt. |isbn=978-1-4629-0166-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=y8bZAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 9] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Allan |editor-first1=Keith |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Omn6DwAAQBAJ |title=Dynamics of Language Changes: Looking Within and Across Languages |date=August 31, 2020 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-15-6430-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Omn6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 204] |language=en}}</ref> Arabic is primarily taught in [[Mindanao]] Islamic schools.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Samid |first1=Amina |title=Islamic Education and the Development of Madrasah Schools in the Philippines |journal=International Journal of Political Studies |date=August 31, 2022 |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=37, 41–44 |doi=10.25272/icps.1139650 |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/2521857 |access-date=August 14, 2024 |issn=2528-9969 |via=DergiPark Akademik}}</ref>

The top languages generally spoken at home {{as of|2020|lc=y}} are Tagalog, [[Binisaya]], [[Hiligaynon language|Hiligaynon]], [[Ilocano language|Ilocano]], [[Cebuano language|Cebuano]], and [[Bikol languages|Bikol]].<ref>{{cite press release |last1=Mapa |first1=Dennis S. |author-link1=Dennis Mapa |title=Tagalog is the Most Widely Spoken Language at Home (2020 Census of Population and Housing) |url=https://psa.gov.ph/statistics/population-and-housing/node/1684041577 |website=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]] |access-date=January 8, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240108195246/https://psa.gov.ph/statistics/population-and-housing/node/1684041577 |archive-date=January 8, 2024 |date=March 7, 2023}}</ref> Nineteen [[List of regional languages of the Philippines|regional languages]] are auxiliary official languages as media of instruction:<ref name="GMA-DepEd-7-Languages">{{#invoke:cite|news|date=July 13, 2013 |title=DepEd adds 7 languages to mother tongue-based education for Kinder to Grade 3 |language=en |work=[[GMA News Online]] |url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/317280/news/nation/deped-adds-7-languages-to-mother-tongue-based-education-for-kinder-to-grade-3 |access-date=February 8, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216045522/http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/317280/news/nation/deped-adds-7-languages-to-mother-tongue-based-education-for-kinder-to-grade-3 |archive-date=December 16, 2013}}</ref>

{{div col|colwidth=10em}}
* [[Aklanon language|Aklanon]]
* Bikol
* Cebuano
* [[Chavacano]]
* Hiligaynon
* [[Ibanag language|Ibanag]]
* Ilocano
* [[Ivatan language|Ivatan]]
* [[Kapampangan language|Kapampangan]]
* [[Karay-a language|Kinaray-a]]
* [[Maguindanao language|Maguindanao]]
* [[Maranao language|Maranao]]
* [[Pangasinan language|Pangasinan]]
* [[Sambal language|Sambal]]
* [[Surigaonon language|Surigaonon]]
* Tagalog
* [[Tausug language|Tausug]]
* [[Waray language|Waray]]
* [[Yakan language|Yakan]]
{{div col end}}

Other indigenous languages, including [[Cuyonon language|Cuyonon]], [[Ifugao language|Ifugao]], [[Itbayat language|Itbayat]], [[Kalinga language|Kalinga]], [[Kamayo language|Kamayo]], [[Kankanaey language|Kankanaey]], [[Masbateño language|Masbateño]], [[Romblomanon language|Romblomanon]], [[Manobo languages|Manobo]], and several [[Visayan languages]], are used in their respective provinces.<ref name="Ethnologue-PH" /> [[Filipino Sign Language]] is the national sign language, and the language of [[Deafness in the Philippines|deaf education]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Kabiling |first=Genalyn |date=November 12, 2018 |title=Filipino Sign Language declared as nat'l sign language of Filipino deaf |work=[[Manila Bulletin]] |url=https://news.mb.com.ph/2018/11/12/filipino-sign-language-declared-as-natl-sign-language-of-filipino-deaf/ |access-date=November 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181112122321/https://news.mb.com.ph/2018/11/12/filipino-sign-language-declared-as-natl-sign-language-of-filipino-deaf/ |archive-date=November 12, 2018}}</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in the Philippines}}
[[File:Sto. Nino Basilica de Cebu from the Pligrim's Center.jpg|thumb|alt=Large crowd outside a colorfully-decorated church|Catholics attend Mass at [[Basilica del Santo Niño]] during the annual [[Sinulog]] festival in [[Cebu]].]]

Although the Philippines is a [[Secularism in the Philippines|secular state]] with [[Freedom of religion in the Philippines|freedom of religion]], an overwhelming majority of Filipinos [[Importance of religion by country|consider religion very important]]<ref>{{cite report |last1=Tamir |first1=Christine |last2=Connaughton |first2=Aidan |last3=Salazar |first3=Ariana Monique |date=July 20, 2020 |title=The Global God Divide |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2020/07/20/the-global-god-divide/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200722193955/https://www.pewresearch.org/global/2020/07/20/the-global-god-divide/ |archive-date=July 22, 2020 |access-date=February 18, 2023 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]}}</ref> and [[Irreligion in the Philippines|irreligion]] is very low.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Bullivant |editor-first1=Stephen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=93VoAgAAQBAJ |title=The Oxford Handbook of Atheism |editor-last2=Ruse |editor-first2=Michael |date=November 21, 2013 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford, England |isbn=978-0-19-166739-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=93VoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA563 563]}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Martin |editor-first1=Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tAeFipOVx4MC |title=The Cambridge Companion to Atheism |date=October 30, 2006 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge, England |isbn=978-1-139-82739-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tAeFipOVx4MC&pg=PA61 61] |language=en |author-link2=Michael Ruse}}</ref><ref name="PSAGovPH-2015Census-Religion">{{cite report |publisher=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]] |url=https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/2015%20CPH_REPORT%20NO.%202_PHILIPPINES.pdf |title=2015 Census of Population, Report No. 2 – Demographic and Socioeconomic Characteristics Philippines |date=June 2017 |at=Table 8: Total Population by Religious Affiliation and Sex: 2015 |issn=0117-1453 |access-date=August 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221009143047/http://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/2015%20CPH_REPORT%20NO.%202_PHILIPPINES.pdf |archive-date=October 9, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Christianity in the Philippines|Christianity]] is the dominant religion<ref>{{cite report |date=July 28, 2014 |title=2013 International Religious Freedom Report |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2013/eap/222161.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526202948/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2013/eap/222161.htm |archive-date=May 26, 2019 |access-date=July 15, 2020 |publisher=[[United States Department of State]], [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor]]}}</ref><ref name="StateGov-ReligiousFreedom-2015">{{cite report |date=2014 |title=Philippines 2015 International Religious Freedom Report |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/256347.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121020127/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/256347.pdf |archive-date=January 21, 2017 |access-date=April 11, 2023 |publisher=[[United States Department of State]], [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor]] |pages=1–2}}</ref> followed by about 89 percent of the population.<ref>{{cite report |date=June 2, 2022 |title=2021 Report on International Religious Freedom: Philippines |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/philippines/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209100417/https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/philippines/ |archive-date=December 9, 2022 |access-date=February 7, 2023 |website=[[United States Department of State]] |publisher=[[Office of International Religious Freedom]] |at=Section I. Religious Demography}}</ref> The country had the [[Catholic Church by country|world's third-largest Roman Catholic population]] {{as of|2013|lc=y}}, and was Asia's [[Christianity in Asia|largest Christian nation]].<ref>{{cite report |date=February 13, 2013 |title=The Global Catholic Population |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2013/02/13/the-global-catholic-population/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928103612/https://www.pewforum.org/2013/02/13/the-global-catholic-population/ |archive-date=September 28, 2013 |publisher=[[Pew Research Center|Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project]] |at=Which countries have the most Catholics now?}}</ref> Census data from [[2020 Philippine census|2020]] found that 78.8 percent of the population professed [[Catholic Church in the Philippines|Roman Catholicism]];{{efn|name=Catholic-2020Census}} other [[List of Christian denominations in the Philippines|Christian denominations]] include {{lang|tl|[[Iglesia ni Cristo]]|italic=no}}, the [[Philippine Independent Church]], and [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventism]].<ref name="PSAGovPH-2020Census-Religion">{{Cite press release |last=Mapa |first=Dennis S. |author-link1=Dennis Mapa |date=February 22, 2023 |title=Religious Affiliation in the Philippines (2020 Census of Population and Housing) |url=https://psa.gov.ph/content/religious-affiliation-philippines-2020-census-population-and-housing |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230310184554/https://psa.gov.ph/content/religious-affiliation-philippines-2020-census-population-and-housing |archive-date=March 10, 2023 |access-date=March 12, 2023 |publisher=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]]}}</ref> [[Protestantism in the Philippines|Protestants]] made up about 5% to 7% of the population in 2010.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jones |first1=Arun W. |title=Local Agency and the Reception of Protestantism in the Philippines |journal=Journal of Asian/North American Theological Educators |date=2016 |volume=2 |issue=1 |page=61 |url=http://janate.org/index.php/janate/article/download/1319/2198 |access-date=May 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181109154652/http://janate.org/index.php/janate/article/download/1319/2198 |archive-date=November 9, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Protestant Christianity in the Philippines |url=https://rlp.hds.harvard.edu/faq/protestant-christianity-philippines |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421202509/https://rlp.hds.harvard.edu/faq/protestant-christianity-philippines |archive-date=April 21, 2016 |access-date=February 7, 2023 |website=Religious Literacy Project |publisher=[[Harvard Divinity School]]}}</ref> The Philippines sends many [[Christian mission]]aries around the world, and is a training center for foreign priests and nuns.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=July 16, 2015 |title=Religious and lay Filipino missionaries in the world are "Christ first witnesses |language=en |work=[[AsiaNews]] |url=https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Religious-and-lay-Filipino-missionariesin-the-world-are-%E2%80%9CChrist-first-witnesses-34790.html |access-date=April 23, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423154532/https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Religious-and-lay-Filipino-missionariesin-the-world-are-%E2%80%9CChrist-first-witnesses-34790.html |archive-date=April 23, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Sebastian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_YAdDQAAQBAJ |title=Christianity as a World Religion: An Introduction |edition=Second |last2=Kim |first2=Kirsteen |date=November 3, 2016 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Publishing]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-4725-6936-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_YAdDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA70 70] |language=en |author-link1=Sebastian Kim |author-link2=Kirsteen Kim}}</ref>

[[Islam in the Philippines|Islam]] is the country's second-largest religion, with 6.4 percent of the population in the 2020 census.<ref name="PSAGovPH-2020Census-Religion" /> Most Muslims live in Mindanao and nearby islands,<ref name="StateGov-ReligiousFreedom-2015" /> and most adhere to the [[Shafi'i school]] of [[Sunni Islam]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=An-Na'im |editor-first1=Abdullahi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hg0zCFM0fwkC |title=Islamic Family Law in a Changing World: A Global Resource Book |date=October 11, 2002 |publisher=[[Zed Books]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-84277-093-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Hg0zCFM0fwkC&pg=PA5 5]}}</ref>

About 0.2 percent of the population follow [[indigenous Philippine folk religions|indigenous religions]],<ref name="PSAGovPH-2020Census-Religion" /> whose practices and folk beliefs are often [[Religious syncretism|syncretized]] with Christianity and Islam.<ref name="Rodell-2002" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC&pg=PA29|name=29–30}}}}<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Min |editor-first1=Pyong Gap |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUx7AAAAQBAJ |title=Religions in Asian America: Building Faith Communities |editor-last2=Kim |editor-first2=Jung Ha |date=2001 |publisher=[[AltaMira Press]] |location=Walnut Creek, Calif. |isbn=978-1-4616-4762-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EUx7AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA144 144] |editor-link1=Pyong Gap Min}}</ref> [[Buddhism in the Philippines|Buddhism]] is practiced by about 0.04% of the population,<ref name="PSAGovPH-2020Census-Religion" /> primarily by Filipinos of Chinese descent.<ref>{{cite book |last=Yu |first=Jose Vidamor B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c4WqAOKb5c8C |title=Inculturation of Filipino-Chinese Culture Mentality |series=Interreligious and Intercultural Investigations |volume=3 |date=2000 |publisher=[[Pontificia Università Gregoriana]] |location=Rome, Italy |isbn=978-88-7652-848-4 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=c4WqAOKb5c8C&pg=PA87 87–88]}}</ref>

=== Health ===
{{Main|Health in the Philippines}}
[[File:Life expectancy in the Philippines.svg|thumb|alt=A steadily-rising graph until the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020|Life expectancy in the Philippines, 1938–2021]]

