View source for Europe

{{Short description|Continent}}
{{About|the continent}}
{{Pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
{{Use British English|date=November 2024}}
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{{Infobox continent
| title               = Europe
| image               = {{Switcher|[[File:Europe orthographic Caucasus Urals boundary (with borders).svg|frameless]]|Show national borders|[[File:Europe orthographic Caucasus Urals boundary.svg|frameless]]|Hide national borders|default=1}}
| area                = {{circa}} {{Convert|10,186,000|km2}} ([[Continent#Area and population|6th]]){{ref label|footnote_a|a}}
| population          = {{UN_Population|Europe}} ({{UN_Population|Year}}; [[List of continents and continental subregions by population#Distribution of populations by the United Nations geoscheme|3rd]]){{UN_Population|ref}}
| density             = 72.9/km<sup>2</sup> (188/sq mi) (2nd)
| GDP_PPP             = {{nowrap|[[US$|$]]43.53 trillion (2025 est; [[List of continents by GDP#Continents by GDP (PPP)|2nd]])<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PPPGDP@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|title=GDP PPP, current prices|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=2022|access-date=16 January 2022|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122001107/https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/PPPGDP@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|url-status=live}}</ref>}}
| GDP_nominal         = $28.22 trillion (2025 est; [[List of continents by GDP#Continents by GDP (nominal)|3rd]])<ref>{{cite web|title=GDP Nominal, current prices|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=2022|access-date=16 January 2022|archive-date=25 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225211431/https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPD@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|url-status=live}}</ref>
| GDP_per_capita      = $38,270 (2025 est; [[List of continents by GDP#Continents by GDP per capita (nominal)|3rd]]){{ref label|footnote_c|c}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPDPC@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|title=Nominal GDP per capita|publisher=International Monetary Fund|date=2022|access-date=16 January 2022|archive-date=11 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111084550/https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/NGDPDPC@WEO/OEMDC/ADVEC/WEOWORLD|url-status=live}}</ref>
| HDI                 = {{increase}} 0.845<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2011/|title=Reports |website=Human Development Reports |access-date=21 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120709095716/http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2011/|archive-date=9 July 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| religions          = {{unbulleted list
 | [[Christianity in Europe|Christianity]] (76.2%)<ref name="Survey"/>
 | [[Irreligion in Europe|No religion]] (18.3%)<ref name="Survey"/>
 | [[Islam in Europe|Islam]] (4.9%)<ref name="Survey"/>
 | [[Religion in Europe|Other]] (0.6%)<ref name="Survey"/>
}}
| demonym             = [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European]]
| countries           = [[List of sovereign states|Sovereign]] ([[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe#UN member states and UNGA non-member observer state|44–50]])<!-- Note: The smaller figure denotes the number of European countries as defined by the United Nations geoscheme. The greater figure indicates the inclusion of several transcontinental countries and European countries in political and/or cultural geography. --><br />[[List of states with limited recognition|De facto]] ([[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe#De facto states|2–5]])<!-- Note: The greater figure indicates the inclusion of European de facto states in political and/or cultural geography. -->
| dependencies        = [[Dependent territory|External]] ([[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe#Dependent territories|5–6]])<!-- Note: External territories are country-like dependencies. The greater figure indicates the inclusion of Akrotiri and Dhekelia. --><br />[[List of administrative divisions by country|Internal]] ([[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe#Areas of special sovereignty|3]])<!-- Note: Internal territories are areas of special sovereignty which form a constituent part of their sovereign state. -->
| languages           = [[List of European languages by number of speakers|Most common]]: {{hlist
<!-- Note: according to [[Languages of Europe#List of languages]], ordered by number of L1 speakers. -->
 |[[Russian language|Russian]]
 |[[German language|German]]
 |[[French language|French]]
 |[[Italian language|Italian]]
 |[[English language|English]]
 |[[Spanish language|Spanish]]
 |[[Polish language|Polish]]
 |[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]
 |[[Romanian language|Romanian]]
 |[[Dutch language|Dutch]]
 |[[Swedish language|Swedish]]
 |[[Serbo-Croatian]]
 }}
| time                = [[UTC−01:00|UTC−1]]<!--Azores--> to [[UTC+05:00|UTC+5]]<!--Russia-->
| cities              = [[List of urban areas in Europe|Largest urban areas]]:<ref name="Urban">{{cite web|url=http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf|title=Demographia World Urban Areas|publisher=Demographia|access-date=28 October 2020|archive-date=3 May 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180503021711/http://www.demographia.com/db-worldua.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>{{hlist
<!-- Note: 10 largest urban areas only, ranked by the total population of the conurbation. Please do not modify the list per your own original research. The list must be sourced from a single cited aggregate source. -->
  <!--1-->|[[Moscow]]<!--17.9 million-->
  <!--2-->|[[Istanbul]]<!--14.4.million-->{{ref label|footnote_b|b}}
  <!--3-->|[[Paris]]<!--11.1 million-->
  <!--4-->|[[London]]<!--10.8 million-->
  <!--5-->|[[Madrid]]<!--6.8 million-->
  <!--6-->|[[Essen]]-[[Düsseldorf]]<!--6.8 million-->
  <!--7-->|[[Saint Petersburg]]<!--5.7 million-->
  <!--8-->|[[Milan]]<!--4.5 million-->
  <!--9-->|[[Barcelona]]<!--4.3 million-->
  <!--10-->|[[Berlin]]<!--4.3 million-->
 }}
| m49                 = <code>150</code> – Europe<br /><code>001</code> – [[World]]
| footnotes           = {{unbulleted list|style=font-size:90%;
|a. {{note|footnote_a}} Figures include only European portions of transcontinental countries.{{cref2|n|1}}
|b. {{note|footnote_b}} Includes Asian population. Istanbul is a transcontinental city which straddles both Asia and Europe.
|c. {{note|footnote_c}} "Europe" as defined by the International Monetary Fund}}
}}

'''Europe''' is a [[continent]]{{cref2|t}} located entirely in the [[Northern Hemisphere]] and mostly in the [[Eastern Hemisphere]]. It is bordered by the [[Arctic Ocean]] to the north, the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the west, the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the south, and [[Asia]] to the east. Europe shares the [[landmass]] of [[Eurasia]] with Asia, and of [[Afro-Eurasia]] with both [[Africa]] and Asia.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe|title=Europe|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330175836/https://www.britannica.com/place/Europe|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Europe: Human Geography {{!}} National Geographic Society |url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/europe-human-geography/ |access-date=2023-02-04 |website=education.nationalgeographic.org}}</ref> Europe is commonly considered to be [[Boundaries between the continents#Asia and Europe|separated from Asia]] by the [[Drainage divide|watershed]] of the [[Ural Mountains]], the [[Ural (river)|Ural River]], the [[Caspian Sea]], the [[Greater Caucasus]], the [[Black Sea]], and the waterway of the [[Bosporus|Bosporus Strait]].<ref name="NatlGeoAtlas">{{Cite book|title=National Geographic Atlas of the World|edition=7th|year=1999|location=Washington, DC|publisher=[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]]|isbn=978-0-7922-7528-2}} "Europe" (pp. 68–69); "Asia" (pp. 90–91): "A commonly accepted division between Asia and Europe ... is formed by the Ural Mountains, Ural River, Caspian Sea, Caucasus Mountains, and the Black Sea with its outlets, the Bosporus and Dardanelles."</ref>

Europe covers approx. {{Convert|10,186,000|km2}}, or 2% of [[Earth#Surface|Earth's surface]] (6.8% of Earth's land area), making it the second-smallest continent (using the [[Continent#Number|seven-continent model]]). [[Politics of Europe|Politically]], Europe is divided into about [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe#UN member states and UNGA non-member observer state|fifty sovereign states]], of which [[Russia]] is the [[List of European countries by area|largest]] and [[List of European countries by population|most populous]], spanning 39% of the continent and comprising 15% of [[Demographics of Europe|its population]]. Europe had a total population of about {{#expr:{{formatnum:{{UN_Population|Europe}}|R}}/1e6 round 0}} million (about 10% of the [[world population]]) in {{UN_Population|Year}}; the [[List of continents and continental subregions by population|third-largest]] after Asia and Africa.{{UN_Population|ref}} The [[climate of Europe|European climate]] is affected by warm Atlantic currents, such as the [[Gulf Stream]], which produce a [[temperate climate]], tempering winters and summers, on much of the continent. Further from the sea, seasonal differences are more noticeable producing more [[continental climate]]s.

The [[culture of Europe]] consists of a range of national and regional cultures, which form the central roots of the wider [[Western culture|Western civilisation]], and together commonly reference [[ancient Greece]] and [[ancient Rome]], particularly through [[Christianity in Europe|their Christian successors]], as crucial and shared roots.<ref>{{harvnb|Lewis|Wigen|1997|page=226}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|first=Kim|last=Covert|title=Ancient Greece: Birthplace of Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KVMYJNvUiYkC&pg=PP5|year=2011|publisher=Capstone|isbn=978-1-4296-6831-6|page=5|quote=Ancient Greece is often called the cradle of western civilization. ... Ideas from literature and science also have their roots in ancient Greece.|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=27 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220727133725/https://books.google.com/books?id=KVMYJNvUiYkC&pg=PP5|url-status=live}}</ref> Beginning with the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]] in 476 CE, [[Christianization|Christian consolidation]] of Europe in the wake of the [[Migration Period]] marked the European [[post-classical]] [[Middle Ages]]. The [[Italian Renaissance]] spread across many [[Western Europe]]an countries, adapting to local contexts and giving rise to distinct national expressions. The renewed [[Renaissance humanism|humanist]] emphasis on [[Renaissance art|art]] and [[Science in the Renaissance|science]] was among the several factors that contributed to the broader transition to the modern era. Since the [[Age of Discovery]], led by [[Spanish Empire|Spain]] and [[Portuguese Empire|Portugal]], Europe played a predominant role in global affairs with multiple explorations and conquests around the world. Between the 16th and 20th centuries, [[list of former European colonies|European powers colonised]] at various times the [[Americas]], almost all of Africa and [[Oceania]], and the majority of Asia.

The [[Age of Enlightenment]], the [[French Revolution]], and the [[Napoleonic Wars]] shaped the continent culturally, politically, and economically from the end of the 17th century until the first half of the 19th century. The [[Industrial Revolution]], which began in [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] at the end of the 18th century, gave rise to radical economic, cultural, and social change in [[Western Europe]] and eventually the wider world. Both [[world war]]s began and were fought to a great extent in Europe, contributing to a decline in Western European dominance in world affairs by the mid-20th century as the [[Soviet Union]] and the United States took prominence and competed over [[ideological dominance]] and [[international influence]] in Europe and globally.<ref name="natgeo 534">National Geographic, 534.</ref> The resulting [[Cold War]] divided Europe along the [[Iron Curtain]], with [[NATO]] in the [[Western Bloc|West]] and the [[Warsaw Pact]] in the [[Eastern Bloc|East]]. This divide ended with the [[Revolutions of 1989]], the [[fall of the Berlin Wall]], and the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], which allowed [[European integration]] to advance significantly.

European integration has been advanced institutionally since 1948 with the founding of the [[Council of Europe]], and significantly through the realisation of the [[European Union]] (EU), which represents today the majority of Europe.<ref name="europaeu 1945-59">{{Cite web |title=History of the European Union 1945–59 |url=https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/history-eu/1945-59_en |access-date=16 April 2022 |website=european-union.europa.eu |language=en |archive-date=23 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423212328/https://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/history-eu/1945-59_en |url-status=live }}</ref> The European Union is a [[Supranational union|supranational]] political entity that lies between a [[confederation]] and a [[federation]] and is based on a system of [[European treaties]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ies.ee/iesp/No11/articles/03_Gabriel_Hazak.pdf|title=The European union—a federation or a confederation?|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=19 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319194121/https://www.ies.ee/iesp/No11/articles/03_Gabriel_Hazak.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The EU originated in Western Europe but has been [[Enlargement of the European Union|expanding eastward]] since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991. A majority of its members have adopted a common currency, the [[euro]], and participate in the [[European single market]] and [[European Union Customs Union|a customs union]]. A large bloc of countries, the [[Schengen Area]], have also abolished internal border and immigration controls. [[Elections to the European Parliament|Regular popular elections]] take place every five years within the EU; they are considered to be the second-largest democratic elections in the world after [[Elections in India|India's]]. The [[Economy of the European Union|EU economy]] is the second-largest in the world by nominal GDP and third-largest by PPP-adjusted GDP.

{{TOC limit|3}}

==Etymology==
{{Anchor|Etymology}}
{{Further|Europa (consort of Zeus)}}
[[File:Anaximander world map (mul).svg|thumb|left|Reconstruction of an early [[early world maps|world map]] made by [[Anaximander]] of the 6th century BCE, dividing the known world into three large landmasses, one of which was named Europe]]

The place name Evros was first used by the ancient Greeks to refer to their northernmost province, which bears the same name today. The principal river there – Evros (today's [[Maritsa]]) – flows through the fertile valleys of [[Thrace]],<ref>{{cite web | url=https://archive.org/details/dr_qrakh-thraciae-veteris-typus-ex-conatibus-geographicis-abrah-ortelij-cu-10001403 | title=Qrakh. Thraciae Veteris Typus. Ex conatibus Geographicis Abrah. Ortelij. Cum Imp. Et Belgico privilegio decennali. 1585. | date=15 February 1585 }}</ref> which itself was also called Europe, before the term meant the continent.<ref name="BBC News 2013 o022">{{cite web | title=Greek goddess Europa adorns new five-euro note | publisher=BBC News | date=2013-01-10 | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-20970684 | access-date=2024-03-21}}</ref>

In classical [[Greek mythology]], [[Europa (consort of Zeus)|Europa]] ({{langx|grc|Εὐρώπη}}, {{transliteration|grc|Eurṓpē}}) was a [[Phoenicia]]n princess. One view is that her name derives from the Ancient Greek elements {{lang|grc|εὐρύς}} ({{transliteration|grc|eurús}}) 'wide, broad', and {{lang|grc|ὤψ}} ({{transliteration|grc|ōps}}, [[Genitive case|{{abbr|gen.|genitive}}]] {{lang|grc|ὠπός}}, {{transliteration|grc|ōpós}}) 'eye, face, countenance', hence their composite {{transliteration|grc|Eurṓpē}} would mean 'wide-gazing' or 'broad of aspect'.<ref name="WestWest2007">{{cite book|author1=M. L. West|first2=Morris|last2=West|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXrJA_5LKlYC|date= 2007|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9|page=185|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122123919/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZXrJA_5LKlYC|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="FitzRoy2015">{{cite book|first=Charles|last=FitzRoy|title=The Rape of Europa: The Intriguing History of Titian's Masterpiece|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zhF0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PT52|date=2015|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4081-9211-5|pages=52–|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=20 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320035838/https://books.google.com/books?id=zhF0BgAAQBAJ&pg=PT52|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Astour1967">{{cite book|first=Michael C.|last=Astour|title=Hellenosemitica: An Ethnic and Cultural Study in West Semitic Impact on Mycenaean Greece|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NMkUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA128|year=1967|publisher=Brill Archive|page=128|id=GGKEY:G19ZZ3TSL38|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=20 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320014449/https://books.google.com/books?id=NMkUAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA128|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=etymonline>{{cite web|url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Europe|title=Europe – Origin and meaning of the name Europe by Online Etymology Dictionary|website=etymonline.com|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=17 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917144349/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Europe|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Broad'' has been an [[epithet]] of Earth herself in the reconstructed [[Proto-Indo-European mythology|Proto-Indo-European religion]] and the poetry devoted to it.<ref name="WestWest2007"/> An alternative view is that of [[Robert S. P. Beekes|Robert Beekes]], who has argued in favour of a pre-Indo-European origin for the name, explaining that a derivation from {{transliteration|grc|eurus}} would yield a different [[toponymy|toponym]] than Europa. Beekes has located toponyms related to that of Europa in the territory of ancient Greece, and localities such as that of [[Europus (Almopia)|Europos]] in [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|ancient Macedonia]].<ref name="Beekes">{{cite journal |last1=Beekes |first1=Robert |title=Kadmos and Europa, and the Phoenicians |journal=Kadmos |date=2004 |volume=43 |issue=1 |pages=168–69 |doi=10.1515/kadm.43.1.167 |s2cid=162196643 |url=https://www.robertbeekes.nl/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/b118.pdf |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=1 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211101121039/https://www.robertbeekes.nl/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/b118.pdf |url-status=live  |issn=0022-7498 }}</ref>

There have been attempts to connect {{transliteration|grc|Eurṓpē}} to a Semitic term for ''west'', this being either [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] {{transliteration|akk|erebu}} meaning 'to go down, set' (said of the sun) or [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] {{transliteration|phn|'ereb}} 'evening, west',<ref name=etymonline/> which is at the origin of [[Arabic]] {{transliteration|ar|maghreb}} and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] {{transliteration|he|ma'arav}}. [[Martin Litchfield West]] stated that "phonologically, the match between Europa's name and any form of the Semitic word is very poor",<ref>{{Cite book |author=M. L. West |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fIp0RYIjazQC&pg=PA451 |title=The east face of Helicon: west Asiatic elements in Greek poetry and myth |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-19-815221-7 |location=Oxford |page=451}}.</ref> while Beekes considers a connection to Semitic languages improbable.<ref name="Beekes"/>

Most major world languages use words derived from {{transliteration|grc|Eurṓpē}} or ''Europa'' to refer to the continent. Chinese, for example, uses the word {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|Ōuzhōu}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|歐洲}}/{{lang|zh-Hans|欧洲}}), which is an abbreviation of the transliterated name {{transliteration|zh|pinyin|Ōuluóbā zhōu}} ({{lang|zh|歐羅巴洲}}) ({{transliteration|zh|pinyin|zhōu}} means "continent"); a similar Chinese-derived term {{nihongo||欧州|Ōshū}} is also sometimes used in Japanese such as in the Japanese name of the European Union, {{nihongo||欧州連合|Ōshū Rengō}}, despite the [[katakana]] {{nihongo||ヨーロッパ|Yōroppa}} being more commonly used. In some Turkic languages, the originally Persian name {{transliteration|fa|[[Frangistan]]}} ("land of the [[Franks]]") is used casually in referring to much of Europe, besides official names such as {{transliteration|fa|Avrupa}} or {{transliteration|fa|Evropa}}.<ref name="davison">{{Cite journal|author=Davidson, Roderic H. |s2cid=157454140|title=Where is the Middle East?|jstor=20029452 |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=38|issue=4 |pages=665–675 |year=1960|doi=10.2307/20029452 }}</ref>

==Definition==
{{Further|Boundaries between the continents#Asia and Europe}}
{{See also|List of transcontinental countries}}

===Contemporary definition===
<div class="center">
<div class="thumbinner overflowbugx" style="overflow:auto;">
<small>Clickable map of Europe, showing one of the most commonly used [[Boundaries between the continents of Earth|continental boundaries]]{{cref2|u}} <br />'''Key:''' <span style="color:blue">'''blue'''</span>: [[List of transcontinental countries|states which straddle the border between Europe and Asia]];
<span style="color:green">'''green'''</span>: countries not geographically in Europe, but closely associated with the continent
</small>
</div>
{{Europe and seas labelled map}}
</div>

The prevalent definition of Europe as a geographical term has been in use since the mid-19th century.
Europe is taken to be bounded by large bodies of water to the north, west and south; Europe's limits to the east and north-east are usually taken to be the [[Ural Mountains]], the [[Ural (river)|Ural River]], and the [[Caspian Sea]]; to the south-east, the [[Caucasus Mountains]], the [[Black Sea]], and the waterways connecting the Black Sea to the [[Mediterranean Sea]].<ref name="Encarta">{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopaedia 2007 |title=Europe |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopaedia_761570768/Europe.html |access-date=27 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028013857/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761570768/Europe.html |archive-date=28 October 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[File:Possible definitions of the boundary between Europe and Asia.png|thumb|Definitions used for the boundary between Asia and Europe in different periods of history.]]

[[File:T and O map Guntherus Ziner 1472.jpg|thumb|A medieval [[T and O map]] printed by [[Günther Zainer]] in 1472, showing the three continents as domains of the sons of [[Noah]] – Asia to Sem ([[Shem]]), Europe to Iafeth ([[Japheth]]) and Africa to Cham ([[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]])]]

Islands are generally grouped with the nearest continental landmass, hence [[Iceland]] is considered to be part of Europe, while the nearby island of Greenland is usually assigned to [[North America]], although politically belonging to Denmark. Nevertheless, there are some exceptions based on sociopolitical and cultural differences. Cyprus is closest to [[Anatolia]] (or Asia Minor), but is considered part of Europe politically<ref>{{Citation |title=Cyprus |date=2024-08-07 |work=The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cyprus/ |access-date=2024-08-13 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en}}</ref> and it is a member state of the EU. Malta was considered an island of [[Maghreb|North-western Africa]] for centuries, but now it is considered to be part of Europe as well.<ref>Falconer, William; Falconer, Thomas. [https://books.google.com/books?id=B3Q29kWRdtgC&pg=PA50 ''Dissertation on St. Paul's Voyage''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170327020614/https://books.google.com/books?id=B3Q29kWRdtgC&pg=PA50 |date=2017 }}, BiblioLife (BiblioBazaar), 1872. (1817.), p. 50, {{ISBN|1-113-68809-2}} ''These islands Pliny, as well as Strabo and Ptolemy, included in the African sea''</ref> "Europe", as used specifically in [[British English]], may also refer to [[Continental Europe]] exclusively.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=europe|title=Europe&nbsp;– Noun|publisher=Princeton University|access-date=9 June 2008|archive-date=15 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715121246/http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=europe|url-status=live}}</ref>

The term "continent" usually implies the [[physical geography]] of a large land mass completely or almost completely surrounded by water at its borders. Prior to the adoption of the current convention that includes mountain divides, the border between Europe and Asia had been redefined several times since its first conception in [[classical antiquity]], but always as a series of rivers, seas and straits that were believed to extend an unknown distance east and north from the Mediterranean Sea without the inclusion of any mountain ranges. Cartographer [[Herman Moll]] suggested in 1715 Europe was bounded by a series of partly joined waterways directed towards the Turkish straits, and the [[Irtysh River]] draining into the upper part of the [[Ob River]] and the [[Arctic Ocean]]. In contrast, the present eastern boundary of Europe partially adheres to the Ural and Caucasus Mountains, which is somewhat arbitrary and inconsistent compared to any clear-cut definition of the term "continent".

