View source for Latin phonology and orthography

{{short description|Phonology of the Latin language}}
{{IPA notice}}
'''Latin phonology''' is the system of sounds used in [[Latin]]. [[Classical Latin]] was spoken from the late [[Roman Republic]] to the early [[Roman Empire|Empire]]: evidence for its pronunciation is taken from comments by Roman grammarians, common spelling mistakes, transcriptions into other languages, and the outcomes of various sounds in the [[Romance languages]].<ref>Covington, Michael. (2019). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/268441214_Latin_Pronunciation_Demystified Latin Pronunciation Demystified].</ref>

'''Latin orthography''' is the writing system used to spell Latin from its [[Old Latin|archaic stages]] down to the present. Latin was nearly always spelt in the [[Latin alphabet]], but further details varied from period to period. The alphabet developed from [[Old Italic script]], which had developed from a variant of the [[Greek alphabet]], which in turn had developed from a variant of the [[Phoenician alphabet]]. The Latin alphabet most resembles the Greek alphabet that can be seen on [[black-figure pottery]] dating to c. 540 BC, especially the [[Archaic Greek alphabets#Euboean|Euboean regional variant]].

As the language continued to be used as a [[classical language]], [[lingua franca]] and [[liturgical language]] long after it [[language death|ceased being]] a native language, pronunciation and&nbsp;– to a lesser extent&nbsp;– spelling diverged significantly from the classical standard with Latin words being [[Latin regional pronunciation|pronounced differently]] by native speakers of different languages. While nowadays a reconstructed classical pronunciation aimed to be that of the 1st century AD<ref>[https://antigonejournal.com/2022/05/latin-accent/ Latin Accents].</ref> is usually employed in the teaching of Latin, the Italian-influenced ecclesiastical pronunciation as used by the Catholic church is still in common use. The [[Traditional English pronunciation of Latin]] has all but disappeared from classics education but continues to be used for Latin-based loanwords and use of Latin e.g. for [[binominal name]]s in [[taxonomy]].

During most of the time written Latin was in widespread use, authors variously complained about [[language change]] or attempted to "restore" an earlier standard. Such sources are of great value in reconstructing various stages of the spoken language (the {{lang|la|[[Appendix Probi]]}} is an important source for the spoken variety in the 4th century CE, for example) and have in some cases indeed influenced the development of the language. The efforts of [[Renaissance Latin]] authors were to a large extent successful in removing innovations in grammar, spelling and vocabulary present in [[Medieval Latin]] but absent in both classical and [[contemporary Latin]].

==Letterforms==
[[File:I littera in manuscripto.jpg|thumb|upright=1.36|A papyrus fragment in [[Roman cursive]] with portions of speeches delivered in the [[Roman Senate]]]]
In Classical times there was no modern-like distinction between [[letter case|upper case and lower case]]. [[epigraphy|Inscriptions]] typically use [[Roman square capitals|square capitals]], in [[letterform]]s largely corresponding to modern upper-case, and [[handwriting|handwritten text]] was generally in the form of [[Roman cursive|cursive]], which includes letterforms corresponding to modern lowercase.<ref>{{cite book|last=Cruttenden|first=Alan|title=Writing Systems and Phonetics|year=2021|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PwsVEAAAQBAJ|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=9781000334043|page=}}</ref>

==Letters and phonemes==
In Classical spelling, individual letters mainly corresponded to individual phonemes ([[alphabetic principle]]). Exceptions include:
# The letters {{angbr|a}}, {{angbr|e}}, {{angbr|i}}, {{angbr|o}}, {{angbr|u}} and {{angbr|y}}, each of which could represent either a short vowel or a long one. The long vowels were sometimes marked with [[apex (diacritic)|apices]], as in {{angbr|á}}, {{angbr|é}}, {{angbr|ó}}, {{angbr|ú}} and {{angbr|ý}}, while long {{IPA|/iː/}} could be marked with [[long I]] {{angbr|ꟾ}}.<ref name="Sihler alphabet">{{Harvnb|Sihler|1995|pp=20–22|loc=§25: the Italic alphabets}}</ref> Since the 19th century, long vowels have been marked with [[Macron (diacritic)|macrons]], as in {{angbr|ā}}, {{angbr|ē}}, {{angbr|ī}}, {{angbr|ō}}, {{angbr|ū}} and {{angbr|ȳ}}; sometimes, [[breve]]s may also be used to indicate short vowels, as in {{angbr|ă}}, {{angbr|ĕ}}, {{angbr|ĭ}}, {{angbr|ŏ}}, {{angbr|ŭ}}, and {{angbr|y̆}}.
# The letters {{angbr|i}} and {{angbr|u}}, which could either indicate vowels (as mentioned) or the consonants {{IPA|/j/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}, respectively. In modern times, the letters {{angbr|j}} and {{angbr|v}} began to be used as distinct spellings for these consonants (now often pronounced very differently).
# Digraphs such as {{angbr|ae}}, {{angbr|au}} and {{angbr|oe}}, which represented the diphthongs {{IPA|/ae̯/}}, {{IPA|/au̯/}} and {{IPA|/oe̯/}}. In a few words, these could also stand for sequences of two adjacent vowels, which is sometimes marked by the use of a [[Diaeresis (diacritic)|diaeresis]] in modern transcriptions, as in {{angbr|aë}}, {{angbr|aü}} and {{angbr|oë}}.
# The digraphs {{angbr|ph}}, {{angbr|th}} and {{angbr|ch}}, standing for the aspirated consonants {{IPA|/pʰ/}}, {{IPA|/tʰ/}} and {{IPA|/kʰ/}}.

===Consonants===
Below are the distinctive (i.e. [[Phoneme|phonemic]]) consonants that are assumed for Classical Latin. Those placed in brackets have a debated phonemic status, and those preceded by a dagger (†) are found mainly or only in Greek loanwords.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |
! rowspan="2" | [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Coronal consonant|Coronal]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! colspan="2" | [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! rowspan="2" | [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! {{small|plain}}
! {{small|[[Labialization|labialized]]}}
|-
! rowspan="3" | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]
! {{small|[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
| {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|d}}
|
| {{IPA link|ɡ}}
| ({{IPA link|ɡʷ}})
|
|-
! {{small|[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t}}
|
| {{IPA link|k}} 
| ({{IPA link|kʷ}})
|
|-
! {{small|[[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]]}}
| <sup>†</sup>{{IPA link|pʰ}}
| <sup>†</sup>{{IPA link|tʰ}}
|
| <sup>†</sup>{{IPA link|kʰ}}
|
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! {{small|[[Voice (phonetics)|voiced]]}}
|
|<sup>†</sup>{{IPA link|z}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! {{small|[[Voicelessness|voiceless]]}}
| {{IPA link|f}}
| {{IPA link|s}}
|
|
|
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
|
| {{IPA link|r}}
|
|
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|
| {{IPA link|l}}
| {{IPA link|j}}
|
| {{IPA link|w}}
|
|}