[[Health care in the Philippines]] is provided by the national and local governments, although private payments account for most healthcare spending.<ref name="DOH-2018">{{cite report |date=2018 |title=National Objectives for Health Philippines, 2017–2022 |url=https://www.doh.gov.ph/sites/default/files/health_magazine/NOH-2017-2022-030619-1(1)_0.pdf |journal=National Objectives for Health |location=Manila, Philippines |publisher=Health Policy Development and Planning Bureau, [[Department of Health (Philippines)|Department of Health]] |issn=1908-6768 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200913150355/https://www.doh.gov.ph/sites/default/files/health_magazine/NOH-2017-2022-030619-1%281%29_0.pdf |archive-date=September 13, 2020 |access-date=September 13, 2020}}</ref>{{rp|pages=25–27}}<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Ordinario |first=Cai |date=October 26, 2018 |title=Out-of-pocket health expense of Pinoys rose in 2017–PSA |work=[[BusinessMirror]] |url=https://businessmirror.com.ph/2018/10/26/out-of-pocket-health-expense-of-pinoys-rose-in-2017-psa/ |access-date=April 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728061056/https://businessmirror.com.ph/2018/10/26/out-of-pocket-health-expense-of-pinoys-rose-in-2017-psa/ |archive-date=July 28, 2020}}</ref> Per-capita health expenditure in 2022 was {{Philippine peso|10,059.49|link=yes}} and health expenditures were 5.5 percent of the country's GDP.<ref>{{cite press release |title=The Country's Total Health Spending Contributes 5.5 Percent to the Economy in 2022 |url=https://psa.gov.ph/content/countrys-total-health-spending-contributes-55-percent-economy-2022 |access-date=August 30, 2023 |publisher=[[Philippine Statistics Authority|PSA]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230901100356/https://psa.gov.ph/content/countrys-total-health-spending-contributes-55-percent-economy-2022 |archive-date=September 1, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> The 2023 budget allocation for healthcare was {{currency|334.9&nbsp;billion|PHP|linked=no|passthrough=yes}}.<ref name="OneNews-MarcosSigns2023Budget" /> The 2019 enactment of the [[universal health care|Universal Health Care Act]] by President Duterte facilitated the automatic enrollment of all Filipinos in the [[Philippine Health Insurance Corporation|national health insurance program]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=de Vera |first=Ben O. |date=March 21, 2022 |title=Gov't subsidy to PhilHealth hits record-high in 2022 |language=en |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://business.inquirer.net/343893/govt-subsidy-to-philhealth-hits-record-high-in-2022 |access-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321033643/https://business.inquirer.net/343893/govt-subsidy-to-philhealth-hits-record-high-in-2022 |archive-date=March 21, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=March 14, 2019 |title=UHC Act in the Philippines: a new dawn for health care |work=[[World Health Organization]] |url=https://www.who.int/philippines/news/feature-stories/detail/uhc-act-in-the-philippines-a-new-dawn-for-health-care |access-date=July 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329031526/https://www.who.int/philippines/news/feature-stories/detail/uhc-act-in-the-philippines-a-new-dawn-for-health-care |archive-date=March 29, 2019}}</ref> Since 2018, [[Malasakit Center]]s (one-stop shops) have been set up in several government-operated hospitals to provide medical and financial assistance to indigent patients.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Ismael |first=Javier Joe |date=March 4, 2022 |title=151st Malasakit Center inaugurated in Quirino |language=en |work=[[The Manila Times]] |url=https://www.manilatimes.net/2022/03/04/news/regions/151st-malasakit-center-inaugurated-in-quirino/1834988 |access-date=May 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305120759/https://www.manilatimes.net/2022/03/04/news/regions/151st-malasakit-center-inaugurated-in-quirino/1834988 |archive-date=March 5, 2022}}</ref>

Average life expectancy in the Philippines {{as of|2023|lc=y}} is 70.48 years (66.97 years for males, and 74.15 years for females).<ref name="CIAWorldFactBook" /> Access to medicine has improved due to increasing Filipino acceptance of [[generic drug]]s.<ref name="DOH-2018" />{{rp|page=58}} The country's leading causes of death in 2021 were [[ischaemic heart diseases]], [[cerebrovascular disease]]s, [[COVID-19]], [[neoplasm]]s, and [[diabetes]].<ref>{{cite report |last1=Mapa |first1=Dennis S. |author-link1=Dennis Mapa |title=Registered Deaths in the Philippines, 2021 |url=https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/crd/specialrelease/SR%20Death%20Statistics%202021_0.pdf |publisher=[[Philippine Statistics Authority]] |access-date=May 20, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324134007/https://psa.gov.ph/sites/default/files/attachments/crd/specialrelease/SR%20Death%20Statistics%202021_0.pdf |archive-date=March 24, 2023 |page=6 |date=February 22, 2023}}</ref> [[Communicable disease]]s are correlated with natural disasters, primarily floods.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Salazar |first1=Miguel Antonio |last2=Pesigan |first2=Arturo |last3=Law |first3=Ronald |last4=Winkler |first4=Volker |date=December 1, 2016 |title=Post-disaster health impact of natural hazards in the Philippines in 2013 |journal=[[Global Health Action]] |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=9 |issue=1 |page=31320 |doi=10.3402/gha.v9.31320 |pmc=4871893 |pmid=27193265 |doi-access=free}}</ref> One million Filipinos have active [[tuberculosis]], the fourth highest global prevalence rate.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The social determinants of tuberculosis in the Philippines |journal=[[The Lancet]] |date=January 2022 |volume=10 |issue=1 |url=https://www.thelancet.com/journals/langlo/article/PIIS2214-109X(21)00516-7/fulltext}}</ref>

The Philippines has 1,387 [[List of hospitals in the Philippines|hospitals]], 33 percent of which are government-run; 23,281 barangay health stations, 2,592 rural health units, 2,411 [[Birthing center|birthing home]]s, and 659 infirmaries provide primary care throughout the country.<ref name="RVONL-HealthCare-2021">{{cite report |author1=Orange Health Consultants |title=Health Care in the Philippines |url=https://www.rvo.nl/sites/default/files/2021/06/Healthcare-in-The-Philippines.pdf |publisher=Netherlands Enterprise Agency (RVO) |access-date=March 17, 2023 |location=Rotterdam, Netherlands |date=April 2021 |at=Organization of the health care system |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211017093201/https://www.rvo.nl/sites/default/files/2021/06/Healthcare-in-The-Philippines.pdf |archive-date=October 17, 2021}}</ref> Since 1967, the Philippines had become the largest global supplier of nurses;<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Cachero |first=Paulina |date=May 30, 2021 |title=How Filipino Nurses Have Propped Up America's Medical System |url=https://time.com/6051754/history-filipino-nurses-us/ |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210530110820/https://time.com/6051754/history-filipino-nurses-us/ |archive-date=May 30, 2021 |access-date=November 11, 2022}}</ref> seventy percent of [[Nursing in the Philippines|nursing graduates]] go overseas to work, causing problems in retaining skilled practitioners.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lorenzo |first1=Fely Marilyn |last2=Galvez-Tan |first2=Jaime |last3=Icamina |first3=Kriselle |last4=Javier |first4=Lara |year=2007 |title=Nurse Migration from a Source Country Perspective: Philippine Country Case Study |journal=[[Health Services Research (journal)|Health Services Research]] |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell Publishing]] |volume=42 |issue=3 (pt 2) |pages=1406–1418 |doi=10.1111/j.1475-6773.2007.00716.x |pmc=1955369 |pmid=17489922}}</ref>

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in the Philippines}}
{{Further|Higher education in the Philippines}}
[[File:Main Bulding of the University of Santo Tomas.jpg|thumb|alt=Front of a very old building|Founded in 1611, the [[University of Santo Tomas]] is Asia's oldest extant university.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Kent |editor-first1=Allen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_faTic0w7sMC |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science |volume=42 – Supplement 7: The Albert I Royal Library to The United Nations Bibliographic Information System (UNBIS) |edition=1st |date=February 26, 1987 |title=Asia, Libraries in |publisher=[[Marcel Dekker]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-8247-2042-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_faTic0w7sMC&pg=PA74 74] |language=en}}</ref>]]

Primary and secondary schooling in the Philippines consists of six years of elementary period, four years of junior high school, and two years of senior high school.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=San Pedro |first=Dexter |date=May 15, 2013 |title=Aquino signs K–12 enhanced basic education law |work=[[InterAksyon]] |url=http://www.interaksyon.com/article/61826/aquino-signs-k-12-enhanced-basic-education-law |access-date=September 23, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614003442/http://www.interaksyon.com/article/61826/aquino-signs-k-12-enhanced-basic-education-law |archive-date=June 14, 2013}}</ref> Public education, provided by the government, is free at the elementary and secondary levels and at [[Universal Access to Quality Tertiary Education Act|most public higher-education institutions]].<ref name="OECD-2017May">{{cite book |last1=OECD |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_WSQDwAAQBAJ |title=Interrelations between Public Policies, Migration and Development in the Philippines |series=OECD Development Pathways |last2=Scalabrini Migration Center |date=2017 |publisher=[[OECD Publishing]] |location=Paris, France |isbn=978-92-64-27228-6 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_WSQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA138 138–139] |language=en |author-link=OECD}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Corrales |first=Nestor |date=August 4, 2017 |title=Duterte signs into law bill granting free tuition in SUCs |language=en |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/920306/breaking-duterte-signs-law-granting-free-tuition-in-sucs |access-date=February 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170804035732/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/920306/breaking-duterte-signs-law-granting-free-tuition-in-sucs |archive-date=August 4, 2017}}</ref> [[Philippine Science High School System|Science high schools]] for talented students were established in 1963.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Nagao |editor-first1=Masafumi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TqpGsyqHez4C |title=Mathematics and Science Education in Developing Countries: Issues, Experiences, and Cooperation Prospects |editor-last2=Rogan |editor-first2=John M. |editor-last3=Magno |editor-first3=Marcelita Coronel |date=2007 |publisher=[[University of the Philippines Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-542-533-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TqpGsyqHez4C&pg=PA31 31] |language=en}}</ref> The government provides technical-vocational training and development through the [[Technical Education and Skills Development Authority]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wu |first1=Qiuchen |last2=Bai |first2=Bin |last3=Zhu |first3=Xiaolin |title=Vocational Education and Training in ASEAN Member States |editor-last1=Bai |editor-first1=Bin |editor-last2=Paryono |series=Perspectives on Rethinking and Reforming Education |date=April 2019 |chapter=Technical and Vocational Education and Training in the Philippines: Development and Status Quo |pages=155, 158 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-13-6616-1 |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-6617-8_7 |s2cid=159328746}}</ref> In 2004, the government began offering [[Alternative Learning System (Philippines)|alternative education]] to out-of-school children, youth, and adults to improve literacy;<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Mooney |editor-first1=Thomas Brian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HQNAAAAAQBAJ |title=Aquinas, Education and the East |series=Sophia Studies in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Traditions and Cultures |editor-last2=Nowacki |editor-first2=Mark |date=2013 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |location=Dordrecht, Netherlands |isbn=978-94-007-5261-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HQNAAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA185 185] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite press release |date=June 9, 2022 |title=DepEd, UNICEF strengthen Alternative Learning System toward quality, relevant second chance basic education |language=en |work=[[UNICEF]] |url=https://www.unicef.org/philippines/press-releases/deped-unicef-strengthen-alternative-learning-system-toward-quality-relevant-second |access-date=February 22, 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230222171030/https://www.unicef.org/philippines/press-releases/deped-unicef-strengthen-alternative-learning-system-toward-quality-relevant-second |archive-date=February 22, 2023}}</ref> [[madrasa|madaris]] were mainstreamed in 16 regions that year, primarily in Mindanao Muslim areas under the [[Department of Education (Philippines)|Department of Education]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Esplanada |first=Jerry E. |date=July 20, 2009 |title=Mainstreaming Madrasa |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/learning/view/20090720-216304/Mainstreaming-Madrasa |access-date=September 23, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724102132/http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/inquirerheadlines/learning/view/20090720-216304/Mainstreaming-Madrasa |archive-date=July 24, 2014}}</ref> [[List of Catholic universities and colleges in the Philippines|Catholic schools]], which number more than 1,500,<ref>{{cite web |title=About Us |url=https://www.ceap.org.ph/who-we-are/about-ceap |website=Catholic Educational Association of the Philippines |access-date=March 24, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203064402/https://www.ceap.org.ph/who-we-are/about-ceap |archive-date=December 3, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> and higher education institutions are an integral part of the educational system.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Peters |editor-first1=Michael A. |last1=Aguas |first1=Jove Jim S. |title=Encyclopedia of Teacher Education |date=2019 |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-13-1179-6 |url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-981-13-1179-6_147-1 |access-date=March 24, 2024 |language=en |chapter=Catholic Education in the Philippines |pages=1–7 |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/50848177 |doi=10.1007/978-981-13-1179-6_147-1 |editor-link1=Michael Peters (education academic) |via=[[Academia.edu]]|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The Philippines has [[List of colleges and universities in the Philippines|1,975 higher education institutions]] {{as of|2019|lc=y}}, of which 246 are public and 1,729 are private.<ref>{{cite report |title=Table 2. Distribution of Higher Education Institutions by Region and Sector: AY 2019–20 |url=https://ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/Distribution-of-Higher-Education-Institutions-by-Region-and-Sector-AY-2019-20.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210728115539/https://ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/Distribution-of-Higher-Education-Institutions-by-Region-and-Sector-AY-2019-20.pdf |archive-date=July 28, 2021 |access-date=January 12, 2022 |publisher=[[Commission on Higher Education (Philippines)|Commission on Higher Education]]}}</ref> Public universities are non-sectarian, and are primarily classified as [[List of state schools, colleges and universities in the Philippines|state-administered]] or [[Local colleges and universities (Philippines)|local government-funded]].<ref>{{cite report |title=New measures support university and technical students in the Philippines – Asia 2019 |url=https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/philippines/2019-report/economy/working-the-plan-five-years-into-basic-education-reform-programme-rollout-shifts-to-supporting-university-and-technical-school-students |publisher=Oxford Business Group |access-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319071934/https://oxfordbusinessgroup.com/reports/philippines/2019-report/economy/working-the-plan-five-years-into-basic-education-reform-programme-rollout-shifts-to-supporting-university-and-technical-school-students |archive-date=March 19, 2023 |at=Sector Structure |date=September 9, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Ness |editor-first1=Daniel |editor-last2=Lin |editor-first2=Chia-Ling |encyclopedia=International Education: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Issues and Systems |volume=1–2 |date=March 17, 2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Abingdon, Oxon, England |isbn=978-1-317-46751-9 |title=Philippines |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=F_FnBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA459 459] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F_FnBwAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref> The [[national university]] is the eight-school [[University of the Philippines]] (UP) system.<ref>{{Cite PH act |title=The University of the Philippines Charter of 2008 |chamber=RA |number=9500 |date=April 19, 2008 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2008/04/19/republic-act-no-9500/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180830074039/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2008/04/19/republic-act-no-9500/ |archive-date=August 30, 2018 |access-date=February 6, 2023 |publisher=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]] |location=Metro Manila, Philippines}}</ref> The country's top-ranked universities are the [[University of the Philippines Diliman]], [[Ateneo de Manila University]], [[De La Salle University]], and [[University of Santo Tomas]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Krishna |editor-first=V. V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CNguDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT328 |title=Universities in the National Innovation Systems: Experiences from the Asia-Pacific |date=2017 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-351-61900-4 |page=328}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|date=2023 |title=QS Asia University Rankings 2023 |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/asia-university-rankings/2023 |access-date=March 25, 2024 |website=[[QS World University Rankings]]}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|date=2020 |title=World University Rankings 2020 |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2020/world-ranking#!/page/0/length/25/locations/PH/sort_by/rank/sort_order/asc/cols/stats |website=[[Times Higher Education World University Rankings]]}}</ref>