The current division of Eurasia into two continents now reflects [[East–West dichotomy|East-West]] cultural, linguistic and ethnic differences which vary on a spectrum rather than with a sharp dividing line. The geographic border between Europe and Asia does not follow any state boundaries and now only follows a few bodies of water. Turkey is generally considered a [[List of transcontinental countries|transcontinental country]] divided entirely by water, while Russia and [[Kazakhstan]] are only partly divided by waterways. France, the Netherlands, Portugal and Spain<!--but not the United Kingdom: British Overseas Territories are not part of the UK--> are also transcontinental (or more properly, intercontinental, when oceans or large seas are involved) in that their main land areas are in Europe while pockets of their territories are located on other [[continents]] separated from Europe by large bodies of water. Spain, for example, has territories south of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]—namely, [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]]—which are parts of [[Africa]] and share a border with Morocco. According to the current convention, Georgia and Azerbaijan are transcontinental countries where waterways have been completely replaced by mountains as the divide between continents.

===History of the concept===
{{see also|Boundary between Europe and Asia}}

====Early history====
[[File:Europa Prima Pars Terrae in Forma Virginis.jpg|thumb|Depiction of ''[[Europa regina]]'' ('Queen Europe') in 1582|alt=|270x270px]]
The first recorded usage of ''Eurṓpē'' as a geographic term is in the [[Homeric Hymn]] to [[Delian Apollo]], in reference to the western shore of the [[Aegean Sea]]. As a name for a part of the known world, it is first used in the 6th century BCE by [[Anaximander]] and [[Hecataeus of Miletus|Hecataeus]]. Anaximander placed the boundary between Asia and Europe along the Phasis River (the modern [[Rioni River]] on the territory of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]) in the Caucasus, a convention still followed by [[Herodotus]] in the 5th century BCE.<ref>''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' 4.38. Cf. James Rennell, ''The geographical system of Herodotus examined and explained'', Volume 1, Rivington 1830, [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_enQ-AAAAcAAJ/page/n274 p. 244]</ref> Herodotus mentioned that the world had been divided by unknown persons into three parts—Europe, Asia, and Libya (Africa)—with the [[Nile]] and the Phasis forming their boundaries—though he also states that some considered the [[Don River (Russia)|River Don]], rather than the Phasis, as the boundary between Europe and Asia.<ref>Herodotus, 4:45</ref> Europe's eastern frontier was defined in the 1st century by geographer [[Strabo]] at the River Don.<ref>Strabo ''Geography 11.1''</ref> The ''[[Jubilees|Book of Jubilees]]'' described the continents as the lands given by [[Noah]] to his three sons; Europe was defined as stretching from the [[Pillars of Hercules]] at the [[Strait of Gibraltar]], separating it from [[Northwest Africa]], to the Don, separating it from Asia.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Genesis and the Jewish antiquities of Flavius Josephus|first= Thomas W.|last= Franxman|publisher=Pontificium Institutum Biblicum|year= 1979|isbn=978-88-7653-335-8|pages=101–102}}</ref>

The convention received by the [[Middle Ages]] and surviving into modern usage is that of the [[Roman era]] used by Roman-era authors such as [[Posidonius]],<ref>W. Theiler, ''Posidonios. Die Fragmente'', vol. 1. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1982, fragm. 47a.</ref> [[Strabo]],<ref>I. G. Kidd (ed.), ''Posidonius: The commentary'', Cambridge University Press, 2004, {{ISBN|978-0-521-60443-7}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=_iXs1aCr1ckC&pg=PA738 p. 738] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801115807/https://books.google.com/books?id=_iXs1aCr1ckC&pg=PA738 |date=1 August 2020 }}.</ref> and [[Ptolemy]],<ref>''[[Geography (Ptolemy)|Geographia]]'' 7.5.6 (ed. Nobbe 1845, [https://books.google.com/books?id=vHMCAAAAQAAJ vol. 2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200524011208/https://books.google.com/books?id=vHMCAAAAQAAJ |date=24 May 2020 }}, p. 178) {{lang|grc|Καὶ τῇ Εὐρώπῃ δὲ συνάπτει διὰ τοῦ μεταξὺ αὐχένος τῆς τε Μαιώτιδος λίμνης καὶ τοῦ Σαρματικοῦ Ὠκεανοῦ ἐπὶ τῆς διαβάσεως τοῦ Τανάϊδος ποταμοῦ. }} "And [Asia] is connected to Europe by the land-strait between Lake Maiotis and the Sarmatian Ocean where the river Tanais crosses through."</ref> who took the Tanais (the modern Don River) as the boundary.

The Roman Empire did not attach a strong identity to the concept of continental divisions. However, following the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]], the [[Western culture|culture that developed in its place]], linked to Latin and the Catholic church, began to associate itself with the concept of "Europe".<ref name="Pocock2002">{{cite book |author1=J. G. A. Pocock |author1-link=J. G. A. Pocock |editor1-last=Pagden |editor1-first=Anthony |title=The Idea of Europe From Antiquity to the European Union |date=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0511496813 |chapter=Some Europes in Their History |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/idea-of-europe/some-europes-in-their-history/261CF37C1E49E93280878F816D4483F1 |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511496813.003 |pages=57–61 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=23 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323132907/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/idea-of-europe/some-europes-in-their-history/261CF37C1E49E93280878F816D4483F1 |url-status=live }}</ref> The term "Europe" is first used for a cultural sphere in the [[Carolingian Renaissance]] of the 9th century. From that time, the term designated the sphere of influence of the [[Western Church]], as opposed to both the [[Eastern Orthodox]] churches and to the [[Islamic world]].

A cultural definition of Europe as the lands of [[Christendom|Latin Christendom]] coalesced in the 8th century, signifying the new cultural condominium created through the confluence of Germanic traditions and Christian-Latin culture, defined partly in contrast with [[Byzantium]] and [[Islam]], and limited to northern [[Iberia]], the British Isles, France, Christianised western Germany, the Alpine regions and northern and central Italy.<ref>[[Norman F. Cantor]], ''The Civilization of the Middle Ages'', 1993, ""Culture and Society in the First Europe", pp185ff.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Dawson|first1=Christopher|title=Crisis in Western Education |year=2010 |orig-year=1961 |isbn=978-0-8132-1683-6|edition=reprint|first2=Glenn|last2=Olsen|page=108|publisher=CUA Press }}</ref> The concept is one of the lasting legacies of the [[Carolingian Renaissance]]: ''Europa'' often{{Dubious|date=October 2016}}<!--inflated from "once or twice"--> figures in the letters of Charlemagne's court scholar, [[Alcuin]].<ref>Noted by Cantor, 1993:181.</ref> The transition of Europe to being a cultural term as well as a geographic one led to the borders of Europe being affected by cultural considerations in the East, especially relating to areas under Byzantine, Ottoman, and Russian influence. Such questions were affected by the positive connotations associated with the term Europe by its users. Such cultural considerations were not applied to the Americas, despite their conquest and settlement by European states. Instead, the concept of "Western civilisation" emerged as a way of grouping together Europe and these colonies.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.unaoc.org/repository/9334Western%20Historiography%20and%20Problem%20of%20Western%20History%20-%20JGA%20Pocock.doc.pdf |title=Western historiography and the problem of "Western" history |author=J. G. A. Pocock |author-link=J. G. A. Pocock |publisher=United Nations |pages=5–6 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=13 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220613222622/https://www.unaoc.org/repository/9334Western%20Historiography%20and%20Problem%20of%20Western%20History%20-%20JGA%20Pocock.doc.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Modern definitions====
{{further|Regions of Europe|Continental Europe}}
[[File:Herman Moll A New Map of Europe According to the Newest Observations 1721.JPG|thumb|270px|''A New Map of Europe According to the Newest Observations'' (1721) by Hermann Moll draws the eastern boundary of Europe along the Don River flowing south-west and the Tobol, Irtysh and Ob rivers flowing north.]]
[[File:1916 political map of Europe.jpg|thumb|270px|right|1916 political map of Europe showing most of Moll's waterways replaced by von Strahlenberg's Ural Mountains and Freshfield's Caucasus crest, land features of a type that normally defines a subcontinent]]

The question of defining a precise eastern boundary of Europe arises in the Early Modern period, as the eastern extension of [[Tsardom of Russia|Muscovy]] began to include [[North Asia]]. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the 18th century, the traditional division of the landmass of [[Eurasia]] into two continents, Europe and Asia, followed Ptolemy, with the boundary following the [[Turkish Straits]], the [[Black Sea]], the [[Kerch Strait]], the [[Sea of Azov]] and the [[Don River (Russia)|Don]] (ancient [[Tanais]]). But maps produced during the 16th to 18th centuries tended to differ in how to continue the boundary beyond the Don bend at [[Kalach-na-Donu]] (where it is closest to the Volga, now joined with it by the [[Volga–Don Canal]]), into territory not described in any detail by the ancient geographers.

Around 1715, [[Herman Moll]] produced a map showing the northern part of the [[Ob River]] and the [[Irtysh River]], a major tributary of the Ob, as components of a series of partly joined waterways taking the boundary between Europe and Asia from the Turkish Straits, and the Don River all the way to the Arctic Ocean. In 1721, he produced a more up to date map that was easier to read. However, his proposal to adhere to major rivers as the line of demarcation was never taken up by other geographers who were beginning to move away from the idea of water boundaries as the only legitimate divides between Europe and Asia.

Four years later, in 1725, [[Philip Johan von Strahlenberg]] was the first to depart from the classical Don boundary. He drew a new line along the [[Volga River|Volga]], following the Volga north until the [[Samara Bend]], along [[Obshchy Syrt]] (the [[drainage divide]] between the Volga and [[Ural River]]s), then north and east along the latter waterway to its source in the [[Ural Mountains]]. At this point he proposed that mountain ranges could be included as boundaries between continents as alternatives to nearby waterways. Accordingly, he drew the new boundary north along [[Ural Mountains]] rather than the nearby and parallel running Ob and Irtysh rivers.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Das Nord-und Ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia|author=Philipp Johann von Strahlenberg|year=1730|language=de|page=106}}</ref> This was endorsed by the Russian Empire and introduced the convention that would eventually become commonly accepted. However, this did not come without criticism. [[Voltaire]], writing in 1760 about [[Peter the Great]]'s efforts to make Russia more European, ignored the whole boundary question with his claim that neither Russia, Scandinavia, northern Germany, nor Poland were fully part of Europe.<ref name="Pocock2002"/> Since then, many modern analytical geographers like [[Halford Mackinder]] have declared that they see little validity in the Ural Mountains as a boundary between continents.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jrVW9W9eiYMC&pg=PA8|title=Europe: A History|page=8|access-date=23 August 2010|isbn=978-0-19-820171-7|date=1996|last1=Davies|first1=Norman|publisher=Oxford University Press |archive-date=1 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801123242/https://books.google.com/books?id=jrVW9W9eiYMC&pg=PA8|url-status=live}}</ref>

The mapmakers continued to differ on the boundary between the lower Don and Samara well into the 19th century. The [[:commons:Category:Atlas of Russian Empire. 1745 year|1745 atlas]] published by the [[Russian Academy of Sciences]] has the boundary follow the Don beyond Kalach as far as [[Serafimovich (town)|Serafimovich]] before cutting north towards [[Arkhangelsk]], while other 18th- to 19th-century mapmakers such as [[John Cary]] followed Strahlenberg's prescription. To the south, the [[Kuma–Manych Depression]] was identified {{Circa|1773}} by a German naturalist, [[Peter Simon Pallas]], as a valley that once connected the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea,<ref name="oren-icn.ru">{{cite web|url=http://oren-icn.ru/index.php/discussmenu/retrospectiva/685-eagraniza |title=Boundary of Europe and Asia along Urals |language=ru |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120108153922/http://oren-icn.ru/index.php/discussmenu/retrospectiva/685-eagraniza |archive-date=8 January 2012 }}</ref><ref>Peter Simon Pallas, ''Journey through various provinces of the Russian Empire'', vol. 3 (1773)</ref> and subsequently was proposed as a natural boundary between continents.

By the mid-19th century, there were three main conventions, one following the Don, the [[Volga–Don Canal]] and the Volga, the other following the Kuma–Manych Depression to the Caspian and then the Ural River, and the third abandoning the Don altogether, following the [[Greater Caucasus watershed]] to the Caspian. The question was still treated as a "controversy" in geographical literature of the 1860s, with [[Douglas Freshfield]] advocating the Caucasus crest boundary as the "best possible", citing support from various "modern geographers".<ref>Douglas W. Freshfield, "[https://books.google.com/books?id=ips8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA71 Journey in the Caucasus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801113249/https://books.google.com/books?id=ips8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA71 |date=2020-08-01 }}", ''Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society'', Volumes 13–14, 1869.
Cited as de facto convention by Baron von Haxthausen, ''Transcaucasia'' (1854); review [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_SN0EAAAAQAAJ/page/n152 <!-- pg=140 --> Dublin University Magazine]</ref>

In Russia and the [[Soviet Union]], the boundary along the Kuma–Manych Depression was the most commonly used as early as 1906.<ref>[http://dlib.rsl.ru/view.php?path=/rsl01004000000/rsl01004103000/rsl01004103489/rsl01004103489.pdf#?page=163 "Europe"]{{dead link|date=August 2016}}, ''[[Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary]]'', 1906</ref> In 1958, the Soviet Geographical Society formally recommended that the boundary between the Europe and Asia be drawn in textbooks from [[Baydaratskaya Bay]], on the [[Kara Sea]], along the eastern foot of Ural Mountains, then following the [[Ural River]] until the [[Mugodzhar Hills]], and then the [[Emba River]]; and Kuma–Manych Depression,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://velikijporog.narod.ru/st_evraz_gran.htm|title=Do we live in Europe or in Asia?|language=ru|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=18 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180218073322/http://velikijporog.narod.ru/st_evraz_gran.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> thus placing the Caucasus entirely in Asia and the Urals entirely in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.i-u.ru/biblio/archive/orlenok_fisicheskaja/06.aspx |title=Physical Geography |year=1998 |author=Orlenok V. |language=ru |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016212930/http://www.i-u.ru/biblio/archive/orlenok_fisicheskaja/06.aspx |archive-date=16 October 2011 }}</ref> The ''[[Flora Europaea]]'' adopted a boundary along the [[Terek (river)|Terek]] and [[Kuban (river)|Kuban]] rivers, so southwards from the Kuma and the Manych, but still with the Caucasus entirely in Asia.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Tutin |first1=T.G. |last2=Heywood |first2=V.H. |last3=Burges |first3=N.A. |last4=Valentine |first4=D.H. |last5=Walters |first5=S.M. |last6=Webb |first6=D.A. |year=1990 |orig-year=1964 |title=Flora Europaea, Volume 1: Lycopodiaceae to Platanaceae |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-06661-7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Tutin |first=Thomas Gaskell |date=1993 |title=Flora Europaea, Volume 1: Psilotaceae to Platanaceae |edition=2nd |location=Cambridge, New York, Melbourne [etc.] |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-41007-6}}</ref> However, most geographers in the Soviet Union favoured the boundary along the Caucasus crest,<ref>E. M. Moores, R. W. Fairbridge, 1997 ''Encyclopedia of European and Asian Regional Geology'', Springer, {{ISBN|978-0-412-74040-4}}, p. 34: "most Soviet geographers took the watershed of the Main Range of the Greater Caucasus as the boundary between Europe and Asia."</ref> and this became the common convention in the later 20th century, although the Kuma–Manych boundary remained in use in some 20th-century maps.

Some view the separation of [[Eurasia]] into Asia and Europe as a residue of [[Eurocentrism]]: "In physical, cultural and historical diversity, China and India are comparable to the entire European landmass, not to a single European country. [...]."{{sfnp|Lewis|Wigen|1997|p=?}}

==History==
{{Main|History of Europe}}

===Prehistory===
{{Main|Prehistoric Europe}}
[[Image:Europe20000ya.png|thumb|[[Last Glacial Maximum refugia]], c. 20,000 years ago<br />
{{legend|#c54b00|[[Solutrean]] culture}}
{{legend|#ca00b0|[[Epigravettian]] culture<ref name="Nature-2023"/>}}
]]
[[File:Lascaux painting.jpg|thumb|Paleolithic cave paintings from [[Lascaux]] in [[France]] ({{c.}} 15,000 BCE)]]
[[File:Stonehenge, Condado de Wiltshire, Inglaterra, 2014-08-12, DD 09.JPG|thumb|[[Stonehenge]] in the United Kingdom (Late Neolithic from 3000 to 2000 BCE)]]

During the 2.5 million years of the [[Pleistocene]], numerous cold phases called [[Glacial period|glacials]] ([[Quaternary glaciation|Quaternary ice age]]), or significant advances of continental ice sheets, in Europe and North America, occurred at intervals of approximately 40,000 to 100,000 years. The long glacial periods were separated by more temperate and shorter [[interglacial]]s which lasted about 10,000–15,000 years. The last cold episode of the [[last glacial period]] ended about 10,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/prehistoric-world/quaternary|title=Quaternary Period|magazine=National Geographic|date=6 January 2017|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=29 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129042714/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/prehistoric-world/quaternary/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Earth is currently in an interglacial period of the Quaternary, called the [[Holocene]].<ref>{{cite news |title=How long can we expect the present Interglacial period to last? |url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-long-can-we-expect-present-interglacial-period-last |work=U.S. Department of the Interior |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=26 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220726044340/http://www.usgs.gov/faqs/how-long-can-we-expect-present-interglacial-period-last |url-status=live }}</ref>

''[[Homo erectus georgicus]]'', which lived roughly 1.8 million years ago in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], is the earliest [[Hominini|hominin]] to have been discovered in Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal|author1=A. Vekua |author2=D. Lordkipanidze |author3=G.P. Rightmire |author4=J. Agusti |author5=R. Ferring |author6=G. Maisuradze |s2cid=32726786 | year = 2002 | title = A new skull of early ''Homo'' from Dmanisi, Georgia | journal = Science | volume = 297 | pages = 85–89 | doi = 10.1126/science.1072953 | pmid = 12098694 | issue = 5578 |display-authors=etal|bibcode=2002Sci...297...85V }}</ref> [[Homo antecessor|Other]] hominin remains, dating back roughly 1 million years, have been discovered in [[Archaeological Site of Atapuerca|Atapuerca]], [[Spain]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6256356.stm The million year old tooth from ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210922200046/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6256356.stm |date=22 September 2021 }} [[Atapuerca Mountains|Atapuerca]], [[Spain]], found in June 2007</ref> [[Neanderthal man]] (named after the [[Neandertal (valley)|Neandertal valley]] in [[Germany]]) appeared in Europe 150,000 years ago (115,000 years ago it is found already in the territory of present-day [[Poland]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/10/10/health/neanderthal-child-eaten-by-giant-bird/index.html|title=Bones reveal Neanderthal child was eaten by a giant bird|first=Ashley|last=Strickland|website=CNN|date=10 October 2018|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=7 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707235740/https://www.cnn.com/2018/10/10/health/neanderthal-child-eaten-by-giant-bird/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref>) and disappeared from the fossil record about 40,000 years ago,<ref>{{cite news |title=Neanderthals Died Out 10,000 Years Earlier Than Thought, With Help From Modern Humans |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/140820-neanderthal-dating-bones-archaeology-science |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210218071546/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/140820-neanderthal-dating-bones-archaeology-science |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 February 2021 |work=National Geographic |date=21 August 2014}}</ref> with their final refuge being the Iberian Peninsula. The Neanderthals were supplanted by modern humans ([[Cro-Magnons]]), who seem to have appeared in Europe around 43,000 to 40,000 years ago.<ref name="natgeo 21">National Geographic, 21.</ref> However, there is also evidence that Homo sapiens arrived in Europe around 54,000 years ago, some 10,000 years earlier than previously thought.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.1038/d41586-022-01593-3 | title=My work digging up the shelters of our ancestors | year=2022 | last1=Fleming | first1=Nic | journal=Nature | volume=606 | issue=7916 | page=1035 | pmid=35676354 | bibcode=2022Natur.606.1035F | s2cid=249520231 | doi-access=free }}</ref> The earliest sites in Europe dated 48,000 years ago are [[Riparo Mochi]] (Italy), [[Geissenklösterle]] (Germany) and [[Isturitz]] (France).<ref name=range>{{cite journal |last1=Fu |first1=Qiaomei |display-authors=etal|title=The genome sequence of a 45,000-year-old modern human from western Siberia |journal=Nature |volume=514 |issue=7523 |pages=445–449 |date=23 October 2014 |doi=10.1038/nature13810|pmid=25341783 |pmc=4753769 |bibcode=2014Natur.514..445F |hdl=10550/42071 }}</ref><ref>42.7–41.5 ka ([[68–95–99.7 rule|1σ CI]]).
{{cite journal | last1 = Douka | first1 = Katerina | display-authors = etal | year = 2012| title = A new chronostratigraphic framework for the Upper Palaeolithic of Riparo Mochi (Italy) | journal = Journal of Human Evolution | volume = 62 | issue = 2| pages = 286–299 | doi = 10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.11.009 | pmid = 22189428 | bibcode = 2012JHumE..62..286D }}</ref>