====Phonetics====
* Latin may have had the labialized velar stops {{IPA|/kʷ/}} and {{IPA|/ɡʷ/}} as opposed to the stop + semivowel sequences {{IPA|/kw/}} and {{IPA|/ɡw/}} (as in the English '''''qu'''ick'' or ''pen'''gu'''in''). The argument for {{IPA|/kʷ/}} is stronger than that for {{IPA|/ɡʷ/}}.{{efn|{{Harvnb|Allen|1978}} (p. 17) judges the evidence to favour {{IPA|/kʷ/}} and {{IPA|/ɡʷ/}}, while {{Harvnb|Cser|2020}} (§2.2.2) comes to the opposite conclusion. The relevant facts, per the latter, are as follows:<br /><br />{{angbr|qu}} enjoyed a wide lexical distribution, while {{angbr|gu(V)}} was limited to a dozen or so words, where it was always preceded by {{IPA|/n/}}. The grammarian [[Velius Longus]] indicated that the {{angbr|u}} of {{angbr|qu}} was in some way different from {{IPA|/w/}} in general. No geminate *{{angbr|qqu}} is attested, whereas all (other) Latin stops are also found as geminates. Sequences of obstruent + glide are rare in Classical Latin. In poetry, whenever sequences of stop + glide occur in medial position, the scansion reveals that can be split across syllables, but this is never the case for {{angbr|qu}}. Neither {{angbr|qu}} nor {{angbr|gu}} are ever followed by a consonant, unlike any (other) Latin stop, nor can they occur word-finally. The voicing contrast between {{angbr|nqu}} and {{angbr|ngu}} is not found in any (other) sequence of three consonants. Assimilation of the prefix {{lang|la|ad-}} to a following {{angbr|qu}} is relatively rare, which is also the case when {{lang|la|ad-}} is followed by a consonant cluster. The Proto-Indo-European predecessor of Latin {{angbr|qu}} is, in many cases, reconstructed as a single consonant *{{IPA|/kʷ/}}, notably distinct from sequences of *{{IPA|/kw/}}. Occasionally Latin {{IPA|/w/}} scans as a vowel in poetry, when preceded by {{IPA|/s/}} or {{IPA|/l/}}, but this is never the case for the {{angbr|u}} of {{angbr|qu}}.}}
* The former could occur between vowels, where it always counted as a single consonant in Classical poetry, whereas the latter only occurred after {{IPA|/n/}}, where it is impossible to tell whether it counted as one consonant or two.<ref name="Allen gm and gw">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=25}}</ref> The labial element, whether {{IPA|[ʷ]}} or {{IPA|[w]}}, appears to have been palatalised before a front vowel, resulting in {{IPA|[ᶣ]}} or {{IPA|[ɥ]}} (for instance {{lang|la|quī}} would have sounded something like {{audio|La-cls-qui.ogg|listen}}). This palatalisation did not affect the independent consonant {{IPA|/w/}} before front vowels.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=17}}</ref>
*{{IPA|/kʷ/}} and {{IPA|/ɡʷ/}} before {{IPA|/u/}} were not distinct from {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, which were allophonically labialized to {{IPA|[kʷ]}} and {{IPA|[ɡʷ]}} by a following {{IPA|/u/}} such that writing a double {{angbr|uu}} was unnecessary. This is suggested by the fact that {{lang|la|equus}} and {{lang|la|unguunt}} (from Old Latin {{lang|la|equos}} and {{lang|la|unguont}}) are also found spelt as {{lang|la|ecus}} and {{lang|la|ungunt}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=19, 20}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} were less aspirated than the corresponding English consonants, as implied by their usually being transliterated into Ancient Greek as {{angbr|{{lang|grc|π}}}}, {{angbr|{{lang|grc|τ}}}} and {{angbr|{{lang|grc|κ}}}}, and their pronunciation in most Romance languages. In many cases, however, it was not the Latin {{IPA|/p/}} and {{IPA|/k/}}, but rather {{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, that were used to render Greek word-initial {{IPA|/p/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} in borrowings (as in {{lang|grc|πύξος}}, {{lang|grc|κυβερνῶ}} > {{lang|la|buxus}}, {{lang|la|guberno}}), especially borrowings of a non-learned character. This might suggest that the Latin {{IPA|/p/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} had some degree of aspiration, making {{IPA|/b/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} more suitable to approximate the Greek sounds.<ref name="tenues">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=12–13}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/pʰ/}}, {{IPA|/tʰ/}} and {{IPA|/kʰ/}} were pronounced with notable aspiration, like the initial consonants of the English '''''p'''ot'', '''''t'''op'', and '''''c'''ot'' respectively. They are attested beginning c. 150 BC, in the spellings {{angbr|ph}}, {{angbr|th}} and {{angbr|ch}}, at first only used to render the Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|φ}}}}, {{angbr|{{lang|grc|θ}}}} and {{angbr|{{lang|grc|χ}}}} in loanwords. (Previously these had been rendered in Latin as {{angbr|p}}, {{angbr|t}} and {{angbr|c}}.) From c. 100 BC onward {{angbr|ph}}, {{angbr|th}} and {{angbr|ch}} spread to a number of native Latin words as well, such as {{lang|la|pulcher}} and {{lang|la|lachrima}}. When this occurred it was nearly always in the vicinity of the consonant {{IPA|/r/}} or {{IPA|/l/}}, and the implication is that Latin {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} had become aspirated in that context.<ref name="aspirate1">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=26, 27}}</ref><ref name="aspirate2">{{Harvnb|Clackson|Horrocks|2007|p=190}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/z/}} was found as a rendering of the Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ζ}}}} in borrowings starting around the first century BC. (In earlier borrowings, the Greek sound had been rendered in Latin as {{IPA|/ss/}}.) In initial position this appears to have been pronounced {{IPA|[z]}}, and between vowels it appears to have been [[gemination|doubled]] to {{IPA|[zz]}} (counted as two consonants in poetry).<ref>{{Harvnb|Levy|1989|p=150}}</ref><ref name="Allen Z">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=46}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/s/}} was unvoiced in all positions in Classical Latin. Previously however Old Latin {{IPA|/s/}} appears to have voiced to {{IPA|[z]}} between vowels, ultimately [[Rhotacism|turning to]] {{IPA|/r/}}. Cicero reports the family-name {{lang|la|Papisius}} being changed to {{lang|la|Papirius}} in the fourth century BC, which may give some idea of the chronology. Afterward new instances of {{IPA|/s/}} developed between vowels from sound-changes like the degemination of {{IPA|/ss/}} after long vowels and diphthongs (as in {{lang|la|caussa}} > {{lang|la|causa}}), which [[Quintilian]] reports to have happened a little after the time of [[Cicero]] and [[Virgil]].<ref name="Allen s">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=35–37}}</ref>
*In Old Latin, final {{IPA|/s/}} after a short vowel was often lost, probably after first [[Debuccalization|debuccalizing]] to {{IPA|[h]}}, as in the inscriptional form {{lang|la|Cornelio}} for {{lang|la|Cornelios}} (Classical {{lang|la|Cornelius}}). Often in the poetry of [[Plautus]], [[Ennius]], and [[Lucretius]], final {{IPA|/s/}} did not count as a consonant when followed by a word beginning with a consonant. By the Classical period this practice was described as characteristic of non-urban speech by Cicero.<ref name="Allen s" />
* {{IPA|/f/}} was [[labiodental]] in Classical Latin but may have been a [[bilabial]] {{IPA|/ɸ/}} in Old Latin,<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=34, 35}}</ref> or perhaps {{IPA|[ɸ]}} in free variation with {{IPA|[f]}}. Lloyd, Sturtevant, and Kent make this argument based on misspellings in early inscriptions, the fact that many instances of Latin {{IPA|/f/}} descend from [[Proto-Indo-European]] *{{PIE|/bʰ/}}, and the outcomes of the sound in Romance (particularly in Spain).<ref>{{Harvnb|Lloyd|1987|p=80}}</ref>
* In most cases {{IPA|/m/}} was pronounced as a bilabial nasal. At the end of a word, however, it was generally lost beginning in Old Latin (except when another nasal or a plosive followed it), leaving [[compensatory lengthening]] and [[nasal vowel|nasalization]] on the preceding vowel<ref name="Lloyd 81" /> (such that {{lang|la|decem}} may have sounded something like {{audio|La-cls-decem.ogg|listen}}, i.e. {{IPA|[ˈdɛkẽː]}}). In Old Latin inscriptions, final {{angbr|m}} is often omitted, as in {{angbr|viro}} for {{lang|la|virom}} (Classical {{lang|la|virum}}). It was frequently elided before a following vowel in poetry and lost without a trace (apart from perhaps lengthening) in the Romance languages,<ref name="Allen -Vm">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=30, 31}}</ref> except in a number of monosyllabic words, where it often survives as {{IPA|/n/}} or a further development thereof.
* {{IPA|/n/}} and {{IPA|/m/}} [[Phoneme#Neutralization and archiphonemes|merged]] via assimilation before a following consonant, with the following consonant determining the resulting pronunciation: bilabial {{IPA|[m]}} before a bilabial consonant (e.g. {{IPA|/p/}} and {{IPA|/b/}}), coronal {{IPA|[n]}} before a coronal consonant (e.g. {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}}) and velar {{IPA|[ŋ]}} before a velar consonant (e.g. {{IPA|/k/}}, {{IPA|/kʷ/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}}). This occurred both within words (e.g. {{lang|la|quī'''nq'''ue}} may have sounded something like {{audio|La-cls-quinque.ogg|listen}}) and across word-boundaries (for instance {{lang|la|i'''n''' causā}} with {{IPA|[ŋ]}}, or {{lang|la|i'''m''' pace}}).<ref name="Allen n">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=27–30}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/ɡ/}} assimilated to a [[velar nasal]] {{IPA|[ŋ]}} before {{IPA|/n/}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=23–25}}</ref> Allen and [[James B. Greenough|Greenough]] say that a vowel before {{IPA|[ŋn]}} is always long,<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|Greenough|2001|loc=§10d}}</ref> but W. Sidney Allen says that is based on an [[interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolation]] in [[Priscian]], and the vowel was actually long or short depending on the root, as for example {{lang|la|rēgnum}} from the root of {{lang|la|rēx}} but {{lang|la|magnus}} from the root of {{lang|la|magis}}.<ref name="Vgn">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=71–73}}</ref> {{IPA|/ɡ/}} probably did not assimilate to {{IPA|[ŋ]}} before {{IPA|/m/}}. The cluster {{IPA|/ɡm/}} arose by [[syncope (phonetics)|syncope]], as for example {{lang|la|tegmen}} from {{lang|la|tegimen}}. Original {{IPA|/ɡm/}} developed into {{IPA|/mm/}} in {{lang|la|flamma}}, from the root of {{lang|la|flagrō}}.<ref name="Allen gm and gw" /> At the start of a word, original {{IPA|/ɡn/}} was reduced to {{IPA|[n]}}, and this change was reflected in the orthography of later texts, as in {{lang|la|gnātus}}, {{lang|la|gnōscō}} > {{lang|la|nātus}}, {{lang|la|nōscō}}.
* In Classical Latin, the [[rhotic consonant|rhotic]] {{IPA|/r/}} was most likely an [[alveolar trill]] {{IPA|[r]}}, at least in some positions and when doubled. [[Gaius Lucilius]] likened it to the sound of a dog, and later writers described it as being produced by vibration. In Old Latin, intervocalic {{IPA|/z/}} developed into {{IPA|/r/}} ([[Rhotacism (sound change)|rhotacism]]), suggesting an approximant like the English {{IPAblink|ɹ}}, and {{IPA|/d/}} was sometimes written as {{angbr|r}}, possibly suggesting a tap {{IPAblink|ɾ}} (like the single {{IPA|/ɾ/}} in Spanish).<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=33}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/l/}} was strongly [[Velarization|velarized]] in [[syllable coda]] and probably somewhat [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalized]] when [[Gemination|geminated]] or followed by {{IPA|/i(ː)/}}. In [[Intervocalic consonant|intervocalic]] position, it appears to have been velarized before all vowels except {{IPA|/i(ː)/}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Cser|2020|loc=§4.9}}. In footnote 206, he adds: "The evidence has been thoroughly assessed in the diachronic literature; see Sen (2012: 472–3; 2015: 15 sqq.), Meiser (1998: 68–9), Leumann (1977: 85–7)."</ref>
* {{IPA|/j/}} generally appeared only at the beginning of words, before a vowel, as in {{lang|la|iaceō}}, except in compound words such as {{lang|la|adiaceō}} (pronounced something like {{audio|La-cls-iaceo, adiaceo.ogg|listen}}). Between vowels, it was generally as a geminate {{IPA|/jj/}}, as in {{lang|la|cuius}} (pronounced something like {{audio|La-cls-cuius.ogg|listen}}) except in compound words such as {{lang|la|trāiectus}}. This {{IPA|/jj/}} is sometimes marked in modern editions by a [[circumflex]] on the preceding vowel, e.g. {{lang|la|cûius}}, {{lang|la|êius}}, {{lang|la|mâior}}, etc. {{IPA|/j/}} could also have varied with {{IPA|/i/}} in the same [[morpheme]], as in {{lang|la|iam}} {{IPA|/jam/}} and {{lang|la|etiam}} {{IPA|/ˈe.ti.am/}}, and in poetry one could be replaced with the other for [[metre (poetry)|metrical]] purpose.<ref name="Allen j">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=37–40}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/w/}} was pronounced as an approximant until the first century AD, when {{IPA|/w/}} and intervocalic {{IPA|/b/}} began to develop into fricatives. In poetry, {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} could be replaced with each other, as in {{IPA|/ˈsilua/}}~{{IPA|/ˈsilwa/}} or {{IPA|/ˈɡenua/}}~{{IPA|/ˈɡenwa/}}. Unlike {{IPA|/j/}} it remained a single consonant in most words, e.g. in {{lang|la|cavē}}, although it did represent a double {{IPA|/ww/}} in borrowings from Greek such as the name {{lang|la|Evander}}.<ref name="Allen v">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=40–42}}</ref>
* {{IPA|/h/}} was generally still pronounced in Classical Latin, at least by educated speakers, but in many cases it appears to have been lost early on between vowels, and sometimes in other contexts as well ({{lang|la|diribeō}} < *{{lang|la|dis-habeō}} being a particularly early example). Where intervocalic {{IPA|/h/}} survived, it was likely voiced<ref name="Allen h">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=43–45}}</ref> (that is, {{IPA|[ɦ]}}).