{{as of|2019|alt=In 2019}}, the Philippines had a basic [[literacy]] rate of 93.8 percent of those five years old or older,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Hernandez |first=Jobo E. |date=October 29, 2020 |title=Literacy rate estimated at 93.8% among 5 year olds or older — PSA |work=[[BusinessWorld]] |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/economy/2020/10/29/325932/literacy-rate-estimated-at-93-8-among-5-year-olds-or-older-psa/ |access-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111071307/https://www.bworldonline.com/economy/2020/10/29/325932/literacy-rate-estimated-at-93-8-among-5-year-olds-or-older-psa/ |archive-date=November 11, 2022}}</ref> and a [[functional illiteracy|functional literacy]] rate of 91.6 percent of those aged 10 to 64.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Talavera |first=Catherine |date=December 14, 2020 |title=Functional literacy rate improves in 2019 – PSA |work=[[The Philippine Star]] |url=https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2020/12/14/2063627/functional-literacy-rate-improves-2019-psa |access-date=November 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201214020049/https://www.philstar.com/headlines/2020/12/14/2063627/functional-literacy-rate-improves-2019-psa |archive-date=December 14, 2020}}</ref> Education, a significant proportion of the national budget, was allocated {{currency|900.9&nbsp;billion|PHP|linked=no|passthrough=yes}} from the {{currency|5.268&nbsp;trillion|PHP|linked=no|passthrough=yes}} 2023 budget.<ref name="OneNews-MarcosSigns2023Budget">{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Flores |first=Helen |date=December 17, 2022 |title=Marcos Signs P5.268-Trillion National Budget For 2023 |work=[[One News (TV channel)|OneNews]] |url=https://www.onenews.ph/articles/marcos-signs-p5-268-trillion-national-budget-for-2023 |access-date=February 16, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221217155623/https://www.onenews.ph/articles/marcos-signs-p5-268-trillion-national-budget-for-2023 |archive-date=December 17, 2022}}</ref> {{as of|2023}}, the country has 1,640 [[public libraries]] affiliated with the [[National Library of the Philippines]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=Statistical Number of Affiliated Public Libraries |url=http://web.nlp.gov.ph/nlp/?q=node/10266 |website=[[National Library of the Philippines]] |access-date=July 25, 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230725004228/http://web.nlp.gov.ph/nlp/?q=node/10266 |archive-date=July 25, 2023}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of the Philippines}}
[[File:Banaue Philippines Banaue-Rice-Terraces-01.jpg|thumb|alt=A terraced hillside, seen from above|The [[Banaue Rice Terraces]], carved by ancestors of the [[Ifugao people]]]]

The Philippines has significant cultural diversity, reinforced by the country's fragmented geography.<ref name="Junker-1999" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r50BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA61|name=61}}}}<ref name="Bankoff-2017">{{cite book |last1=Bankoff |first1=Greg |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Se1HDwAAQBAJ |title=Post-Colonial National Identity in the Philippines: Celebrating the Centennial of Independence |series=Routledge Revivals |last2=Weekley |first2=Kathleen |date=2017 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-351-74209-2}}</ref> Spanish and American cultures profoundly influenced Filipino culture as a result of long colonization.<ref name="Edelstein-2011">{{cite book |editor-last1=Edelstein |editor-first1=Sari |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lj0CeaIIETkC |title=Food, Cuisine, and Cultural Competency for Culinary, Hospitality, and Nutrition Professionals |publisher=[[Jones & Bartlett Learning]] |location=Sudbury, Mass. |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7637-5965-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lj0CeaIIETkC&pg=PA515 515]}}</ref><ref name="Banlaoi-2009"/> The cultures of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago developed distinctly, since they had limited Spanish influence and more influence from nearby Islamic regions.<ref name="Wernstedt-1967" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Pn0Pfh1Cl0C&pg=PA503|name=503}}}} Indigenous groups such as the [[Igorot]]s have preserved their precolonial customs and traditions by [[Igorot resistance to Spanish colonization|resisting the Spanish]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Williams |first=Victoria R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_zRDwAAQBAJ |encyclopedia=Indigenous Peoples: An Encyclopedia of Culture, History, and Threats to Survival |edition=Illustrated |title=Igorot |date=February 24, 2020 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-4408-6118-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3_zRDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA473 473] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Minahan |first=James B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fOQkpcVcd9AC&pg=PT101 |encyclopedia=Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia |edition=Illustrated |series=Ethnic Groups of the World |title=Cordillerans |date=August 30, 2012 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-59884-660-7 |language=en}}</ref> A [[Filipino nationalism|national identity]] [[National revival|emerged]] during the 19th century, however, with [[National symbols of the Philippines|shared national symbols]] and cultural and historical [[Touchstone (metaphor)|touchstones]].<ref name="Bankoff-2017" />

[[Spanish influence on Filipino culture|Hispanic legacies]] include the dominance of Catholicism<ref name="Guillermo-2012" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmgX9M_yETIC&pg=PA5|name=5}}}}<ref name="Edelstein-2011" /> and the prevalence of [[Catálogo alfabético de apellidos|Spanish names and surnames]], which resulted from an 1849 edict ordering the systematic distribution of family names and the implementation of [[Spanish naming customs]];<ref name="Boquet-2017" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75|name=75}}}}<ref name="Woods-2006" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C&pg=PT262|name=237}}}} the [[List of Philippine place names of Spanish origin|names of many locations]] also have Spanish origins.<ref>{{cite book |last=Law |first=Gwillim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z0OeCQAAQBAJ |title=Administrative Subdivisions of Countries: A Comprehensive World Reference, 1900 through 1998 |date=November 19, 2010 |publisher=[[McFarland & Company|McFarland]] |location=Jefferson, N.C. |isbn=978-0-7864-6097-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z0OeCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA289 289] |language=en}}</ref> American influence on modern Filipino culture<ref name="Banlaoi-2009"/> is evident in the use of English<ref name="Nadal-2011">{{cite book |last=Nadal |first=Kevin L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zN7-s84jAkoC |title=Filipino American Psychology: A Handbook of Theory, Research, and Clinical Practice |date=March 23, 2011 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |location=Hoboken, N.J. |isbn=978-1-118-01977-1 |language=en |author-link1=Kevin Nadal}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zN7-s84jAkoC&pg=PA12|name=12}}}} and Filipino consumption of [[fast food]] and American films and music.<ref name="Edelstein-2011" />

[[Public holidays in the Philippines]] are classified as regular or special.<ref>{{Cite PH act |title=Regular Holidays and Nationwide Special Days |chamber=EO |number=292 |section=Chapter 7, section 26: Regular Holidays and Nationwide Special Days |date=July 25, 1987 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1987/07/25/executive-order-no-292-book-ichapter-7-regular-holidays-and-nationwide-special-days/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903160004/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/1987/07/25/executive-order-no-292-book-ichapter-7-regular-holidays-and-nationwide-special-days/ |archive-date=September 3, 2017 |access-date=March 10, 2023 |publisher=[[Official Gazette (Philippines)|Official Gazette of the Philippines]] |location=Manila, Philippines}}</ref> [[List of festivals in the Philippines|Festivals]] are primarily religious, and most towns and villages have such a festival (usually to honor a [[patron saint]]).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chan |first1=Richel Royce T. |title=The Festival Extravaganza of Vigan City, Philippines |journal=UNP Research Journal |date=January 2020 |volume=XXIX |pages=64–66 |url=https://vector.unp.edu.ph/index.php/1/article/download/57/7/251 |publisher=[[University of Northern Philippines]] |issn=0119-3058 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430021308/https://vector.unp.edu.ph/index.php/1/article/download/57/7/251 |archive-date=April 30, 2023}}</ref><ref name="Wendt-1998">{{cite journal |last1=Wendt |first1=Reinhard |title=Philippine Fiesta and Colonial Culture |journal=[[Philippine Studies (journal)|Philippine Studies]] |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University]] |date=1998 |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=4–5 |issn=0031-7837 |jstor=42633620}}</ref> Better-known festivals include [[Ati-Atihan festival|Ati-Atihan]],<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Aguirre |first=Jun |date=March 4, 2018 |title=Legend of the Ati-atihan Fest in Aklan |work=[[BusinessMirror]] |url=https://businessmirror.com.ph/2018/03/04/legend-of-the-ati-atihan-fest-in-aklan/ |access-date=September 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903154448/https://businessmirror.com.ph/2018/03/04/legend-of-the-ati-atihan-fest-in-aklan/ |archive-date=September 3, 2020}}</ref> [[Dinagyang]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pison |first1=Ruth Jordana |title=The Dinagyang Festival: An Afterlife of the Ilonggos' Faith |journal=Journal of English Studies and Comparative Literature |date=May 28, 2019 |volume=16 |pages=81, 85 |url=https://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/jescl/article/view/6728/5829 |access-date=August 30, 2023 |publisher=[[University of the Philippines]] |language=en |issn=0119-1721}}</ref> [[Moriones Festival|Moriones]],<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Cinco |first=Maricar |date=March 26, 2018 |title=Moriones: solemn tradition, not festive occasion |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/978072/moriones-festival-returns-to-religious-roots |access-date=September 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326035724/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/978072/moriones-festival-returns-to-religious-roots |archive-date=March 26, 2018}}</ref> [[Sinulog]],<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=February 27, 2018 |title=Sinulog named as Asia's most popular festival |work=[[SunStar]] |url=https://www.sunstar.com.ph/article/421022/Business/Sinulog-named-as-Asias-most-popular-festival |access-date=September 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200903161024/https://www.sunstar.com.ph/article/421022/Business/Sinulog-named-as-Asias-most-popular-festival |archive-date=September 3, 2020}}</ref> and [[Flores de Mayo]]—a month-long devotion to the [[Virgin Mary]] held in May.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lopez |first1=Patricia Marion Y. |title=Mary as Mother in the Flores de Mayo in Poblacion, Oslob |journal=Humanities Diliman: A Philippine Journal of Humanities |date=February 22, 2016 |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=101 |url=https://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/humanitiesdiliman/article/view/4932/4444 |access-date=August 30, 2023 |publisher=[[University of the Philippines]] |language=en |issn=2012-0788 |oclc=7181411125 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160623012242/https://journals.upd.edu.ph/index.php/humanitiesdiliman/article/view/4932/4444 |archive-date=June 23, 2016}}</ref> The country's [[Christmas in the Philippines|Christmas season]] begins as early as September 1,<ref name="Rood-2019">{{cite book |last=Rood |first=Steven |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JmCpDwAAQBAJ |title=The Philippines: What Everyone Needs to Know® |date=June 15, 2019 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-19-092060-9 |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JmCpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA149|name=149}}}} and [[Holy Week in the Philippines|Holy Week]] is a solemn religious observance for its Christian population.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sexton |first=Colleen A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ffGdShrIrQAC |title=Philippines in Pictures |series=Visual Geography Series |date=January 1, 2006 |publisher=[[Twenty-First Century Books]] |location=Minneapolis, Minn. |isbn=978-0-8225-2677-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ffGdShrIrQAC&pg=PA46 46] |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Rood-2019" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JmCpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA149|name=149}}}}

=== Values ===
{{Further|Filipino values|Filipino psychology}}
[[File:Core Value.JPG|thumb|alt=Colored outdoor statue of a child pressing their forehead on the hand of a seated elder|Statue in [[Iriga]] commemorating {{lang|fil|[[Mano (gesture)|mano po]]}}]]

Filipino [[Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]] are rooted primarily in personal alliances based in [[Philippine kinship|kinship]], obligation, friendship, religion (particularly Christianity), and commerce.<ref name="Dolan-1991" />{{rp|loc={{plain link|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060927161138/https://countrystudies.us/philippines/41.htm|name=41}}}} They center around social harmony through {{lang|fil|[[pakikisama]]}},<ref name="Qiu-2004">{{cite book |editor-last1=Qiu |editor-first1=Renzong |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=puYpTx1gE40C |title=Bioethics: Asian Perspectives: A Quest for Moral Diversity |series=Philosophy and Medicine |volume=80 |date=2004 |publisher=[[Kluwer Academic Publishers]] |location=Dordrecht, Netherlands |isbn=978-1-4020-1795-7 |language=en |author-link1=Qiu Renzong}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=puYpTx1gE40C&pg=PA74|name=74}}}} motivated primarily by the desire for acceptance by a group.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Hallig |first1=Jason V. |title=Communicating Holiness to the Filipinos: Challenges and Needs the Path to a Filipino Theology of Holiness |journal=Didache: Faithful Teaching |volume=2 |issue=1 |issn=1536-0156 |url=http://didache.nts.edu/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=277&Itemid |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110720015814/http://didache.nts.edu/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=277&Itemid |archive-date=July 20, 2011 |access-date=February 10, 2023 |via=[[Nazarene Theological Seminary]] |pages=2, 10}}</ref><ref name="Warner-2014" /><ref name="Nadal-2011" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zN7-s84jAkoC&pg=PA47|name=47}}}} Reciprocity through {{lang|fil|[[utang na loob]]}} (a debt of gratitude) is a significant Filipino cultural trait, and an internalized debt can never be fully repaid.<ref name="Qiu-2004" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=puYpTx1gE40C&pg=PA76|name=76}}}}<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Alora |editor-first1=Angeles Tan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=55momC6vMWIC |title=Beyond a Western Bioethics: Voices from the Developing World |editor-last2=Lumitao |editor-first2=Josephine M. |date=2001 |publisher=[[Georgetown University Press]] |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-1-58901-249-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=55momC6vMWIC&pg=PA57 57] |language=en}}</ref> The main sanction for divergence from these values are the concepts of {{lang|fil|hiya}} (shame)<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tabadda |first1=Emil V. |editor-last1=Gripaldo |editor-first1=Rolando M. |title=Filipino Cultural Traits: Claro R. Ceniza Lectures |series=Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change Series IIID, Southeast Asia |volume=4 |date=2005 |publisher=Council for Research in Values and Philosophy |location=Washington, D.C. |isbn=978-1-56518-225-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXJe6vKMjroC |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hXJe6vKMjroC&pg=PA35 35–39] |chapter=Chapter II: A Phenomenology of the Tagalog Notions of Hiya [Shame] and Dangal [Dignity] |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hXJe6vKMjroC&pg=PA21}}</ref> and loss of {{lang|es|amor propio}} ([[self-esteem]]).<ref name="Warner-2014">{{cite book |editor-last1=Warner |editor-first1=Malcolm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-HgBAwAAQBAJ |title=Culture and Management in Asia |date=March 5, 2014 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-136-49760-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-HgBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA157 157] |language=en}}</ref>