The [[European Neolithic]] period—marked by the cultivation of crops and the raising of livestock, increased numbers of settlements and the widespread use of pottery—began around 7000 BCE in [[Greece]] and the [[Balkans]], probably influenced by earlier farming practices in [[Anatolia]] and the [[Near East]].<ref name="Borza">{{Citation | last = Borza | first = E.N. | title = In the Shadow of Olympus: The Emergence of Macedon | page = 58 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=614pd07OtfQC&pg=PA58 | publisher = Princeton University Press | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-0-691-00880-6 | access-date = 30 July 2022 | archive-date = 1 August 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200801114047/https://books.google.com/books?id=614pd07OtfQC&pg=PA58 | url-status = live }}</ref> It spread from the Balkans along the valleys of the [[Danube]] and the [[Rhine]] ([[Linear Pottery culture]]), and along the [[Mediterranean coast]] ([[Cardial Ware|Cardial culture]]). Between 4500 and 3000 BCE, these central European neolithic cultures developed further to the west and the north, transmitting newly acquired skills in producing copper artifacts. In Western Europe the Neolithic period was characterised not by large agricultural settlements but by field monuments, such as [[causewayed enclosure]]s, [[burial mound]]s and [[megalithic tomb]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|first=Chris|last=Scarre|author-link=Chris Scarre|title=The Oxford Companion to Archaeology|editor-first=Brian M.|editor-last= Fagan|publisher= [[Oxford University Press]]|year=1996|pages=215–216|isbn=978-0-19-507618-9|editor-link=Brian M. Fagan}}</ref> The [[Corded Ware]] cultural horizon flourished at the transition from the Neolithic to the [[Chalcolithic]]. During this period giant [[megalithic]] monuments, such as the [[Megalithic Temples of Malta]] and [[Stonehenge]], were constructed throughout Western and Southern Europe.<ref>[[Richard J. C. Atkinson|Atkinson, R.J.C.]], ''Stonehenge'' ([[Penguin Books]], 1956)</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Prehistory|title=European Megalithic|volume=4 |editor1-first=Peter Neal|editor1-last=Peregrine|editor1-link=Peter N. Peregrine|editor2-first=Melvin|editor2-last=Ember|editor2-link=Melvin Ember|publisher=Springer|year= 2001
|isbn=978-0-306-46258-0|pages=157–184}}</ref>

The modern native populations of Europe largely descend from three distinct lineages:<ref name="Indo-European"/> Mesolithic [[hunter-gatherer]]s, descended from populations associated with the Paleolithic [[Epigravettian]] culture;<ref name="Nature-2023">{{cite journal |last1=Posth|last2= Yu|last3=Ghalichi|title=Palaeogenomics of Upper Palaeolithic to Neolithic European hunter-gatherers |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |date=2023 |volume=615 |issue=2 March 2023 |pages=117–126 |doi=10.1038/s41586-023-05726-0 |pmid=36859578 |pmc=9977688 |bibcode=2023Natur.615..117P }}</ref> Neolithic [[Early European Farmers]] who migrated from Anatolia during the [[Neolithic Revolution]] 9,000 years ago;<ref>{{cite news |title=When the First Farmers Arrived in Europe, Inequality Evolved |url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/when-the-first-farmers-arrived-in-europe-inequality-evolved/ |work=Scientific American |date=1 July 2020}}</ref> and [[Yamnaya culture|Yamnaya]] [[Western Steppe Herders|Steppe herders]] who expanded into Europe from the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]] of Ukraine and southern Russia in the context of [[Indo-European migrations]] 5,000 years ago.<ref name="Indo-European">{{Cite journal|last1=Haak |first1=Wolfgang |last2=Lazaridis |first2=Iosif |last3=Patterson |first3=Nick |last4=Rohland |first4=Nadin |last5=Mallick |first5=Swapan |last6=Llamas |first6=Bastien |last7=Brandt |first7=Guido |last8=Nordenfelt |first8=Susanne |last9=Harney |first9=Eadaoin |last10=Stewardson |first10=Kristin |last11=Fu |first11=Qiaomei |date=11 June 2015 |title=Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=522 |issue=7555 |pages=207–211 |doi=10.1038/nature14317 |issn=0028-0836 |pmc=5048219 |pmid=25731166 |bibcode=2015Natur.522..207H |arxiv=1502.02783}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Gibbons |first1=Ann |title=Thousands of horsemen may have swept into Bronze Age Europe, transforming the local population |journal=Science |date=21 February 2017 |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/thousands-horsemen-may-have-swept-bronze-age-europe-transforming-local-population}}</ref> The [[European Bronze Age]] began c. 3200 BCE in Greece with the [[Minoan civilization|Minoan civilisation]] on [[Crete]], the first advanced civilisation in Europe.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/cultures/europe/ancient_greece.aspx |publisher=British Museum |title=Ancient Greece |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120615141437/http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/cultures/europe/ancient_greece.aspx |archive-date=15 June 2012 }}</ref> The Minoans were followed by the [[Mycenean Greece|Myceneans]], who collapsed suddenly around 1200 BCE, ushering the [[European Iron Age]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arch.ox.ac.uk/classical-archaeology-periods.html|title=Periods – School of Archaeology|publisher=University of Oxford|access-date=25 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119063421/http://www.arch.ox.ac.uk/classical-archaeology-periods.html|archive-date=19 November 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> Iron Age colonisation by the [[Greeks]] and [[Phoenicians]] gave rise to early [[Mediterranean basin|Mediterranean]] cities. Early [[Iron Age Italy]] and [[Archaic Greece|Greece]] from around the 8th century BCE gradually gave rise to historical Classical antiquity, whose beginning is sometimes dated to 776 BCE, the year of the first [[ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]].<ref>{{Citation | first = John R. | last = Short | title = An Introduction to Urban Geography | page = 10 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=uGE9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA10 | publisher = Routledge | year = 1987 | isbn = 978-0-7102-0372-4 | access-date = 30 July 2022 | archive-date = 20 March 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220320034104/https://books.google.com/books?id=uGE9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA10 | url-status = live }}</ref>

===Classical antiquity===
{{Main|Classical antiquity}}
{{See also|Ancient Greece|Ancient Rome}}
[[File:The Parthenon in Athens.jpg|thumb|The [[Parthenon]] in [[Athens]] (432 BCE)]]

Ancient Greece was the founding culture of Western civilisation. Western [[democracy|democratic]] and [[rationalism|rationalist culture]] are often attributed to Ancient Greece.<ref name="Daly2013">{{cite book|first=Jonathan|last=Daly|title=The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9aZPAQAAQBAJ|year=2013|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-1851-6|pages=7–9|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=28 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428191428/https://books.google.com/books?id=9aZPAQAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> The Greek city-state, the [[polis]], was the fundamental political unit of classical Greece.<ref name="Daly2013"/> In 508 BCE, [[Cleisthenes]] instituted the world's first [[Athenian democracy|democratic]] system of government in [[Athens]].<ref name="BKDunn1992">{{Citation | first = John | last = Dunn | title = Democracy: the unfinished journey 508 BCE&nbsp;– 1993 CE | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1994 | isbn = 978-0-19-827934-1}}</ref> The Greek political ideals were rediscovered in the late 18th century by European philosophers and idealists. Greece also generated many cultural contributions: in [[philosophy]], [[humanism]] and [[rationalism]] under [[Aristotle]], [[Socrates]] and [[Plato]]; in [[historiography|history]] with [[Herodotus]] and [[Thucydides]]; in dramatic and narrative verse, starting with the epic poems of [[Homer]];<ref name="natgeo 76">National Geographic, 76.</ref> in drama with [[Sophocles]] and [[Euripides]]; in medicine with [[Hippocrates]] and [[Galen]]; and in science with [[Pythagoras]], [[Euclid]], and [[Archimedes]].<ref name="Heath">{{Cite book| first=Thomas Little | last=Heath| author-link= T. L. Heath| title=A History of Greek Mathematics, Volume I| publisher=[[Dover Publications]]| year=1981| isbn=978-0-486-24073-2}}</ref><ref name="Heath_Vol_2">{{Cite book| first=Thomas Little| last=Heath| author-link= T. L. Heath| title=A History of Greek Mathematics, Volume II| publisher=Dover publications| year=1981| isbn=978-0-486-24074-9}}</ref><ref>Pedersen, Olaf. ''Early Physics and Astronomy: A Historical Introduction''. 2nd edition. Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]], 1993.</ref> In the course of the 5th century BCE, several of the Greek [[city states]] would ultimately check the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenid Persian]] advance in Europe through the [[Greco-Persian Wars]], considered a pivotal moment in world history,<ref name="Strauss2005">{{cite book|first=Barry|last=Strauss|title=The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece – and Western Civilization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nQFtMcD5dOsC|year=2005|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-7432-7453-1|pages=1–11|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=23 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623162126/https://books.google.com/books?id=nQFtMcD5dOsC|url-status=live}}</ref> as the 50 years of peace that followed are known as [[Fifth-century Athens|Golden Age of Athens]], the seminal period of ancient Greece that laid many of the foundations of Western civilisation.

[[File:Roman Republic Empire map.gif|thumb|Animation showing the growth and division of [[Ancient Rome]]]]

Greece was followed by [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], which left its mark on [[Roman law|law]], [[politics]], [[Latin|language]], [[Roman engineering|engineering]], [[Roman architecture|architecture]], [[Centralized government|government]], and many more key aspects in western civilisation.<ref name="Daly2013"/> By 200 BCE, Rome had conquered [[Roman Italy|Italy]] and over the following two centuries it conquered [[Ancient Greece|Greece]], [[Hispania]] ([[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]), the [[North Africa]]n coast, much of the [[Middle East]], [[Gaul]] ([[France]] and [[Belgium]]), and [[Roman Britain|Britannia]] (England and [[Wales]]).

Expanding from their base in central Italy beginning in the third century BCE, the Romans gradually expanded to eventually rule the entire Mediterranean basin and Western Europe by the turn of the millennium. The [[Roman Republic]] ended in 27 BCE, when [[Augustus]] proclaimed the [[Roman Empire]]. The two centuries that followed are known as the ''[[pax romana]]'', a period of unprecedented peace, prosperity and political stability in most of Europe.<ref name="mieawl">{{Cite book|last=McEvedy|first=Colin|title=The Penguin Atlas of Medieval History|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1961}}</ref> The empire continued to expand under emperors such as [[Antoninus Pius]] and [[Marcus Aurelius]], who spent time on the Empire's northern border fighting [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]], [[Picts|Pictish]] and [[Scottish people|Scottish]] tribes.<ref name="natgeo 123">National Geographic, 123.</ref><ref>Foster, Sally M., ''Picts, Gaels, and Scots: Early Historic Scotland''. Batsford, London, 2004. {{ISBN|0-7134-8874-3}}</ref> [[Christianity]] was [[Constantine the Great and Christianity|legalised]] by [[Constantine I]] in 313 CE after three centuries of [[Persecution of early Christians in the Roman Empire|imperial persecution]]. Constantine also permanently moved the capital of the empire from Rome to the city of [[Byzantium]] (modern-day [[Istanbul]]) which was renamed [[Constantinople]] in his honour in 330 CE. Christianity became the sole official religion of the empire in 380 CE, and in 391–392 CE the emperor [[Theodosius I|Theodosius]] outlawed pagan religions.<ref name="FriellWilliams2005">{{cite book|first1=Stephen|last1=Williams|first2=Gerard|last2=Friell|title=Theodosius: The Empire at Bay|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I8KRAgAAQBAJ|year=2005|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-78262-7|page=105|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=30 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220530232720/https://books.google.com/books?id=I8KRAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}}</ref> This is sometimes considered to mark the end of antiquity; alternatively antiquity is considered to end with the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]] in 476 CE; the closure of the pagan [[Platonic Academy|Platonic Academy of Athens]] in 529 CE;<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of Greek Literature |last=Hadas |first=Moses |year=1950 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-01767-1 |pages=273, 327 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dOht3609JOMC&pg=PA273 |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=21 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521051042/https://books.google.com/books?id=dOht3609JOMC&pg=PA273 |url-status=live }}</ref> or the rise of Islam in the early 7th century CE. During most of its existence, the [[Byzantine Empire]] was one of the most powerful economic, cultural, and military forces in Europe.<ref>{{Harvnb|Laiou|Morisson|2007|pp=130–131}}; {{Harvnb|Pounds|1979|p=124}}.</ref>

===Early Middle Ages===
{{Main|Late Antiquity|Early Middle Ages}}
{{See also|Dark Ages (historiography){{!}}Dark Ages|Age of Migrations}}
{{Multiple image
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During the [[decline of the Roman Empire]], Europe entered a long period of change arising from what historians call the "[[Age of Migrations]]". There were numerous invasions and migrations amongst the [[Ostrogoths]], [[Visigoths]], [[Goths]], [[Vandals]], [[Huns]], [[Franks]], [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]], [[Saxons]], [[Slavs]], [[Pannonian Avars|Avars]], [[Bulgars]], [[Vikings]], [[Pechenegs]], [[Cumans]], and [[Magyars]].<ref name="mieawl"/> [[Renaissance]] thinkers such as [[Petrarch]] would later refer to this as the "Dark Ages".<ref>''Journal of the History of Ideas'', Vol. 4, No. 1. (January 1943), pp. 69–74.</ref>

Isolated monastic communities were the only places to safeguard and compile written knowledge accumulated previously; apart from this, very few written records survive. Much literature, philosophy, mathematics, and other thinking from the classical period disappeared from Western Europe, though they were preserved in the east, in the Byzantine Empire.<ref>[[Norman Cantor|Norman F. Cantor]], ''The Medieval World 300 to 1300''.</ref>

While the Roman empire in the west continued to decline, Roman traditions and the Roman state remained strong in the predominantly Greek-speaking [[Eastern Roman Empire]], also known as the [[Byzantine Empire]]. During most of its existence, the Byzantine Empire was the most powerful economic, cultural, and military force in Europe. Emperor [[Justinian I]] presided over Constantinople's first golden age: he established a [[Code of Justinian|legal code]] that forms the basis of many modern legal systems, funded the construction of the [[Hagia Sophia]] and brought the Christian church under state control.<ref name="natgeo 135">National Geographic, 135.</ref>

From the 7th century onwards, as the Byzantines and neighbouring [[Sasanids|Sasanid Persians]] were severely weakened due to the protracted, centuries-lasting and frequent [[Byzantine–Sasanian wars]], the Muslim Arabs began to make inroads into historically Roman territory, taking the Levant and North Africa and making inroads into [[Asia Minor]]. In the mid-7th century, following the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]], Islam penetrated into the [[Caucasus]] region.<ref>{{cite book |quote=(..) It is difficult to establish exactly when Islam first appeared in Russia because the lands that Islam penetrated early in its expansion were not part of Russia at the time, but were later incorporated into the expanding Russian Empire. Islam reached the Caucasus region in the middle of the seventh century as part of the Arab [[Muslim conquest of Persia|conquest]] of the Iranian Sassanian Empire.|title=Islam in Russia: The Politics of Identity and Security|first=Shireen |last= Hunter | publisher= M.E. Sharpe | date = 2004 |page=3 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Over the next centuries Muslim forces took [[Cyprus in the Middle Ages|Cyprus]], [[Malta]], [[Emirate of Crete|Crete]], [[Emirate of Sicily|Sicily]], and [[history of Islam in southern Italy|parts of southern Italy]].<ref>Kennedy, Hugh (1995). "The Muslims in Europe". In McKitterick, Rosamund, ''The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 500 – c. 700'', pp. 249–272. Cambridge University Press. 052136292X.</ref> Between 711 and 720, most of the lands of the [[Visigothic Kingdom]] of [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] were brought under [[Muslim]] rule—save for small areas in the northwest ([[Asturias]]) and largely [[Basque people|Basque]] regions in the [[Pyrenees]]. This territory, under the Arabic name [[Al-Andalus]], became part of the expanding [[Umayyad Caliphate]]. The unsuccessful [[Siege of Constantinople (717–718)|second siege of Constantinople]] (717) weakened the [[Umayyad|Umayyad dynasty]] and reduced their prestige. The Umayyads were then defeated by the [[Francia|Frankish]] leader [[Charles Martel]] at the [[Battle of Tours|Battle of Poitiers]] in 732, which ended their northward advance. In the remote regions of north-western Iberia and the middle [[Pyrenees]] the power of the Muslims in the south was scarcely felt. It was here that the foundations of the Christian kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Asturias|Asturias]], [[Kingdom of Leon|Leon]], and [[Kingdom of Galicia|Galicia]] were laid and from where the reconquest of the Iberian Peninsula would start. However, no coordinated attempt would be made to drive the [[Moors]] out. The Christian kingdoms were mainly focused on their own internal power struggles. As a result, the [[Reconquista]] took the greater part of eight hundred years, in which period a long list of Alfonsos, Sanchos, Ordoños, Ramiros, Fernandos, and Bermudos would be fighting their Christian rivals as much as the Muslim invaders.

[[File:Europe 843ad viking incursions map.png|thumb|250px|[[Viking]] raids and division of the Frankish Empire at the [[Treaty of Verdun]] in 843]]

During the Dark Ages, the [[Western Roman Empire]] fell under the control of various tribes. The Germanic and Slav tribes established their domains over Western and Eastern Europe, respectively.<ref name="natgeo 143">National Geographic, 143–145.</ref> Eventually the Frankish tribes were united under [[Clovis I]].<ref name="natgeo 162">National Geographic, 162.</ref> [[Charlemagne]], a Frankish king of the [[Carolingian]] dynasty who had conquered most of Western Europe, was anointed "[[Holy Roman Emperor]]" by the Pope in 800. This led in 962 to the founding of the [[Holy Roman Empire]], which eventually became centred in the German principalities of central Europe.<ref name="natgeo 166">National Geographic, 166.</ref>

[[East Central Europe]] saw the creation of the first Slavic states and the adoption of [[Christianity]] ({{nowrap|{{c.}} 1000 CE)}}. The powerful [[West Slavs|West Slavic]] state of [[Great Moravia]] spread its territory all the way south to the Balkans, reaching its largest territorial extent under [[Svatopluk I of Moravia|Svatopluk I]] and causing a series of armed conflicts with [[East Francia]]. Further south, the first [[South Slavs|South Slavic states]] emerged in the late 7th and 8th century and adopted [[Christianity]]: the [[First Bulgarian Empire]], the [[Principality of Serbia (early medieval)|Serbian Principality]] (later [[Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)|Kingdom]] and [[Serbian Empire|Empire]]), and the [[Duchy of Croatia]] (later [[Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)|Kingdom of Croatia]]). To the east, [[Kievan Rus']] expanded from its capital in [[Kiev]] to become the largest state in Europe by the 10th century. In 988, [[Vladimir the Great]] adopted [[Russian Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christianity]] as the religion of state.{{sfn|Bulliet|Crossley|Headrick|Hirsch|2011|page=250}}{{sfn|Brown|Anatolios|Palmer|2009|page=66}} Further east, [[Volga Bulgaria]] became an Islamic state in the 10th century, but was eventually absorbed into Russia several centuries later.<ref>Gerald Mako, "The Islamization of the Volga Bulghars: A Question Reconsidered", Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 18, 2011, 199–223.</ref>

===High and Late Middle Ages===
{{Main|High Middle Ages|Late Middle Ages|Middle Ages}}
{{See also|Medieval demography}}
[[File:Mappa delle Repubbliche marinare italiane con stemmi civici.svg|thumb|180px|The [[maritime republics]] of medieval [[Italy]] reestablished contacts between Europe, Asia and Africa with extensive trade networks and colonies across the Mediterranean, and had an essential role in the [[Crusades]].<ref>Marc'Antonio Bragadin, ''Storia delle Repubbliche marinare'', Odoya, Bologna 2010, 240 pp., {{ISBN|978-88-6288-082-4}}</ref><ref>G. Benvenuti, ''Le Repubbliche Marinare. Amalfi, Pisa, Genova, Venezia'', Newton & Compton editori, Roma 1989</ref>]]

The period between the year 1000 and 1250 is known as the [[High Middle Ages]], followed by the [[Late Middle Ages]] until c. 1500.

During the High Middle Ages the population of Europe experienced significant growth, culminating in the [[Renaissance of the 12th century]]. Economic growth, together with the lack of safety on the mainland trading routes, made possible the development of major commercial routes along the coast of the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] and [[Baltic Sea]]s. The growing wealth and independence acquired by some coastal cities gave the [[Maritime Republics]] a leading role in the European scene.