====Notes on spelling====
* Doubled consonant letters represented genuinely [[Gemination|doubled]] consonants, as in {{angbr|cc}} for {{IPA|/kk/}}. In [[Old Latin]], geminate consonants were written as if they were single until the middle of the second century BC, when orthographic doubling began to appear.{{efn|{{lang|la|epistula ad tiburtes}}, a letter by [[praetor]] Lucius Cornelius from 159 BC, contains the first examples of doubled consonants in the words {{lang|la|potuisse}}, {{lang|la|esse}}, and {{lang|la|peccatum}} {{Harv|Clackson|Horrocks|2007|pp=147, 149}}.}} Grammarians mention the marking of double consonants with the [[sicilicus]], a diacritic in the shape of a sickle. It appears in a few inscriptions of the [[Augustan literature (ancient Rome)|Augustan era]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=11}}</ref>
* {{angbr|c}} and {{angbr|k}} both represented {{IPA|/k/}}, whereas {{angbr|qu}} represented {{IPA|/kʷ/}}. {{angbr|c}} and {{angbr|q}} distinguish minimal pairs such as {{lang|la|cui}} {{IPA|/kui̯/}} and {{lang|la|quī}} {{IPA|/kʷiː/}}.<ref name="ui">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=42}}</ref> In Classical Latin {{angbr|k}} appeared in only a few words like {{lang|la|kalendae}}, {{lang|la|Karthagō}} - which could also be spelt {{lang|la|calendae}}, {{lang|la|Carthagō}}.<ref name="Allen C">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=15, 16}}</ref>
* {{angbr|x}} represented {{IPA|/ks/}}. It was borrowed from the [[Archaic Greek alphabets#Aspirate and consonant cluster symbols|Western Greek alphabet]], where [[chi (letter)|chi]] {{angbr|{{lang|grc|χ}}}} stood for {{IPA|/ks/}} as well. This was unlike the usage of chi in the [[Greek alphabet|Ionic alphabet]], where it stood for {{IPA|/kʰ/}}, with {{IPA|/ks/}} instead represented by the letter [[xi (letter)|xi]] {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ξ}}}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=45}}</ref>
* {{angbr|ks}} {{angbr|cs}} and {{angbr|xs}} were also used to spell {{IPA|/ks/}} in Old Latin, but by the Classical period, {{angbr|xs}} was reserved for words containing the prefix {{lang|la|ex-}} combined with a base starting with {{angbr|s}} (e.g. {{lang|la|exsanguis}}).<ref name="Zair 2023">{{cite book|first=Nicholas|last=Zair|title=Orthographic Traditions and the Sub-elite in the Roman Empire|isbn=9781009327664|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2023|page=170}}</ref>
* In Old Latin inscriptions, {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} were not distinguished. They were both represented by {{angbr|c}} before {{angbr|e}} and {{angbr|i}}, by {{angbr|q}} before {{angbr|o}} and {{angbr|u}}, and by {{angbr|k}} before consonants or {{angbr|a}}.<ref name="Sihler alphabet" /> The letterform {{angbr|c}} derives from the Greek [[gamma]] {{angbr|{{lang|grc|Γ}}}}, which represented {{IPA|/ɡ/}}. Its use for {{IPA|/k/}} may come from [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]], which did not distinguish voiced plosives from voiceless ones. In Classical Latin, {{angbr|c}} represented {{IPA|/ɡ/}} only in the abbreviations {{lang|la|c}} and {{lang|la|cn}}, for {{lang|la|Gaius}} and {{lang|la|Gnaeus}} respectively.<ref name="Allen C" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|Greenough|2001|loc=§1a}}</ref>
*{{angbr|g}} was created in the third century BC to distinguish {{IPA|/ɡ/}} from {{IPA|/k/}}.<ref name="OL letters">{{Harvnb|Clackson|Horrocks|2007|p=96}}</ref> Its letterform derived from {{angbr|c}} with the addition of a [[diacritic]] or [[typeface anatomy|stroke]]. [[Plutarch]] attributes this innovation to [[Spurius Carvilius Ruga]] around 230 BC,<ref name="Sihler alphabet" /> but it may have originated with [[Appius Claudius Caecus]]<!-- Allen simply says Appius Claudius in the 4th century BC; Caecus is the only one at that time listed by Wikipedia. Another source would be good. --> in the fourth century BC.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=15}}</ref>
* The cluster {{angbr|gn}} probably represented the consonant cluster {{IPA|[ŋn]}}, at least between vowels, as in {{lang|la|agnus}} {{IPA|[ˈäŋ.nʊs]}} {{audio|La-cls-agnus2.ogg|listen}}.<ref name="Lloyd 81">{{Harvnb|Lloyd|1987|p=81}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=23}}</ref> Vowels before this cluster were sometimes long and sometimes short.<ref name="Vgn" />
* The digraphs {{angbr|ph}}, {{angbr|th}}, and {{angbr|ch}} represented the aspirated plosives {{IPA|/pʰ/}}, {{IPA|/tʰ/}} and {{IPA|/kʰ/}}. They began to be used in writing around 150&nbsp;BC,<ref name="OL letters" /> primarily as a transcription of Greek [[phi]] {{lang|grc|Φ}}, [[theta]] {{lang|grc|Θ}}, and [[Chi (letter)|chi]] {{lang|grc|Χ}}, as in {{lang|la|Philippus}}, {{lang|la|cithara}}, and {{lang|la|achāia}}. Some native words were later also written with these digraphs, such as {{lang|la|pulcher}}, {{lang|la|lachrima}}, {{lang|la|gracchus}}, {{lang|la|triumphus}}, probably representing aspirated allophones of the voiceless plosives near {{IPA|/r/}} and {{IPA|/l/}}. Aspirated plosives and the glottal fricative {{IPA|/h/}} were also used [[hypercorrection|hypercorrectively]], an affectation satirized in [[s:Translation:Catullus 84|Catullus 84]].<ref name="aspirate1" /><ref name="aspirate2" />
* In Old Latin, Koine Greek initial {{IPA|/z/}} and {{IPA|/zz/}} between vowels were represented by {{angbr|s}} and {{angbr|ss}}, as in {{lang|la|sona}} from {{lang|grc|ζώνη}} and {{lang|la|massa}} from {{lang|grc|μᾶζα}}. Around the second and first centuries B.C., the Greek letter [[zeta]] {{angbr|{{lang|grc|Ζ}}}} was adopted to represent {{IPA|/z/}} and {{IPA|/zz/}}.<ref name="Allen Z" /> However, the [[Vulgar Latin]] spellings<!-- Sturtevant does not specify when these spellings were used, but they seem to be from Late or Vulgar, not Classical Latin, given the use of ae for e. --> {{angbr|z}} or {{angbr|zi}} for earlier {{angbr|di}} and {{angbr|d}} before {{angbr|e}}, and the spellings {{angbr|di}} and {{angbr|dz}} for earlier {{angbr|z}}, suggest the pronunciation {{IPA|/dz/}}, as for example {{lang|la|ziomedis}} for {{lang|la|diomedis}}, and {{lang|la|diaeta}} for {{lang|la|zeta}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sturtevant|1920|pp=115–116}}</ref>
* In ancient times {{angbr|V}} and {{angbr|I}} represented the [[approximant consonant|approximant]] consonants {{IPA|/w/}} and {{IPA|/j/}}, as well as the close vowels {{IPA|/u(ː)/}} and {{IPA|/i(ː)/}}.
* {{angbr|i}} representing the consonant {{IPA|/j/}} was usually not doubled in writing, so a single {{angbr|i}} represented double {{IPA|/jː/}} or {{IPA|/jj/}} and the sequences {{IPA|/ji/}} and {{IPA|/jːi/}}, as in {{lang|la|cuius}} for *{{lang|la|cuiius}} {{IPA|/ˈkuj.jus/}}, {{lang|la|conicit}} for *{{lang|la|coniicit}} {{IPA|/ˈkon.ji.kit/}}, and {{lang|la|reicit}} for *{{lang|la|reiiicit}} {{IPA|/ˈrej.ji.kit/}}. Both the consonantal and vocalic pronunciations of {{angbr|i}} could occur in some of the same environments: compare {{lang|la|māius}} {{IPA|/ˈmaj.jus/}} with {{lang|la|Gāius}} {{IPA|/ˈɡaː.i.us/}}, and {{lang|la|Iūlius}} {{IPA|/ˈjuː.li.us/}} with {{lang|la|Iūlus}} {{IPA|/iˈuː.lus/}}. The vowel before a doubled {{IPA|/jː/}} is sometimes marked with a [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]], as in {{lang|la|cūius}}.<!-- Source for this use of macron needed; Allen and Greenough uses a circumflex. --> It indicates not that the vowel is long but that the first syllable is [[syllable weight|heavy]] from the double consonant.<ref name="Allen j" />
* {{angbr|V}} between vowels represented single {{IPA|/w/}} in native Latin words but double {{IPA|/ww/}} in Greek loanwords. Both the consonantal and vocalic pronunciations of {{angbr|V}} sometimes occurred in similar environments, as in {{lang|la|GENVA}} {{IPA|[ˈɡɛ.nu.ä]}} and {{lang|la|SILVA}} {{IPA|[ˈsɪl.wä]}}.<ref name="Allen v" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|Greenough|2001|loc=§6d, 11c}}</ref>

===Vowels===

====Monophthongs====
[[File:Latin vowel space.png|thumb|The Latin vowel-space per {{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=47}}]]
Classical Latin had ten native phonemic monophthongs: the five [[Vowel length|short]] vowels {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/a/}}, {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/u/}}, and their long counterparts {{IPA|/iː/}}, {{IPA|/eː/}}, {{IPA|/aː/}}, {{IPA|/oː/}} and {{IPA|/uː/}}. Two additional monophthongs, {{IPA|/y/}} and {{IPA|/yː/}}, were sometimes used for {{angbr|y}} in [[loanword]]s from Greek by educated speakers, but most speakers would have approximated them with {{IPA|/i(ː)/}} or {{IPA|/u(ː)/}}.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
!
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| {{IPA link|i}} {{IPA link|iː}}<br />([[Close front rounded vowel|y yː]])
|
| {{IPA link|u}} {{IPA link|uː}}
|-
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]
| {{IPA link|e}} {{IPA link|eː}}
|
| {{IPA link|o}} {{IPA link|oː}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
|
| {{IPA link|ä|a}} {{IPA link|ä|aː}}
|
|}

====Long and short vowels====
The short vowels {{IPA|/i/}}, {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/o/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} appear to have been pronounced with a relatively [[open vowel|open]] quality, which may be approximated as {{IPAblink|ɪ}} {{IPAblink|ɛ}} {{IPAblink|ɔ}} {{IPAblink|ʊ}}, and the corresponding long vowels with a relatively close quality, approximately {{IPAblink|iː}} {{IPAblink|eː}} {{IPAblink|oː}} {{IPAblink|uː}}.{{efn|There is, however, a fringe view that the short high vowels {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} were tense {{IPA|[i]}} and {{IPA|[u]}} and that the long mid vowels {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/oː/}} were lax {{IPA|[ɛː]}} and {{IPA|[ɔː]}}, implying that none of the Latin short–long vowel pairs differed in quality {{Harv|Calabrese|2005}}.}} That the short {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}} were, as this implies, similar in quality to the long {{IPA|/eː/}} and {{IPA|/oː/}} is suggested by attested misspellings such as:<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=47–49}}</ref>
* {{angbr|trebibos}} for {{lang|la|tribibus}}
* {{angbr|minsis}} for {{lang|la|mēnsis}}
* {{angbr|sob}} for {{lang|la|sub}}
* {{angbr|punere}} for {{lang|la|pōnere}}

{{IPA|/e/}} most likely had a more open allophone before {{IPA|/r/}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=51}}</ref>

{{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/i/}} were probably pronounced closer when they occurred before another vowel, with e.g. {{lang|la|mea}} written as {{angbr|mia}} in some inscriptions. Short {{IPA|/i/}} before another vowel is often written with the so-called [[long I]], as in {{angbr|dꟾes}} for {{lang|la|diēs}}, indicating that its quality was similar to that of long {{IPA|/iː/}}; it was almost never confused with {{angbr|e}} in this position.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=51, 52}}</ref>

====Adoption of Greek upsilon====
{{angbr|y}} was used in Greek loanwords with [[Upsilon (letter)|upsilon]] {{angbr|{{lang|grc|Υ}}}}. This letter represented the [[close front rounded vowel]], both short and long: {{IPA|/y/}} and {{IPA|/yː/}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=52}}</ref> Latin did not have this sound as a native phoneme, and speakers tended to pronounce such loanwords with {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/uː/}} in Old Latin and {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/iː/}} in Classical and Late Latin if they were unable to produce {{IPA|/y/}} and {{IPA|/yː/}}.

===={{lang|la|Sonus medius}}====
An intermediate vowel sound (likely a close central vowel {{IPAblink|ɨ}} or possibly its rounded counterpart {{IPAblink|ʉ}}, or even {{IPAblink|ʏ}}), called {{lang|la|sonus medius}}, can be reconstructed for the classical period.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=56}}</ref> Such a vowel is found in {{lang|la|doc'''u'''mentum}}, {{lang|la|opt'''i'''mus}}, {{lang|la|lacr'''i'''ma}} (also spelled {{lang|la|doc'''i'''mentum}}, {{lang|la|opt'''u'''mus}}, {{lang|la|lacr'''u'''ma}}) and other words. It developed out of any historical short vowel in a non-initial open syllable by vowel reduction, probably first to {{IPAblink|ə}}, later fronted to {{IPAblink|ɪ}} or {{IPAblink|ɨ}}. In the vicinity of labial consonants, this sound was not as fronted and may have retained some rounding, thus being more similar if not identical to the unreduced short {{IPA|/u/}} {{IPAblink|ʊ}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=59}}</ref> The [[Claudian letter]] Ⱶ ⱶ was possibly invented to represent this sound, but is never actually found used this way in the epigraphic record (it usually served as a replacement for the [[upsilon]]).