The family is central to Philippine society; norms such as loyalty, maintaining close relationships and care for elderly parents are ingrained in Philippine society.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Bradford |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-932648SbP4C |title=Philanthropy in Communities of Color |last2=Shue |first2=Sylvia |last3=Vest |first3=Jennifer Lisa |last4=Villarreal |first4=Joseph |date=1999 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |location=Bloomington, Ind. |isbn=978-0-253-11293-4 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-932648SbP4C&pg=PA89 89–90] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Naylor |editor-first1=Larry L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HhUKBb807GsC |title=Cultural Diversity in the United States |date=1997 |publisher=[[Bergin & Garvey]] |location=Westport, Conn. |isbn=978-0-89789-479-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HhUKBb807GsC&pg=PA179 179] |language=en}}</ref> Respect for authority and the elderly is valued, and is shown with gestures such as {{lang|fil|mano}} and the [[Filipino styles and honorifics|honorifics]] {{lang|fil|po}} and {{lang|fil|opo}} and {{lang|fil|kuya}} (older brother) or {{lang|fil|ate}} (older sister).<ref>{{cite book |last=Bonifacio |first=Glenda Tibe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OXPQAQAAQBAJ |title=Pinay on the Prairies: Filipino Women and Transnational Identities |date=November 15, 2013 |publisher=[[University of British Columbia Press|UBC Press]] |location=Vancouver, Canada |isbn=978-0-7748-2582-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OXPQAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA192 192] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Nadal |editor-first1=Kevin Leo Yabut |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cGN7EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT660 |encyclopedia=The SAGE Encyclopedia of Filipina/x/o American Studies |title=Family Structure |editor-last2=Tintiangco-Cubales |editor-first2=Allyson |editor-last3=David |editor-first3=E. J. R. |date=November 3, 2022 |publisher=[[SAGE Publications]] |location=Thousand Oaks, Calif. |isbn=978-1-0718-2901-1 |at=Hierarchy |language=en |editor-link1=Kevin Nadal}}</ref> Other Filipino values are optimism about the future, pessimism about the present, concern about other people, friendship and friendliness, [[hospitality]], religiosity, respect for oneself and others (particularly [[Women in the Philippines|women]]), and integrity.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Talisayon |first1=Serafin D. |editor-last1=Dy |editor-first1=Manuel B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRoYc2hPg2sC |title=Values in Philippine Culture and Education |series=Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change Series III. Asia; Philippine Philosophical Studies |volume=7 |publisher=Office of Research and Publications, Council for Research in Values and Philosophy |location=Washington, D.C. |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-56518-040-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hRoYc2hPg2sC&pg=PA155 155] |chapter=Chapter 13: Teaching Values in the Natural and Physical Sciences in the Philippines |chapter-url=https://www.crvp.org/publications/Series-III/III-7.pdf |access-date=September 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220804051616/https://www.crvp.org/publications/Series-III/III-7.pdf |archive-date=August 4, 2022}}</ref>

=== Art and architecture ===
{{Main|Arts in the Philippines|Architecture of the Philippines}}
[[File:'Spoliarium' by Juan Luna.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of dying gladiators|[[Juan Luna]]'s ''[[Spoliarium]]'' (1884) at the [[National Museum of the Philippines]]]]

Philippine art combines indigenous folk art, east-Asian and [[Classical art|Classical traditions]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Panizo |first1=Alfredo |last2=Rustia |first2=Erlinda F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y86zdJE87TsC |title=Introduction to Art Appreciation and Aesthetics: An Approach to the Humanities |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-23-1932-7 |date=1969 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Y86zdJE87TsC&pg=PA156 156] |language=en}}</ref><ref name="McFerson-2002">{{cite book |editor-last1=McFerson |editor-first1=Hazel M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7FPLWmaGQpEC |title=Mixed Blessing: The Impact of the American Colonial Experience on Politics and Society in the Philippines |date=2002 |publisher=[[Greenwood Press]] |location=Westport, Conn. |isbn=978-0-313-30791-1 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7FPLWmaGQpEC&pg=PA22 22–23] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last1=Hernandez|first1=Eloisa May P.|title=The Spanish Colonial Tradition in Philippine Visual Arts|url=http://ncca.gov.ph/subcommissions/subcommission-on-the-arts-sca/visual-arts/the-spanish-colonial-tradition-in-philippine-visual-arts/|publisher=[[National Commission for Culture and the Arts]]|access-date=April 29, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421082733/http://ncca.gov.ph/subcommissions/subcommission-on-the-arts-sca/visual-arts/the-spanish-colonial-tradition-in-philippine-visual-arts/|archive-date=April 21, 2016|date=April 15, 2015|at=A. Painting}}</ref> During the Spanish colonial period, art was used to spread Catholicism mainly through paintings and sculptures. The first recorded sculptor in the Philippines is Juan de los Santos (1590 –1660) known for making retablos.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=HERNANDEZ |first=ELOISA MAY P |title=The Spanish Colonial Tradition in Philippine Visual Arts |url=https://ncca.gov.ph/about-ncca-3/subcommissions/subcommission-on-the-arts-sca/visual-arts/the-spanish-colonial-tradition-in-philippine-visual-arts/ |website=National Commission for Culture and the Arts}}</ref> In 1821, [[Damián Domingo|Damian Domingo]], the father of Filipino paintings, opened the [[Academia de Dibujo y Pintura|''Academia de Dibujo'']] art school in Binondo.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Santiago |first=Luciano P.R. |title=DAMIAN DOMINGO AND THE FIRST PHILIPPINE ART ACADEMY (1821–1834) |publisher=University of San Carlos Publications |year=1991 |language=English}}</ref> Other artists during Spanish colonial rule included painters such as Josef Luciano Dans, [[José Honorato Lozano|Jose Honorato Lozano]], Mariano Asuncion<ref>{{Cite book |last=Javellana |first=Rene B. |title=The Philippine Colonial Tradition of Sacred Art |publisher=National Museum of the Philippines and Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas |year=2020 |isbn=978-971-567-035-7}}</ref> and sculptors such as [[Isabelo Tampinco]] and Crispulo Hocson.<ref name=":1" /> Artist whose works drew attention to the Philippines are [[Juan Luna]] and [[Félix Resurrección Hidalgo]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last1=Ocampo |first1=Ambeth |author1-link=Ambeth Ocampo |title=Jose Rizal in Filipino Literature and History |url=https://archium.ateneo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1042&context=history-faculty-pubs |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University]] |access-date=May 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414005130/https://archium.ateneo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1042&context=history-faculty-pubs |archive-date=April 14, 2021 |pages=77–78}}</ref> [[Fernando Amorsolo]] dominated Philippine paintings during the American colonial period, popular for his [[pastoral]] scenes of Philippine countryside.<ref name="NCCA">{{cite web |title=Fernando C. Amorsolo |url=http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about_cultarts/cultprofile/natarts/visual/amorsolo.php |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080315060010/http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about_cultarts/cultprofile/natarts/visual/amorsolo.php |archive-date=March 15, 2008 |access-date=October 8, 2016 |publisher=National Commission for Culture and the Arts}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Order of National Artists: Fernando Amorsolo |url=https://ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/culture-profile/national-artists-of-the-philippines/fernando-amorsolo/ |access-date=July 15, 2022 |website=National Commission for Culture and the Arts |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Modernism|Victorio Edades]] known as the father of Modern Philippine Art, popularized [[Modernism]] in the Philippines in 1920s and 1930s.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Foster |first1=Simon |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lJttBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT523 |title=The Rough Guide to the Philippines |last2=Deere |first2=Kiki |date=October 1, 2014 |publisher=[[Rough Guides UK]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-0-241-01376-2 |language=en}}</ref>

[[File:St. Agustine Paoay Church 02.jpg|thumb|alt=Old, mossy church with a lawn in front|The early-18th-century Earthquake Baroque [[Paoay Church]] in [[Ilocos Norte]], a National Cultural Treasure and a UNESCO World Heritage Site as one of four Baroque Churches of the Philippines<ref name="UNESCO-BaroqueChurches" />]]
Traditional Philippine architecture has two main models: the indigenous {{lang|fil|[[bahay kubo]]}} and the {{lang|fil|[[bahay na bato]]}}, which developed under Spanish rule.<ref name="Boquet-2017" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=90C4DgAAQBAJ&pg=PA438|name=438–444}}}} Some regions, such as [[Batanes]], differ slightly due to climate; limestone was used as a building material, and houses were built to withstand typhoons.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Yu |editor-first1=Pei-Lin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8DhjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT151 |title=Relevance and Application of Heritage in Contemporary Society |editor-last2=Shen |editor-first2=Chen |editor-last3=Smith |editor-first3=George S. |date=2018 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-1-351-33296-5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Brown |editor-first1=Jessica |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=18iV522zLj0C |title=The Protected Landscape Approach: Linking Nature, Culture and Community |editor-last2=Mitchell |editor-first2=Nora J. |editor-last3=Beresford |editor-first3=Michael |date=2005 |publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature|IUCN]] |location=Gland, Switzerland |isbn=978-2-8317-0797-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=18iV522zLj0C&pg=PA101 101] |language=en}}</ref>

[[Spanish architecture]] left an imprint in town designs around a [[poblacion|central square]] or {{lang|es|plaza mayor}}, but many of its buildings were damaged or destroyed during World War II.<ref>{{cite conference |last1=Cruz |first1=Geoffrey Rhoel C. |title=A Review of How Philippine Colonial Experience Influenced the Country's Approaches to Conservation of Cultural Heritage |url=https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/pdf/conferences/arts-congress-proceedings/2019/FAC-02.pdf |access-date=April 1, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517150542/https://www.dlsu.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/pdf/conferences/arts-congress-proceedings/2019/FAC-02.pdf |archive-date=May 17, 2021 |publisher=[[De La Salle University]] |book-title=Arts Congress Proceedings |volume=3 |series=9 |date=February 2019 |location=Manila, Philippines |conference=12th Arts Congress |issn=2012-0311 |at=The Philippine Built Cultural Heritage}}</ref><ref name="Ring-1996" /> [[List of Baroque churches in the Philippines|Several]] Philippine [[List of Catholic churches in the Philippines|churches]] adapted [[baroque architecture]] to withstand earthquakes, leading to the development of [[Earthquake Baroque]];<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ortiz |first1=Ma. Aurora R. |last2=Erestain |first2=Teresita E. |last3=Guillermo |first3=Alice G. |last4=Montano |first4=Myrna C. |last5=Pilar |first5=Santiago A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T9UE6SQayrUC |title=Art: Perception & Appreciation |publisher=Goodwill Trading Co., Inc. |location=Makati, Philippines |isbn=978-971-11-0933-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=T9UE6SQayrUC&pg=PA287 287] |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Girard-2021">{{cite book |last=Girard |first=Jean-Claude |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BYZaEAAAQBAJ |title=Leandro Valencia Locsin: Filipino architect |date=December 6, 2021 |publisher=[[Birkhäuser]] |location=Basel, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-0356-2093-1 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BYZaEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 23–25] |language=en}}</ref> [[Baroque Churches of the Philippines|four baroque churches]] have been listed as a collective UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]].<ref name="UNESCO-BaroqueChurches">{{#invoke:cite|web|year=2010 |title=Baroque Churches of the Philippines |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/677/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060210154046/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/677/ |archive-date=February 10, 2006 |access-date=July 22, 2020 |website=[[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Centre]] |publisher=[[UNESCO]]}}</ref> [[Spanish colonial fortifications in the Philippines|Spanish colonial fortifications]] ({{lang|es|fuerzas}}) in several parts of the Philippines were primarily designed by missionary architects and built by Filipino stonemasons.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harrison |first1=Peter |title=Castles of God: Fortified Religious Buildings of the World |date=2004 |publisher=[[Boydell Press]] |location=Woodbridge, Suffolk, England |isbn=978-1-84383-066-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g6PqNavNEdgC&pg=PA190 190] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g6PqNavNEdgC |language=en}}</ref> [[Vigan]], in [[Ilocos Sur]], is known for its Hispanic-style houses and buildings.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rabang |first1=Marie Rose Q. |title=Cultural Mapping as a Tool in Heritage Conservation in a World Heritage Site: The Vigan City Experience |journal=Journal Sampurasun: Interdisciplinary Studies for Cultural Heritage |date=December 4, 2015 |volume=1 |issue=1 |page=31 |doi=10.23969/sampurasun.v1i1.26 |url=https://journal.unpas.ac.id/index.php/sampurasun/article/download/26/7/58 |access-date=April 19, 2023 |publisher=Research Institute of Pasundan University |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429061850/https://journal.unpas.ac.id/index.php/sampurasun/article/download/26/7/58 |archive-date=April 29, 2023 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