The Middle Ages on the mainland were dominated by the two upper echelons of the social structure: the nobility and the clergy. [[Feudalism]] developed in [[France]] in the Early Middle Ages, and soon spread throughout Europe.<ref name="natgeo 158">National Geographic, 158.</ref> A struggle for influence between the [[nobility]] and the [[monarchy]] in England led to the writing of [[Magna Carta]] and the establishment of a [[parliament]].<ref name="natgeo 186">National Geographic, 186.</ref> The primary source of culture in this period came from the Roman [[Catholic Church]]. Through monasteries and [[cathedral school]]s, the Church was responsible for education in much of Europe.<ref name="natgeo 158"/>

[[File:Philip II and Tancred meeting in Messina - British Library Royal MS 16 G vi f350r (detail).jpg|thumbnail|upright=0.9|left|[[Tancred of Sicily]] and [[Philip II of France]], during the [[Third Crusade]] (1189–1192)]]

The [[Papacy]] reached the height of its power during the High Middle Ages. An [[East-West Schism]] in 1054 split the former Roman Empire religiously, with the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] in the [[Byzantine Empire]] and the Roman Catholic Church in the former Western Roman Empire. In 1095 [[Pope Urban II]] called for a [[Crusades|crusade]] against [[Muslims]] occupying [[Jerusalem]] and the [[Holy Land]].<ref name="natgeo 192">National Geographic, 192.</ref> In Europe itself, the Church organised the [[Inquisition]] against heretics. In the [[Iberian Peninsula]], the [[Reconquista]] concluded with the [[Granada War#Last stand at Granada|fall of Granada in 1492]], ending over seven centuries of Islamic rule in the south-western peninsula.<ref name="natgeo 199">National Geographic, 199.</ref>

In the east, a resurgent Byzantine Empire recaptured Crete and Cyprus from the Muslims, and reconquered the Balkans. Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city in Europe from the 9th to the 12th centuries, with a population of approximately 400,000.<ref>{{harvnb|Laiou|Morisson|2007|pp=130–131}}; {{harvnb|Pounds|1979|p=124}}.</ref> The Empire was weakened following the defeat at [[Battle of Manzikert|Manzikert]], and was weakened considerably by the [[Siege of Constantinople (1204)|sack of Constantinople in 1204]], during the [[Fourth Crusade]].<ref name="DuikerSpielvogel2010">{{cite book|first1=William J.|last1=Duiker|first2=Jackson J.|last2=Spielvogel|title=The Essential World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UJpI18JaEL0C&pg=PA330|access-date=20 January 2013|year=2010|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-495-90227-0|page=330|quote=The Byzantine Empire also interacted with the world of Islam to its east and the new European civilization of the west. Both interactions proved costly and ultimately fatal.|archive-date=11 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511203023/http://books.google.com/books?id=UJpI18JaEL0C&pg=PA330|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Findlay2006">{{cite book|first=Ronald|last=Findlay|title=Eli Heckscher, International Trade, And Economic History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VOE-sRivB6kC&pg=PA179|access-date=20 January 2013|year=2006|publisher=MIT Press|isbn=978-0-262-06251-0|pages=178–179|quote=These Christian allies did not accept the authority of Byzantium, and the Fourth Crusade that sacked Constantinople and established the so-called Latin Empire that lasted until 1261 was a fatal wound from which the empire never recovered until its fall at the hands of the Ottoman Turks in 1453 (Queller and Madden 1997).|archive-date=11 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511210105/http://books.google.com/books?id=VOE-sRivB6kC&pg=PA179|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Browning1992">{{cite book|first=Robert|last=Browning|title=The Byzantine Empire|url=https://archive.org/details/byzantineempire0000brow|url-access=registration|access-date=20 January 2013|year=1992|publisher=CUA Press|isbn=978-0-8132-0754-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/byzantineempire0000brow/page/253 253]|quote=And though the final blow was struck by the Ottoman Turks, it can plausibly be argued that the fatal injury was inflicted by the Latin crusaders in 1204.|edition=Revised}}</ref><ref name="Byfield2008">{{cite book|first=Ted|last=Byfield|title=A Glorious Disaster: A.D. 1100 to 1300: The Crusades: Blood, Valor, Iniquity, Reason, Faith|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o8hJgj5q5IEC&pg=PA136|access-date=20 January 2013|year=2008|publisher=Christian History Project|isbn=978-0-9689873-7-7|page=136|quote=continue to stand for another 250 before ultimately falling to the Muslim Turks, but it had been irrevocably weakened by the Fourth Crusade.|archive-date=11 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511204709/http://books.google.com/books?id=o8hJgj5q5IEC&pg=PA136|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Golna2004">{{cite book|first=Cornelia|last=Golna|title=City of Man's Desire: A Novel of Constantinople|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xHXGa8HSQIQC&pg=PA424|access-date=20 January 2013|year=2004|publisher=Go-Bos Press|isbn=978-90-804114-4-9|page=424|quote=1204 The Fourth Crusade sacks Constantinople, destroying and pillaging many of its treasures, fatally weakening the empire both economically and militarily|archive-date=11 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511214428/http://books.google.com/books?id=xHXGa8HSQIQC&pg=PA424|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Powell2001">{{cite book|first=John|last=Powell|title=Magill's Guide to Military History: A-Cor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lBYZAQAAIAAJ|access-date=20 January 2013|year=2001|publisher=Salem Press|isbn=978-0-89356-015-7|quote=However, the fifty-seven years of plunder that followed made the Byzantine Empire, even when it retook the capital in 1261, genuinely weak. Beginning in 1222, the empire was further weakened by a civil war that lasted until 1355.&nbsp;... When the Ottomans overran their lands and besieged Constantinople in 1453, sheer poverty and weakness were the causes of the capital city's final fall.|archive-date=11 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511212456/http://books.google.com/books?id=lBYZAQAAIAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Irvin2002">{{cite book|first=Dale T.|last=Irvin|title=History of the World Christian Movement: Volume 1: Earliest Christianity To 1453|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C2akvQfa-QMC&pg=PA405|access-date=20 January 2013|date= 2002|publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-567-08866-6|page=405|quote=Not only did the fourth crusade further harden the resentments Greek-speaking Christians felt toward the Latin West, but it further weakened the empire of Constantinople, many say fatally so. After the restoration of Greek imperial rule the city survived as the capital of Byzantium for another two centuries, but it never fully recovered.|archive-date=11 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511205749/http://books.google.com/books?id=C2akvQfa-QMC&pg=PA405|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Frucht2004">{{cite book|first=Richard C.|last=Frucht|title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVBB1a0rC70C&pg=PA856|access-date=20 January 2013|year=2004|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-57607-800-6|page=856|quote=Although the empire was revived, the events of 1204 had so weakened Byzantium that it was no longer a great power.|archive-date=11 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511213734/http://books.google.com/books?id=lVBB1a0rC70C&pg=PA856|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="DuikerSpielvogel2010v2">{{cite book|first1=William J.|last1=Duiker|first2=Jackson J.|last2=Spielvogel|title=The Essential World History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UJpI18JaEL0C&pg=PA386|access-date=20 January 2013|year=2010|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-0-495-90227-0|page=386|quote=Later they established themselves in the Anatolian peninsula at the expense of the Byzantine Empire.&nbsp;... The Byzantines, however, had been severely weakened by the sack of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade (in 1204) and the Western occupation of much of the empire for the next half century.|archive-date=11 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511220210/http://books.google.com/books?id=UJpI18JaEL0C&pg=PA386|url-status=live}}</ref> Although it would recover Constantinople in 1261, [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]] [[Fall of Constantinople|fell in 1453]] when [[Fall of Constantinople|Constantinople was taken]] by the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref name="natgeo 211">National Geographic, 211.</ref><ref name="Peters2006">{{cite book|first=Ralph|last=Peters|title=New Glory: Expanding America's Global Supremacy|url=https://archive.org/details/newgloryexpandin00pete|url-access=registration|access-date=20 January 2013|date=2006|publisher=Sentinel|isbn=978-1-59523-030-0|quote=Western Christians, not Muslims, fatally crippled Byzantine power and opened Islam's path into the West.}}</ref><ref name="Chronicles">{{cite book|title=Chronicles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ay0RAQAAMAAJ|access-date=20 January 2013|year=2005|publisher=Rockford Institute|quote=two-and-a-half centuries to recover from the Fourth Crusade before the Ottomans finally took Constantinople in 1453,&nbsp;... They fatally wounded Byzantium, which was the main cause of its weakened condition when the Muslim onslaught came. Even on the eve of its final collapse, the precondition for any Western help was submission in Florence.|archive-date=11 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511220240/http://books.google.com/books?id=Ay0RAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Mongols suzdal.jpg|thumb|upright|The sacking of [[Suzdal]] by [[Batu Khan]] in 1238, during the [[Mongol invasion of Europe]] (1220s–1240s)]]

In the 11th and 12th centuries, constant incursions by nomadic [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] tribes, such as the [[Pechenegs]] and the [[Cuman-Kipchak Confederation|Cuman-Kipchaks]], caused a massive migration of [[Slavic peoples|Slavic]] populations to the safer, heavily forested regions of the north, and temporarily halted the expansion of the Rus' state to the south and east.<ref name="Klyuch1">{{Cite book|last=Klyuchevsky|first=Vasily|title=The course of the Russian history|url=http://www.kulichki.com/inkwell/text/special/history/kluch/kluch16.htm|isbn=978-5-244-00072-6|year=1987|publisher="Myslʹ|access-date=2022-07-30|archive-date=2007-10-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071024124216/http://www.kulichki.com/inkwell/text/special/history/kluch/kluch16.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Like many other parts of [[Eurasia]], these territories were [[Mongol invasion of Rus|overrun by the Mongols]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20110427075859/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 April 2011 |title=The Destruction of Kyiv|publisher=University of Toronto|access-date=10 June 2008}}</ref> The invaders, who became known as [[Tatars]], were mostly Turkic-speaking peoples under Mongol suzerainty. They established the state of the [[Golden Horde]] with headquarters in Crimea, which later adopted Islam as a religion, and ruled over modern-day southern and central Russia for more than three centuries.<ref>"[https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037242/Golden-Horde Golden Horde] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080529001039/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037242/Golden-Horde |date=29 May 2008 }}", in ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'', 2007.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/states3.html |title=Khanate of the Golden Horde (Kipchak) |publisher=Alamo Community Colleges |access-date=10 June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080607055652/http://www.accd.edu/sac/history/keller/Mongols/states3.html |archive-date=7 June 2008 }}</ref> After the collapse of Mongol dominions, the first Romanian states (principalities) emerged in the 14th century: [[Moldavia]] and [[Walachia]]. Previously, these territories were under the successive control of Pechenegs and Cumans.<ref>Spinei, Victor. The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century, Brill, 2009, {{ISBN|978-90-04-17536-5}}</ref> From the 12th to the 15th centuries, the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]] grew from a small principality under Mongol rule to the largest state in Europe, overthrowing the Mongols in 1480, and eventually becoming the [[Tsardom of Russia]]. The state was consolidated under [[Ivan III the Great]] and [[Ivan the Terrible]], steadily expanding to the east and south over the next centuries.

The [[Great Famine of 1315–1317]] was the first [[Crisis of the Late Middle Ages|crisis]] that would strike Europe in the late Middle Ages.<ref>[http://www.oglethorpe.edu/faculty/%7Eb_smith/ou/bs_foundations_chapter9.htm The Late Middle Ages] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151102090226/http://www.oglethorpe.edu/faculty/~b_smith/ou/bs_foundations_chapter9.htm |date=2 November 2015 }}. Oglethorpe University.</ref> The period between 1348 and 1420 witnessed the heaviest loss. The population of [[France in the Middle Ages|France]] was reduced by half.<ref>Baumgartner, Frederic J. ''France in the Sixteenth Century.'' London: [[Macmillan Publishers (United States)|Macmillan Publishers]], 1995. {{ISBN|0-333-62088-7}}.</ref><ref>Don O'Reilly. "[http://www.historynet.com/magazines/military_history/3031536.html Hundred Years' War: Joan of Arc and the Siege of Orléans]". ''TheHistoryNet.com''. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061109043743/http://www.historynet.com/magazines/military_history/3031536.html |date=9 November 2006 }}</ref> Medieval Britain was afflicted by 95 famines,<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/opinion/main.jhtml?xml=/opinion/2004/08/08/do0809.xml&sSheet=/opinion/2004/08/08/ixop.html Poor studies will always be with us]{{dead link|date=July 2021|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}. By James Bartholomew. Telegraph. 7 August. 2004.</ref> and France suffered the effects of 75 or more in the same period.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/201392/famine Famine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150507160730/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/201392/famine |date=7 May 2015 }}. Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> Europe was devastated in the mid-14th century by the [[Black Death]], one of the most deadly [[pandemic]]s in human history which killed an estimated 25&nbsp;million people in Europe alone—a third of the [[Medieval demography|European population]] at the time.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-and-human-body/human-diseases/plague-article.html|title=Plague: The Black Death|magazine=National Geographic|access-date=1 April 2012|archive-date=16 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120216182517/http://science.nationalgeographic.com/science/health-and-human-body/human-diseases/plague-article.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The plague had a devastating effect on Europe's social structure; it induced people to live for the moment as illustrated by [[Giovanni Boccaccio]] in ''[[The Decameron]]'' (1353). It was a serious blow to the Roman Catholic Church and led to increased [[persecution of Jews]], [[beggars]] and [[leper]]s.<ref name="natgeo 223">National Geographic, 223.</ref> The plague is thought to have returned every generation with varying [[virulence]] and mortalities until the 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.infoplease.com/cig/dangerous-diseases-epidemics/bubonic-plague.html |title=Epidemics of the Past: Bubonic Plague|publisher=Infoplease.com |access-date=3 November 2008 |archive-date=21 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081021133412/http://www.infoplease.com/cig/dangerous-diseases-epidemics/bubonic-plague.html |url-status=live }}</ref> During this period, more than 100 plague [[List of epidemics|epidemics]] swept across Europe.<ref name="Revill">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/may/16/health.books |title=Black Death blamed on man, not rats &#124; UK news &#124; The Observer |newspaper=The Observer |first=Jo |last=Revill |date=16 May 2004 |access-date=3 November 2008 |location=London |archive-date=12 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140212100811/http://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/may/16/health.books |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Early modern period===
{{Main|Early modern period}}
{{See also|Renaissance|Reformation|Scientific Revolution|Age of Discovery}}
[[File:La scuola di Atene.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''[[The School of Athens]]'' (1511) by [[Raphael]]: Contemporaries of the artist, including [[Leonardo da Vinci]] and [[Michelangelo]], are represented in classical guise in this work emblematic of [[Renaissance humanism]].]]

The Renaissance was a period of cultural change originating in [[Florence]], and later spreading to the rest of Europe. The rise of a [[Renaissance humanism|new humanism]] was accompanied by the recovery of forgotten [[Classical Greece|classical Greek]] and Arabic knowledge from [[monastic]] libraries, often translated from Arabic into [[Latin language|Latin]].<ref name="Barrett"/><ref>[[Roberto Weiss|Weiss, Roberto]] (1969) ''The Renaissance Discovery of Classical Antiquity'', {{ISBN|1-59740-150-1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|first=Jacob|last=Burckhardt|orig-year=1878|url=https://archive.org/details/civilizationofre00burc_0|title=The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy|translator-first=S. G. C. |translator-last=Middlemore|year=1990|isbn=978-0-14-044534-3|publisher=Penguin|location=London|author-link=Jacob Burckhardt}}</ref> The Renaissance spread across Europe between the 14th and 16th centuries: it saw the flowering of [[Renaissance art|art]], [[philosophy]], [[music]], and [[History of science in the Renaissance|the sciences]], under the joint patronage of [[Royal family|royalty]], the nobility, the [[Catholic Church]] and an emerging merchant class.<ref name="natgeo 254">National Geographic, 254.</ref><ref>Jensen, De Lamar (1992), ''Renaissance Europe'', {{ISBN|0-395-88947-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Levey|first=Michael|title=Early Renaissance|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1967}}</ref> Patrons in Italy, including the [[Medici]] family of Florentine bankers and the [[pope]]s in [[Rome]], funded prolific [[quattrocento]] and [[cinquecento]] artists such as [[Raphael]], [[Michelangelo]] and [[Leonardo da Vinci]].<ref name="natgeo 292">National Geographic, 292.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Levey|first=Michael|title=High Renaissance|publisher=Penguin|year=1971}}</ref>

Political intrigue within the Church in the mid-14th century caused the [[Western Schism]]. During this 40-year period, two popes—one in [[Avignon]] and one in Rome—claimed rulership over the Church. Although the schism was eventually healed in 1417, the papacy's spiritual authority had suffered greatly.<ref name="natgeo 193">National Geographic, 193.</ref> In the 15th century, Europe started to extend itself beyond its geographic frontiers. Spain and Portugal, the greatest naval powers of the time, took the lead in exploring the world.<ref>{{Cite book|first=John Morris |last=Roberts|title=Penguin History of Europe|year=1997|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-0-14-026561-3|url=https://archive.org/details/penguinhistoryof00robe_1}}</ref><ref name="natgeo 296">National Geographic, 296.</ref> Exploration reached the [[Southern Hemisphere]] in the Atlantic and the southern tip of Africa. [[Christopher Columbus]] reached the [[New World]] in 1492, and [[Vasco da Gama]] opened the ocean route to the East, linking the Atlantic and [[Indian Ocean]]s in 1498. The Portuguese-born explorer [[Ferdinand Magellan]] reached Asia westward across the Atlantic and the [[Pacific Ocean]]s in a Spanish expedition, resulting in the first [[Timeline of Magellan's circumnavigation|circumnavigation of the globe]], completed by the Spaniard [[Juan Sebastián Elcano]] (1519–1522). Soon after, the Spanish and Portuguese began establishing large global empires in the [[Americas]], Asia, Africa and Oceania.<ref name="natgeo 338">National Geographic, 338.</ref> France, the [[Netherlands]] and England soon followed in building large colonial empires with vast holdings in Africa, the Americas and Asia. In 1588, the [[Spanish Armada]] failed to invade England. A year later, [[English Armada|England tried unsuccessfully to invade Spain]], allowing [[Philip II of Spain]] to maintain his dominant war capacity in Europe. This English disaster also allowed the Spanish fleet to retain its capability to wage war for the next decades. However, two more Spanish armadas failed to invade England ([[2nd Spanish Armada]] and [[3rd Spanish Armada]]).<ref>Elliott p. 333</ref><ref>Morris, Terence Alan (1998). ''Europe and England in the sixteenth century''. Routledge, p. 335. {{ISBN|0-415-15041-8}}</ref><ref>Rowse, A. L. (1969). ''Tudor Cornwall: portrait of a society''. C. Scribner, p. 400</ref><ref>"One decisive action might have forced Philip II to the negotiating table and avoided fourteen years of continuing warfare. Instead the King was able to use the brief respite to rebuild his naval forces and by the end of 1589 Spain once again had an Atlantic fleet strong enough to escort the American treasure ships home." ''The Mariner's Mirror'', Volumes 76–77. Society for Nautical Research., 1990</ref>

[[File:Habsburg dominions 1700.png|thumb|upright=1.2|[[House of Habsburg|Habsburg dominions]] in the centuries following their partition by [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor]]. The principal military base of Philip II in Europe was the Spanish road stretching from the Netherlands to the [[Duchy of Milan]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kamen |first1=Henry |title=Spain's Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492–1763 |page=221}}</ref>]]
The Church's power was further weakened by the [[Reformation]], which began in 1517 when German theologian [[Martin Luther]] nailed his ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'' criticising the selling of indulgences to the church door. He was subsequently excommunicated in the papal bull ''[[Exsurge Domine]]'' in 1520 and his followers were condemned in the 1521 [[Diet of Worms]], which divided German princes between [[Protestant]] and Catholic faiths.<ref name="natgeo 256">National Geographic, 256–257.</ref> [[European wars of religion|Religious fighting and warfare]] spread with Protestantism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/European_History/Religious_Wars_in_Europe|title=European History/Religious Wars in Europe – Wikibooks, open books for an open world|website=en.wikibooks.org|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531224323/https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/European_History/Religious_Wars_in_Europe|url-status=live}}</ref> The plunder of the empires of the Americas allowed Spain to finance [[Spanish Inquisition|religious persecution]] in Europe for over a century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Humphreys |first1=Kenneth |title=Jesus Never Existed: An Introduction to the Ultimate Heresy}}</ref> The [[Thirty Years' War]] (1618–1648) crippled the Holy Roman Empire and devastated much of Germany, killing between 25 and 40 percent of its population.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195896/history-of-Europe/58335/Demographics History of Europe – Demographics] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150101023616/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195896/history-of-Europe/58335/Demographics |date=1 January 2015 }}. Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> In the aftermath of the [[Peace of Westphalia]], France rose to predominance within Europe.<ref name="natgeo 269">National Geographic, 269.</ref> The defeat of the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] at the [[Battle of Vienna]] in 1683 marked the historic end of [[Ottoman wars in Europe|Ottoman expansion into Europe]].<ref>Virginia Aksan, Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged, (Pearson Education Limited, 2007), 28.</ref>

In much of Central and Eastern Europe, the 17th century was [[The General Crisis|a period of general decline]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm|title=The Seventeenth-Century Decline|access-date=13 August 2008|publisher=The Library of Iberian resources online|archive-date=27 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170327015606/http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> the region experienced more than 150 famines in a 200-year period between 1501 and 1700.<ref>"''[https://books.google.com/books?id=juvbIDu9ARIC&pg=PA51 Food, Famine And Fertilisers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417115352/https://books.google.com/books?id=juvbIDu9ARIC&pg=PA51 |date=2022-04-17 }}''". Seshadri Kannan (2009). APH Publishing. p. 51. {{ISBN|81-313-0356-X}}</ref> From the [[Union of Krewo]] (1385) east-central Europe was dominated by the [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]] and the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]. The hegemony of the vast [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] had ended with the devastation brought by the [[Northern War of 1655–1660]] ([[Swedish Deluge|Deluge]]) and subsequent conflicts;<ref>{{cite book |last=Frost |first=Robert I. |author-link=Robert I. Frost |year=2004 |title=After the Deluge; Poland-Lithuania and the Second Northern War, 1655–1660 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IfIbP8sfC0wC |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521544023 |access-date=30 July 2022}}</ref> the state itself was [[Partitions of Poland|partitioned]] and ceased to exist at the end of the 18th century.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lukowski |first=Jerzy |author-link=Jerzy Lukowski |year=2014 |title=The Partitions of Poland 1772, 1793, 1795 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zm3XAwAAQBAJ |location=New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1317886945 |access-date=30 July 2022}}</ref>

From the 15th to 18th centuries, when the disintegrating khanates of the [[Golden Horde]] were conquered by Russia, [[Crimean Tatars|Tatars]] from the [[Crimean Khanate]] frequently [[Crimean-Nogai raids into East Slavic lands|raided]] Eastern Slavic lands to [[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|capture slaves]].<ref>W. G. Clarence-Smith (2006). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=nQbylEdqJKkC Islam And The Abolition Of Slavery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160429200313/https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=nQbylEdqJKkC&f=false |date=2016-04-29 }}''". Oxford University Press. p. 13. {{ISBN|0-19-522151-6}}&nbsp;– "Lands to the north of the Black Sea probably yielded the most slaves to the Ottomans from 1450. A compilation of estimates indicates that Crimean Tartars seized about 1,750,000 Ukrainians, Poles, and Russians from 1468 to 1694."</ref> Further east, the [[Nogai Horde]] and [[Kazakh Khanate]] frequently raided the Slavic-speaking areas of contemporary Russia and Ukraine for hundreds of years, until the Russian expansion and conquest of most of northern Eurasia (i.e. Eastern Europe, Central Asia and Siberia).