====Vowel nasalization====
{{listen|header=Examples of nasalized vowels at ends of words and before -ns-, -nf- sequences|type=speech
|filename=La-cls-monstrum.ogg|title=monstrum
|filename3=La-cls-mensis.ogg|title3=mensis
|filename4=La-cls-infans, infantem.ogg|title4=infans, infantem}}
Vowels followed by a nasal consonant were allophonically realised as long [[nasal vowel]]s in two environments:<ref>{{Harvnb|Clackson|2008|p=77}}</ref>
* Before word-final {{angbr|m}}:<ref name="Allen -Vm" />
** {{lang|la|monstrum}} {{IPA|/ˈmon.strum/}} > {{IPA|[ˈmõː.strʊ̃]}}
** {{lang|la|dentem}} {{IPA|/ˈden.tem/}} > {{IPA|[ˈdɛn.tɛ̃]}}
* Before nasal consonants followed by a fricative:<ref name="Allen n" />
** {{lang|la|censor}} {{IPA|/ˈken.sor/}} > {{IPA|[ˈkẽː.sɔr]}} (in early inscriptions, often written as {{lang|la|cesor}})
** {{lang|la|consul}} {{IPA|/ˈkon.sul/}} > {{IPA|[ˈkõː.sʊɫ̪]}} (often written as {{lang|la|cosol}} and abbreviated as {{lang|la|cos}})
** {{lang|la|inferōs}} {{IPA|/ˈin.fe.roːs/}} > {{IPA|[ˈĩː.fæ.roːs]}}{{cleanup inline|date=May 2025|æ had been [[Special:Diff/1177127245]] removed from this article}} (written as {{lang|la|iferos}})
Those long nasal vowels had the same quality as ordinary long vowels. In [[Vulgar Latin]], the vowels lost their nasalisation, and they merged with the long vowels (which were themselves shortened by that time). This is shown by many forms in the Romance languages, such as Spanish {{lang|es|costar}} from Vulgar Latin {{lang|la|cōstāre}} (originally {{lang|la|constāre}}) and Italian {{lang|it|mese}} from Vulgar Latin {{lang|la|mēse}} (Classical Latin {{lang|la|mensem}}). On the other hand, the short vowel and {{IPA|/n/}} were restored, for example, in French {{lang|fr|enseigne}} and {{lang|fr|enfant}} from {{lang|la|insignia}} and {{lang|la|infantem}} ({{angbr|e}} is the normal development of Latin short {{angbr|i}}), likely by analogy with other forms beginning in the prefix {{lang|la|in-}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=55, 56}}</ref>

When a final {{angbr|m}} occurred before a plosive or nasal in the next word, however, it was pronounced as a nasal at the place of articulation of the following consonant. For instance, {{lang|la|tan dūrum}} {{IPA|[tan ˈduː.rũː]}} was written for {{lang|la|tam dūrum}} in inscriptions, and {{lang|la|cum nōbīs}} {{IPA|[kʊn ˈnoː.biːs]}} was a [[double entendre]],<ref name="Allen -Vm" /> presumably for {{lang|la|cunnō bis}} {{IPA|[ˈkʊnnoː bɪs]}}.

====Diphthongs====
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
|+ Diphthongs classified by beginning sound
! !! Front !! Back
|-
! Close
| || '''''ui'''''{{spaces|4}}{{IPA|ui̯}}
|-
! Mid
| '''''ei'''''{{spaces|4}}{{IPA|ei̯}}<br />'''''eu'''''{{spaces|4}}{{IPA|eu̯}} || '''''oe'''''{{spaces|4}}{{IPA|oe̯ ~ eː}}<br />
|-
! Open
| colspan="2" | '''''ae'''''{{spaces|4}}{{IPA|ae̯ ~ ɛː}}<br />'''''au'''''{{spaces|4}}{{IPA|au̯}}
|}
{{angbr|ae}}, {{angbr|oe}}, {{angbr|au}}, {{angbr|ei}} and {{angbr|eu}} could represent diphthongs: {{angbr|ae}} represented {{IPA|/ae̯/}}, {{angbr|oe}} represented {{IPA|/oe̯/}}, {{angbr|au}} represented {{IPA|/au̯/}}, {{angbr|ei}} represented {{IPA|/ei̯/}}, and {{angbr|eu}} represented {{IPA|/eu̯/}}. {{angbr|ui}} sometimes represented the diphthong {{IPA|/ui̯/}}, as in {{lang|la|cui}} {{audio|La-cls-cui.oga|listen}} and {{lang|la|huic}}.<ref name="ui" /> The diphthong {{angbr|ei}} had mostly changed to {{angbr|ī}} by the Classical epoch; {{angbr|ei}} remained only in a few words, such as the interjection {{lang|la|hei}}.

If there is a [[tréma]] above the second vowel, both vowels are pronounced separately: {{angbr|aë}} {{IPA|[ä.ɛ]}}, {{angbr|aü}} {{IPA|[a.ʊ]}}, {{angbr|eü}} {{IPA|[e.ʊ]}} and {{angbr|oë}} {{IPA|[ɔ.ɛ]}}. However, disyllabic {{angbr|eu}} in morpheme borders is traditionally written without the tréma: {{lang|la|meus}} {{IPA|[ˈme.ʊs]}} 'my'.

In Old Latin, {{angbr|ae}} and {{angbr|oe}} were written as {{angbr|ai}}, {{angbr|oi}} and probably pronounced as {{IPA|[äi̯]}} and {{IPA|[oi̯]}}, with a fully closed second element, similar to the final syllable in French {{Audio|Fr-travail.ogg|''travail''}}. In the late Old Latin period, the last element of the diphthongs was lowered to {{IPA|[e]}},<ref>{{Harvnb|Ward|1962}}</ref> so that the diphthongs were pronounced {{IPA|[äe̯]}} and {{IPA|[oe̯]}} in Classical Latin. They were then monophthongized to {{IPA|[ɛː]}} and {{IPA|[eː]}} respectively, starting in rural areas at the end of the Republican period.{{efn|The simplification was already common in rural speech as far back as the time of [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]] (116 BC – 27 BC): cf. ''De lingua Latina'', 5:97 (referred to in {{Harvnb|Smith|2004|p=47}}).}} The process, however, does not seem to have been completed before the 3rd century AD, and some scholars say that it may have been regular by the 5th century.<ref>{{Harvnb|Clackson|Horrocks|2007|pp=273, 274}}</ref>

===Vowel and consonant length===
Vowel and consonant [[length (phonetics)|length]] were more significant and more clearly defined in Latin than in modern English. Length is the duration of time that a particular sound is held before proceeding to the next sound in a word. In the modern spelling of Latin, especially in dictionaries and academic work, [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]]s are frequently used to mark long vowels: {{angbr|ā}}, {{angbr|ē}}, {{angbr|ī}}, {{angbr|ō}}, {{angbr|ū}} and {{angbr|ȳ}}, while the [[breve]] is sometimes used to indicate that a vowel is short: {{angbr|ă}}, {{angbr|ĕ}}, {{angbr|ĭ}}, {{angbr|ŏ}}, {{angbr|ŭ}} and {{angbr|y̆}}.

Long consonants were usually indicated through doubling, but ancient Latin orthography did not distinguish between the vocalic and consonantal uses of {{angbr|i}} and {{angbr|v}}. Vowel length was indicated only intermittently in classical sources and even then through a variety of means. Later medieval and modern usage tended to omit vowel length altogether. A short-lived convention of spelling long vowels by doubling the vowel letter is associated with the poet [[Lucius Accius]]. Later spelling conventions marked long vowels with an [[Apex (Latin spelling)|apex]] (a diacritic similar to an [[acute accent]]) or, in the case of long i, by increasing the height of the letter ([[long i]]); in the second century AD, those were given apices as well.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=65}}</ref> The Classical vowel length system faded in later Latin and ceased to be phonemic in Romance, having been replaced by contrasts in vowel quality. Consonant length, however, remains contrastive in much of Italo-Romance, cf. Italian {{lang|it|nono}} "ninth" versus {{lang|it|nonno}} "grandfather".<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.italianlanguageguide.com/pronunciation/consonants/double-consonants.asp|title=Pronouncing Italian double consonants|website=www.italianlanguageguide.com|access-date=2019-03-03}}</ref>

[[File:La-cls-anus, annus, anus.ogg|thumb|Recording of {{lang|la|ānus, annus, anus}}]]
A [[minimal pair|minimal set]] showing both long and short vowels and long and short consonants is {{lang|la|ānus}} {{IPA|/ˈaː.nus/}} ('anus'), {{lang|la|annus}} {{IPA|/ˈan.nus/}} ('year'), {{lang|la|anus}} {{IPA|/ˈa.nus/}} ('old woman').

===Table of orthography===

The letters {{angbr|b}}, {{angbr|d}}, {{angbr|f}}, {{angbr|h}}, {{angbr|m}}, {{angbr|n}} are always pronounced as in English {{IPA|[b]}}, {{IPA|[d]}}, {{IPA|[f]}}, {{IPA|[h]}}, {{IPA|[m]}}, {{IPA|[n]}} respectively, and they do not usually cause any difficulties. The exceptions are mentioned below:

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Pronunciation of Latin consonants
|-
! Latin<br />grapheme !! Latin<br />phoneme !! English approximation
|-
! {{angbr|C}}, {{angbr|K}}
! {{IPA|[k]}}
| Always hard as ''k'' in ''sky'', never [[hard and soft C|soft]] as in ''cellar'', ''cello'', or ''social''. {{angbr|k}} is a letter coming from Greek, but seldom used and generally replaced by {{angbr|c}}.
|-
! {{angbr|CH}}
! {{IPA|[kʰ]}}
| As ''ch'' in ''chemistry'', and aspirated; never as in ''challenge'' or ''change'' and also never as in ''Bach'' or ''chutzpah.'' Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|χ}}}}, mostly used in Greek loanwords.
|-
! {{angbr|G}}
! {{IPA|[ɡ]}}
| Always hard as ''g'' in ''good'', never [[hard and soft G|soft]] as ''g'' in ''gem''.
|-
! {{angbr|GN}}
! {{IPA|[ɡn ~ ŋn]}}
| As ''ngn'' in ''wingnut''.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|I}}
! {{IPA|[j]}}
| Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, as ''y'' in ''yard'', never as ''j'' in ''just''.
|-
! {{IPA|[jː]}}
| Geminated between vowels, as ''y y'' in ''toy yacht''.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|L}}
! {{IPA|[l]}}
| When doubled {{angbr|ll}} or before {{angbr|i}}, as clear ''l'' in ''link'' (known as {{lang|la|L exilis}}).<ref>{{harvnb|Sihler|1995|p=174}}.</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=33–34}}</ref>
|-
! {{IPA|[ɫ]}}
| In all other positions,{{dubious|date=October 2023}}{{citation needed|date=October 2023}} as dark ''l'' in ''bowl'' (known as {{lang|la|L pinguis}}).
|-
! {{angbr|P}}
! {{IPA|[p]}}
| As ''p'' in ''spy'', unaspirated.
|-
! {{angbr|PH}}
! {{IPA|[pʰ]}}
| As ''p'' in ''party'', always aspirated; never as in ''photo'' when being pronounced in English. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|φ}}}}, mostly used in Greek loanwords.
|-
! {{angbr|QV}}
! {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| Similar to ''qu'' in ''quick'', never as ''qu'' in ''antique''. Before {{angbr|i}}, like ''cu'' in French {{lang|fr|cuir}}. 
|-
! {{angbr|QVV}}
! {{IPA|[kʷɔ ~ kʷu ~ ku]}}
| There were two trends: the educated and popular pronunciation. Within educated circles it was pronounced {{IPA|[kʷɔ]}}, evoking the [[Old Latin]] pronunciation ({{lang|la|equos}}, {{lang|la|sequontur}}); meanwhile, within popular circles it was pronounced {{IPA|[ku]}} ({{lang|la|ecus}}, {{lang|la|secuntur}}).<ref name="Traina & Perini 1998">{{Citation|last1=Traina |first1=Alfonso |last2= Perini |first2=Giorgio Bernardi |title= Propedeutica al latino universitario |year=1998 |pages=62–63 |ref=TrainaPropedeutica |language=it}}</ref><ref name="Traina 2002">{{cite book|author-link1=Alfonso Traina|first=Alfonso|last=Traina|title=L'alfabeto e la pronunzia del latino|publisher=Pàtron|location=Bologna|year=2002|edition=5|pages=44 and 59–60}}. Traina cites various sources: Quintilianus (I, 7, 26) certifies that his teachers had the group 'vo' written in its epoch by now writing 'vu'; Velio Longo (VII 58 K.) attests the spelling 'quu' pronounced {{IPA|[ku]}}; various inscriptions from different periods even show the spelling 'cu' for 'quu'.</ref>
|-
! {{angbr|R}}
! {{IPA|[r]}}
| As ''r'' in Italian and several Romance languages.
|-
! {{angbr|RH}}
! {{IPA|[r̥]}}
| As ''r'' in Italian and several Romance languages, but voiceless; e.g. {{lang|la|diarrhoea}} {{angbr|{{lang|grc|διάῤῥοια}}}}. (see [[Voiceless alveolar trill]]). Transcription of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ῥ}}}}, mostly used in Greek loanwords.
|-
! {{angbr|S}}
! {{IPA|[s]}}
| As ''s'' in ''say'', never as ''s'' in ''rise'' or ''measure''.
|-
! {{angbr|T}}
! {{IPA|[t]}}
| As ''t'' in ''stay''
|-
! {{angbr|TH}}
! {{IPA|[tʰ]}}
| As ''th'' in ''thyme'', and aspirated; never as in ''thing'', or ''that.'' Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|θ}}}}, mostly used in Greek loanwords.
|-
! {{angbr|V}}
! {{IPA|[w]}}
| Sometimes at the beginning of a syllable, or after {{angbr|g}} and {{angbr|s}}, as ''w'' in ''wine'', never as ''v'' in ''vine''.
|-
! {{angbr|VV}}
! {{IPA|[wɔ ~ wu]}}
| As ''one'' is pronounced in some English accents, but without the nasal sound: {{lang|la|parvus}} {{IPA|[ˈpɐr.wɔs]}}, {{lang|la|vivunt}} {{IPA|[ˈwiː.wɔnt]}}. The spelling {{angbr|vu}} is post-classical, made in order to become regular in spelling.<ref name="Traina & Perini 1998" /><ref name="Traina 2002"/>
|-
! {{angbr|X}}
! {{IPA|[ks]}}
| A letter representing {{angbr|c}} + {{angbr|s}}, as well as {{angbr|g}} + {{angbr|s}}: as ''x'' in English ''axe''.
|-
! {{angbr|Z}}
! {{IPA|[d͡z ~ zː]}}
| As in ''zoom'', never as in ''pizza'' (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ζ}}}}.
|}
{| class=wikitable
|+ Pronunciation of Latin vowels
! Latin<br />grapheme
! Latin<br />phone
! English approximation
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|A}}
! {{IPA|[ä]}}
| Similar to ''u'' in ''cut'' when short. Transliteration of Greek short {{angbr|{{lang|grc|α}}}}.
|-
! {{IPA|[äː]}}
| Similar to ''a'' in ''father'' when long. Transliteration of Greek long {{angbr|{{lang|grc|α}}}}.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|E}}
! {{IPA|[ɛ]}} 
| As ''e'' in ''pet'' when short. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ε}}}}.
|-
! {{IPA|[eː]}}
| Similar to ''ey'' in ''they'' when long. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|η}}}}, and {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ει}}}} in some cases.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|I}}
! {{IPA|[ɪ]}}
| As ''i'' in ''sit'' when short. Transliteration of short Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ι}}}}.
|-
! {{IPA|[iː]}}
| Similar to ''i'' in ''machine'' when long. Transliteration of Greek long {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ι}}}}, and {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ει}}}} in some cases.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|O}}
! {{IPA|[ɔ]}}
| As ''o'' in ''sort'' when short. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ο}}}}.
|-
! {{IPA|[oː]}}
| Similar to ''o'' in ''holy'' when long. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ω}}}}, and {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ου}}}} in some cases.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|V}}
! {{IPA|[ʊ]}}
| Similar to ''u'' in ''put'' when short.
|-
! {{IPA|[uː]}}
| Similar to ''u'' in ''true'' when long. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ου}}}}.
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|Y}}
! {{IPA|[ʏ]}}
| As in German ''Stück'' when short (or as short ''u'' or ''i'') (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek short {{angbr|{{lang|grc|υ}}}}.
|-
! {{IPA|[yː]}}
| As in German ''früh'' when long (or as long ''u'' or ''i'') (mostly used in Greek loanwords). Transliteration of Greek long {{angbr|{{lang|grc|υ}}}}.
|}
{| class=wikitable
|+ Pronunciation of Latin diphthongs
! Latin<br />grapheme
! Latin<br />phone
! English approximation
|-
! {{angbr|AE}}
! {{IPA|[ae̯]}}
| As in ''aisle''. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|αι}}}}.
|-
! {{angbr|AV}}
! {{IPA|[au̯]}} 
| As in ''out''. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|αυ}}}}.
|-
! {{angbr|EI}}
! {{IPA|[ei̯]}}
| As in ''ey'' in ''they''. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ει}}}} in some cases.
|-
! {{angbr|EV}}
! {{IPA|[eu̯]}}
| As in Portuguese {{lang|pt|eu}}, similar to the British pronunciation of ''ow'' in ''low''. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|ευ}}}}.
|-
! {{angbr|OE}}
! {{IPA|[oe̯]}}
| As in ''boy''. Transliteration of Greek {{angbr|{{lang|grc|οι}}}}.
|-
! {{angbr|VI}}
! {{IPA|[ui̯]}}
| As in Spanish {{lang|es|muy}}, similar to ''hooey''.
|-
! {{angbr|YI}}
! {{IPA|[ʏɪ̯]}}
| Transliteration of the Greek diphthong {{angbr|{{lang|grc|υι}}}}.
|}

==Syllables and stress==
===Nature of the accent===
Although some French and Italian scholars believe that the classical Latin accent was purely a pitch accent, which had no effect on the placing of words in a line of poetry, the view of most scholars is that the accent was a stress accent. One argument for this is that unlike most languages with tonal accents, there are no minimal pairs like ancient Greek {{lang|grc|φῶς}} (falling accent) "light" vs. {{lang|grc|φώς}} (rising accent) "man" where a change of accent on the same syllable changes the meaning.<ref>W. C. de Melo (2007), [https://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2007/2007.12.21 Review: Cesare Questa, La metrica di Plauto e Terenzio]. Bryn Mawr Classical Review.</ref> Among other arguments are the loss of vowels before or after the accent in words such as {{lang|la|discip(u)līna}} and {{lang|la|sinist(e)ra}}; and the shortening of post or pre-accentual syllables in Plautus and Terence by [[brevis brevians]], for example, scansions such as {{lang|la|senex}} and {{lang|la|voluptātem}} with the second syllable short.<ref>W. Sidney Allen (1978), ''Vox Latina'', 2nd edition, pp. 85–86.</ref>

===Old Latin stress===
In [[Old Latin]], as in [[Proto-Italic]], stress normally fell on the first syllable of a word.<ref>{{Harvnb|Fortson|2004|p=254}}</ref> During this period, the word-initial stress triggered changes in the vowels of non-initial syllables, the effects of which are still visible in classical Latin. Compare for example:
* {{lang|la|f'''a'''ciō}} 'I do/make', {{lang|la|f'''a'''ctus}} 'made'; pronounced {{IPA|/ˈfa.ki.oː/}} and {{IPA|/ˈfak.tus/}} in later Old Latin and Classical Latin.
* {{lang|la|aff'''i'''ciō}} 'I affect', {{lang|la|aff'''e'''ctus}} 'affected'; pronounced {{IPA|/ˈaf.fi.ki.oː/}} and {{IPA|/ˈaf.fek.tus/}} in Old Latin following vowel reduction, {{IPA|/af.ˈfi.ki.oː/}} and {{IPA|/af.ˈfek.tus/}} in Classical Latin.
In the earliest Latin writings, the original unreduced vowels are still visible. Study of this vowel reduction, as well as syncopation (dropping of short unaccented syllables) in Greek loan words, indicates that the stress remained word-initial until around the time of [[Plautus]], in the 3rd century BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Sturtevant|1920|pp=207–218}}</ref> The placement of the stress then shifted to become the pattern found in classical Latin.

===Classical Latin syllables and stress===
{{See also|Dreimorengesetz{{!}}''Dreimorengesetz''}}
In Classical Latin, stress changed. It moved from the first syllable to one of the last three syllables, called the antepenult, the penult, and the ultima (short for {{lang|la|antepaenultima}} 'before almost last', {{lang|la|paenultima}} 'almost last', and {{lang|la|ultima syllaba}} 'last syllable'). Its position is determined by the [[syllable weight]] of the penult. If the penult is heavy, it is accented; if the penult is light and there are more than two syllables, the antepenult is accented.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=83}}</ref> In a few words originally accented on the penult, accent is on the ultima because the two last syllables have been contracted, or the last syllable has been lost.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=87}}</ref>

====Syllable====
To determine stress, syllable weight of the penult must be determined. To determine syllable weight, words must be broken up into syllables.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|Greenough|2001|loc=§11}}<!-- syllable quantity --></ref> In the following examples, syllable structure is represented using these symbols: C (a consonant), K (a stop), R (a liquid), and V (a short vowel), VV (a long vowel or diphthong).

====Nucleus====
Every short vowel, long vowel, or diphthong belongs to a single syllable. This vowel forms the syllable nucleus. Thus {{lang|la|magistrārum}} has four syllables, one for every vowel (a i ā u: V V VV V), {{lang|la|aereus}} has three (ae e u: VV V V), {{lang|la|tuō}} has two (u ō: V VV), and {{lang|la|cui}} has one (ui: VV).<ref name="Greenough syllable">{{Harvnb|Allen|Greenough|2001|loc=§7<!-- one vowel or diphthong to a syllable; one consonant as onset -->}}</ref>

====Onset and coda====
A consonant before a vowel or a consonant cluster at the beginning of a word is placed in the same syllable as the following vowel. This consonant or consonant cluster forms the syllable onset.<ref name="Greenough syllable" />
*{{lang|la|fēminae}} {{IPA|/feː.mi.nae̯/}} (CVV.CV.CVV)
*{{lang|la|uidēre}} {{IPA|/wi.deː.re/}} (CV.CVV.CV)
*{{lang|la|puerō}} {{IPA|/pu.e.roː/}} (CV.V.CVV)
*{{lang|la|beātae}} {{IPA|/be.aː.tae̯/}} (CV.VV.CVV)
*{{lang|la|grauiter}} {{IPA|/ɡra.wi.ter/}} (CCV.CV.CVC)
*{{lang|la|strātum}} {{IPA|/straː.tum/}} (CCCVV.CVC)

After this, if there is an additional consonant inside the word, it is placed at the end of the syllable. This consonant is the syllable coda. Thus if a consonant cluster of two consonants occurs between vowels, they are broken up between syllables: one goes with the syllable before, the other with the syllable after.<ref name="Allen syllable">{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|pp=89–92}}</ref>
*{{lang|la|puella}} {{IPA|/pu.el.la/}} (CV.VC.CV)
*{{lang|la|supersum}} {{IPA|/su.per.sum/}} (CV.CVC.CVC)
*{{lang|la|coāctus}} {{IPA|/ko.aːk.tus/}} (CV.VVC.CVC)
*{{lang|la|intellēxit}} {{IPA|/in.tel.leːk.sit/}} (VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC)

There are two exceptions. A consonant cluster of a stop {{IPA|/p/}}, {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|/k/}}, {{IPA|/b/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, or {{IPA|/g/}} followed by a liquid {{IPA|/l/}} or {{IPA|/r/}} between vowels usually goes to the syllable after it, although it is also sometimes broken up like other consonant clusters.<ref name="Allen syllable" />
*{{lang|la|uolucris}} {{IPA|/wo.lu.kris/}} or {{IPA|/wo.luk.ris/}} (CV.CV.KRVC or CV.CVK.RVC)

====Heavy and light syllables====
As shown in the examples above, Latin syllables have a variety of possible structures. Here are some of them. The first four examples are light syllables, and the last six are heavy. All syllables have at least one V (vowel). A syllable is heavy if it has another V or C (or both) after the first V. In the table below, the extra V or VC is bolded, indicating that it makes the syllable heavy.