American rule introduced new architectural styles in the construction of government buildings and [[Art Deco]] theaters.<ref name="NCCAGovPH-Architecture">{{#invoke:cite|web|last1=Noche |first1=Manuel D. C. |title=History of Philippine Architecture |date=April 14, 2015 |url=http://ncca.gov.ph/subcommissions/subcommission-on-the-arts-sca/architecture-and-allied-arts-2/history-of-philippine-architecture/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170421020700/http://ncca.gov.ph/subcommissions/subcommission-on-the-arts-sca/architecture-and-allied-arts-2/history-of-philippine-architecture/ |archive-date=April 21, 2017 |access-date=September 8, 2016 |publisher=[[National Commission for Culture and the Arts]]}}</ref> During the American period, construction of [[Gabaldon school buildings]] began,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ancho |first1=Inero |last2=San Juan |first2=Mark Ponce |title=Preservation Of Heritage School Buildings In The Philippines: A Case Study Of The Gabaldon Buildings |journal=Journal of Urban Culture Research |date=2021 |volume=22 |pages=106–109 |doi=10.14456/jucr.2021.8 |url=https://so04.tci-thaijo.org/index.php/JUCR/article/view/252190/171120 |access-date=August 13, 2024 |issn=2408-1213}}</ref> and some city planning using architectural designs and master plans by [[Daniel Burnham]] was done in portions of [[Burnham Plan of Manila|Manila]] and [[Baguio]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Adams |first=Thomas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1zNNdADCYcAC |title=Outline of Town and City Planning |date=November 2004 |publisher=[[Routledge]]/[[Thoemmes Press]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-0-415-16094-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1zNNdADCYcAC&pg=PA201 201] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Kirsch |first=Scott |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IrujEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT122 |title=American Colonial Spaces in the Philippines: Insular Empire |series=Routledge Research in Historical Geography |date=February 15, 2023 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Abingdon, Oxon, England |isbn=978-1-000-83977-7 |language=en}}</ref> Part of the Burnham plan was the construction of government buildings reminiscent of [[Ancient Greek architecture|Greek]] or [[Neoclassical architecture]].<ref name="NCCAGovPH-Architecture" /><ref name="Girard-2021" /> Buildings from the Spanish and American periods can be seen in [[Iloilo]], especially in [[Calle Real, Iloilo|Calle Real]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Salas |first=Vic |date=August 9, 2022 |title=[Ilonggo Notes] A city of cultural heritage tourism zones |work=[[Rappler]] |url=https://www.rappler.com/life-and-style/travel/ilonggo-notes-city-cultural-heritage-tourism-zones-iloilo/ |access-date=November 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220809115745/https://www.rappler.com/life-and-style/travel/ilonggo-notes-city-cultural-heritage-tourism-zones-iloilo/ |archive-date=August 9, 2022}}</ref>

===Music and dance===
{{Main|Music of the Philippines|Dance in the Philippines}}
[[File:Tinikling.jpg|thumb|alt=Female dancers in colorful dresses|[[Tinikling]], a dance depicting the swift leg movements of a ''tikling'' bird eluding a farmer's traps<ref>{{cite book |last=Akombo |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ByGCwAAQBAJ |title=The Unity of Music and Dance in World Cultures |date=February 3, 2016 |publisher=[[McFarland & Company|McFarland]] |location=Jefferson, N.C. |isbn=978-1-4766-2269-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1ByGCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA172 172] |language=en}}</ref>]]

There are two types of Philippine [[folk dance]], stemming from traditional indigenous influences and Spanish influence.<ref name="Rodell-2002" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC&pg=PA173|name=173}}}} Although native dances had become less popular,<ref name="Villaruz-2006">{{cite book |last=Villaruz |first=Basilio Esteban S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLQOd-PFxe4C |title=Treading Through: 45 Years of Philippine Dance |date=2006 |publisher=[[University of the Philippines Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-542-509-4}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLQOd-PFxe4C&pg=PA77|name=77}}}} folk dancing began to revive during the 1920s.<ref name="Villaruz-2006" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLQOd-PFxe4C&pg=PA82|name=82}}}} The [[Cariñosa]], a Hispanic Filipino dance, is unofficially considered the country's national dance.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rodríguez |first=José Miguel Díaz |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=emNgDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT159 |title=The Appeal of the Philippines: Spain, Cultural Representation and Politics |series=Routledge Contemporary Southeast Asia Series |date=2018 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-351-99811-6 |language=en}}</ref> Popular indigenous dances include the [[Tinikling]] and [[Singkil (Maranao dance)|Singkil]], which include the rhythmic clapping of bamboo poles.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Parfitt |editor-first1=Clare |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rYNSEAAAQBAJ |title=Cultural Memory and Popular Dance: Dancing to Remember, Dancing to Forget |series=Palgrave Macmillan Memory Studies |date=2021 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |location=Cham, Switzerland |isbn=978-3-030-71083-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rYNSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA189 189] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Namiki |first1=Kanami |title=Hybridity and National Identity: Different Perspectives of Two National Folk Dance Companies in the Philippines |journal=Asian Studies |date=2011 |volume=47 |issue=Special Issue: Cultural Hybridities of the Philippines |pages=69, 84 |url=https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-47-2011/vol-47-2011-cultural-hybridities-philippines.pdf |access-date=May 10, 2023 |publisher=[[University of the Philippines]] |issn=0004-4679 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130711181559/https://asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-47-2011/vol-47-2011-cultural-hybridities-philippines.pdf |archive-date=July 11, 2013}}</ref> Present-day dances vary from delicate [[ballet]]<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Burridge |editor-first1=Stephanie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0ng5EAAAQBAJ&pg=PT164 |title=The Routledge Companion to Dance in Asia and the Pacific: Platforms for Change |date=September 9, 2021 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-000-44021-8 |language=en}}</ref> to street-oriented [[breakdancing]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last=Villacruz |first=Basilio Esteban S. |date=July 24, 2014 |title=Philippine Dance in the American Period |url=http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/articles-on-c-n-a/article.php?igm=1&i=117 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724234241/http://www.ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-and-arts/articles-on-c-n-a/article.php?igm=1&i=117 |archive-date=July 24, 2014 |publisher=[[National Commission for Culture and the Arts]]}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Gasgonia |first=Dennis |date=December 8, 2020 |title=Olympic OK music to Pinoy breakdancers' ears — 'Chance to put PH on the map' |work=[[ABS-CBN News]] |url=https://news.abs-cbn.com/sports/12/08/20/olympic-ok-music-to-pinoy-breakdancers-ears-chance-to-put-ph-on-the-map |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201208160028/https://news.abs-cbn.com/sports/12/08/20/olympic-ok-music-to-pinoy-breakdancers-ears-chance-to-put-ph-on-the-map |archive-date=December 8, 2020}}</ref>

[[Rondalla|Rondalya]] music, with traditional [[mandolin]]-type [[List of Philippine musical instruments|instruments]], was popular during the Spanish era.<ref name="Thompson-Batalla-2018" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DmkPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA327|name=327}}}}<ref name="KCET-MasterRondalla" /> Spanish-influenced musicians are primarily [[bandurria]]-based bands with 14-string guitars.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Martin |editor-first1=Andrew R. |editor-last2=Mihalka |editor-first2=Matthew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wvb2DwAAQBAJ |encyclopedia=Music around the World: A Global Encyclopedia |title=Philippines, Music of the |date=September 8, 2020 |edition=1st |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-61069-499-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wvb2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA665 665] |language=en}}</ref><ref name="KCET-MasterRondalla">{{#invoke:cite|news|date=May 24, 2022 |title=This Master Rondalla Musician is Preserving the Sounds of Philippine Culture in L.A. |work=[[KCET]] |url=https://www.kcet.org/shows/artbound/this-master-rondalla-musician-is-preserving-the-sounds-of-philippine-culture-in-l-a |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524195859/https://www.kcet.org/shows/artbound/this-master-rondalla-musician-is-preserving-the-sounds-of-philippine-culture-in-l-a |archive-date=May 24, 2022}}</ref> [[Kundiman]] developed during the 1920s and 1930s.<ref name="Ellingham-1999">{{cite book |last=Ellingham |first=Mark |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QzX8THIgRjUC |title=The Rough Guide to World Music |volume=2: Latin and North America, Caribbean, India, Asia & Pacific |series=Rough Guide Music Guides |publisher=[[Rough Guides]] |location=London, England |year=2000 |isbn=978-1-85828-636-5 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QzX8THIgRjUC&pg=PA214 214]}}</ref> The American colonial period exposed many Filipinos to [[Culture of the United States|U.S. culture]] and [[Music of the United States|popular music]].<ref name="Ellingham-1999" /> [[Rock music]] was introduced to Filipinos during the 1960s and developed into Filipino rock (or [[Pinoy rock]]), a term encompassing [[pop rock]], [[alternative rock]], [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]], [[punk rock|punk]], [[new wave music|new wave]], [[ska]], and [[reggae]]. Martial law in the 1970s produced [[Philippine folk music|Filipino folk rock]] bands and artists who [[Protest music against the Marcos dictatorship|were at the forefront]] of political demonstrations.<ref name="Murray-2016">{{cite book |editor-last1=Murray |editor-first1=Jeremy A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ot2uDAAAQBAJ |title=Pop Culture in Asia and Oceania |series=Entertainment and Society around the World |editor-last2=Nadeau |editor-first2=Kathleen |date=August 15, 2016 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-4408-3991-7 |language=en}}</ref>{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ot2uDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|name=38–41}}}} The decade also saw the birth of the [[Manila sound]] and [[Original Pilipino Music]] (OPM).<ref name="Shunwei-2022">{{cite journal |last1=Shunwei |first1=Liu |last2=Jia |first2=Li |title=Establishment of Philippine Popular Music Industry |journal=Multicultural Education |date=June 7, 2022 |volume=8 |issue=6 |pages=60, 66–67 |doi=10.5281/zenodo.6618973 |doi-access=free |url=http://ijdri.com/me/wp-content/uploads/2022/06/6.pdf |access-date=April 30, 2023 |publisher=International Journal Documentation & Research Institute}}</ref><ref name="Woods-2006" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Z-n_kDTxf0C&pg=PT196|name=171}}}} [[Filipino hip-hop]], which originated in 1979, entered the mainstream in 1990.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Goldsmith |editor-first1=Melissa Ursula Dawn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6mR2DwAAQBAJ |encyclopedia=Hip Hop around the World: An Encyclopedia |edition=Illustrated |title=The Philippines |volume=I and II: A–Z |editor-last2=Fonseca |editor-first2=Anthony J. |date=December 2018 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Greenwood]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-0-313-35759-6 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6mR2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA552 552–553]}}</ref><ref name="Murray-2016" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ot2uDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38|name=38–41}}}} [[Karaoke]] is also popular.<ref>{{cite book |last=Klempe |first=Sven Hroar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vaV0EAAAQBAJ |title=Sound and Reason: Synesthesia as Metacognition |series=Palgrave Studies in Sound |date=2022 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-19-2340-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vaV0EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA83 83] |language=en}}</ref> From 2010 to 2020, [[Pinoy pop]] (P-pop) was influenced by [[K-pop]] and [[J-pop]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Newbould |first=Chris |date=October 24, 2022 |title=A brief history of P-pop, from anti-Marcos messages to the mainstream and back |language=en |work=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]] |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/music/2022/10/24/a-brief-history-of-p-pop-from-anti-marcos-messages-to-the-mainstream-and-back/ |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205213311/https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/music/2022/10/24/a-brief-history-of-p-pop-from-anti-marcos-messages-to-the-mainstream-and-back/ |archive-date=December 5, 2022}}</ref>

Locally produced theatrical drama became established during the late 1870s. Spanish influence around that time introduced {{lang|es|[[zarzuela]]}} plays (with music)<ref name="Liu-2016">{{cite book |editor-last1=Liu |editor-first1=Siyuan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H1iFCwAAQBAJ |title=Routledge Handbook of Asian Theatre |series=Routledge Handbooks |date=2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-317-27886-3 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H1iFCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA372 372–373]}}</ref> and {{lang|es|[[Comedia (play)|comedia]]}}s, with dance. The plays became popular throughout the country,<ref name="Villaruz-2006" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLQOd-PFxe4C&pg=PA69|name=69–70}}}} and were written in a number of local languages.<ref name="Liu-2016" /> American influence introduced [[vaudeville]] and ballet.<ref name="Villaruz-2006" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qLQOd-PFxe4C&pg=PA69|name=69–70}}}} [[Realism (theatre)|Realistic]] theatre became dominant during the 20th century, with plays focusing on contemporary political and social issues.<ref name="Liu-2016" />

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Philippine literature}}
[[File:Jose Rizal full.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|alt=photograph of José Rizal|José Rizal's writings inspired the [[Philippine Revolution]].]]