The Renaissance and the [[New Monarchs]] marked the start of an Age of Discovery, a period of exploration, invention and scientific development.<ref>{{cite book|last=Hunt|first=Shelby D.|title=Controversy in marketing theory: for reason, realism, truth, and objectivity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=07lchJbdWGgC&pg=PA18|publisher=M. E. Sharpe|year=2003|page=18|isbn=978-0-7656-0932-8|access-date=30 July 2022}}</ref> Important figures of the [[Scientific Revolution]] during the 16th and 17th centuries included [[Copernicus]], [[Kepler]], [[Galileo]], and [[Isaac Newton]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://users.clas.ufl.edu//ufhatch/pages/03-Sci-Rev/SCI-REV-Home/05-sr-lng-timeline.htm |title=Scientific Revolution: Chronological Timeline: Copernicus to Newton |last=Hatch |first=Robert A. |access-date=24 March 2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723195302/http://web.clas.ufl.edu/users/ufhatch/pages/03-Sci-Rev/SCI-REV-Home/05-sr-lng-timeline.htm |archive-date=23 July 2013}}</ref> According to Peter Barrett, "It is widely accepted that 'modern science' arose in the Europe of the 17th century (towards the end of the Renaissance), introducing a new understanding of the natural world."<ref name="Barrett">Peter Barrett (2004), ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=fwxViwX6KuMC&pg=PA14 Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422182250/https://books.google.com/books?id=fwxViwX6KuMC&pg=PA14 |date=22 April 2022 }}'', pp. 14–18, Continuum, {{ISBN|0-567-08969-X}}</ref>

===18th and 19th centuries===
{{Main|Modern history}}
{{See also|Industrial Revolution|French Revolution|Age of Enlightenment}}
[[File:Europe 1815 map en.png|thumb|The national boundaries within Europe set by the [[Congress of Vienna]]]]

The [[Seven Years' War]] brought to an end the [[Grand Alliance (League of Augsburg)|"Old System" of alliances in Europe]]. Consequently, when the [[American Revolutionary War]] turned into a global war between 1778 and 1783, Britain found itself opposed by a strong coalition of European powers, and lacking any substantial ally.<ref>{{cite journal |jstor=2144276 |title=The American Revolution as an Aftermath of the Great War for the Empire, 1754–1763 |journal=Political Science Quarterly |volume=65 |issue=1 |pages=86–104 |last1=Gipson |first1=Lawrence Henry |year=1950 |doi=10.2307/2144276}}</ref>

The Age of Enlightenment was a powerful intellectual movement during the 18th century promoting scientific and reason-based thoughts.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Goldie |first1=Mark |title=The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Political Thought |last2=Wokler |first2=Robert |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-37422-4 |author-link2=Robert Wokler}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Cassirer |first=Ernst |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophyofenli0000cass_u2f3 |title=The Philosophy of the Enlightenment |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-691-01963-5 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name="natgeo 255">National Geographic, 255.</ref> Discontent with the aristocracy and clergy's monopoly on political power in France resulted in the French Revolution, and the establishment of the [[French First Republic|First Republic]] as a result of which the monarchy and many of the nobility perished during the initial [[Reign of Terror|reign of terror]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schama|first=Simon|author-link=Simon Schama|publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf|Knopf]]|title=Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution|year=1989|isbn=978-0-394-55948-3|title-link=Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution}}</ref> [[Napoleon]] Bonaparte rose to power in the aftermath of the French Revolution, and established the [[First French Empire]] that, during the [[Napoleonic Wars]], grew to encompass large parts of Europe before collapsing in 1815 with the [[Battle of Waterloo]].<ref name="natgeo 360">National Geographic, 360.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=McEvedy|first=Colin|title=The Penguin Atlas of Modern History|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1972|isbn=978-0-14-051153-6}}</ref> [[Napoleonic Empire|Napoleonic rule]] resulted in the further dissemination of the ideals of the French Revolution, including that of the [[nation state]], as well as the widespread adoption of the French models of [[centralised government|administration]], [[Napoleonic code|law]] and [[Education in France|education]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lyons|first=Martyn|publisher= [[St. Martin's Press]]|year= 1994|isbn=978-0-312-12123-5|title=Napoleon Bonaparte and the legacy of the French Revolution}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Grab|first=Alexander|title=Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe (European History in Perspective) |publisher=Palgrave MacMillan|year=2003|isbn=978-0-333-68275-3}}</ref><ref name="natgeo 350">National Geographic, 350.</ref> The [[Congress of Vienna]], convened after Napoleon's downfall, established a new [[balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]] in Europe centred on the five "[[great power]]s": the UK, France, [[Prussia]], [[Austrian Empire|Austria]], and Russia.<ref name="natgeo 367">National Geographic, 367.</ref> This balance would remain in place until the [[Revolutions of 1848]], during which liberal uprisings affected all of Europe except for Russia and the UK. These revolutions were eventually put down by conservative elements and few reforms resulted.<ref name="natgeo 371">National Geographic, 371–373.</ref> The year 1859 saw the unification of Romania, as a nation state, from smaller principalities. In 1867, the [[Austro-Hungarian empire]] was [[Ausgleich|formed]]; 1871 saw the unifications of both [[Italian unification|Italy]] and [[Unification of Germany|Germany]] as nation-states from smaller principalities.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Davies|first=Norman|title=Europe: A History|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1996|isbn=978-0-19-820171-7|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/europehistory00davi_0}}</ref>

In parallel, the [[Eastern Question]] grew more complex ever since the Ottoman defeat in the [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)]]. As the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire seemed imminent, the [[Great Power]]s struggled to safeguard their strategic and commercial interests in the Ottoman domains. The [[Russian Empire]] stood to benefit from the decline, whereas the [[Habsburg monarchy|Habsburg Empire]] and Britain perceived the preservation of the Ottoman Empire to be in their best interests. Meanwhile, the [[Serbian Revolution]] (1804) and [[Greek War of Independence]] (1821) marked the beginning of the end of Ottoman rule in the [[Balkans]], which ended with the [[Balkan Wars]] in 1912–1913.<ref>[http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=3044&HistoryID=ac79] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126020326/http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=3044&HistoryID=ac79|date=26 January 2022}}, ''Ottoman Empire – 19th century'', Historyworld</ref> Formal recognition of the ''de facto'' independent principalities of [[Montenegro]], [[Principality of Serbia|Serbia]] and [[Romania]] ensued at the [[Congress of Berlin]] in 1878.

[[File:Marshall's flax-mill, Holbeck, Leeds - interior - c.1800.jpg|thumb|Marshall's [[Temple Works]] (1840); the [[Industrial Revolution]] started in [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]].]]

The [[Industrial Revolution]] started in [[Kingdom of Great Britain|Great Britain]] in the last part of the 18th century and spread throughout Europe. The invention and implementation of new technologies resulted in rapid urban growth, mass employment and the rise of a new working class.<ref>{{Cite book|first=George Macaulay|last=Trevelyan|title=A shortened history of England|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1988|isbn=978-0-14-010241-3|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/shortenedhistory00geor}}</ref> Reforms in social and economic spheres followed, including the [[Factory Acts|first laws]] on [[child labour]], the legalisation of [[trade union]]s,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Webb|first=Sidney | title=History of Trade Unionism | publisher= AMS Press | year=1976 | isbn=978-0-404-06885-1}}</ref> and the [[abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolition of slavery]].<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 Slavery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016025606/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |date=16 October 2014 }}, ''Historical survey – Ways of ending slavery'', Encyclopædia Britannica</ref> In Britain, the [[Public Health Act of 1875]] was passed, which significantly improved living conditions in many British cities.<ref>{{Cite book|first=George Macaulay|last=Trevelyan|title=English Social History|publisher=Longmans, Green|year=1942}}</ref> Europe's population increased from about 100 million in 1700 to 400 million by 1900.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387301/modernisation/12022/Population-change Modernisation – Population Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730041936/https://www.britannica.com/topic/modernization |date=30 July 2022 }}. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref> The last major famine recorded in Western Europe, the [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Great Famine of Ireland]], caused death and mass emigration of millions of Irish people.<ref>"[https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/famine_01.shtml The Irish Famine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109095015/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/victorians/famine_01.shtml |date=2019-11-09 }}". BBC – History.</ref> In the 19th century, 70&nbsp;million people left Europe in migrations to various European colonies abroad and to the United States.<ref>[http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=1118_0_5_0 The Atlantic: Can the US afford immigration?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100704173521/http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/more.php?id=1118_0_5_0 |date=4 July 2010 }}. ''Migration News''. December 1996.</ref> The industrial revolution also led to large population growth, and the {{not typo|[[Demographics of the world#Shares of world population, AD 1–1998 (% of world total)|share of the world population living in Europe]]}} reached a peak of slightly above 25% around the year 1913.<ref name="ggdc.net">{{cite web|url=http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/other_books/appendix_B.pdf|title=Growth of World Population, GDP and GDP Per Capita before 1820|author=Maddison|website=[[University of Groningen]]|date=27 July 2016|access-date=12 June 2024|archive-date=12 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212183845/http://www.ggdc.net/maddison/other_books/appendix_B.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="World Population Growth, 1950–2050">[http://www.prb.org/Educators/TeachersGuides/HumanPopulation/PopulationGrowth.aspx?p=1 World Population Growth, 1950–2050]. Population Reference Bureau. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722202806/http://www.prb.org/Educators/TeachersGuides/HumanPopulation/PopulationGrowth.aspx?p=1 |date=22 July 2013 }}</ref>

===20th century to the present===
{{Main|Modern era|History of Europe}}
{{See also|World War I|Great Depression|Interwar period|Second World War|Cold War|History of the European Union}}
[[File:Colonisation 1914.png|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Map of European [[colonial empire]]s throughout the world in 1914]]

Two world wars and an economic depression dominated the first half of the 20th century. The First World War was fought between 1914 and 1918. It started when [[Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria]] was assassinated by the [[Yugoslav nationalism|Yugoslav nationalist]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://praguepost.com/world-news/39837-assassin-gavrilo-princip-gets-a-statue-in-sarajevo|title=Assassin Gavrilo Princip gets a statue in Sarajevo|access-date=11 July 2014|work=The Prague Post|date=28 June 2014|archive-date=10 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140710215557/http://praguepost.com/world-news/39837-assassin-gavrilo-princip-gets-a-statue-in-sarajevo|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Gavrilo Princip]].<ref name="natgeo 407">National Geographic, 407.</ref> Most European nations were drawn into the war, which was fought between the [[Entente Powers]] ([[French Third Republic|France]], [[Belgium]], [[Serbia]], Portugal, [[Russian Empire|Russia]], the United Kingdom, and later [[Italy]], [[Greece]], [[Romania]], and the United States) and the [[Central Powers]] ([[Austria-Hungary]], [[German Empire|Germany]], [[Bulgaria]], and the [[Ottoman Empire]]). The war left more than 16&nbsp;million civilians and military dead.<ref name="natgeo 440">''National Geographic'', 440.</ref> Over 60&nbsp;million European soldiers were mobilised from 1914 to 1918.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jimmyatkinson.com/papers/versaillestreaty.html |title=The Treaty of Versailles and its Consequences |access-date=10 June 2008 |publisher=James Atkinson |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512224100/http://www.jimmyatkinson.com/papers/versaillestreaty.html |archive-date=12 May 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:Alliances militaires en Europe 1914-1918-fr.svg|thumb|Map depicting the military alliances of the [[First World War]] in 1914–1918]]
Russia was plunged into the [[Russian Revolution]], which threw down the [[Russian Empire|Tsarist monarchy]] and replaced it with the [[communist]] [[Soviet Union]],<ref name="natgeo 480">National Geographic, 480.</ref> leading also to the independence of many former [[Governorate (Russia)|Russian governorates]], such as [[Finland]], [[Estonia]], [[Latvia]] and [[Lithuania]], as new European countries.<ref>{{cite book|author=Heinrich August Winkler|title=The Age of Catastrophe|chapter=The Struggle for Independence: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland|page=110|year=2015|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300204896}}</ref> [[Austria-Hungary]] and the Ottoman Empire collapsed and broke up into separate nations, and many other nations had their borders redrawn. The [[Treaty of Versailles]], which officially ended the First World War in 1919, was harsh towards Germany, upon whom it placed full responsibility for the war and imposed heavy sanctions.<ref name="natgeo 443">''National Geographic'', 443.</ref> Excess deaths in Russia over the course of the First World War and the [[Russian Civil War]] (including the postwar [[Russian famine of 1921|famine]]) amounted to a combined total of 18 million.<ref>{{cite book| first = Mark| last = Harrison| title = Accounting for War: Soviet Production, Employment, and the Defence Burden, 1940–1945| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yJcD7_Q_rQ8C&pg=PA167| date = 2002| publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 978-0-521-89424-1| page = 167| access-date = 30 July 2022| archive-date = 17 June 2020| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200617211223/https://books.google.com/books?id=yJcD7_Q_rQ8C&pg=PA167| url-status = live}}</ref> In 1932–1933, under [[Stalin]]'s leadership, confiscations of grain by the Soviet authorities contributed to the [[Soviet famine of 1932-1933|second Soviet famine]] which caused millions of deaths;<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6179818.stm Legacy of famine divides Ukraine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061127110530/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6179818.stm |date=2006-11-27 }}". BBC News. 24 November 2006.</ref> surviving [[kulak]]s were persecuted and many sent to [[Gulag]]s to do [[Unfree labour|forced labour]]. Stalin was also responsible for the [[Great Purge]] of 1937–38 in which the [[NKVD]] executed 681,692 people;<ref>{{cite book| first = Abbott| last = Gleason| title = A companion to Russian history| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=JyN0hlKcfTcC&pg=PA373| year = 2009| publisher = Wiley-Blackwell| isbn = 978-1-4051-3560-3| page = 373| access-date = 30 July 2022| archive-date = 5 September 2015| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150905175409/https://books.google.com/books?id=JyN0hlKcfTcC&pg=PA373| url-status = live}}</ref> millions of people were [[population transfer in the Soviet Union|deported and exiled]] to remote areas of the Soviet Union.<ref>{{cite book | first = Geoffrey A.| last = Hosking| title = Russia and the Russians: a history| url = https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi00hosk| url-access = registration| year = 2001| publisher = Harvard University Press| isbn = 978-0-674-00473-3| page = [https://archive.org/details/russiarussianshi00hosk/page/469 469] }}</ref>

[[File:Serbiancolumnretreat1915.jpg|thumb|left|[[Serbian Campaign of World War I|Serbian war efforts]] (1914–1918) cost the country one quarter of its population.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/116535884/fourth-of-serbias-population-dead/ |title=Fourth of Serbia's Population Dead |first=Pierre |last=Loti |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |page=49 |date=1918-06-30 |access-date=2023-01-15 |via=Newspapers.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/04/05/102687236.pdf|title=Asserts Serbians Face Extinction; Their Plight in Occupied Districts Worse Than Belgians', Says Labor Envoy |newspaper=The New York Times |location=Washington |page=13 |access-date=2023-01-15|archive-date=15 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200315165925/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/04/05/102687236.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/11/05/98273895.pdf|title=Serbia Restored|access-date=19 January 2017|archive-date=16 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916183845/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/11/05/98273895.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/07/28/102728073.pdf| work=The New York Times| title=Serbia and Austria| date=28 July 1918| access-date=30 July 2022| archive-date=22 April 2021| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422071451/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/07/28/102728073.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/07/27/102727338.pdf| work=The New York Times| title=Appeals to Americans to pray for Serbians| date=27 July 1918| access-date=30 July 2022| archive-date=16 September 2018| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916183729/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1918/07/27/102727338.pdf| url-status=live}}</ref>]]
[[File:Mussolini and Hitler 1940 (retouched).jpg|upright=0.75|thumb|left|[[Nazi Germany]] began the devastating Second World War in Europe by its leader, [[Adolf Hitler]]. Here Hitler, on the right, with his closest ally, the Italian dictator [[Benito Mussolini]], in 1940.]]

The [[social revolution]]s sweeping through Russia also affected other European nations following [[The Great War]]: in 1919, with the [[Weimar Republic]] in Germany and the [[First Austrian Republic]]; in 1922, with [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]]'s one-party [[Fascism|fascist]] government in the [[Kingdom of Italy]] and in [[Atatürk]]'s [[Turkey|Turkish Republic]], adopting the Western alphabet and state [[secularism]].
Economic instability, caused in part by debts incurred in the First World War and 'loans' to Germany played havoc in Europe in the late 1920s and 1930s. This, and the [[Wall Street crash of 1929]], brought about the worldwide [[Great Depression]]. Helped by the economic crisis, social instability and the threat of communism, [[Fascism|fascist movements]] developed throughout Europe placing [[Adolf Hitler]] in power of what became [[Nazi Germany]].<ref name="hobsbawn">{{Cite book|last=Hobsbawm|first=Eric|publisher=Vintage|year=1995|isbn=978-0-679-73005-7|title=The Age of Extremes: A history of the world, 1914–1991|url=https://archive.org/details/ageofextremeshis00hobs_0}}</ref><ref name="natgeo 438">''National Geographic'', 438.</ref>

In 1933, Hitler became the leader of Germany and began to work towards his goal of building Greater Germany. Germany re-expanded and took back the [[Saarland]] and [[Rhineland]] in 1935 and 1936. In 1938, [[Austria]] became a part of Germany following the [[Anschluss]]. Following the [[Munich Agreement]] signed by Germany, France, the United Kingdom, and Italy, later in 1938 Germany annexed the [[Sudetenland]], which was a part of [[Czechoslovakia]] inhabited by ethnic Germans. In early 1939, the remainder of Czechoslovakia was split into the [[Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia]], controlled by Germany and the [[Slovak Republic (1939–1945)|Slovak Republic]]. At the time, the United Kingdom and France preferred a policy of [[appeasement]].

With tensions mounting between Germany and [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]] over the future of [[Gdańsk|Danzig]], the Germans turned to the Soviets and signed the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact]], which allowed the Soviets to invade the Baltic states and parts of Poland and Romania. Germany [[Invasion of Poland|invaded Poland]] on 1 September 1939, prompting France and the United Kingdom to declare war on Germany on 3 September, opening the [[European Theatre of World War II|European Theatre of the Second World War]].<ref name="reich">{{cite web|url=https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/adolf-hitler-1|title=Adolf Hitler: Rise of Power, Impact & Death|website=History.com|date=29 October 2009 |access-date=26 July 2020|archive-date=3 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181003111423/https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/adolf-hitler-1|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="natgeo 465">National Geographic, 465.</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=A. J. P.|title= The Origins of the Second World War|year=1996|publisher=Simon & Schuster| isbn=978-0-684-82947-0}}</ref> The [[Soviet invasion of Poland]] started on 17 September and Poland fell soon thereafter. On 24 September, the Soviet Union attacked the [[Soviet occupation of the Baltic states (1940)|Baltic countries]] and, on 30 November, Finland, the latter of which was followed by the devastating [[Winter War]] for the Red Army.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.warhistoryonline.com/war-articles/winter-war-finland.html|title=The Winter War – When the Finns Humiliated the Russians|first=Ivano|last=Massari|publisher=War History Online|date=18 August 2015|access-date=19 December 2021|archive-date=19 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211219185618/https://www.warhistoryonline.com/war-articles/winter-war-finland.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The British hoped to land at [[Battles of Narvik|Narvik]] and send troops to aid Finland, but their primary objective in the landing was to encircle Germany and cut the Germans off from Scandinavian resources. Around the same time, Germany moved troops into Denmark. The [[Phoney War]] continued.

In May 1940, Germany [[Battle of France|attacked France]] through the Low Countries. France capitulated in June 1940. By August, Germany had begun a [[Battle of Britain|bombing offensive against the United Kingdom]] but failed to convince the Britons to give up.<ref name="natgeo 510">''National Geographic'', 510.</ref> In 1941, Germany invaded the Soviet Union in [[Operation Barbarossa]].<ref name="natgeo 532">''National Geographic'', 532.</ref> On 7 December 1941 [[Empire of Japan|Japan]]'s [[attack on Pearl Harbor]] drew the United States into the conflict as allies of the [[British Empire]], and other [[Allies of World War II|allied]] forces.<ref name="natgeo 511">''National Geographic'', 511.</ref><ref name="natgeo 519">''National Geographic'', 519.</ref>
[[File:Yalta Conference (Churchill, Roosevelt, Stalin) (B&W).jpg|thumb|The "[[Allies of World War II|Big Three]]" at the [[Yalta Conference]] in 1945; seated (from the left): [[Winston Churchill]], [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Joseph Stalin]]]]
After the staggering [[Battle of Stalingrad]] in 1943, the German offensive in the Soviet Union turned into a continual fallback. The [[Battle of Kursk]], which involved the largest [[Battle of Prokhorovka|tank battle]] in history, was the last major German offensive on the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]]. In June 1944, British and American forces invaded France in the [[Normandy landings|D-Day landings]], opening a new front against Germany. Berlin finally [[Battle of Berlin|fell in 1945]], ending the Second World War in Europe. The war was the largest and most destructive in human history, with [[World War II casualties|60&nbsp;million dead across the world]].<ref name="natgeo 439">''National Geographic'', 439.</ref> More than 40&nbsp;million people in Europe had died as a result of the Second World War,<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4526351.stm Europe honours war dead on VE Day] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180316120653/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4526351.stm |date=2018-03-16 }}". BBC News. 9 May 2005.</ref> including between 11 and 17&nbsp;million people who perished during [[the Holocaust]].<ref>Niewyk, Donald L. and Nicosia, Francis R. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=lpDTIUklB2MC&pg=PP1 The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521005722/https://books.google.com/books?id=lpDTIUklB2MC&pg=PP1#PPA45,M1 |date=21 May 2022 }}'', [[Columbia University Press]], 2000, pp. 45–52.</ref> The Soviet Union [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|lost around 27&nbsp;million people]] (mostly civilians) during the war, about half of all Second World War casualties.<ref>{{Cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4530565.stm | title=Leaders mourn Soviet wartime dead | publisher=BBC News | date=9 May 2005 | access-date=4 January 2010 | archive-date=22 December 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222043852/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4530565.stm | url-status=live }}</ref> By the end of the Second World War, Europe had more than 40&nbsp;million [[refugee]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.unhcr.org/3ebf9ba80.html |title=The State of The World's Refugees 2000: Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |pages=13 |language=en |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=23 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423195513/https://www.unhcr.org/3ebf9ba80.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bundy |first=Colin |date=2016 |title=Migrants, refugees, history and precedents {{!}} Forced Migration Review |url=https://www.fmreview.org/destination-europe/bundy |access-date=9 March 2022 |website=fmreview.org |archive-date=8 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220308162932/https://www.fmreview.org/destination-europe/bundy |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20110424085534/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,920455-2,00.html Refugees: Save Us! Save Us!]". ''Time''. 9 July 1979.</ref> Several [[World War II evacuation and expulsion|post-war expulsions]] in Central and Eastern Europe displaced a total of about 20&nbsp;million people.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Schechtman|first=Joseph B.|date=1953|title=Postwar Population Transfers in Europe: A Survey|journal=The Review of Politics|volume=15|issue=2|pages=151–178|jstor=1405220|doi=10.1017/s0034670500008081|s2cid=144307581 }}</ref>