{|
| || || || V || ||
|-
| || || C || V || ||
|-
| || C || C || V || ||
|-
| C || C || C || V || ||
|-
| || || C || V
! V !!
|-
| || || C || V
! C !!
|-
| || || C || V
! V !! C
|-
| || || || V
! V !!
|-
| || || || V
! C !!
|-
| || || || V
! V !! C
|}

Thus, a syllable is heavy if it ends in a long vowel or diphthong, a short vowel and a consonant, a long vowel and a consonant, or a diphthong and a consonant. Syllables ending in a diphthong and consonant are rare in Classical Latin.

The syllable onset has no relationship to syllable weight; both heavy and light syllables can have no onset or an onset of one, two, or three consonants.

In Latin a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a long vowel or diphthong is traditionally called {{lang|la|syllaba nātūrā longa}} ({{Translation|syllable long by nature|literal=yes}}), and a syllable that is heavy because it ends in a consonant is called {{lang|la|positiōne longa}} ({{Translation|long by position|literal=yes}}). These terms are translations of Greek {{lang|grc|συλλαβὴ μακρά φύσει}} ({{Transliteration|grc|syllabḕ makrá phýsei}}) and {{lang|grc|μακρὰ θέσει}} ({{Transliteration|grc|makrà thései}}), respectively; therefore {{lang|la|positiōne}} should not be mistaken for implying a syllable "is long because of its position/place in a word" but rather "is treated as 'long' by convention".  This article uses the words ''heavy'' and ''light'' for syllables, and ''long'' and ''short'' for vowels since the two are not the same.<ref name="Allen syllable" />

====Stress rule====
In a word of three or more syllables, the weight of the penult determines where the accent is placed. If the penult is light, accent is placed on the antepenult; if it is heavy, accent is placed on the penult.<ref name="Allen syllable" /> Below, stress is marked by placing the stress mark {{angbr IPA|ˈ}} before the stressed syllable.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Words with stress on antepenult
|-
| {{lang|la|volucris}}|| {{lang|la|fēminae}} || {{lang|la|puerō}}
|-
| {{IPA|/ˈwo.lu.kris/}} || {{IPA|/ˈfeː.mi.nae̯/}} || {{IPA|/ˈpu.e.roː/}}
|-
| CV.CV.CCVC || CVV.CV.CVV || CV.V.CVV
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Words with stress on penult
| {{lang|la|volucris}}|| {{lang|la|vidēre}} || {{lang|la|intellēxit}} || {{lang|la|beātae}} || {{lang|la|puella}} || {{lang|la|coāctus}}
|-
| CV.CVC.CVC || CV.CVV.CV || VC.CVC.CVVC.CVC || CV.VV.CVV || CV.VC.CV || CV.VVC.CVC
|-
| {{IPA|/woˈluk.ris/}} || {{IPA|/wiˈdeː.re/}} || {{IPA|/in.telˈleːk.sit/}} || {{IPA|/beˈaː.tae̯/}} || {{IPA|/puˈel.la/}} || {{IPA|/koˈaːk.tus/}}
|}

====Iambic shortening====
{{main|Brevis brevians}}
'''Iambic shortening''' or {{lang|la|brevis brevians}} is vowel shortening that occurs in words of the type ''light–heavy'', where the light syllable is stressed. By this sound change, words like {{lang|la|egō}}, {{lang|la|modō}}, {{lang|la|benē}}, {{lang|la|amā}} with long final vowel change to {{lang|la|ego}}, {{lang|la|modo}}, {{lang|la|bene}}, {{lang|la|ama}} with short final vowel.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=86}}</ref>

The term also refers to shortening of closed syllables following a short syllable, for example {{lang|la|quid ĕst, volŭptātem, apŭd iudicem}} and so on. This type of shortening is found in early Latin, for example in the comedies of [[Plautus]] and [[Terence]], but not in poetry of the classical period.

==Elision==
Where one word ended with a vowel (including the nasalized vowels written {{angbr|am}}, {{angbr|em}}, {{angbr|im}}, {{angbr|om}} and {{angbr|um}}, and the diphthong {{angbr|ae}}) and the next word began with a vowel, the former vowel, at least in verse, was regularly elided; that is, it was omitted altogether, or possibly (in the case of {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/u/}}) pronounced like the corresponding semivowel. When the second word was {{lang|la|est}} or {{lang|la|es}}, and possibly when the second word was {{lang|la|et}}, a different form of elision sometimes occurred ([[prodelision]]): the vowel of the preceding word was retained, and the {{angbr|e}} was elided instead. Elision also occurred in Ancient Greek, but in that language, it is shown in writing by the vowel in question being replaced by an apostrophe, whereas in Latin elision is not indicated at all in the orthography, but can be deduced from the verse form. Only occasionally is it found in inscriptions, as in {{lang|la|scriptust}} for {{lang|la|scriptum est}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|Greenough|2001|p=400|loc=section 612 e, f}}</ref><!-- This reference covers elision and prodelision in poetry; a reference for elision in Ancient Greek and Latin inscriptions is still needed. -->

==Modern conventions==

===Spelling===
====Letters====
Modern usage, even for classical Latin texts, varies in respect of {{angbr|I}} and {{angbr|V}}. During the Renaissance, the printing convention was to use  {{angbr|I}} (upper case) and {{angbr|i}} (lower case) for both vocalic {{IPA|/i/}} and consonantal {{IPA|/j/}}, to use {{angbr|V}} in the upper case and in the lower case to use {{angbr|v}} at the start of words and {{angbr|u}} subsequently within the word regardless of whether {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/w/}} was represented.<ref>For example, Henri Estienne's {{lang|la|Dictionarium, seu Latinae linguae thesaurus}} (1531)</ref>

Many publishers (such as Oxford University Press) have adopted the convention of using {{angbr|I}} (upper case) and {{angbr|i}} (lower case) for both {{IPA|/i/}} and {{IPA|/j/}}, and {{angbr|V}} (upper case) and {{angbr|u}} (lower case) for both {{IPA|/u/}} and {{IPA|/w/}}.

An alternative approach, less common today, is to use {{angbr|i}} and {{angbr|u}} only for the vowels, and {{angbr|j}} and {{angbr|v}} for the approximants.

Most modern editions, however, adopt an intermediate position, distinguishing between {{angbr|u}} and {{angbr|v}}, but not between {{angbr|i}} and {{angbr|j}}. Usually, a non-vocalic {{angbr|v}} after {{angbr|q}}, {{angbr|g}} or {{angbr|s}} is still printed as {{angbr|u}} rather than {{angbr|v}}, likely because these did not change from {{IPA|/w/}} to {{IPA|/v/}} post-classically.{{efn|This approach is also recommended in the [[:la:Vicipaedia:Commendationes paginarum recte scribendarum|help page]] for the [[:la:|Latin Wikipedia]].}}

====Diacritics====
Textbooks and dictionaries usually indicate the length of vowels by putting a [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]] or horizontal bar above the long vowel, but it is not generally done in regular texts. Occasionally, mainly in early printed texts up to the 18th century, one may see a [[circumflex]] used to indicate a long vowel where this makes a difference to the sense, for instance, {{lang|la|Româ}} {{IPA|/ˈroːmaː/}} ('from Rome' [[Ablative case|ablative]]) compared to {{lang|la|Roma}} {{IPA|/ˈroːma/}} ('Rome' [[Nominative case|nominative]]).<ref>{{Harvnb|Gilbert|1939}}</ref>

Sometimes, for instance in Roman Catholic service books, an [[acute accent]] over a vowel is used to indicate the stressed syllable. It would be  redundant for one who knew the classical rules of accentuation and made the correct distinction between long and short vowels, but most Latin speakers since the 3rd century have not made any distinction between long and short vowels, but they have kept the accents in the same places; thus, the use of accent marks allows speakers to read a word aloud correctly even if they have never heard it spoken aloud.

===Pronunciation===

====Post-Medieval Latin====
{{main|Neo-Latin#Pronunciation|l1=Pronunciation of Neo-Latin}}
Since around the beginning of the [[Renaissance]] period onwards, with the language being used as an international language among intellectuals, pronunciation of Latin in Europe came to be dominated by the [[phonology]] of local languages, resulting in a variety of different pronunciation systems. See the article ''[[Latin regional pronunciation]]'' for more details on those (with the exception of the Italian one, which is described in the section on ''Ecclesiastical pronunciation'' below).

====Loan words and formal study====

When Latin words are used as [[loanword]]s in a modern language, there is ordinarily little or no attempt to pronounce them as the Romans did; in most cases, a pronunciation suiting the phonology of the receiving language is employed.

Latin words in common use in English are generally [[loanword#Classification|fully assimilated]] into the English sound system, with little to mark them as foreign; for example, ''cranium'', ''saliva''. Other words have a stronger Latin feel to them, usually because of spelling features such as the digraphs {{angbr|ae}} and {{angbr|oe}} (occasionally written with the ligatures: {{angbr|æ}} and {{angbr|œ}}, respectively), which both denote {{IPA|/iː/}} in English.  The [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] {{angbr|ae}} or [[Typographic ligature|ligature]] {{angbr|æ}} in some words tend to be given an {{IPA|/aɪ/}} pronunciation; for example, ''curriculum vitae''.

However, using loanwords in the context of the language borrowing them is a markedly different situation from the study of Latin itself. In this classroom setting, instructors and students attempt to recreate at least some sense of the original pronunciation. What is taught to native anglophones is suggested by the sounds of today's [[Romance languages]],{{citation needed|date=October 2014}} the direct descendants of Latin. Instructors who take this approach rationalize that Romance vowels probably come closer to the original pronunciation than those of any other modern language (see also the section {{slink||Pronunciation shared by Vulgar Latin and Romance languages}} below).

However, other languages—including Romance family members—all have their own interpretations of the Latin phonological system, applied both to loan words and formal study of Latin. But English, Romance, or other teachers do not always point out that the particular accent their students learn is not actually the way ancient Romans spoke.

====Ecclesiastical pronunciation====
{{see also|Ecclesiastical Latin}}
Since the late 19th and early 20th centuries, an Italianate pronunciation of Latin has grown to be accepted as a universal standard in the [[Catholic Church]]. Before then, the pronunciation of Latin in church was the same as the pronunciation of Latin in other fields and tended to reflect the sound values associated with the nationality and native language of the speaker.{{sfn|Brittain|1955}} Other ecclesiastical pronunciations are still in use, especially outside the Catholic Church.