Philippine literature consists of [[Filipiniana|works]] usually written in Filipino, [[Philippine literature in Spanish|Spanish]], or [[Philippine literature in English|English]]. Some of the earliest well-known works were created from the 17th to the 19th&nbsp;centuries.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NbY3AAAAIAAJ |title=Literaturen |date=1976 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |location=Leiden, Netherlands |isbn=978-90-04-04331-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NbY3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA277 277] |language=en}}</ref> They include {{lang|fil|[[Ibong Adarna]]}}, an epic about an eponymous magical bird,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rodriguez |first1=Eulogio Balan |title=The Adarna Bird: A Filipino Tale of Pre-Spanish Origin Incorporated in the Development of Philippine Literature, the Rapid Growth of Vernacular Belles-letters from Its Earliest Inception to the Present Day |date=1933 |publisher=General Printing Press |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |pages=[https://web.archive.org/web/20230725001129/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/AJV4301.0001.001/56 51]–[https://web.archive.org/web/20230725001307/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/philamer/ajv4301.0001.001/57 52] |url=http://name.umdl.umich.edu/ajv4301.0001.001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230725001440/https://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=philamer;idno=AJV4301.0001.001 |archive-date=July 25, 2023 |oclc=34358713 |via=[[University of Michigan Library]]}}</ref> and {{lang|fil|[[Florante at Laura]]}} by Tagalog author [[Francisco Balagtas]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lumbera |first1=Bienvenido |title='Florante at Laura' and the Formalization of Tradition in Tagalog Poetry |journal=[[Philippine Studies (journal)|Philippine Studies]] |date=1967 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=545–575 |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University]] |issn=0031-7837 |jstor=42720240}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Blanco |first=John D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sNtM4sXUgCEC |title=Frontier Constitutions: Christianity and Colonial Empire in the Nineteenth-Century Philippines |date=February 24, 2009 |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |location=Berkeley, Calif. |isbn=978-0-520-94369-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sNtM4sXUgCEC&pg=PA55 55] |language=en}}</ref> [[José Rizal]] wrote the novels {{lang|es|[[Noli Me Tángere (novel)|Noli Me Tángere]]}} and {{lang|es|[[El filibusterismo]]}},<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bernad |first1=Miguel A. |title=Rizal in Guerrero's Translation: El Filibusterismo |journal=[[Philippine Studies (journal)|Philippine Studies]] |date=1967 |volume=15 |issue=1 |page=204 |url=http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/2299/4425 |access-date=April 30, 2023 |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University]] |issn=0031-7837 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171108185224/http://www.philippinestudies.net/ojs/index.php/ps/article/download/2299/4425 |archive-date=November 8, 2017}}</ref> both of which depict the injustices of Spanish colonial rule.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Tarver |editor-first1=H. Micheal |editor-last2=Slape |editor-first2=Emily |encyclopedia=The Spanish Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia |series=Empires of the World |volume=I |edition=Illustrated |title=Philippine Revolution (1896–1898) |date=July 25, 2016 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-61069-422-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1LCJDAAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA108 108] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1LCJDAAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref>

[[Philippine folk literature|Folk literature]] was relatively unaffected by colonial influence until the 19th century due to Spanish indifference. Most printed literary works during Spanish colonial rule were religious in nature, although [[Ilustrado|Filipino elites]] who later learned Spanish wrote [[Filipino nationalism|nationalistic]] literature.<ref name="Rodell-2002" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC&pg=PA59|name=59–62}}}} The American arrival [[Education in the Philippines during American rule|began]] Filipino literary use of English<ref name="Rodell-2002" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC&pg=PA65|name=65–66}}}} and influenced the development of the [[Philippine comics]] industry that flourished from the 1920s through the 1970s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reyes |first1=Soledad S. |author1-link=Soledad Reyes |title=The Philippine 'Komiks': Text as Containment |journal=Southeast Asian Journal of Social Science |date=1997 |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=81–81, 85–87 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |doi=10.1163/030382497X00059 |jstor=24492451 |issn=0303-8246 |oclc=9982710804}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reyes |first1=Soledad S. |author1-link=Soledad Reyes |title=The Komiks and Retelling the Lore of the Folk |journal=[[Philippine Studies (journal)|Philippine Studies]] |date=2009 |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=389–390 |publisher=[[Ateneo de Manila University]] |jstor=42634017 |issn=0031-7837 |oclc=9975776944}}</ref> In the late 1960s, during the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos, Philippine literature was [[Student activism in the Philippines (1965–1972)|influenced by political activism]]; many poets began using Tagalog, in keeping with the country's oral traditions.<ref name="Rodell-2002" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC&pg=PA69|name=69–71}}}}

[[Philippine mythology]] has been handed down primarily through oral tradition;<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Fee |editor-first1=Christopher R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXnEDAAAQBAJ |encyclopedia=American Myths, Legends, and Tall Tales: An Encyclopedia of American Folklore |volume=I: A–F |title=Filipino American Folklore and Folktales |editor-last2=Webb |editor-first2=Jeffrey B. |date=August 29, 2016 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-61069-568-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kXnEDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA369 369] |language=en |author-link1=Christopher R. Fee}}</ref> popular [[List of Philippine mythological figures|figures]] are [[Maria Makiling]],<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Hardenberg |editor-first1=Wilko Graf von |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8gkqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT62 |title=The Nature State: Rethinking the History of Conservation |series=Routledge Environmental Humanities series |editor-last2=Kelly |editor-first2=Matthew |editor-last3=Leal |editor-first3=Claudia |editor-last4=Wakild |editor-first4=Emily |date=July 14, 2017 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-351-76463-6 |language=en}}</ref> [[Biag ni Lam-Ang|Lam-ang]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Villanueva |first1=Louie B. |title=Biag ni Lam-ang: An Ilokano Epic Analysis and Its Implication to Ilokano Folk Literature and Philippine Educational Development |journal=Journal of Tianjin University: Science and Technology |date=2022 |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=624–625, 631 |doi=10.17605/OSF.IO/RYXCN |url=https://tianjindaxuexuebao.com/dashboard/uploads/39.%20RYXCN.pdf |access-date=May 1, 2023 |publisher=[[Tianjin University]] |issn=0493-2137}}</ref> and the [[Sarimanok]].<ref name="Rodell-2002" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y1CVR74_KHQC&pg=PA61|name=61}}}}<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Bane |first=Theresa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7PYWDAAAQBAJ |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Beasts and Monsters in Myth, Legend and Folklore |title=Sarimanok |date=May 22, 2016 |publisher=[[McFarland & Company|McFarland]] |location=Jefferson, N.C. |isbn=978-1-4766-2268-2 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7PYWDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA279 279] |language=en}}</ref> The country has a number of [[Philippine epic poetry|folk epics]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Lopez |first=Mellie Leandicho |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jGssp-oJrT8C |title=A Handbook of Philippine Folklore |date=2006 |publisher=[[University of the Philippines Press]] |location=Quezon City, Philippines |isbn=978-971-542-514-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jGssp-oJrT8C&pg=PA147 147] |language=en}}</ref> Wealthy families could preserve transcriptions of the epics as family heirlooms, particularly in Mindanao; the [[Maranao language|Maranao-language]] ''[[Darangen]]'' is an example.<ref>{{cite book |last=Madale |first=Abdullah T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xr8_P6mJ-ZIC |title=The Maranaws, Dwellers of the Lake |date=1997 |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-23-2174-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xr8_P6mJ-ZIC&pg=PA67 67] |language=en}}</ref>

=== Media ===
{{main|Mass media in the Philippines|Cinema of the Philippines}}
[[File:People's Television Network Logo (2017-present).jpg|thumb|alt=TV network logo, a multicolored triangle|People's Television Network logo]]

Philippine media primarily uses Filipino and English, although [[broadcasting]] has shifted to Filipino.<ref name="Brown-Ganguly-2003" /> [[List of Philippine television shows|Television shows]], commercials, and [[Lists of Philippine films|films]] are regulated by the [[Movie and Television Review and Classification Board]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Kitley |editor-first1=Philip |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rb2AAgAAQBAJ |title=Television, Regulation and Civil Society in Asia |date=August 29, 2003 |publisher=[[RoutledgeCurzon]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-134-43194-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rb2AAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA140 140] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Deocampo |first=Nick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WzaWDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT510 |title=Film: American Influences on Philippine Cinema |date=November 9, 2017 |publisher=[[Anvil Publishing, Inc.]] |location=Mandaluyong, Philippines |isbn=978-971-27-2896-9 |language=en |author-link=Nick Deocampo}}</ref> Most Filipinos obtain news and information from television, the Internet,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Lucas |first=Daxim L. |date=September 13, 2011 |title=Filipinos seek info on Web; rich prefer newspapers |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://technology.inquirer.net/4101/filipinos-seek-info-on-web-rich-prefer-newspapers |access-date=August 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111116070555/http://technology.inquirer.net/4101/filipinos-seek-info-on-web-rich-prefer-newspapers/ |archive-date=November 16, 2011}}</ref> and [[Social media use in the Philippines|social media]].<ref name="CNNPH-SWSFacebook">{{#invoke:cite|news|date=June 30, 2019 |title=SWS: Facebook next to TV as Filipinos' top source of news |work=[[CNN Philippines]] |url=https://www.cnnphilippines.com/news/2019/6/30/facebook-news-source-filipino-adults.html |access-date=August 6, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703110139/https://cnnphilippines.com/news/2019/6/30/facebook-news-source-filipino-adults.html |archive-date=July 3, 2019}}</ref> The country's flagship state-owned broadcast-television network is the [[People's Television Network]] (PTV).<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|title=PTV 4 |url=https://philippines.mom-rsf.org/en/media/detail/outlet/ptv-4/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207200937/https://philippines.mom-rsf.org/en/media/detail/outlet/ptv-4/ |archive-date=December 7, 2022 |access-date=February 28, 2023 |website=Media Ownership Monitor |publisher=MOM Team, [[VERA Files]], [[Reporters Without Borders]], Global Media Registry}}</ref> [[ABS-CBN]] and [[GMA Network|GMA]], both [[free-to-air]], were the dominant TV networks;<ref name="BBC-Philippines-Profile">{{#invoke:cite|web|date=July 4, 2022 |title=Philippines country profile |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15521300 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209103826/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-15521300 |archive-date=February 9, 2023 |access-date=February 9, 2023 |publisher=[[BBC News]] |at=Media}}</ref> before the May 2020 [[ABS-CBN franchise renewal controversy|Philippine government denial of ABS-CBN's franchise renewal]], it was the country's largest network.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Gutierrez |first=Jason |date=July 10, 2020 |title=Philippine Congress officially shuts down leading broadcaster |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/10/world/asia/philippines-congress-media-duterte-abs-cbn.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=August 22, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200710111029/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/10/world/asia/philippines-congress-media-duterte-abs-cbn.html |archive-date=July 10, 2020}}</ref> [[Philippine television drama]]s, known as {{lang|fil|teleserye}}s and mainly produced by [[List of ABS-CBN original drama series|ABS-CBN]] and [[List of GMA Network original drama series|GMA]], are also seen in several other countries.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Achenbach |editor-first1=Ruth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g_b_DwAAQBAJ |title=Afrasian Transformations: Transregional Perspectives on Development Cooperation, Social Mobility, and Cultural Change |series=Africa-Europe Group for Interdisciplinary Studies |volume=20 |date=2020 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |location=Leiden, Netherlands |isbn=978-90-04-42526-2 |editor-last2=Beek |editor-first2=Jan |editor-last3=Karugia |editor-first3=John Njenga |editor-last4=Mageza-Barthel |editor-first4=Rirhandu |editor-last5=Schulze-Engler |editor-first5=Frank |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g_b_DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA256 256] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Soliman |first1=Michelle Anne P. |date=April 10, 2022 |title=Pinoy teleseryes gain global following amid coronavirus pandemic |work=[[BusinessWorld]] |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/top-stories/2022/04/11/441537/pinoy-teleseryes-gain-global-following-amid-coronavirus-pandemic/ |access-date=February 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220410182249/https://www.bworldonline.com/top-stories/2022/04/11/441537/pinoy-teleseryes-gain-global-following-amid-coronavirus-pandemic/ |archive-date=April 10, 2022}}</ref>

Local film-making [[List of Philippine films before 1940|began in 1919]] with the release of the first Filipino-produced [[feature film]]: {{lang|fil|[[Dalagang Bukid]]}} (''A Girl from the Country''), directed by [[José Nepomuceno|Jose Nepomuceno]].<ref name="Armes-1987" /><ref name="Tofighian-2006" />{{rp|page=8}} [[List of Philippine film studios|Production companies]] remained small during the [[silent film]] era, but sound films and larger productions emerged in 1933. The postwar 1940s to the early 1960s are considered a high point for Philippine cinema. The 1962–1971 decade saw a decline in quality films, although the commercial film industry expanded until the 1980s.<ref name="Armes-1987" /> Critically acclaimed Philippine films include {{lang|fil|[[Himala]]}} (''Miracle'') and {{lang|es|[[Oro, Plata, Mata]]}} (''Gold, Silver, Death''), both released in 1982.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=San Diego |first=Bayani Jr. |date=August 5, 2012 |title=Restoring Himala |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=http://entertainment.inquirer.net/52959/restoring-himala |access-date=October 29, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806083921/http://entertainment.inquirer.net/52959/restoring-himala |archive-date=August 6, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Plaza |first=Gerry |date=August 16, 2012 |title=May Himala! Restored film proves real global classic |work=[[Yahoo!|Yahoo! Philippines OMG!]] |url=http://ph.omg.yahoo.com/blogs/omgphnewsblog/may-himala-restored-film-proves-real-global-classic-013358351.html |access-date=October 29, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120820024727/http://ph.omg.yahoo.com/blogs/omgphnewsblog/may-himala-restored-film-proves-real-global-classic-013358351.html |archive-date=August 20, 2012}}</ref> Since the turn of the 21st century, the country's film industry has struggled to compete with larger-budget foreign films<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=February 16, 2012 |title=Philippine film industry in decline |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |url=https://entertainment.inquirer.net/30455/philippine-film-industry-in-decline |access-date=November 19, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120218044638/https://entertainment.inquirer.net/30455/philippine-film-industry-in-decline |archive-date=February 18, 2012}}</ref> (particularly [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood films]]).<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Conde |first=Carlos H. |date=February 11, 2007 |title=A bleak storyline for the Filipino film industry |work=[[International Herald Tribune]] |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/02/11/yourmoney/movies12.php |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070213070634/http://www.iht.com/articles/2007/02/11/yourmoney/movies12.php |archive-date=February 13, 2007}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Malasig |first=Jeline |date=February 8, 2019 |title='We need resuscitation': Erik Matti laments state of local film industry |work=[[InterAksyon]] |url=https://interaksyon.philstar.com/trends-spotlights/2019/02/08/143748/erik-matti-state-philippine-movie-industry-facebook-post/ |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028083919/https://interaksyon.philstar.com/trends-spotlights/2019/02/08/143748/erik-matti-state-philippine-movie-industry-facebook-post/ |archive-date=October 28, 2020}}</ref> [[Art film]]s have thrived, however, and several [[Philippine New Wave|indie film]]s have been successful domestically and abroad.<ref name="Forbes-CinemaGrowingFast">{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Ramoran-Malasig |first=Carol |date=March 1, 2018 |title=Philippine Cinema Is Growing Fast, And Is Moving Away From Typical Themes Of Poverty And Violence |language=en |work=[[Forbes]] |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/cmalasig/2018/03/01/philippine-cinema-more-than-poverty-porn-violence/?sh=726667123b5d |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20230209153113/https://www.forbes.com/sites/cmalasig/2018/03/01/philippine-cinema-more-than-poverty-porn-violence/?sh=158d8b1a3b5d |archive-date=February 9, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Lim |editor-first1=David C. L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s2aLEAAAQBAJ |title=Film in Contemporary Southeast Asia: Cultural Interpretation and Social Intervention |editor-last2=Yamamoto |editor-first2=Hiroyuki |date=March 12, 2012 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Abingdon, Oxon, England |isbn=978-1-136-59247-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=s2aLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 16] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Endo |first=Jun |date=April 29, 2019 |title=Philippine film foundation flipped the script for a 'dead' industry |work=[[Nikkei Asia]] |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Nikkei-Asia-Prizes/Philippine-film-foundation-flipped-the-script-for-a-dead-industry |access-date=February 28, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428180208/https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Nikkei-Asia-Prizes/Philippine-film-foundation-flipped-the-script-for-a-dead-industry |archive-date=April 28, 2019}}</ref>