The First World War, and especially the Second World War, diminished the eminence of Western Europe in world affairs. After the Second World War the map of Europe was redrawn at the [[Yalta Conference]] and divided into two blocs, the Western countries and the communist Eastern bloc, separated by what was later called by [[Winston Churchill]] an "[[Iron Curtain]]". The United States and Western Europe established the [[NATO]] alliance and, later, the Soviet Union and Central Europe established the [[Warsaw Pact]].<ref name="natgeo 530">National Geographic, 530.</ref> Particular hot spots after the Second World War were [[Berlin]] and [[Trieste]], whereby the [[Free Territory of Trieste]], founded in 1947 with the UN, was dissolved in 1954 and 1975, respectively. The [[Berlin blockade]] in 1948 and 1949 and the construction of the [[Berlin Wall]] in 1961 were one of the great international crises of the [[Cold War]].<ref>Jessica Caus "Am Checkpoint Charlie lebt der Kalte Krieg" In: Die Welt 4 August 2015.</ref><ref>Karlo Ruzicic-Kessler "Togliatti, Tito and the Shadow of Moscow 1944/45–1948: Post-War Territorial Disputes and the Communist World", In: Journal of European Integration History, (2/2014).</ref><ref>Christian Jennings "Flashpoint Trieste: The First Battle of the Cold War", (2017), pp 244.</ref>

The two new [[superpower]]s, the United States and the Soviet Union, became locked in a fifty-year-long Cold War, centred on [[nuclear proliferation]]. At the same time [[decolonisation]], which had already started after the First World War, gradually resulted in the independence of most of the European colonies in Asia and Africa.<ref name="natgeo 534"/>

[[File:Flag_of_Europe.svg|thumb|[[Flag of Europe]], adopted by the [[Council of Europe]] in 1955 as the flag for the whole of Europe<ref>[http://www.coe.int/en/web/about-us/the-european-flag The European flag] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220114105640/https://www.coe.int/en/web/about-us/the-european-flag |date=14 January 2022 }}, Council of Europe. Retrieved 27 October 2016.</ref>]]

In the 1980s the [[glasnost|reforms]] of [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] and the [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] movement in Poland weakened the previously rigid communist system. The opening of the [[Iron Curtain]] at the [[Pan-European Picnic]] then set in motion a peaceful chain reaction, at the end of which the [[Eastern bloc]], the [[Warsaw Pact]] and other [[Revolutions of 1989|communist states collapsed]], and the Cold War ended.<ref>Thomas Roser: DDR-Massenflucht: Ein Picknick hebt die Welt aus den Angeln (German – Mass exodus of the GDR: A picnic clears the world) In: Die Presse 16 August 2018.</ref><ref>Der 19. August 1989 war ein Test für Gorbatschows" (German – August 19, 1989 was a test for Gorbachev), In: FAZ 19 August 2009.</ref><ref>Michael Frank: Paneuropäisches Picknick – Mit dem Picknickkorb in die Freiheit (German: Pan-European picnic – With the picnic basket to freedom), in: Süddeutsche Zeitung 17 May 2010.</ref> Germany was reunited, after the symbolic [[Berlin Wall#Fall of the Wall|fall of the Berlin Wall]] in 1989 and the maps of Central and Eastern Europe were redrawn once more.<ref>Andreas Rödder, Deutschland einig Vaterland – Die Geschichte der Wiedervereinigung (2009).</ref> This made old previously interrupted cultural and economic relationships possible, and previously isolated cities such as [[Berlin]], [[Prague]], [[Vienna]], [[Budapest]] and [[Trieste]] were now again in the centre of Europe.<ref name="hobsbawn"/><ref>Padraic Kenney "A Carnival of Revolution: Central Europe 1989" (2002) pp 109.</ref><ref>Michael Gehler "Der alte und der neue Kalte Krieg in Europa" In: Die Presse 19.11.2015.</ref><ref>Robert Stradling "Teaching 20th-century European history" (2003), pp 61.</ref>

[[European integration]] also grew after the Second World War. In 1949 the [[Council of Europe]] was founded, following a speech by Sir [[Winston Churchill]], with the idea of unifying Europe<ref name="europaeu 1945-59"/> to achieve common goals. It includes all European states except for [[Belarus]], Russia,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/03/10/russia-quits-europes-rule-of-law-body-sparking-questions-over-death-penalty-a76854|title=Russia Quits Europe's Rule of Law Body, Sparking Questions Over Death Penalty|work=[[The Moscow Times]]|date=10 March 2022|access-date=12 March 2022|archive-date=12 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220312015058/https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/03/10/russia-quits-europes-rule-of-law-body-sparking-questions-over-death-penalty-a76854|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Vatican City]]. The [[Treaty of Rome]] in 1957 established the [[European Economic Community]] between six Western European states with the goal of a unified economic policy and common market.<ref name="natgeo 536">National Geographic, 536.</ref> In 1967 the EEC, [[European Coal and Steel Community]], and [[Euratom]] formed the [[European Community]], which in 1993 became the [[European Union]]. The EU established [[European Parliament|a parliament]], [[European Court of Justice|a court]] and [[European Central Bank|a central bank]], and introduced the [[euro]] as a unified currency.<ref name="natgeo 537">National Geographic, 537.</ref> Between 2004 and 2013, more Central European countries began joining, [[Enlargement of the European Union|expanding the EU]] to 28 European countries and once more making Europe a major economical and political centre of power.<ref name="natgeo 535">National Geographic, 535.</ref> However, the United Kingdom withdrew from the EU on 31 January 2020, as a result of a [[2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum|June 2016 referendum on EU membership]].<ref>{{cite news |title=UK leaves the European Union |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-51333314 |access-date=16 July 2020 |publisher=BBC News |date=1 February 2020 |archive-date=14 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200314050137/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-51333314 |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Russo-Ukrainian War]], which has been ongoing since 2014, steeply escalated when Russia launched [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|a full-scale invasion]] of [[Ukraine]] on 24 February 2022, marking the largest humanitarian and refugee crisis in Europe since the Second World War<ref>{{cite news |title=Ukrainian exodus could be Europe's biggest refugee crisis since World War II |newspaper=[[El País]] |date=3 March 2022 |url=https://english.elpais.com/international/2022-03-03/ukrainian-exodus-could-be-europes-biggest-refugee-crisis-since-world-war-ii.html |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=5 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220405100721/https://english.elpais.com/international/2022-03-03/ukrainian-exodus-could-be-europes-biggest-refugee-crisis-since-world-war-ii.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[Yugoslav Wars]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Protecting Ukrainian refugees: What can we learn from the response to Kosovo in the 90s? |date=7 March 2022 |access-date=29 March 2022 |website=[[British Future]] |url=https://www.britishfuture.org/protecting-ukrainian-refugees-what-can-we-learn-from-kosovo/ |archive-date=7 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220307205755/https://www.britishfuture.org/protecting-ukrainian-refugees-what-can-we-learn-from-kosovo/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Europe}}
[[File:Europe topographic map 2024.jpg|thumb|General topographic map of Europe showing physical, political and population characteristics, as per 2024]]
Europe makes up the western fifth of the [[Eurasia]]n landmass.<ref name="Encarta"/> It has a higher ratio of coast to landmass than any other continent or subcontinent.<ref>{{cite news |last = Cuper |first = Simon |date = 23 May 2014 |title = Why Europe works |url = http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/51dd9432-db03-11e3-8273-00144feabdc0.html |newspaper = Financial Times |access-date = 28 May 2014 |archive-date = 22 August 2016 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160822231728/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/2/51dd9432-db03-11e3-8273-00144feabdc0.html |url-status = live }}</ref> Its maritime borders consist of the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Mediterranean, Black and Caspian Seas to the south.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195686/Europe Europe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503113529/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/195686/Europe |date=3 May 2015 }}. Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref>
Land relief in Europe shows great variation within relatively small areas. The southern regions are more mountainous, while moving north the terrain descends from the high [[Alps]], [[Pyrenees]] and [[Carpathians]], through hilly uplands, into broad, low northern plains, which are vast in the east. This extended lowland is known as the [[Great European Plain]] and at its heart lies the [[North German Plain]]. An arc of uplands also exists along the north-western seaboard, which begins in the western parts of the islands of Britain and Ireland, and then continues along the mountainous, [[fjord]]-cut spine of Norway.

This description is simplified. Subregions such as the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and the [[Italian Peninsula]] contain their own complex features, as does mainland Central Europe itself, where the relief contains many plateaus, river valleys and basins that complicate the general trend. Sub-regions like [[Iceland]], Britain and Ireland are special cases. The former is a land unto itself in the northern ocean that is counted as part of Europe, while the latter are upland areas that were once joined to the mainland until [[sea level rise|rising sea levels]] cut them off.

The [[List of largest lakes of Europe|largest European lakes]] are located in the north of the continent. The [[Volga]] and [[Danube]] are the two longest [[List of rivers of Europe|rivers of Europe]]. Europe's largest [[waterfall]] (by [[List of waterfalls by flow rate|flow rate]]) are the [[Rhine Falls]] on the [[Rhine]].

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Europe}}
[[File:Vegetation Europe.png|thumb|[[Biome]]s of Europe and surrounding regions:
<br />
{{legend0|#9fd6c9|[[tundra]]}}
{{legend0|#a7bddb|[[alpine tundra]]}}
{{legend0|#006d64|[[taiga]]}}
{{legend0|#3c9798|[[montane forest]]}} <br />
{{legend0|#a4e05d|[[temperate broadleaf forest]]}}
{{legend0|#907699|[[mediterranean forest]]}}
{{legend0|#f7ec6f|[[temperate steppe]]}}
{{legend0|#9b8447|[[dry steppe]]}}
]]

Europe lies mainly in the [[temperate]] climate zone of the northern hemisphere, where the [[prevailing westerlies|prevailing wind direction is from the west]]. The climate is milder in comparison to other areas of the same latitude around the globe due to the influence of the [[Gulf Stream]], an ocean current which carries warm water from the [[Gulf of Mexico]] across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to Europe.<ref name="climate">{{cite web|url=http://www.worldbook.com/wb/Students?content_spotlight/climates/european_climate |title=European Climate |website=World Book |access-date=16 June 2008 |publisher=World Book, Inc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061109230709/http://www.worldbook.com/wb/Students?content_spotlight%2Fclimates%2Feuropean_climate |archive-date=9 November 2006 }}</ref> The Gulf Stream is nicknamed "Europe's central heating", because it makes Europe's climate warmer and wetter than it would otherwise be. The Gulf Stream not only carries warm water to Europe's coast but also warms up the prevailing westerly winds that blow across the continent from the Atlantic Ocean.

Therefore, the average temperature throughout the year of [[Aveiro, Portugal|Aveiro]] is {{cvt|16|C}}, while it is only {{cvt|13|C}} in [[New York City]] which is almost on the same latitude, bordering the same ocean. Berlin, Germany; Calgary, Canada; and Irkutsk, in far south-eastern Russia, lie on around the same latitude; January temperatures in Berlin average around {{cvt|8|C-change}} higher than those in Calgary and they are almost {{cvt|22|C-change}} higher than average temperatures in Irkutsk.<ref name="climate"/>

The large water masses of the [[Mediterranean Sea]], which equalise the temperatures on an annual and daily average, are also of particular importance. The water of the Mediterranean extends from the [[Sahara desert]] to the Alpine arc in its northernmost part of the [[Adriatic Sea]] near [[Trieste]].<ref>Josef Wasmayer "Wetter- und Meereskunde der Adria" (1976), pp 5.</ref>

In general, Europe is not just colder towards the north compared to the south, but it also gets colder from the west towards the east. The climate is more oceanic in the west and less so in the east. This can be illustrated by the following table of average temperatures at locations roughly following the 64th, 60th, 55th, 50th, 45th and 40th [[latitudes]]. None of them is located at high altitude; most of them are close to the sea.

[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map Europe present.svg|thumb|650px|[[Köppen climate classification|Köppen-Geiger climate classification]] map for Europe<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beck |first1=Hylke E. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar |first3=Tim R. |last4=Vergopolan |first4=Noemi |last5=Berg |first5=Alexis |last6=Wood |first6=Eric F. |author6-link=Eric Franklin Wood|title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution |journal=Scientific Data |date=30 October 2018 |volume=5 |pages=180214 |doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214|pmid=30375988 |pmc=6207062 |bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B }}</ref>]]

{| class="wikitable"
|+Temperatures in °C
|-
! Location !! Latitude !! Longitude !!Coldest<br>month!!Hottest<br>month!!Annual<br>average
|-
| [[Reykjavík]] || 64 N || 22 W || 0.1 || 11.2 || 4.7
|-
| [[Umeå]] || 64 N || 20 E || −6.2 || 16.0 || 3.9
|-
| [[Oulu]] || 65 N || 25.5 E || −9.6 || 16.5 || 2.7
|-
| [[Arkhangelsk]] || 64.5 N || 40.5 E || −12.7 || 16.3 || 1.3
|-bgcolor="000000"
|colspan=6|
|-
| [[Lerwick]] || 60 N || 1 W || 3.5 || 12.4 || 7.4
|-
| [[Stockholm]] || 59.5 N || 19 E || −1.7 || 18.4 || 7.4
|-
| [[Helsinki]] || 60 N || 25 E || −4.7 || 17.8 || 5.9
|-
| [[Saint Petersburg]] || 60 N || 30 E || −5.8 || 18.8 || 5.8
|-bgcolor="000000"
|colspan=6|
|-
| [[Edinburgh]] || 55.5 N || 3 W || 4.2 || 15.3 || 9.3
|-
| [[Copenhagen]] || 55.5 N || 12 E || 1.4 || 18.1 || 9.1
|-
| [[Klaipėda]] || 55.5 N || 21 E || −1.3 || 17.9 || 8.0
|-
| [[Moscow]] || 55.5 N || 30 E || −6.5 || 19.2 || 5.8
|-bgcolor="000000"
|colspan=6|
|-
| [[Isles of Scilly]] || 50 N || 6 W || 7.9 || 16.9 || 11.8
|-
| [[Brussels]] || 50.5 N || 4 E || 3.3 || 18.4 || 10.5
|-
| [[Kraków]] || 50 N || 20 E || −2.0 || 19.2 || 8.7
|-
| [[Kyiv]] || 50.5 N || 30 E || −3.5 || 20.5 || 8.4
|-bgcolor="000000"
|colspan=6|
|-
| [[Bordeaux]] || 45 N || 0 || 6.6 || 21.4 || 13.8
|-
| [[Venice]] || 45.5 N || 12 E || 3.3 || 23.0 || 13.0
|-
| [[Belgrade]] || 45 N || 20 E || 1.4 || 23.0 || 12.5
|-
| [[Astrakhan]] || 46 N || 48 E || −3.7 || 25.6 || 10.5
|-bgcolor="000000"
|colspan=6|
|-
| [[Coimbra]] || 40 N || 8 W || 9.9 || 21.9 || 16.0
|-
| [[Valencia]] || 39.5 N || 0 || 11.9 || 26.1 || 18.3
|-
| [[Naples]] || 40.5 N || 14 E || 8.7 || 24.9 || 15.9
|-
| [[Istanbul]] || 41 N || 29 E || 5.5 || 23.4 || 13.9
|-
|}
<ref>Climate tables of the articles, where the precise sources can be found</ref>
The average temperatures for the coldest month, as well as the annual average temperatures, drop from the west to the east. For instance, Edinburgh is warmer than Belgrade during the coldest month of the year, although Belgrade is around 10° of latitude farther south.

===Climate change===
{{excerpt|Climate change in Europe|paragraphs=1-2}}

===Geology===
{{Main|Geology of Europe}}
{{See also|Geological history of Europe}}
[[File:Europe geological map-en.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|right|Surficial geology of Europe]]
The geological history of Europe traces back to the formation of the [[Baltic Shield]] (Fennoscandia) and the [[Sarmatian craton]], both around 2.25&nbsp;billion years ago, followed by the [[Volgo–Uralia]] shield, the three together leading to the [[East European craton]] (≈ [[Baltica]]) which became a part of the [[supercontinent]] [[Columbia (supercontinent)|Columbia]]. Around 1.1&nbsp;billion years ago, Baltica and Arctica (as part of the [[Laurentia]] block) became joined to [[Rodinia]], later resplitting around 550&nbsp;million years ago to reform as Baltica. Around 440&nbsp;million years ago [[Euramerica]] was formed from Baltica and Laurentia; a further joining with [[Gondwana]] then leading to the formation of [[Pangea]]. Around 190&nbsp;million years ago, Gondwana and [[Laurasia]] split apart due to the widening of the Atlantic Ocean. Finally and very soon afterwards, Laurasia itself split up again, into Laurentia (North America) and the Eurasian continent. The land connection between the two persisted for a considerable time, via [[Greenland]], leading to interchange of animal species. From around 50&nbsp;million years ago, rising and falling sea levels have determined the actual shape of Europe and its connections with continents such as Asia. Europe's present shape dates to the [[late Tertiary]] period about five million years ago.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106055 |title=Europe |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |year=2007 |access-date=10 June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071204015044/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106055 |archive-date=4 December 2007 }}</ref>

The geology of Europe is hugely varied and complex and gives rise to the wide variety of landscapes found across the continent, from the [[Scottish Highlands]] to the rolling [[plain]]s of Hungary.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soton.ac.uk/~imw/jpg/eurogy.jpg|title=Geology map of Europe|year=1967|publisher=University of Southampton|access-date=9 June 2008|archive-date=11 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190811131707/http://www.soton.ac.uk/~imw/jpg/eurogy.jpg|url-status=live}}</ref> Europe's most significant feature is the dichotomy between highland and mountainous [[Southern Europe]] and a vast, partially underwater, northern plain ranging from Ireland in the west to the [[Ural Mountains]] in the east. These two halves are separated by the mountain chains of the [[Pyrenees]] and [[Alps]]/[[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]]. The northern plains are delimited in the west by the [[Scandinavian Mountains]] and the mountainous parts of the British Isles. Major shallow water bodies submerging parts of the northern plains are the [[Celtic Sea]], the [[North Sea]], the [[Baltic Sea]] complex and [[Barents Sea]].

The northern plain contains the old geological continent of [[Baltica]] and so may be regarded geologically as the "main continent", while peripheral highlands and mountainous regions in the south and west constitute fragments from various other geological continents. Most of the older geology of western Europe existed as part of the ancient [[microcontinent]] [[Avalonia]].

===Flora===

[[File:Europe land use map.png|thumb|upright=1.2|left|Land use map of Europe with arable farmland (yellow), forest (dark green), pasture (light green) and tundra, or bogs, in the north (dark yellow)]]

Having lived side by side with agricultural peoples for millennia, Europe's animals and plants have been profoundly affected by the presence and activities of humans. With the exception of [[Fennoscandia]] and northern Russia, few areas of untouched wilderness are currently found in Europe, except for various [[national park]]s.

The main natural vegetation cover in Europe is mixed [[forest]]. The conditions for growth are very favourable. In the north, the [[Gulf Stream]] and [[North Atlantic Current|North Atlantic Drift]] warm the continent. Southern Europe has a warm but mild climate. There are frequent summer droughts in this region. Mountain ridges also affect the conditions. Some of these, such as the [[Alps]] and the [[Pyrenees]], are oriented east–west and allow the wind to carry large masses of water from the ocean in the interior. Others are oriented south–north ([[Scandinavian Mountains]], [[Dinaric Alps|Dinarides]], [[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]], [[Apennine Mountains|Apennines]]) and because the rain falls primarily on the side of mountains that is oriented towards the sea, forests grow well on this side, while on the other side, the conditions are much less favourable. Few corners of mainland Europe have not been grazed by [[livestock]] at some point in time, and the cutting down of the preagricultural forest habitat caused disruption to the original plant and animal ecosystems.
[[File:Floristic regions in Europe (english).png|upright=1.2|thumb|Floristic regions of Europe and neighbouring areas, according to Wolfgang Frey and Rainer Lösch]]
Possibly 80 to 90 percent of Europe was once covered by forest.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saveamericasforests.org/europages/history&geography.htm|title=History and geography|publisher=Save America's Forest Funds|access-date=9 June 2008|archive-date=6 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081006131242/http://www.saveamericasforests.org/europages/history%26geography.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> It stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to the Arctic Ocean. Although over half of Europe's original forests disappeared through the centuries of [[deforestation]], Europe still has over one quarter of its land area as forest, such as the [[Temperate broadleaf and mixed forest|broadleaf and mixed]] forests, [[taiga]] of Scandinavia and Russia, mixed [[rainforest]]s of the Caucasus and the [[Cork oak]] forests in the western Mediterranean. During recent times, deforestation has been slowed and many trees have been planted. However, in many cases monoculture [[plantation]]s of [[Pinophyta|conifers]] have replaced the original mixed natural forest, because these grow quicker. The plantations now cover vast areas of land, but offer poorer habitats for many European forest dwelling species which require a mixture of tree species and diverse forest structure. The amount of natural forest in Western Europe is just 2–3% or less, while in its Western Russia its 5–10%. The European country with the [[List of countries by forest area|smallest percentage of forested area]] is [[Iceland]] (1%), while the most forested country is Finland (77%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mcpfe.net/system/files/u1/publications/pdf/state_of_europes_forests_2007.pdf |title=State of Europe's Forests 2007: The MCPFE report on sustainable forest management in Europe |publisher=EFI Euroforest Portal |page=182 |access-date=9 June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080624190612/http://www.mcpfe.net/system/files/u1/publications/pdf/state_of_europes_forests_2007.pdf |archive-date=24 June 2008 }}</ref>

In temperate Europe, mixed forest with both [[flowering plant|broadleaf]] and coniferous trees dominate. The most important species in central and western Europe are [[beech]] and [[oak]]. In the north, the taiga is a mixed [[spruce]]–[[pine]]–[[birch]] forest; further north within Russia and extreme northern Scandinavia, the taiga gives way to [[tundra]] as the Arctic is approached. In the Mediterranean, many [[olive]] trees have been planted, which are very well adapted to its arid climate; [[Cupressus sempervirens|Mediterranean Cypress]] is also widely planted in southern Europe. The semi-arid Mediterranean region hosts much scrub forest. A narrow east–west tongue of Eurasian [[grassland]] (the [[steppe]]) extends westwards from [[Ukraine]] and southern Russia and ends in Hungary and traverses into taiga to the north.