A guide to this Italianate pronunciation is provided below. Since the letters or letter-combinations {{angbr|b}}, {{angbr|d}}, {{angbr|f}}, {{angbr|m}}, {{angbr|n}}, {{angbr|ph}} and {{angbr|v}} are pronounced as they are in English, they are not included in the table.
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Consonants
|-
! Grapheme
! Pronunciation 
! Context
! Example
! English approximation
|-
! rowspan="2" |{{angbr|c}}
! {{IPA|[t͡ʃ]}}
| Before {{angbr|ae}}, {{angbr|e}}, {{angbr|i}}, {{angbr|oe}}, {{angbr|y}}
| lang="la" | pro<u>c</u>ella
| '''''ch'''ange''
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[k]}}
| Before {{angbr|a}}, {{angbr|o}}, {{angbr|u}}
| lang="la" | <u>c</u>arnem
| rowspan="2" | ''s'''k'''y'' (never aspirated as in '''''k'''ill'')
|-
! {{angbr|ch}}
| Always
| lang="la" | Antio<u>ch</u>ia
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|g}}
! {{IPA|[d͡ʒ]}}
| Before {{angbr|ae}}, {{angbr|e}}, {{angbr|i}}, {{angbr|oe}}, {{angbr|y}}
| lang="la" | a<u>g</u>ere
| '''''g'''em''
|-
! {{IPA|[ɡ]}}
| Before {{angbr|a}}, {{angbr|o}}, {{angbr|u}}
| lang="la" | plaga
| '''''g'''ate''
|-
! rowspan="2" |{{angbr|gn}}
!{{IPA|[ɲ]}}
|Beginning of a word or after a consonant
|<u>gn</u>atus
|''ca'''ny'''on'' (roughly); precisely Italian {{lang|it|'''gn'''occhi}}
|-
! {{IPA|[ɲ.ɲ]}}
| Between vowels
| lang="la" | si<u>gn</u>um
| Doubled, as in ''lo'''ng gn'''occhi''
|-
! rowspan="3" |{{angbr|h}}
!{{IPA|[ː]}}
|Only in intejections
|o<u>h</u>
|''ta'''r'''tar'' (UK)
|-
! {{IPA|[k]}}
| Between vowels in a few words
| lang="la" | mi<u>h</u>i
| ''s'''k'''y'' (never aspirated as in '''''k'''ill'')
|-
! rowspan="2" | ∅
| In nearly all cases
| lang="la" | <u>h</u>ora
| rowspan="2" | (silent)
|-
! rowspan="3" |{{angbr|i}}
|In a fewer words
|ub<u>i</u>ubi
|-
! {{IPA|[j]}}
| Beginning of a word and before a vowel
| lang="la" | <u>i</u>anua
| '''''y'''ard''
|-
! {{IPA|[j.j]}}
| Between vowels
| lang="la" | Ga<u>i</u>us
| Doubled, as in ''to'''y y'''acht''
|-
! {{angbr|k}}
! {{IPA|[k]}}
| rowspan="10" | Always
| lang="la" | <u>K</u>arthago
| ''s'''k'''y'' (never aspirated as in '''''k'''ill'')
|-
! {{angbr|l}}
! {{IPA|[l]}}
| lang="la" | pau<u>l</u>um
| ''s'''l'''ip'' (never 'dark' as in ''poo'''l'''s'')
|-
! {{angbr|p}}
! {{IPA|[p]}}
| lang="la" | <u>p</u>raeda
| ''s'''p'''y'' (never aspirated as in '''''p'''ill'')
|-
!{{angbr|ph}}
!{{IPA|[f]}}
|Christo<u>ph</u>orus
|'''''f'''eminine''
|-
! {{angbr|qu}}
! {{IPA|[kʷ]}}
| lang="la" | at<u>qu</u>e
| '''''qu'''ick'' (never as in ''anti'''qu'''e'')
|-
!{{angbr|gu}}
!{{IPA|[gʷ]}}
|lin<u>gu</u>a
|'''''gu'''ard'' (never as in '''''gu'''ide'')
|-
! {{angbr|r}}
! rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[r]}}
| lang="la" | <u>r</u>egina
| rowspan="2" | (rolled like Italian or Spanish {{lang|es|'''r'''ana}})
|-
! {{angbr|rh}}
|<u>rh</u>ythmus
|-
!{{angbr|rr}}
! rowspan="2" |{{IPA|[r.r]}}
|te<u>rr</u>a
| rowspan="2" |Same as above, but '''long'''
|-
!{{angbr|rrh}}
|haemo<u>rrh</u>agia
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|s}}
! {{IPA|[s]}}
| Always (formally)
| lang="la" | <u>s</u>anctum
| '''''s'''ing''
|-
! {{IPA|[z]}}
| Between vowels (informally)
| lang="la" | mi<u>s</u>er
| ''tea'''s'''e''
|-
!{{angbr|ss}}
!{{IPA|[s.s]}}
|Always
|e<u>ss</u>e
|Doubled, as in ''a'''s s'''ongs''
|-
! rowspan="3" | {{angbr|sc}}
! {{IPA|[ʃ]}}
| Before {{angbr|ae}}, {{angbr|e}}, {{angbr|i}}, {{angbr|oe}}, {{angbr|y}}; at the beginning of a word or after a consonant
| lang="la" | a<u>sc</u>endit
| '''''sh'''ade''
|-
!{{IPA|[ʃ.ʃ]}}
|Same as above, but intervocalic
|ne<u>sc</u>io
|Doubled, as in ''a'''s s'''hadows''
|-
! {{IPA|[sk]}}
| Before {{angbr|a}}, {{angbr|o}}, {{angbr|u}}
| lang="la" | pa<u>sc</u>unt
| '''''sc'''are''
|-
! rowspan="3" |{{angbr|t}}
! {{IPA|[t͡s]}}
| Before unstressed {{angbr|i}} and not after {{angbr|s}}, {{angbr|t}}, {{angbr|x}}; at the beginning of a word or after a consonant
| lang="la" | silen<u>ti</u>um
| ''pi'''zz'''a''
|-
!{{IPA|[t.t͡s]}}
|Same as above, but intervocalic
|na<u>ti</u>onem
|Doubled, as in ''a'''t t'''sunami''
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{IPA|[t]}}
| Generally
| lang="la" | <u>t</u>ironibus
| rowspan="2" | ''s'''t'''ay'' (never aspirated as in '''''t'''able'' nor soft as in ''na'''t'''ion'')
|-
!{{angbr|th}}
| rowspan="3" |Always
|<u>th</u>eca
|-
! {{angbr|v}}
! {{IPA|[v]}}
| lang="la" | conser<u>v</u>are
| ''preser'''v'''e''
|-
!{{angbr|w}}
!{{IPA|[w]}}
|<u>w</u>ardo
|'''''w'''ay''
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|x}}
! {{IPA|[ks]}}
| Generally
| lang="la" | de<u>x</u>tro
| ''fo'''x'''''
|-
! {{IPA|[ɡz]}}
| Word internally before a stressed vowel
| lang="la" | e<u>x</u>audi
| ''e'''x'''amine''
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|xc}}
! {{IPA|[ksk]}}
| Generally
| lang="la" | e<u>xc</u>lamavit
| ''e'''xc'''laim''
|-
! {{IPA|[kʃ]}}
| Before {{angbr|ae}}, {{angbr|e}}, {{angbr|i}}, {{angbr|oe}}, {{angbr|y}}
| lang="la" | e<u>xc</u>elsis
| ''thi'''ck sh'''ell''
|-
!{{angbr|xs}}
!{{IPA|[ks.s]}}
|Always
|e<u>xs</u>tans
|Doubled, as in '''''ex-s'''acristan''
|-
! rowspan="2" | {{angbr|z}}
! {{IPA|[d͡z]}}
| Beginning of a word or after a consonant
| lang="la" | <u>z</u>ona
| ''la'''ds'''''
|-
!{{IPA|[d.d͡z]}}
|Intervocalic
|Horoma<u>z</u>es
|Doubled, as in ''linke'''d dz'''ungar''
|}
{| class=wikitable
|+ Vowels
! Grapheme
! Pronunciation
! English approximation
|-
! {{angbr|a}}
! {{IPA|[ä]}}
| ''f'''a'''ther'' (roughly)<br/>precisely Spanish {{lang|es|r'''a'''mo}}
|-
! {{angbr|ae}}
! rowspan="3" | {{IPA|[ɛ]}}/{{IPA|[e]}}
| rowspan="3" | ''p'''e'''t''
|-
! {{angbr|oe}}
|-
! {{angbr|e}}
|-
! {{angbr|i}}
! {{IPA|[i]}}
| ''s'''ee'''k''
|-
! {{angbr|o}}
! {{IPA|[ɔ]}}/{{IPA|[o]}}
| ''s'''o'''rt''
|-
! {{angbr|u}}
! {{IPA|[u]}}
| ''c'''oo'''l''
|-
! {{angbr|y}}
! {{IPA|[i]}}
| ''s'''ee'''k''
|}
{| class=wikitable
|+ Diphthongs
! Grapheme
! Pronunciation
! English approximation
|-
! {{angbr|au}}
! {{IPA|[au̯]}} 
| ''<u>ou</u>t''
|-
! {{angbr|ay}}
! {{IPA|[ai̯]}} 
| ''b<u>uy</u>''
|-
! {{angbr|ei}}
! {{IPA|[ɛi̯]}}
| ''th<u>ey</u>''
|-
! {{angbr|eu}} 
! {{IPA|[ɛu̯]}}
| ''hello'' as pronounced by [[Elmer Fudd]]: ''h<u>ew</u>wo''
|-
! {{angbr|ui}}
! {{IPA|[ui̯]}}
| ''Gr<u>uy</u>ère''
|}

* Vowel length is not phonemic. As a result, the automatic [[stress accent]] of Classical Latin, which was dependent on vowel length, becomes a phonemic one in Ecclesiastical Latin. (Some Ecclesiastical texts mark the stress with an [[acute accent]] in words of three or more syllables.)
* Word-final {{angbr|m}} and {{angbr|n}} are pronounced fully, with no [[nasal vowel|nasalization of the preceding vowel]].

In his ''{{lang|la|Vox Latina}}: A guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin'', [[William Sidney Allen]] remarked that this pronunciation, used by the Catholic Church in Rome and elsewhere, and whose adoption [[Pope Pius X]] recommended in a 1912 letter to the [[Archbishop of Bourges]], "is probably less far removed from classical Latin than any other 'national' pronunciation"; but, as can be seen from the table above, there are, nevertheless, very significant differences.<ref>{{Harvnb|Allen|1978|p=108}}</ref> The introduction to the {{lang|la|[[Liber Usualis]]}} indicates that Ecclesiastical Latin pronunciation should be used at Church liturgies.<ref name="Liber Usualis2">[http://www.musicasacra.com/pdf/liberusualis.pdf Liber Usualis], p. xxxvj</ref> The [[Pontifical Academy for Latin]] is the [[pontifical academy]] in the Vatican that is charged with the dissemination and education of Catholics in the Latin language.

Outside of Austria, Germany, Poland, Hungary, Czechia and Slovakia, it is the most widely used standard in [[choir|choral]] singing which, with a few exceptions like [[Stravinsky]]'s {{lang|la|[[Oedipus rex (opera)|Oedipus rex]]}}, is concerned with liturgical texts.{{citation needed |date=December 2020 }} [[Anglican]] choirs adopted it when classicists abandoned traditional English pronunciation after World War II. The rise of [[historically informed performance]] and the availability of guides such as Copeman's ''Singing in Latin'' has led to the recent revival of [[Latin regional pronunciation|regional pronunciations]].

==Pronunciation shared by Vulgar Latin and Romance languages==
{{Main|Phonological changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance|Palatalization in the Romance languages}}
As Classical Latin developed to Late Latin, and eventually into the modern Romance languages, it experienced several phonological changes. Notable changes include the following (the precise order of which is uncertain):

* Loss of {{IPA|/h/}}, in all contexts, and loss of final {{IPA|/m/}}, in polysyllabic words.
* [[Monophthongization]] of {{IPA|/ae̯ oe̯/}} to {{IPA|/ɛː eː/}} respectively.
* Fortition of {{IPA|/w/}} to {{IPA|/β/}}, then lenition of intervocalic {{IPA|/b/}} to {{IPA|/β/}}. (Later developing to {{IPA|/v/}} in many areas.)
* Phonemic (no longer allophonic) loss of {{IPA|/n/}} before {{IPA|/s/}} and of final  in polysyllabic words.
* Phonemic (no longer allophonic) development of {{IPA|/i e/}} to {{IPA|/j/}} when unstressed and in hiatus.
* Palatalization of the consonants {{IPA|/t d/}} by a following {{IPA|/j/}}.
* Loss of phonemic vowel length, with vowel quality becoming the distinctive factor instead. A number of vowel mergers followed as a result.
* Palatalization of various other consonants by a following {{IPA|/j/}}.
* [[Palatalization (sound change)|Palatalization]] of {{IPA|/k ɡ/}} before front vowels (not everywhere).

==Examples==

The following examples are both in verse, which demonstrates several features more clearly than prose.

===From Classical Latin===
[[Virgil]]'s {{lang|la|[[Aeneid]]}}, Book 1, verses 1–4. Quantitative metre ([[dactylic hexameter]]). Translation: "I sing of arms and the man, who, driven by fate, came first from the borders of Troy to Italy and the Lavinian shores; he [was] much afflicted both on lands and on the deep by the power of the gods, because of fierce Juno's vindictive wrath."