The Philippines has a large number of [[List of radio stations in the Philippines|radio stations]] and [[List of newspapers in the Philippines|newspapers]].<ref name="BBC-Philippines-Profile" /> English [[broadsheet]]s are popular among executives, professionals and students.<ref name="Thompson-2003" />{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W1h9oF9rj-MC&pg=PA233|name=233–251}}}} Less-expensive Tagalog [[tabloid (newspaper format)|tabloid]]s, which grew during the 1990s, are popular (particularly in Manila);<ref>{{cite book |last=Kusaka |first=Wataru |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hb7WDgAAQBAJ |title=Moral Politics in the Philippines: Inequality, Democracy and the Urban Poor |series=Kyoto-CSEAS Series on Asian Studies |date=2017 |publisher=[[NUS Press]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-4722-38-4 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hb7WDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA63 63–65]}}</ref> however, overall newspaper readership is declining in favor of [[Social media as a news source|online news]].<ref name="CNNPH-SWSFacebook" /><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Mirasol |first1=Patricia B. |title=More smartphone-dependent Filipinos seek news on social media — Reuters report |url=https://www.bworldonline.com/world/2021/06/30/379239/more-smartphone-dependent-filipinos-seek-news-on-social-media-reuters-report/ |access-date=December 21, 2023 |work=[[BusinessWorld]] |date=June 30, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524140112/https://www.bworldonline.com/world/2021/06/30/379239/more-smartphone-dependent-filipinos-seek-news-on-social-media-reuters-report/ |archive-date=May 24, 2022}}</ref> The top three newspapers, by nationwide readership and credibility,<ref name="Thompson-2003" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1VI9AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA233|name=233}}}} are the ''[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]'', ''[[Manila Bulletin]]'', and ''[[The Philippine Star]]''.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Bautista |editor-first1=Ma. Lourdes S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YnUgBAAAQBAJ |title=Philippine English: Linguistic and Literary Perspectives |series=Asian Englishes Today |editor-last2=Bolton |editor-first2=Kingsley |date=November 2008 |publisher=[[Hong Kong University Press]] |location=Hong Kong, China |isbn=978-962-209-947-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YnUgBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 53]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Diaz |first1=Manuel O. Jr. |title=Sentiment Polarity Identification in Banner Headlines of Broadsheets in the Philippines |journal=Asian Journal of Media and Communication |date=December 2021 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=102, 108–109 |url=https://journal.uii.ac.id/AJMC/article/download/20642/11986/61543 |access-date=April 30, 2023 |publisher=[[Universitas Islam Indonesia]] |doi=10.20885/asjmc.vol5.iss2.art1 |s2cid=260224724 |issn=2579-6119 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230430013654/https://journal.uii.ac.id/AJMC/article/download/20642/11986/61543 |archive-date=April 30, 2023 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Although [[freedom of the press]] is protected by the constitution,<ref>{{Cite constitution| |article=III |section=4 |polity=the Philippines |date=1987 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-article-iii/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170613221225/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/constitutions/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines/the-1987-constitution-of-the-republic-of-the-philippines-article-iii/ |archive-date=June 13, 2017 |access-date=February 27, 2023 |website=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]]}}</ref> the country was listed as the seventh-most-dangerous country for journalists in 2022 by the [[Committee to Protect Journalists]] due to 13 unsolved murders of journalists.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Subingsubing |first1=Krixia |last2=Santos |first2=Tina G. |date=November 4, 2022 |title=PH still among most dangerous countries for journalists |language=en |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1689131/ph-still-among-the-most-dangerous-countries-for-journalists |access-date=February 27, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103225817/https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1689131/ph-still-among-the-most-dangerous-countries-for-journalists |archive-date=November 3, 2022}}</ref>

The Philippine population are the world's top Internet users.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Lamb |first=Kate |date=February 1, 2019 |title=Philippines tops world internet usage index with an average 10 hours a day |work=[[The Guardian]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/feb/01/world-internet-usage-index-philippines-10-hours-a-day |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190201095445/https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/feb/01/world-internet-usage-index-philippines-10-hours-a-day |archive-date=February 1, 2019}}</ref> In early 2021, 67 percent of Filipinos (73.91&nbsp;million) had Internet access; the overwhelming majority used [[smartphone]]s.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Magahis |first1=Coleen |last2=Santua |first2=James |date=June 18, 2021 |title=Filipinos' reliance on internet at an all-time high |work=[[Manila Standard]] |url=https://manilastandard.net/spotlight/ph-best-communication-service-providers/357427/filipinos-reliance-on-internet-at-an-all-time-high.html |access-date=November 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618192106/https://manilastandard.net/spotlight/ph-best-communication-service-providers/357427/filipinos-reliance-on-internet-at-an-all-time-high.html |archive-date=June 18, 2021}}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{main|Filipino cuisine}}
[[File:Fish sinigang.jpg|thumb|alt=Chunky soup in a white bowl|A bowl of fish ''[[sinigang]]'']]

From its Malayo-Polynesian origins, traditional Philippine cuisine has evolved since the 16th century. It was primarily influenced by Hispanic, [[Filipino Chinese cuisine|Chinese]], and [[American cuisine|American]] cuisines, which were adapted to the Filipino palate.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Roufs |first1=Timothy G. |last2=Roufs |first2=Kathleen Smyth |encyclopedia=Sweet Treats around the World: An Encyclopedia of Food and Culture |title=The Philippines |date=July 29, 2014 |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-61069-221-2 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M_eCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA267 267–268] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M_eCBAAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Alejandro |first=Reynaldo |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HUaDoUF0tRwC |title=The Philippine Cookbook |date=1985 |publisher=[[Perigee Books]] |location=New York, N.Y. |isbn=978-0-399-51144-8 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HUaDoUF0tRwC&pg=PA12 12–14] |language=en}}</ref> Filipinos tend to prefer robust flavors,<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=De Meester |editor-first1=Fabien |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kPXurhDHsT4C |title=Wild-type Food in Health Promotion and Disease Prevention: The Columbus Concept |date=January 23, 2008 |publisher=[[Humana Press]] |location=Totowa, N.J. |isbn=978-1-59745-330-1 |editor-last2=Watson |editor-first2=Ronald Ross |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kPXurhDHsT4C&pg=PA530 530]}}</ref> centered on sweet, salty, and sour combinations.<ref name="Aquino-Porter-2022">{{cite book |editor-last1=Aquino |editor-first1=Richard S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ldCPEAAAQBAJ |title=Tourism in the Philippines: Applied Management Perspectives |series=Perspectives on Asian Tourism |editor-last2=Porter |editor-first2=Brooke A. |date=2022 |publisher=[[Springer Nature]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-981-19-4497-0}}</ref>{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ldCPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA88|name=88}}}} Regional variations exist throughout the country; rice is the general staple [[Starch#Food|starch]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Narvaez-Soriano |first=Nora |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pqBX_CDwVKsC |title=A Guide to Food Selection, Preparation and Preservation |edition=Revised |date=1994 |publisher=[[REX Book Store, Inc.]] |location=Manila, Philippines |isbn=978-971-23-0114-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pqBX_CDwVKsC&pg=PA120 120] |language=en}}</ref> but [[Cassava-based dishes|cassava]] is more common in parts of Mindanao.<ref>{{cite report |type=Conference proceeding |editor-last1=Howeler |editor-first=R. H. |editor-last2=Kawano |editor-first2=K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JlrDyj0LRgQC |title=Cassava Breeding and Agronomy Research in Asia: Proceedings of a Regional Workshop Held in Rayong, Thailand, Oct. 26–28, 1987 |date=1988 |publisher=[[International Center for Tropical Agriculture|CIAT]] |location=Cali, Colombia |oclc=19544717 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JlrDyj0LRgQC&pg=PA261 261] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |type=Conference proceeding |last1=Bacusmo |first1=Jose L. |editor-last1=Howeler |editor-first1=Reinhardt H. |editor-last2=Tan |editor-first2=Swee Lian |title=Cassava's Potential in Asia in the 21st Century: Present Situation and Future Research and Development Needs: Proceedings of the Sixth Regional Workshop held in Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam. Feb. 21–25, 2000 |date=2001 |publisher=[[International Center for Tropical Agriculture|CIAT Cassava Office for Asia]] |location=Bangkok, Thailand |isbn=<!-- ISBN unspecified --> |oclc=49746198 |page=87 |url=https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/56519/cassavas_potential_in_asia.pdf?sequence=1#page=92 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170811055627/https://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/56519/cassavas_potential_in_asia.pdf?sequence=1 |archive-date=August 11, 2017 |chapter=Status and Potentials of the Philippines Cassava Industry |via=CGSpace}}</ref> [[Philippine adobo|Adobo]] is the unofficial national dish.<ref>{{cite book |last=Zibart |first=Eve |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9MEfv2p2JP4C&pg=PT313 |title=The Ethnic Food Lover's Companion: Understanding the Cuisines of the World |date=February 1, 2010 |publisher=Menasha Ridge Press |location=Birmingham, Ala. |isbn=978-0-89732-775-6 |language=en}}</ref> Other [[List of Philippine dishes|popular dishes]] include ''[[lechón]]'', ''[[kare-kare]]'', ''[[sinigang]]'',<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Cator |first=Currie |date=January 29, 2022 |title=Sinigang is world's best soup again; Lumpia among top side dishes |work=[[CNN Philippines]] |url=https://www.cnnphilippines.com/lifestyle/2022/1/29/Sinigang-Lumpia-Taste-Atlas-Awards-2021.html |access-date=February 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129105341/https://www.cnnphilippines.com/lifestyle/2022/1/29/Sinigang-Lumpia-Taste-Atlas-Awards-2021.html |archive-date=January 29, 2022}}</ref> ''[[pancit]]'', ''[[lumpia]]'', and ''[[arroz caldo]]''.<ref name="Anderson-2018">{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=E. N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A5C8DwAAQBAJ |title=Asian Cuisines: Food Culture from East Asia to Turkey and Afghanistan |last2=Buell |first2=Paul D. |last3=Goldstein |first3=Darra |editor-last1=Christensen |editor-first1=Karen |date=2018 |publisher=[[Berkshire Publishing Group]] |location=Great Barrington, Mass. |isbn=978-1-61472-846-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=A5C8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA80 80] |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Zhao |editor-first1=Xiaojian |editor-last2=Park |editor-first2=Edward J. W. |encyclopedia=Asian Americans: An Encyclopedia of Social, Cultural, Economic, and Political History |volume=I: A–F |title=Filipino Cuisine in the United States |date=November 26, 2013 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Greenwood]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |isbn=978-1-59884-240-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3AxIAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA409 409] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3AxIAgAAQBAJ |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Cheung |editor-first1=Sidney |editor-last2=Wu |editor-first2=David Y. H. |title=Globalization of Chinese Food |date=2012 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-136-00294-6 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3qrfsWaV5j0C&pg=PA186 186] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3qrfsWaV5j0C |language=en}}</ref> [[List of Philippine desserts|Traditional desserts]] are {{lang|fil|kakanin}} ([[rice cake]]s), which include ''[[puto (food)|puto]]'', ''[[suman (food)|suman]]'', and ''[[bibingka]]''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=De Villa |first1=Bianca Denise M. |last2=Domingo |first2=Thea Mari M. |last3=Ramirez |first3=Rhema Jenica C. |last4=Mercado |first4=Jame Monren T. |title=Explicating the culinary heritage significance of Filipino kakanin using bibliometrics (1934–2018) |journal=International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science |date=June 2022 |volume=28 |doi=10.1016/j.ijgfs.2022.100522}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Ang |editor-first1=Catharina Y. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C4cTXJYTE4QC |title=Asian Foods: Science and Technology |editor-last2=Liu |editor-first2=Keshun |editor-last3=Huang |editor-first3=Yao-Wen |date=April 5, 1999 |publisher=Technomic Publishing Co. |location=Lancaster, Pa. |isbn=978-1-56676-736-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=C4cTXJYTE4QC&pg=PA474 474] |language=en}}</ref> Ingredients such as [[calamansi]],<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |editor-last1=Ling |editor-first1=Huping |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0PFnBwAAQBAJ |encyclopedia=Asian American History and Culture: An Encyclopedia |title=Restaurants and Cuisine, Filipino American |editor-last2=Austin |editor-first2=Allan W. |date=2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=Abingdon, Oxon, England |isbn=978-1-317-47645-0 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0PFnBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA303 303] |language=en |editor-link1=Huping Ling}}</ref> ''[[Ube halaya|ube]]'',<ref>{{cite book |last=Manabat |first=Rudolf Vincent T. |title=Baking Secrets |date=September 14, 2020 |publisher=[[Anvil Publishing, Inc.]] |location=Mandaluyong, Philippines |isbn=978-971-27-3623-0 |language=en |chapter=Filipino Desserts |access-date=March 10, 2023 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Ub9DwAAQBAJ |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Ub9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT68}}</ref> and ''[[Canarium ovatum|pili]]'' are used in Filipino desserts.<ref>{{cite book |last=Duke |first=James A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Va3ED4zwXGIC |title=Handbook of Nuts |series=Herbal Reference Library |date=November 10, 2000 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |location=Boca Raton, Fla. |isbn=978-0-8493-3637-9 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Va3ED4zwXGIC&pg=PA67 67] |language=en |author-link1=James A. Duke}}</ref><ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|date=July 13, 2017 |title=Pili—The Delicious, Healthy Nut You've Never Heard Of |work=[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]] |url=https://www.vogue.com/article/pili-nuts-what-you-need-to-know |access-date=March 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170714040519/https://www.vogue.com/article/pili-nuts-what-you-need-to-know |archive-date=July 14, 2017}}</ref> The generous use of [[Philippine condiments|condiments]] such as ''[[patis (sauce)|patis]]'', ''[[bagoong]]'', and ''[[Soy sauce#Filipino|toyo]]'' impart a distinctive Philippine flavor.<ref name="Anderson-2018" /><ref name="Aquino-Porter-2022" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ldCPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA73|name=73}}}}