===Fauna===
{{main|Fauna of Europe}}
[[File:Europe biogeography countries.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|[[Biogeography|Biogeographic regions]] of Europe and bordering regions]]

Glaciation during the [[Quaternary glaciation|most recent ice age]] and the presence of humans affected the distribution of [[Fauna of Europe|European fauna]]. As for the animals, in many parts of Europe most large animals and top [[predator]] species have been hunted to extinction. The [[woolly mammoth]] was extinct before the end of the [[Neolithic]] period. Today [[wolf|wolves]] ([[carnivore]]s) and [[bear]]s ([[omnivore]]s) are endangered. Once they were found in most parts of Europe. However, deforestation and hunting caused these animals to withdraw further and further. By the Middle Ages the bears' habitats were limited to more or less inaccessible mountains with sufficient forest cover. Today, the [[European brown bear|brown bear]] lives primarily in the [[Balkan|Balkan peninsula]], Scandinavia and Russia; a small number also persist in other countries across Europe (Austria, Pyrenees etc.), but in these areas brown bear populations are fragmented and marginalised because of the destruction of their habitat. In addition, [[polar bear]]s may be found on [[Svalbard]], a Norwegian archipelago far north of Scandinavia. The [[Eurasian wolf|wolf]], the second-largest predator in Europe after the brown bear, can be found primarily in [[Central and Eastern Europe]] and in the Balkans, with a handful of packs in pockets of [[Western Europe]] (Scandinavia, Spain, etc.).

[[File:Neandertal - Wisent.jpg|thumb|right|Once roaming the great temperate forests of Eurasia, [[European bison]] now live in nature preserves in [[Białowieża Forest]], on the border between [[Poland]] and [[Belarus]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ultimateungulate.com/artiodactyla/bison_bonasus.html|title=European bison, Wisent|access-date=19 January 2017|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226095419/http://www.ultimateungulate.com/artiodactyla/bison_bonasus.html|archive-date=26 December 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8182000/8182104.stm | publisher=BBC News | first=Matt | last=Walker | title=European bison on 'genetic brink' | date=4 August 2009 | access-date=30 July 2022 | archive-date=6 July 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706045354/http://news.bbc.co.uk/earth/hi/earth_news/newsid_8182000/8182104.stm | url-status=live }}</ref>]]

Other carnivores include the [[European wildcat]], [[red fox]] and [[arctic fox]], the [[golden jackal]], different species of [[marten]]s, the [[European hedgehog]], different species of reptiles (like snakes such as vipers and grass snakes) and amphibians, as well as different birds ([[owl]]s, [[hawk]]s and other birds of prey).

Important European herbivores are snails, larvae, fish, different birds and mammals, like rodents, deer and roe deer, boars and living in the mountains, marmots, steinbocks, chamois among others. A number of insects, such as the [[small tortoiseshell]] butterfly, add to the biodiversity.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Bryant | first1 = S. | last2 = Thomas | first2 = C. | last3 = Bale | first3 = J. | year = 1997 | title = Nettle-feeding nymphalid butterflies: temperature, development and distribution | journal = Ecological Entomology | volume = 22 | issue = 4| pages = 390–398 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2311.1997.00082.x | bibcode = 1997EcoEn..22..390B | s2cid = 84143178 }}</ref>

Sea creatures are also an important part of European flora and fauna. The sea flora is mainly [[phytoplankton]]. Important animals that live in European seas are [[zooplankton]], [[mollusc]]s, [[echinoderm]]s, different [[crustacean]]s, [[squid]]s and [[octopuses]], fish, [[dolphin]]s and [[whales]].

Biodiversity is protected in Europe through the Council of Europe's [[Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats|Bern Convention]], which has also been signed by the [[European Community]] as well as non-European states.

{{anchor|Political geography}}

==Politics==
{{Main|Politics of Europe}}
{{See also|List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe|International organisations in Europe|Regions of Europe|European integration}}
{{Supranational European Bodies|size=300px|align=right}}

The political map of Europe is substantially derived from the re-organisation of Europe following the [[Napoleonic Wars]] in 1815. The prevalent form of government in Europe is [[parliamentary democracy]], in most cases in the form of [[republic]]; in 1815, the prevalent form of government was still the [[Monarchies in Europe|monarchy]]. Europe's remaining eleven monarchies<ref>not counting the microstate of [[Vatican City]]</ref> are [[constitutional monarchy|constitutional]].

[[European integration]] is the process of political, legal, economic (and in some cases social and cultural) integration of European states as it has been pursued by the powers sponsoring the [[Council of Europe]] since the end of the [[Second World War]]. The [[European Union]] has been the focus of economic integration on the continent since its foundation in 1993. More recently, the [[Eurasian Economic Union]] has been established as a counterpart comprising former Soviet states.

27 European states are members of the politico-economic European Union, 26 of the border-free [[Schengen Area]] and 20 of the monetary union [[Eurozone]]. Among the smaller European organisations are the [[Nordic Council]], the [[Benelux]], the [[Baltic Assembly]], and the [[Visegrád Group]].

The least [[Democracy in Europe|democratic countries in Europe]] are [[Belarus]], Russia, and [[Turkey]] in 2024 according to the [[V-Dem Democracy indices]].<ref name="report">[https://v-dem.net/documents/43/v-dem_dr2024_lowres.pdf Democracy Report 2024, Varieties of Democracy]</ref>

==List of states and territories==
{{Main|List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Europe}}
{{See also|Area and population of European countries}}

This list includes all internationally recognised sovereign countries falling even partially under any [[regions of Europe|common geographical or political definitions of Europe]].

{|class="sortable wikitable"
|-
| style="background:lightcyan; border:1px solid #aaa; width:2em;" | *
| = Member state of the EU<ref>{{cite web|url=http://european-union.europa.eu/principles-countries-history/eu-countries_en |title=Member States of the European Union |publisher=Europa |access-date=29 June 2024}}</ref>
|}

{| class="sortable wikitable"
! style="line-height:95%; width:2em" class="unsortable" | [[Armorial of Europe|Arms]]
! style="line-height:95%; width:2em" class="unsortable" | [[Flag]]
! Name
! [[List of countries by area|Area]]<br />(km<sup>2</sup>)
! [[List of countries by population|Population]]<br />
! [[List of countries by population density|Population<br>density]]<br />(per km<sup>2</sup>)
! [[Capital city|Capital]]
! [[Language|Name(s) in official language(s)]]
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Albania|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|ALB}}
| [[Albania]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 28,748
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,876,591
| style="text-align:right;"| 98.5
| [[Tirana]]
| {{lang|sq|Shqipëria|italic=no}}
|-|
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Andorra|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|AND}}
| [[Andorra]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 468
| style="text-align:right;"| 77,281
| style="text-align:right;"| 179.8
| [[Andorra la Vella]]
| {{lang|ca|Andorra|italic=no}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Armenia|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|ARM}}
| [[Armenia]]{{cref2|j}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 29,743
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,924,816
| style="text-align:right;"| 101.5
| [[Yerevan]]
| {{lang|hy|Հայաստան}} ({{transliteration|hy|Hayastan}})
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Austria|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|AUT}}
| [[Austria]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 83,858
| style="text-align:right;"| 8,823,054
| style="text-align:right;"| 104
| [[Vienna]]
| {{lang|de|Österreich|italic=no}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Azerbaijan|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|AZE}}
| [[Azerbaijan]]{{cref2|k}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 86,600
| style="text-align:right;"| 9,911,646
| style="text-align:right;"| 113
| [[Baku]]
| {{lang|az-Latn|Azərbaycan|italic=no}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Belarus|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|BLR}}
| [[Belarus]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 207,560
| style="text-align:right;"| 9,504,700
| style="text-align:right;"| 45.8
| [[Minsk]]
| {{lang|be|Беларусь}} ({{transliteration|be|Belaruś}})
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Belgium|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|BEL}}
| [[Belgium]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 30,528
| style="text-align:right;"| 11,358,357
| style="text-align:right;"| 372.06
| [[Brussels]]
| {{lang|nl|België|italic=no}}/{{lang|fr|Belgique|italic=no}}/{{lang|de|Belgien|italic=no}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Bosnia and Herzegovina|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|BIH}}
| [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 51,129
| style="text-align:right;"| 3,531,159
| style="text-align:right;"| 68.97
| [[Sarajevo]]
| {{lang|bs|Bosna i Hercegovina|italic=no}}/{{lang|bs-Cyrl|Боснa и Херцеговина}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Bulgaria|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|BUL}}
| [[Bulgaria]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 110,910
| style="text-align:right;"| 7,101,859
| style="text-align:right;"| 64.9
| [[Sofia]]
| {{lang|bg|България}} ({{transliteration|bg|Bǎlgariya}})
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Croatia|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|CRO}}
| [[Croatia]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 56,594
| style="text-align:right;"| 3,871,833
| style="text-align:right;"| 68.4
| [[Zagreb]]
| {{lang|hr|Hrvatska|italic=no}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Cyprus|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|CYP}}
| [[Cyprus]]*{{cref2|d|1}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 9,251
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,170,125
| style="text-align:right;"| 123.4
| [[Nicosia]]
| {{lang|el|Κύπρος}} ({{transliteration|el|Kýpros}})/{{lang|tr|Kıbrıs|italic=no}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Czech Republic|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|CZE}}
| [[Czech Republic]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 78,866
| style="text-align:right;"| 10,610,947
| style="text-align:right;"| 134
| [[Prague]]
| {{lang|cs|Česko|italic=no}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Denmark|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|DEN}}
| [[Denmark]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 43,094
| style="text-align:right;"| 6,001,008
| style="text-align:right;"| 139.25
| [[Copenhagen]]
| {{lang|da|Danmark|italic=no}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Estonia|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|EST}}
| [[Estonia]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 45,226
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,328,439
| style="text-align:right;"| 30.5
| [[Tallinn]]
| {{lang|et|Eesti|italic=no}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Finland|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|FIN}}
| [[Finland]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 338,455
| style="text-align:right;"| 5,509,717
| style="text-align:right;"| 16
| [[Helsinki]]
| {{lang|fi|Suomi|italic=no}}/{{lang|sv|Finland|italic=no}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|France|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|FRA}}
| [[France]]*{{cref2|g}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 547,030
| style="text-align:right;"| 67,348,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 116
| [[Paris]]
| {{lang|fr|France|italic=no}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Georgia|text=none|link=Georgia (country)}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|GEO (country)}}
| [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]{{cref2|l}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 69,700
| style="text-align:right;"| 3,718,200
| style="text-align:right;"| 53.5
| [[Tbilisi]]
| {{lang|ka|საქართველო}} ({{transliteration|ka|Sakartvelo}})
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Germany|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|GER}}
| [[Germany]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 357,168
| style="text-align:right;"| 82,800,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 232
| [[Berlin]]
| {{lang|de|Deutschland|italic=no}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Greece|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|GRE}}
| [[Greece]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 131,957
| style="text-align:right;"| 10,297,760
| style="text-align:right;"| 82
| [[Athens]]
| {{lang|el|Ελλάδα}} ({{transliteration|el|Elláda}})
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Hungary|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|HUN}}
| [[Hungary]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 93,030
| style="text-align:right;"| 9,797,561
| style="text-align:right;"| 105.3
| [[Budapest]]
| {{lang|hu|Magyarország|italic=no}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Iceland|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|ISL}}
| [[Iceland]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 103,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 350,710
| style="text-align:right;"| 3.2
| [[Reykjavík]]
| {{lang|is|Ísland|italic=no}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Ireland|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|IRL}}
| [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 70,280
| style="text-align:right;"| 4,761,865
| style="text-align:right;"| 67.7
| [[Dublin]]
| {{lang|ga|Éire|italic=no}}/{{lang|en|Ireland}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Italy|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|ITA}}
| [[Italy]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 301,338
| style="text-align:right;"| 58,968,501
| style="text-align:right;"| 195.7
| [[Rome]]
| {{lang|it|Italia|italic=no}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Kazakhstan|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|KAZ}}
| [[Kazakhstan]]{{cref2|i}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 148,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 20,075,271
| style="text-align:right;"| 7
| [[Astana]]
| {{lang|kk|Қазақстан}} ({{transliteration|kk|Qazaqstan}})
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Latvia|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|LVA}}
| [[Latvia]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 64,589
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,862,700
| style="text-align:right;"| 29
| [[Riga]]
| {{lang|lv|Latvija|italic=no}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Liechtenstein|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|LIE}}
| [[Liechtenstein]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 160
| style="text-align:right;"| 38,111
| style="text-align:right;"| 227
| [[Vaduz]]
| {{lang|de|Liechtenstein|italic=no}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Lithuania|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|LTU}}
| [[Lithuania]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 65,300
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,800,667
| style="text-align:right;"| 45.8
| [[Vilnius]]
| {{lang|lt|Lietuva|italic=no}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Luxembourg|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|LUX}}
| [[Luxembourg]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,586
| style="text-align:right;"| 602,005
| style="text-align:right;"| 233.7
| [[Luxembourg City]]
| {{lang|lb|Lëtzebuerg|italic=no}}/{{lang|de|Luxemburg|italic=no}}/{{lang|fr|Luxembourg|italic=no}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Malta|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|MLT}}
| [[Malta]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 316
| style="text-align:right;"| 445,426
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,410
| [[Valletta]]
| {{lang|mt|Malta|italic=no}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Moldova|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|MDA}}
| [[Moldova]]{{cref2|a}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 33,846
| style="text-align:right;"| 3,434,547
| style="text-align:right;"| 101.5
| [[Chișinău]]
| {{lang|ro|Moldova|italic=no}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Monaco|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|MON}}
| [[Monaco]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 2.020
| style="text-align:right;"| 38,400
| style="text-align:right;"| 18,713
| [[Monaco]]
| {{lang|fr|Monaco|italic=no}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Montenegro|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|MNE}}
| [[Montenegro]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 13,812
| style="text-align:right;"| 642,550
| style="text-align:right;"| 45.0
| [[Podgorica]]
| {{lang|cnr-Latn|Crna Gora|italic=no}}/{{lang|cnr-Cyrl|Црна Гора}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Netherlands|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|NED}}
| [[Netherlands]]*{{cref2|h}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 41,543
| style="text-align:right;"| 17,271,990
| style="text-align:right;"| 414.9
| [[Amsterdam]]
| {{lang|nl|Nederland|italic=no}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|North Macedonia|link=North Macedonia|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|NMK}}
| [[North Macedonia]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 25,713
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,103,721
| style="text-align:right;"| 80.1
| [[Skopje]]
| {{lang|mk|Северна Македонија}} ({{transliteration|mk|Severna Makedonija}})
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Norway|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|NOR}}
| [[Norway]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 385,203
| style="text-align:right;"| 5,295,619
| style="text-align:right;"| 15.8
| [[Oslo]]
| {{lang|nb|Norge|italic=no}}/{{lang|nn|Noreg|italic=no}}/{{lang|se|Norga|italic=no}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Poland|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|POL}}
| [[Poland]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 312,685
| style="text-align:right;"| 38,422,346
| style="text-align:right;"| 123.5
| [[Warsaw]]
| {{lang|pl|Polska|italic=no}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Portugal|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|POR}}
| [[Portugal]]*{{cref2|e}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 92,212
| style="text-align:right;"| 10,379,537
| style="text-align:right;"| 115
| [[Lisbon]]
| {{lang|pt|Portugal|italic=no}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Romania|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|ROU}}
| [[Romania]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 238,397
| style="text-align:right;"| 18,999,642
| style="text-align:right;"| 84.4
| [[Bucharest]]
| {{lang|ro|România|italic=no}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Russia|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|RUS}}
| [[Russia]]{{cref2|b}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 3,969,100
| style="text-align:right;"| 144,526,636
| style="text-align:right;"| 8.4
| [[Moscow]]
| {{lang|ru|Россия}} ({{transliteration|ru|Rossiya}})
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|San Marino|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|SMR}}
| [[San Marino]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 61.2
| style="text-align:right;"| 33,285
| style="text-align:right;"| 520
| [[City of San Marino|San Marino]]
| {{lang|it|San Marino|italic=no}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Serbia|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|SRB}}
| [[Serbia]]{{cref2|f}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 88,361
| style="text-align:right;"| 7,040,272
| style="text-align:right;"| 91.1
| [[Belgrade]]
| {{lang|sr-Latn|Srbija|italic=no}}/{{lang|sr-Cyrl|Србија}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Slovakia|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|SVK}}
| [[Slovakia]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 49,035
| style="text-align:right;"| 5,435,343
| style="text-align:right;"| 111.0
| [[Bratislava]]
| {{lang|sk|Slovensko|italic=no}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Slovenia|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|SVN}}
| [[Slovenia]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 20,273
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,066,880
| style="text-align:right;"| 101.8
| [[Ljubljana]]
| {{lang|sl|Slovenija|italic=no}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Spain|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|ESP}}
| [[Spain]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 505,990
| style="text-align:right;"| 49,153,849
| style="text-align:right;"| 97
| [[Madrid]]
| {{lang|es|España|italic=no}}
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Sweden|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{flagicon|SWE}}
| [[Sweden]]*
| style="text-align:right;"| 450,295
| style="text-align:right;"| 10,151,588
| style="text-align:right;"| 22.5
| [[Stockholm]]
| {{lang|sv|Sverige|italic=no}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Switzerland|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|SUI}}
| [[Switzerland]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 41,285
| style="text-align:right;"| 8,401,120
| style="text-align:right;"| 202
| [[Bern]]
| {{lang|de|Schweiz|italic=no}}/{{lang|fr|Suisse|italic=no}}/{{lang|it|Svizzera|italic=no}}/{{lang|rm|Svizra|italic=no}}
|-
| style="background-color:#c8ccd1; text-align:center;"| <!-- The Turkish Constitution doesn't specify an official coat of arms -->
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|TUR}}
| [[Turkey]]{{cref2|m}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 23,764
| style="text-align:right;"| 84,680,273
| style="text-align:right;"| 106.7
| [[Ankara]]
| {{lang|tr|Türkiye|italic=no}}
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Ukraine|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|UKR}}
| [[Ukraine]]{{cref2|s}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 603,628
| style="text-align:right;"| 42,418,235
| style="text-align:right;"| 73.8
| [[Kyiv]]
| {{lang|uk|Україна}} ({{transliteration|uk|Ukraina}})
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|United Kingdom|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|UK}}
| [[United Kingdom]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/annualmidyearpopulationestimates/latest|title=ONS Population Estimates|access-date=2 May 2025}}</ref>
| style="text-align:right;"| 244,376
| style="text-align:right;"| 68,265,209
| style="text-align:right;"| 281
| [[London]]
| United Kingdom
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| {{Coat of arms|Vatican City|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center;"| {{flagicon|Vatican City}}
| [[Vatican City]]
| style="text-align:right;"| 0.44
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,000
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,272
| [[Vatican City]]
| {{lang|it|Città del Vaticano|italic=no}}/{{lang|la|Civitas Vaticana|italic=no}}
|- class="sortbottom" style="font-weight:bold;"
| colspan="2" | Total
| style="text-align:right;"| 50
| style="text-align:right;"| 10,180,000{{cref2|n|3}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 743,000,000{{cref2|n|4}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 73
|
|
|}

Within the above-mentioned states are several [[de facto]] independent countries with [[list of states with limited recognition|limited to no international recognition]]. None of them are members of the UN:

{| class="sortable wikitable"

! style="line-height:95%; width:2em" class="unsortable" | [[National symbol|Symbol]]
! style="line-height:95%; width:2em" class="unsortable" | [[Flag]]
! Name
! [[List of countries by area|Area]]<br />(km<sup>2</sup>)
! [[List of countries by population|Population]]<br />
! [[List of countries by population density|Population density]]<br />(per km<sup>2</sup>)
! [[Capital (political)|Capital]]

|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{Coat of arms|Abkhazia|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Abkhazia}}
| [[Abkhazia]]{{cref2|p|1}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 8,660
| style="text-align:right;"| 243,206
| style="text-align:right;"| 28
| [[Sokhumi]]
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{Coat of arms|Kosovo|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Kosovo}}
| [[Kosovo]]{{cref2|o}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 10,908
| style="text-align:right;" |1,920,079
| style="text-align:right;"| 159
| [[Pristina]]
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{Coat of arms|Northern Cyprus|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Northern Cyprus}}
| [[Northern Cyprus]]{{cref2|d|2}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 3,355
| style="text-align:right;"| 313,626
| style="text-align:right;"| 93
| [[Nicosia]] ([[North Nicosia|northern part]])
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{Coat of arms|South Ossetia|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|South Ossetia}}
| [[South Ossetia]]{{cref2|p|2}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 3,900
| style="text-align:right;"| 53,532
| style="text-align:right;"| 13.7
| [[Tskhinvali]]
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{Coat of arms|Transnistria|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Transnistria}}
| [[Transnistria]]{{cref2|a|2}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 4,163
| style="text-align:right;"| 475,665
| style="text-align:right;"| 114
| [[Tiraspol]]
|}

Several dependencies and similar territories with broad autonomy are also found within or close to Europe. This includes [[Åland]] (an [[counties of Finland|autonomous county]] of Finland), two [[Danish Realm|autonomous territories of the Kingdom of Denmark]] (other than Denmark proper), three [[Crown Dependencies]] and two [[British Overseas Territories]]. [[Svalbard]] is also included due to its unique status within Norway, although it is not autonomous. Not included are the three [[countries of the United Kingdom]] with devolved powers and the two [[Autonomous Regions of Portugal]], which despite having a unique degree of autonomy, are not largely self-governing in matters other than international affairs. Areas with little more than a unique tax status, such as the [[Canary Islands]] and [[Heligoland]], are also not included for this reason.