[[File:La-cls-arma virumque cano.ogg|thumb|Recording of first four lines of the ''Aeneid'' in reconstructed Classical Latin pronunciation]]
# Traditional (19th-century) English orthography {{lang|la|italic=unset|
#:Arma virúmque cano, Trojæ qui primus ab oris
#:Italiam, fato profugus, Lavíniaque venit
#:Litora; multùm ille et terris jactatus et alto
#:Vi superum, sævæ memorem Junonis ob iram.}}
# Modern orthography with macrons {{lang|la|italic=unset|
#:Arma virumque canō, Troiae quī prīmus ab ōrīs
#:Ītaliam, fātō profugus, Lāvīniaque vēnit
#:Lītora; multum ille et terrīs iactātus et altō
#:Vī superum, saevae memorem Iūnōnis ob īram.}}
# Modern orthography with macrons and without u and v distinction {{lang|la|italic=unset|
#:Arma uirumque canō, Troiae quī prīmus ab ōrīs
#:Ītaliam, fātō profugus, Lāuīniaque uēnit
#:Lītora; multum ille et terrīs iactātus et altō
#:Uī superum, saeuae memorem Iūnōnis ob īram.}}
# Modern orthography without macrons {{lang|la|italic=unset|
#:Arma virumque cano, Troiae qui primus ab oris
#:Italiam, fato profugus, Laviniaque venit
#:Litora; multum ille et terris iactatus et alto
#:Vi superum, saevae memorem Iunonis ob iram.}}
# [Reconstructed] Classical Roman pronunciation{{Citation needed|date=November 2023|reason=Allen does not transcribe this specific passage. Can this transcription be attributed?}}
#:{{IPA|[ˈär.mä wɪ{{!}}ˈɾʊŋ.kʷɛ ˈkä{{!}}n̪oː ˈt̪ɾɔj{{!}}jäe̯ kʷiː {{!}}ˈpɾiː.mʊs̠‿ä‖ˈb‿oː.ɾiːs̠}}
#:{{IPA|iː.ˈt̪ä.l̪i{{!}}ä̃ː ˈfäː{{!}}t̪oː ˈprɔ.fʊ{{!}}ɡʊs̠ ɫ̪äː{{!}}ˈwiː.n̪jä.kʷɛ ‖ˈweː.n̪ɪt̪}}
#:{{IPA|ˈl̪iː.t̪ɔ.ɾä {{!}} ˈmʊɫ̪.t̪(ʷ)‿ɪl̪{{!}}l̪‿ɛt̪ ˈt̪ɛr{{!}}riːs̠ jäk{{!}}ˈt̪äː.t̪ʊ.s̠‿ɛ‖ˈt̪.äɫ̪.t̪oː}}
#:{{IPA|wiː ˈs̠ʊ.pɛ{{!}}ɾʊ̃ː ˈs̠äe̯{{!}}wäe̯ ˈmɛ.mɔ{{!}}ɾɛ̃ː juː{{!}}ˈn̪oː.n̪ɪ.s̠‿ɔ‖ˈb‿iː.ɾä̃ː]}}

Note the elisions in {{lang|la|mult(um)}} and {{lang|la|ill(e)}} in the third line. For a fuller discussion of the prosodic features of this passage, see [[Dactylic hexameter]].

Some manuscripts have "{{lang|la|Lāvīna}}" rather than "{{lang|la|Lāvīnia}}" in the second line.

===From Medieval Latin===
Beginning of {{lang|la|[[Pange Lingua Gloriosi Corporis Mysterium]]}} by [[Thomas Aquinas]] (13th century). Rhymed accentual metre. Translation: "Extol, [my] tongue, the mystery of the glorious body and the precious blood, which the fruit of a noble womb, the king of nations, poured out as the price of the world."

# Traditional orthography as in Roman Catholic service books (stressed syllable marked with an acute accent on words of three syllables or more). {{lang|la|italic=unset|
#: Pange lingua gloriósi
#: Córporis mystérium,
#: Sanguinísque pretiósi,
#: quem in mundi prétium
#: fructus ventris generósi
#: Rex effúdit géntium.}}
# Italianate ecclesiastical pronunciation:{{fact|date=June 2025}}
#: {{IPA|[ˈpän̠ʲd͡ʒe ˈl̺iŋɡwä ɡl̺oɾiˈɔːsi}}
#: {{IPA|ˈkɔrpoɾis misˈt̪eːɾium}}
#: {{IPA|säŋɡwiˈn̺iskwe pɾet̪t̪͡s̪i'ɔːsi}}
#: {{IPA|kwɛm in̺ ˈmun̪d̪i ˈpɾɛt̪ː͡s̪ium}}
#: {{IPA|ˈfɾukt̪us ˈvɛn̪t̪ɾis d͡ʒen̺eˈɾɔːsi}}
#: {{IPA|ˈɾɛks efˈfuːd̪it̪ ˈd͡ʒen̪t̪͡s̪ium]}}

==See also==
*[[Latin alphabet]]
*[[Latin grammar]]
*[[Latin regional pronunciation]]
*[[Traditional English pronunciation of Latin]]
*[[:de:Deutsche Aussprache des Lateinischen|Deutsche Aussprache des Lateinischen]] {{in lang|de}} – traditional German pronunciation
*[[:de:Schulaussprache des Lateinischen|Schulaussprache des Lateinischen]] {{in lang|de}} – revised "school" pronunciation
*[[:Fr:Latin ecclésiastique#Prononciation à la française (musique française du xviie siècle au début du xxe siècle)|Traditional French pronunciation]] {{in lang|fr}}

==Notes==
{{notelist-la}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book |last1=Alkire |first1=Ti |last2=Rosen |first2=Carol |title=Romance Languages: A Historical Introduction |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521889155}}
* {{Cite book |last=Allen |first=William Sidney |year=1978 |edition=2nd |title=Vox Latina—a Guide to the Pronunciation of Classical Latin |orig-year=1965 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-37936-9 |author-link=W. Sidney Allen}}
* {{cite book |last=Allen |first=William Sidney |title=Vox Graeca: The Pronunciation of Classical Greek |year=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521335553 |author-link=W. Sidney Allen}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Allen |first1=Joseph A. |last2=Greenough |first2=James B. |author-link2=James B. Greenough |orig-year=1903 |editor-last=Mahoney |editor-first=Anne |year=2001 |title=New Latin Grammar for Schools and Colleges |location=Newburyport, Massachusetts |publisher=R. Pullins Company |isbn=1-58510-042-0}}
* {{Cite book |last=Brittain |first=Frederick |year=1955 |title=Latin in Church. The History of its Pronunciation |edition=2nd |publisher=Mowbray}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Calabrese |first1=Andrea |date=2005 |title=On the Feature [ATR] and the Evolution of the Short High Vowels of Latin into Romance |journal=University of Connecticut Working Papers in Linguistics |volume=13 |pages=33–78 |url=http://homepages.uconn.edu/~anc02008/Papers/On%20the%20evolution%20of%20short%20high%20vowels%20of%20Latin%20into%20Romance.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113002933/http://homepages.uconn.edu/~anc02008/Papers/On%20the%20evolution%20of%20short%20high%20vowels%20of%20Latin%20into%20Romance.pdf |archive-date=13 November 2012}}
* {{cite book |last1=Clackson |first1=James |last2=Horrocks |first2=Geoffrey |year=2007 |title=The Blackwell History of the Latin Language |location=Oxford, UK |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |isbn=978-1-4051-6209-8 |author-link=James Clackson}}
* {{cite book |last=Clackson |first=James |chapter=Latin |title=The Ancient Languages of Europe |editor=Roger D. Woodard |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-521-68495-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge |author-link=James Clackson}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Cser |first=András |year=2020 |title=The phonology of Classical Latin |journal=Transactions of the Philological Society |volume=118 |pages=1–218 |publisher=Publications of the Philological Society |doi=10.1111/1467-968X.12184 |s2cid=219404384}}
* {{cite book |last1=Fortson |first1=Benjamin W. IV |title=Indo-European Language and Culture: An Introduction |date=2004 |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-1-4051-0315-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dtTyPwAACAAJ}}
* {{cite journal |last=Gilbert |first=Allan H |date=June 1939 |title=Mock Accents in Renaissance and Modern Latin |journal=Publications of the Modern Language Association of America |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=608–610 |doi=10.2307/458579 |jstor=458579|s2cid=164184102}}
* {{cite book |last=Hayes |first=Bruce |year=1995 |title=Metrical stress theory: principles and case studies |publisher=University of Chicago |isbn=9780226321042}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Leppänen |first1=Ville |last2=Alho |first2=Tommi |title=On The Mergers Of Latin Close-Mid Vowels |journal=Transactions of the Philological Society |date=November 2018 |volume=116 |issue=3 |pages=460–483 |doi=10.1111/1467-968X.12130}}
* {{cite book |last=Levy |first=Harry L. |year=1989 |title=A Latin Reader for Colleges |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Lloyd |first=Paul M. |year=1987 |title=From Latin to Spanish |publisher=Diane Publishing |isbn=978-0-87169-173-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Neidermann |first=Max |title=Précis de phonétique historique du latin |year=1945 |orig-year=1906 |edition=2 |location=Paris |url=https://archive.org/details/prcisdephont00nied}}
* {{cite book |last=McCullagh |first=Matthew |chapter=The Sounds of Latin: Phonology |title=A Companion to the Latin Language |editor=James Clackson |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2011 |isbn=978-1405186056}}
* {{cite book |last=Pekkanen |first=Tuomo |year=1999 |title=Ars grammatica—Latinan kielioppi |language=fi, la |location=Helsinki |publisher=Helsinki University Press |edition=3rd-6th |isbn=951-570-022-1}}
* {{cite web |last=Pope Pius X |title=Tra le Sollecitudini |url=http://www.adoremus.org/MotuProprio.html |publisher=Adoremus |access-date=15 June 2013 |location=Rome, Italy |date=November 22, 1903}}
* {{cite book |last=Pope |first=M. K. |year=1952 |orig-year=1934 |title=From Latin to Modern French with especial consideration of Anglo-Norman |edition=revised |location=Manchester |publisher=Manchester University Press}}
* {{cite book |first=Andrew L. |last=Sihler |author-link=Andrew Sihler |title=New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1995 |isbn=0-19-508345-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Jane Stuart |year=2004 |title=Phonetics and Philology: Sound Change in Italic |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=0-19-925773-6}}
* {{cite book |title=The pronunciation of Greek and Latin |first=Edgar Howard |last=Sturtevant |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1920 |url=https://archive.org/details/pronunciationgr00unkngoog}}
*{{cite journal |last=Ward |first=Ralf L. |date=June 1962 |title=Evidence For The Pronunciation Of Latin |journal=The Classical World |volume=55 |issue=9 |pages=273–275 |jstor=4344896 |doi=10.2307/4344896}}
*{{cite book |last=Wingo |first=E. Otha |title=Latin Punctuation in the Classical Age |year=1972 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-9027923233}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
*Hall, William Dawson, and Michael De Angelis. 1971. ''Latin Pronunciation According to Roman Usage.'' Anaheim, CA: National Music Publishers.
*Trame, Richard H. 1983. "A Note On Latin Pronunciation." ''The Choral Journal'' 23, no. 5: 29.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Trame |first=Richard H. |date=1983 |title=A Note On Latin Pronunciation |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23546146 |journal=The Choral Journal |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=29 |jstor=23546146 |issn=0009-5028}}</ref>

==External links==
{{commons}}
* [http://la.raycui.com/ {{sqc|phonetica latinæ}}]: Classical and ecclesiastical Latin pronunciation with audio examples
* {{cite encyclopedia|title=Ecclesiastical Latin|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09019a.htm?title=|year=1910|encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia}}
* {{cite book|title=The Roman Pronunciation of Latin: Why we use it and how to use it|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/7528|first=Frances Ellen |last=Lord|year=2007|orig-year=1894|publisher=Gutenberg Project}}
* [https://spw.uni-goettingen.de/projects/aig/lng-lat.html glottothèque - Ancient Indo-European Grammars online], an online collection of video lectures on Ancient Indo-European languages, including lectures about the phonology and writing systems of Early Latin

{{Language phonologies}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Latin Spelling And Pronunciation}}
[[Category:Latin language]]
[[Category:Italic phonologies]]
[[Category:Indo-European Latin-script orthographies]]