Unlike other East or Southeast Asian countries, most Filipinos do not eat with [[chopsticks]]; they use spoons and forks.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cruz |first1=Gemma Tulud |title=An Intercultural Theology of Migration: Pilgrims in the Wilderness |date=2010 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |isbn=978-90-04-19367-3 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NOF5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 22–23] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NOF5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA22 |language=en |location=Leiden, Netherlands}}</ref> Traditional eating with the fingers<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Lowry |first=Dave |date=January 6, 2016 |title=Hand-to-Mouth Combat: Experiencing a Kamayan Dinner at Hiro Asian Kitchen |work=[[St. Louis Magazine]] |url=https://www.stlmag.com/dining/hand-to-mouth-combat-experiencing-a-kamayan-dinner-at-hiro-asian-kitchen/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107011949/https://www.stlmag.com/dining/hand-to-mouth-combat-experiencing-a-kamayan-dinner-at-hiro-asian-kitchen/ |archive-date=November 7, 2017}}</ref> (known as {{lang|fil|[[kamayan]]}}) had been used in less urbanized areas,<ref>{{cite book |last=Zibart |first=Eve |url=https://archive.org/details/ethnicfoodlovers0000ziba |title=The Ethnic Food Lover's Companion: Understanding the Cuisines of the World |publisher=Menasha Ridge Press |location=Birmingham, Ala. |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-89732-372-7 |url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|pages={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y6vTun3i4NQC&pg=PA266|name=266–268, <!--Estimate--> 277}}}} but has been popularized with the introduction of Filipino food to foreigners and city residents.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bender |first1=Daniel E. |last2=De Leon |first2=Adrian |title=Everybody was boodle fighting: military histories, culinary tourism, and diasporic dining |journal=[[Food, Culture & Society]] |publisher=[[Taylor and Francis]] |date=January 2018 |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=36–37 |doi=10.1080/15528014.2017.1398469 |s2cid=158465429}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Alejandro |first=Reynaldo G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IzXRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT35 |title=Authentic Recipes from the Philippines: 81 Easy and Delicious Recipes from the Pearl of the Orient |date=March 13, 2012 |publisher=[[Periplus Editions]] |location=Singapore |isbn=978-1-4629-0533-1}}</ref>

=== Sports and recreation ===
{{Main|Sports in the Philippines|Traditional games in the Philippines}}
[[File:Gilas Cadets 2015 SEA Games.jpg|thumb|alt=Team photo, with each blue-uniformed member wearing a gold medal|The [[Philippines men's national basketball team]] celebrating their [[Basketball at the 2015 Southeast Asian Games|2015 Southeast Asian Games]] championship]]

[[Basketball in the Philippines|Basketball]], played at the amateur and professional levels, is considered the country's most popular sport.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Cho |editor-first1=Younghan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DYz7CwAAQBAJ |title=Modern Sports in Asia: Cultural Perspectives |series=Sport in the Global Society – Contemporary Perspectives |editor-last2=Leary |editor-first2=Charles |date=2016 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London, England |isbn=978-1-317-58638-8 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DYz7CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA87 87]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Grasso |first=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nZUarsZyzokC |encyclopedia=Historical Dictionary of Basketball |series=Historical Dictionaries of Sports |volume=2 |title=Philippines |date=November 15, 2010 |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-0-8108-7506-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nZUarsZyzokC&pg=PA291 291] |language=en}}</ref> Other popular sports include [[History of boxing in the Philippines|boxing]] and billiards, boosted by the achievements of [[Manny Pacquiao]] and [[Efren Reyes]].<ref name="Rood-2019" />{{rp|page={{plain link|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LmmtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA142|name=142}}}}<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Himmer |first=Alastair |date=June 5, 2010 |title=Pacquiao named fighter of the decade |work=[[Reuters]] |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6541BX20100605 |access-date=July 25, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605173159/https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6541BX20100605 |archive-date=June 5, 2010}}</ref> The national [[Filipino martial arts|martial art]] is [[Arnis]].<ref>{{Cite PH act |title=An Act Declaring Arnis as the National Martial Art and Sport of the Philippines |chamber=RA |number=9850 |date=December 11, 2009 |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2009/12/11/republic-act-no-9850/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810035837/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2009/12/11/republic-act-no-9850/ |archive-date=August 10, 2017 |access-date=February 9, 2023 |publisher=[[Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines]] |location=Metro Manila, Philippines}}</ref> {{lang|fil|Sabong}} ([[cockfight]]ing) is popular entertainment, especially among Filipino men, and was documented by the [[Magellan expedition]].<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Dundes |editor-first1=Alan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wy5VqKSYt8IC |title=The Cockfight: A Casebook |publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]] |location=Madison, Wis. |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-299-14054-0 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Wy5VqKSYt8IC&pg=PA136 136–137] |author-link1=Alan Dundes}}</ref> [[Video games in the Philippines|Video gaming]] and [[Esports in the Philippines|esports]] are emerging pastimes,<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last1=Lojo |first1=Michelle |title=Philippine esports gains traction in 2022 |url=https://www.philstar.com/sports/2022/12/29/2234051/philippine-esports-gains-traction-2022 |access-date=April 15, 2023 |work=[[The Philippine Star]] |date=December 29, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230410070659/https://www.philstar.com/sports/2022/12/29/2234051/philippine-esports-gains-traction-2022 |archive-date=April 10, 2023}}</ref><ref name="Booc-2019">{{cite journal |last1=Booc |first1=Rahmat P. |last2=Rafaela |first2=Kimberson B. |last3=Torres |first3=Mae J. |last4=Bulawan |first4=Rina P. |last5=Jabonero |first5=Louis C. Ii |last6=Cortuna |first6=Ian Jay M. |last7=Asuncion |first7=Joel E. |title=The Traditional Filipino Games: Status Check Among Generation Z |journal=Theoretical & Applied Science |publisher=International Academy of Theoretical and Applied Sciences |date=October 30, 2019 |volume=78 |issue=10 |pages=150–152 |doi=10.15863/TAS.2019.10.78.25 |doi-access=free}}</ref> with the popularity of [[Traditional games in the Philippines|indigenous games]] such as ''[[patintero]]'', ''[[tumbang preso]]'', ''[[luksong tinik]]'', and ''[[Piko (Filipino game)|piko]]'' declining among young people.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gutierrez |first1=Ariel |last2=Guzman |first2=Neriza G. |last3=Ramos |first3=Ramilet |last4=Uylengco |first4=Jan Katherine A. |title=The Empirical Change of Playing Habits among Children |journal=International Journal of Multidisciplinary: Applied Business and Education Research |publisher=Future Science |date=February 25, 2022 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=306–309, 311–315 |doi=10.11594/ijmaber.03.02.15 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Booc-2019" />

The [[Philippines national football team|men's national football team]] has participated in one [[2019 AFC Asian Cup|Asian Cup]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Leongson |first=Randolph B. |date=March 27, 2018 |title=History made as PH Azkals advance to 2019 AFC Asian Cup after beating Tajiks |language=en |newspaper=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |url=https://sports.inquirer.net/290641/ph-azkals-advance-2019-afc-asia-cup-beating-tajiks |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201109034121/https://sports.inquirer.net/290641/ph-azkals-advance-2019-afc-asia-cup-beating-tajiks |archive-date=November 9, 2020}}</ref> The [[Philippines women's national football team|women's national football team]] qualified for the [[2023 FIFA Women's World Cup]], their first [[FIFA Women's World Cup|World Cup]], in January 2022.<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Morales |first=Luisa |date=January 31, 2022 |title=Herstory: Filipinas outlast Chinese Taipei to seize historic Women's World Cup berth |work=[[The Philippine Star]] |url=https://www.philstar.com/sports/2022/01/31/2157582/herstory-filipinas-outlast-chinese-taipei-seize-historic-womens-world-cup-berth |access-date=February 9, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220130170703/https://www.philstar.com/sports/2022/01/31/2157582/herstory-filipinas-outlast-chinese-taipei-seize-historic-womens-world-cup-berth |archive-date=January 30, 2022}}</ref> The Philippines has participated in every [[Summer Olympic Games]] since [[Philippines at the 1924 Summer Olympics|1924]], except when they supported the [[1980 Summer Olympics boycott|American-led boycott of the 1980 Summer Olympics]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |last1=Grasso |first1=John |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uCN1CQAAQBAJ |encyclopedia=Historical Dictionary of the Olympic Movement |edition=Fifth |title=Philippines, The (PHI) |last2=Mallon |first2=Bill |last3=Heijmans |first3=Jeroen |date=May 14, 2015 |publisher=[[Rowman & Littlefield]] |location=Lanham, Md. |isbn=978-1-4422-4860-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uCN1CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA473 473] |author-link2=Bill Mallon}}</ref><ref>{{Cite magazine |type=Periodical |publisher=[[United States Department of State]], [[Bureau of African Affairs]] |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DAFJAQAAIAAJ |magazine=AF Press Clips |title=U.S. says 60 nations will join boycott |date=1980 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DAFJAQAAIAAJ&pg=RA19-PA24 24]}}</ref> It was the first [[Tropical nations at the Winter Olympics|tropical nation]] to compete at the [[Winter Olympic Games]], [[Philippines at the 1972 Winter Olympics|debuting in 1972]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|news|last=Chia |first=Nicole |date=February 19, 2018 |title=Winter Olympics: Even outsiders can break the ice |work=[[The Straits Times]] |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/sport/even-outsiders-can-break-the-ice |access-date=July 30, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224080645/https://www.straitstimes.com/sport/even-outsiders-can-break-the-ice |archive-date=February 24, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |url=http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1972/orw1972.pdf |title=The XI Olympic Winter Games; Les XI Jeux Olympiques d'hiver; Sapporo, 1972 |type=Official report |publisher=The Organizing Committee for the XIth Olympic Winter Games |year=1973 |pages=32, 145, 447 |oclc=842416 |access-date=January 31, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080226202605/http://www.la84foundation.org/6oic/OfficialReports/1972/orw1972.pdf |archive-date=February 26, 2008 |via=[[LA84 Foundation]]}}</ref> In 2021, the Philippines received its first-ever Olympic gold medal with [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifter]] [[Hidilyn Diaz]]'s victory in [[2020 Summer Olympics|Tokyo]].<ref>{{#invoke:cite|web|last1=Araullo |first1=Atom |author-link1=Atom Araullo |date=November 4, 2021 |title=Anatomy of Philippines' first Olympic gold medal |url=https://pcij.org/article/7371/anatomy-of-philippines-first-olympic-gold-medal |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211104071057/https://pcij.org/article/7371/anatomy-of-philippines-first-olympic-gold-medal |archive-date=November 4, 2021 |publisher=[[Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism]] |access-date=April 23, 2023}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{#invoke:Portal|portal|Philippines|Asia|Islands}}
* [[Outline of the Philippines]]{{Clear}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
<references group="lower-alpha" />

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Main|Bibliography of the Philippines}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Philippines}}
* [https://www.gov.ph/ Government of the Philippines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609185330/http://www.op.gov.ph/ |date=June 9, 2007}}
* [https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/ Official Gazette] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114130536/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/ |date=January 14, 2022 }}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-15521300 "Philippines"] profile at BBC News
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110521230339/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/philippines.htm "Philippines"] at UCB Libraries (archived May 21, 2011)
* {{OSM relation|443174}}
* {{Wikiatlas|Philippines}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081217085143/http://filipiniana.net/ Filipiniana.net – Free digital library and a research portal] (archived December 17, 2008)
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