{|class="sortable wikitable"
|-
| style="background:lightcyan; border:1px solid #aaa; width:2em;" | *
| = Part of the EU
|}

{| class="sortable wikitable"
|-
! style="line-height:95%; width:2em" class="unsortable" | [[National symbol|Symbol]]
! style="line-height:95%; width:2em" class="unsortable" | [[Flag]]
! Name
!Sovereign<br>state
! [[List of countries by area|Area]]<br />(km<sup>2</sup>)
! [[List of countries by population|Population]]
! [[List of countries by population density|Population<br>density]]<br />(per km<sup>2</sup>)
! [[Capital (political)|Capital]]
|-
| style="background-color:#c8ccd1; text-align:center"| <!-- None widely used-->
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Akrotiri and Dhekelia}}
|[[Akrotiri and Dhekelia]]
|UK
| style="text-align:right;"| 255
| style="text-align:right;"| 7,700
| style="text-align:right;"| 30.2
|[[Episkopi Cantonment]]
|- style="background:lightcyan;"
| style="text-align:center"| {{Coat of arms|Åland|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Åland}}
| [[Åland]]*||Finland
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,580
| style="text-align:right;"| 29,489
| style="text-align:right;"| 18.36
| [[Mariehamn]]
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{Coat of arms|Guernsey|link=Bailiwick of Guernsey|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagg|cxx|Guernsey|clink=Bailiwick of Guernsey}}
| [[Bailiwick of Guernsey]]{{cref2|c|1}}||UK
| style="text-align:right;"| 78
| style="text-align:right;"| 65,849
| style="text-align:right;"| 844.0
| [[St. Peter Port]]
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{Coat of arms|Jersey|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Jersey}}
| [[Jersey|Bailiwick of Jersey]]{{cref2|c|3}}||UK
| style="text-align:right;"| 118.2
| style="text-align:right;"| 100,080
| style="text-align:right;"| 819
| [[Saint Helier]]
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{Coat of arms|Faroe Islands|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Faroe Islands}}
| [[Faroe Islands]]||Denmark
| style="text-align:right;"| 1,399
| style="text-align:right;"| 50,778
| style="text-align:right;"| 35.2
| [[Tórshavn]]
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{Coat of arms|Gibraltar|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Gibraltar}}
| [[Gibraltar]]||UK
| style="text-align:right;"| 6.7
| style="text-align:right;"| 32,194
| style="text-align:right;"| 4,328
| [[Gibraltar]]
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{Coat of arms|Greenland|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Greenland}}
| [[Greenland]] ||Denmark{{cref2|r|2}}
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,166,086
| style="text-align:right;"| 55,877
| style="text-align:right;"| 0.028
| [[Nuuk]]
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{Coat of arms|Isle of Man|text=none}}
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Isle of Man}}
| [[Isle of Man]]{{cref2|c|2}}||UK
| style="text-align:right;"| 572
| style="text-align:right;"| 83,314
| style="text-align:right;"| 148
| [[Douglas, Isle of Man|Douglas]]
|-
| style="background-color:#c8ccd1; text-align:center"| <!-- None widely used-->
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Svalbard}}
| [[Svalbard]] ||Norway
| style="text-align:right;"| 61,022
| style="text-align:right;"| 2,667
| style="text-align:right;"| 0.044
|[[Longyearbyen]]
|}

==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Europe}}
{{See also|List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (nominal)|List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (PPP)}}
[[File:Map of European countries by GDP (PPP) per capita.svg|thumb|300x300px|{{legend-table2|title=GDP (PPP) per capita of European countries|#00008a|>$60,000 |#003c00|$50,000 – $60,000 |#008f00|$40,000 – $50,000 |#00f900|$30,000 – $40,000 |#b3ff00|$20,000 – $30,000 |#ffff00|$10,000 – $20,000}}]]
As a continent, the economy of Europe is currently the largest on Earth and it is the richest region as measured by assets under management with over $32.7&nbsp;trillion compared to North America's $27.1&nbsp;trillion in 2008.<ref>{{cite news|last=Fineman |first=Josh |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/world |title=Bloomberg.com |publisher=Bloomberg News |date=15 September 2009 |access-date=23 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128110049/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/world |archive-date=28 January 2015 }}</ref>{{Update inline|date=March 2025|reason=Europe is not the continent with the largest economy anymore; see [[List of continents by GDP]].}} In 2009 Europe remained the wealthiest region.{{Update inline|date=March 2025|reason=Europe is not the wealthiest continent anymore; see [[List of countries by total wealth]].}} Its $37.1 trillion in assets under management represented one-third of the world's wealth. It was one of several regions where wealth surpassed its precrisis year-end peak.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pr-inside.com/global-wealth-stages-a-strong-comeback-r1942019.htm |title=Global Wealth Stages a Strong Comeback |publisher=Pr-inside.com |date=10 June 2010 |access-date=23 August 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520174617/http://www.pr-inside.com/global-wealth-stages-a-strong-comeback-r1942019.htm |archive-date=20 May 2011 }}</ref> As with other continents, Europe has a large [[wealth gap]] among its countries. The richer states tend to be in the [[Northwestern Europe|Northwest]] and [[Western Europe|West]] in general, followed by [[Central Europe]], while most economies of [[Eastern Europe|Eastern]] and [[Southeastern Europe]] are still reemerging from the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]] and the [[breakup of Yugoslavia]].

The model of the [[Blue Banana]] was designed as an economic geographic representation of the respective economic power of the regions, which was further developed into the [[Golden Banana]] or Blue Star. The trade between East and West, as well as towards Asia, which had been disrupted for a long time by the two world wars, new borders and the Cold War, increased sharply after 1989. In addition, there is new impetus from the Chinese [[Belt and Road Initiative]] across the [[Suez Canal]] towards Africa and Asia.<ref>Global shipping and logistic chain reshaped as China's Belt and Road dreams take off in Hellenic Shipping News, 4. December 2018; Wolf D. Hartmann, Wolfgang Maennig, Run Wang: Chinas neue Seidenstraße. (2017), p 59; Jacob Franks "The Blu Banana – the True Heart of Europe" In: Big Think Edge, 31 December 2014; Zacharias Zacharakis: Chinas Anker in Europa in: Die Zeit 8. May 2018; Harry de Wilt: Is One Belt, One Road a China crisis for North Sea main ports? in World Cargo News, 17 December 2019; Hospers, Gert-Jan "Beyond the blue banana? Structural change in Europe's geo-economy." 2002</ref>

The European Union, a political entity composed of 27 European states, comprises the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|largest single economic area]] in the world. Nineteen EU [[Eurozone|countries]] share the [[euro]] as a common currency.
Four European countries rank in the top ten of the world's largest [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|national economies in GDP (PPP)]]. This includes (ranks according to the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]]): Russia (4), Germany (6), France (9) and the United Kingdom (10).

Some European countries are much richer than others. The richest in terms of nominal GDP is [[Monaco]] with its US$185,829 per capita (2018) and the poorest is [[Ukraine]] with its US$3,659 per capita (2019).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ny.gdp.pcap.cd?most_recent_value_desc=true|title=The World Bank DataBank|publisher=World Bank|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=2 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191002053624/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/ny.gdp.pcap.cd?most_recent_value_desc=true|url-status=live}}</ref>

As a whole, Europe's GDP per capita is US$21,767 according to a 2016 International Monetary Fund assessment.<ref>Some data refers to IMF staff estimates but some are actual figures for the year 2017, made on 12 April 2017. [http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2016&ey=2016&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C672%2C914%2C946%2C612%2C137%2C614%2C546%2C311%2C962%2C213%2C674%2C911%2C676%2C193%2C548%2C122%2C556%2C912%2C678%2C313%2C181%2C419%2C867%2C513%2C682%2C316%2C684%2C913%2C273%2C124%2C868%2C339%2C921%2C638%2C948%2C514%2C943%2C218%2C686%2C963%2C688%2C616%2C518%2C223%2C728%2C516%2C836%2C918%2C558%2C748%2C138%2C618%2C196%2C624%2C278%2C522%2C692%2C622%2C694%2C156%2C142%2C626%2C449%2C628%2C564%2C228%2C565%2C924%2C283%2C233%2C853%2C632%2C288%2C636%2C293%2C634%2C566%2C238%2C964%2C662%2C182%2C960%2C359%2C423%2C453%2C935%2C968%2C128%2C922%2C611%2C714%2C321%2C862%2C243%2C135%2C248%2C716%2C469%2C456%2C253%2C722%2C642%2C942%2C643%2C718%2C939%2C724%2C644%2C576%2C819%2C936%2C172%2C961%2C132%2C813%2C646%2C199%2C648%2C733%2C915%2C184%2C134%2C524%2C652%2C361%2C174%2C362%2C328%2C364%2C258%2C732%2C656%2C366%2C654%2C734%2C336%2C144%2C263%2C146%2C268%2C463%2C532%2C528%2C944%2C923%2C176%2C738%2C534%2C578%2C536%2C537%2C429%2C742%2C433%2C866%2C178%2C369%2C436%2C744%2C136%2C186%2C343%2C925%2C158%2C869%2C439%2C746%2C916%2C926%2C664%2C466%2C826%2C112%2C542%2C111%2C967%2C298%2C443%2C927%2C917%2C846%2C544%2C299%2C941%2C582%2C446%2C474%2C666%2C754%2C668%2C698&s=NGDPDPC&grp=0&a=&pr.x=50&pr.y=13 World Economic Outlook Database–April 2017] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624143304/https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2017/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2016&ey=2016&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=512%2C672%2C914%2C946%2C612%2C137%2C614%2C546%2C311%2C962%2C213%2C674%2C911%2C676%2C193%2C548%2C122%2C556%2C912%2C678%2C313%2C181%2C419%2C867%2C513%2C682%2C316%2C684%2C913%2C273%2C124%2C868%2C339%2C921%2C638%2C948%2C514%2C943%2C218%2C686%2C963%2C688%2C616%2C518%2C223%2C728%2C516%2C836%2C918%2C558%2C748%2C138%2C618%2C196%2C624%2C278%2C522%2C692%2C622%2C694%2C156%2C142%2C626%2C449%2C628%2C564%2C228%2C565%2C924%2C283%2C233%2C853%2C632%2C288%2C636%2C293%2C634%2C566%2C238%2C964%2C662%2C182%2C960%2C359%2C423%2C453%2C935%2C968%2C128%2C922%2C611%2C714%2C321%2C862%2C243%2C135%2C248%2C716%2C469%2C456%2C253%2C722%2C642%2C942%2C643%2C718%2C939%2C724%2C644%2C576%2C819%2C936%2C172%2C961%2C132%2C813%2C646%2C199%2C648%2C733%2C915%2C184%2C134%2C524%2C652%2C361%2C174%2C362%2C328%2C364%2C258%2C732%2C656%2C366%2C654%2C734%2C336%2C144%2C263%2C146%2C268%2C463%2C532%2C528%2C944%2C923%2C176%2C738%2C534%2C578%2C536%2C537%2C429%2C742%2C433%2C866%2C178%2C369%2C436%2C744%2C136%2C186%2C343%2C925%2C158%2C869%2C439%2C746%2C916%2C926%2C664%2C466%2C826%2C112%2C542%2C111%2C967%2C298%2C443%2C927%2C917%2C846%2C544%2C299%2C941%2C582%2C446%2C474%2C666%2C754%2C668%2C698&s=NGDPDPC&grp=0&a=&pr.x=50&pr.y=13 |date=24 June 2021 }}, [[International Monetary Fund]]. Accessed on 18 April 2017.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right; float:left; border:1px solid #aaa; margin:10px"
|-
! Rank
! Country
! [[List of IMF ranked countries by past and projected GDP (nominal)|GDP]] <small>(nominal, Peak Year)</small><br /><small>millions of [[International dollar|USD]]</small>
! Peak Year
|-
| ||align="left" |''{{nowrap|{{flag|European Union}}}}''<ref name="IMF World & EU">[https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april/weo-report?a=1&c=001,110,163,119,123,998,510,200,505,903,205,400,603,&s=NGDPD,PPPGDP,&sy=1980&ey=2025&ssm=0&scsm=1&scc=0&ssd=1&ssc=0&sic=0&sort=country&ds=.&br=1 IMF GDP for the World and the European Union]</ref>||19,991,160||2025
|-
| 1 ||align=left|{{flag|Germany}}||4,744,804||2025
|-
| 2 ||align=left|{{nowrap|{{flag|United Kingdom}}}}||3,839,180||2025
|-
| 3 ||align=left|{{flag|France}}||3,211,292||2025
|-
| 4 ||align=left|{{flag|Italy}}||2,422,855||2025
|-
| 5 ||align=left|{{flag|Russia}}||2,295,527||2022
|-
| 6 ||align=left|{{flag|Spain}}||1,799,511||2025
|-
| 7 ||align=left|{{flag|Turkey}}||1,437,406||2025
|-
| 8 ||align=left|{{flag|Netherlands}}||1,272,011||2025
|-
| 9 ||align=left|{{flag|Poland}}||979,960||2025
|-
| 10 ||align=left|{{flag|Switzerland}}||947,125||2025
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: right; float:left; border:1px solid #aaa; margin:10px"
|-
! Rank
! Country
! [[List of countries by past and projected GDP (PPP)|GDP]] <small>(PPP, Peak Year)</small><br /><small>millions of [[International dollar|USD]]</small>
! Peak Year
|-
| ||align="left" |''{{nowrap|{{flag|European Union}}}}<ref name="IMF World & EU" />''||29,176,749||2025
|-
| 1 ||align=left|{{flag|Russia}}||7,191,718||2025
|-
| 2 ||align=left|{{flag|Germany}}||6,161,002||2025
|-
| 3 ||align=left|{{flag|France}}||4,503,783||2025
|-
| 4 ||align=left|{{nowrap|{{flag|United Kingdom}}}}||4,447,841||2025
|-
| 5 ||align=left|{{flag|Turkey}}<ref name="WBGDPPPP">{{Cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.CD|title=Peak GDP (PPP) by the World Bank for Turkey and Romania|access-date=2024-11-10}}</ref>||3,767,230||2023
|-
| 6 ||align=left|{{flag|Italy}}||3,719,110||2025
|-
| 7 ||align=left|{{flag|Spain}}||2,811,948||2025
|-
| 8 ||align=left|{{flag|Poland}}||2,017,513||2025
|-
| 9 ||align=left|{{flag|Netherlands}}||1,526,239||2025
|-
| 10 ||align=left|{{flag|Romania}}||926,759||2025
|}
{{clear}}

===Economic history===
;Industrial growth (1760–1945)
Capitalism has been dominant in the Western world since the end of feudalism.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com-archive-online.eu/EBchecked/topic/93927/capitalism Capitalism] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517172857/https://www.britannica.com-archive-online.eu/EBchecked/topic/93927/capitalism |date=17 May 2014 }}. ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.</ref> From Britain, it gradually spread throughout Europe.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Industrialism: A Dictionary of Sociology|author=Scott, John|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2005}}</ref> The [[Industrial Revolution]] started in Europe, specifically the United Kingdom in the late 18th century,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture17a.html|title=The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England|publisher=The History Guide|first=Steven|last=Kreis|date=11 October 2006|access-date=1 January 2007|archive-date=2 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151102090701/http://www.historyguide.org/intellect/lecture17a.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and the 19th century saw Western Europe industrialise. Economies were disrupted by the First World War, but by the beginning of the Second World War, they had recovered and were having to compete with the growing economic strength of the United States. The Second World War, again, damaged much of Europe's industries.

;Cold War (1945–1991)
[[File:Thefalloftheberlinwall1989.JPG|thumb|right|Fall of the [[Berlin Wall]] in 1989]]
[[File:Carte zone euro.svg|thumb| [[Eurozone]] (blue colour)]]
After the Second World War the economy of the UK was in a state of ruin,<ref>Dornbusch, Rudiger; Nölling, Wilhelm P.; Layard, Richard G. ''Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today'', p. 117</ref> and continued to suffer relative economic decline in the following decades.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Rethinking International Organisation: Deregulation and Global Governance|last=Emadi-Coffin|first=Barbara|year=2002|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-19540-9|page=64}}</ref> Italy was also in a poor economic condition but regained a high level of growth by the 1950s. West Germany [[Wirtschaftswunder|recovered quickly]] and had doubled production from pre-war levels by the 1950s.<ref>Dornbusch, Rudiger; Nölling, Wilhelm P.; Layard, Richard G. ''Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today'', p. 29</ref> France also staged a remarkable comeback enjoying rapid growth and modernisation; later on Spain, under the leadership of [[Francisco Franco|Franco]], also recovered and the nation recorded huge unprecedented economic growth beginning in the 1960s in what is called the [[Spanish miracle]].<ref>Harrop, Martin. ''Power and Policy in Liberal Democracies'', p. 23</ref> The majority of [[Central and Eastern Europe]]an states came under the control of the [[Soviet Union]] and thus were members of the [[Council for Mutual Economic Assistance]] (COMECON).<ref name="loc-cs">"Germany (East)", Library of Congress Country Study, [http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/germany_east/gx_appnb.html Appendix B: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090501075842/http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/germany_east/gx_appnb.html |date=1 May 2009 }}</ref>

The states which retained a [[free-market]] system were given a large amount of aid by the United States under the [[Marshall Plan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/marshall-plan|title=Marshall Plan|publisher=US Department of State Office of the historian|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=14 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150414153651/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/marshall-plan|url-status=live}}</ref> The western states moved to link their economies together, providing the basis for the EU and increasing cross border trade. This helped them to enjoy rapidly improving economies, while those states in COMECON were struggling in a large part due to the cost of the [[Cold War]]. Until 1990, the [[European Community]] was expanded from 6 founding members to 12. The emphasis placed on resurrecting the West German economy led to it overtaking the UK as Europe's largest economy.

;Reunification (1991–present)
[[File:Trepca Miners (24876825).jpeg|thumb|left|One of [[Kosovo]]'s main economical sources is [[mining]], because it has large reserves of lead, [[zinc]], silver, [[nickel]], [[cobalt]], copper, iron and [[bauxite]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Kosovo: Natural resources key to the future, say experts|url=http://www.adnkronos.com/AKI/English/Business/?id=1.0.1683003038|website=adnkronos.com|access-date=17 March 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110707084602/http://www.adnkronos.com/AKI/English/Business/?id=1.0.1683003038|archive-date=7 July 2011}}</ref> Miners at the [[Trepča Mines]] in [[Mitrovica, Kosovo|Mitrovica]], Kosovo in 2011.]]
With the fall of communism in Central and Eastern Europe in 1991, the post-socialist states underwent [[Shock therapy (economics)|shock therapy]] measures to liberalise their economies and implement free market reforms.

After [[East Germany|East]] and West Germany were reunited in 1990, the economy of West Germany struggled as it had to support and largely rebuild the infrastructure of East Germany, while the latter [[Economic history of the German reunification|experienced sudden mass unemployment and plummeting of industrial production]].

By the millennium change, the EU dominated the economy of Europe, comprising the five largest European economies of the time: Germany, the United Kingdom, France, Italy, and Spain. In 1999, 12 of the 15 members of the EU joined the [[Eurozone]], replacing their national currencies by the [[euro]].

Figures released by [[Eurostat]] in 2009 confirmed that the Eurozone had gone into [[Late 2000s recession in Europe|recession]] in 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1231409822.27/ |title=EU data confirms eurozone's first recession|publisher= EUbusiness.com|date= 8 January 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230075057/http://www.eubusiness.com/news-eu/1231409822.27/|archive-date=30 December 2010}}</ref> It affected much of the region.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/comment/ambroseevans_pritchard/4958395/Thanks-to-the-Bank-its-a-crisis-in-the-eurozone-its-a-total-catastrophe.html Thanks to the Bank it's a crisis; in the eurozone it's a total catastrophe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531022342/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/comment/ambroseevans_pritchard/4958395/Thanks-to-the-Bank-its-a-crisis-in-the-eurozone-its-a-total-catastrophe.html |date=31 May 2022 }}. Telegraph. 8 March 2009.</ref> In 2010, fears of a [[European sovereign-debt crisis|sovereign debt crisis]]<ref>{{cite news |title= Five Threats to the Common Currency |url= http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,677214,00.html |first= Stefan |last= Schultz |work= [[Spiegel Online]] |date= 11 February 2010 |access-date= 28 April 2010 |archive-date= 14 April 2010 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20100414110833/http://www.spiegel.de/international/europe/0,1518,677214,00.html |url-status= live }}</ref> developed concerning some countries in Europe, especially Greece, Ireland, Spain and Portugal.<ref>{{cite news |first1=Brian |last1=Blackstone |first2=Tom |last2=Lauricella |first3=Neil |last3=Shah |title=Global Markets Shudder: Doubts About U.S. Economy and a Debt Crunch in Europe Jolt Hopes for a Recovery |work=The Wall Street Journal |date=5 February 2010 |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704041504575045743430262982 |access-date=10 May 2010 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924135011/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704041504575045743430262982 |url-status=live }}</ref> As a result, measures were taken, especially for Greece, by the leading countries of the Eurozone.<ref>{{cite web |author=Lauren Frayer |url=http://www.aolnews.com/world/article/european-leaders-try-to-calm-fears-over-greek-debt-crisis-and-protect-euro/19469674 |title=European Leaders Try to Calm Fears Over Greek Debt Crisis and Protect Euro |publisher=AOL News |access-date=2 June 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100509111531/http://www.aolnews.com/world/article/european-leaders-try-to-calm-fears-over-greek-debt-crisis-and-protect-euro/19469674 |archive-date=9 May 2010 }}</ref> The [[European Union|EU-27]] unemployment rate was 10.3% in 2012. For those aged 15–24 it was 22.4%.<ref name="unemployment">[http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Unemployment_statistics Unemployment statistics] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120614152511/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_explained/index.php/Unemployment_statistics |date=14 June 2012 }}. [[Eurostat]]. April 2012.</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Europe}}
{{See also|List of European countries by population|List of European countries by life expectancy|Ageing of Europe}}
[[File:Demographics of Europe.svg|thumb|[[Population growth]] in and around Europe in 2021<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2002rank.html CIA.gov] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160527070418/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook//rankorder/2002rank.html |date=27 May 2016 }} CIA population growth rankings, CIA World Factbook</ref>]]

The population of Europe was about 742 million in 2023 according to UN estimates.{{UN_Population|ref}} This is slightly more than one ninth of the world's population.{{cref2|v}} The [[population density]] of Europe (the number of people per area) is the second highest of any continent, behind Asia. The population of Europe is currently slowly decreasing, by about 0.2% per year,<ref>{{Cite web |publisher=United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division |title=World Population Prospects: The 2022 Revision |url=https://population.un.org/dataportal/data/indicators/53,50,51,52/locations/908/start/1990/end/2023/table/pivotbylocation |access-date=2023-04-28}}</ref> because [[sub-replacement fertility|there are fewer births than deaths]]. This natural decrease in population is reduced by the fact that more people [[Immigration to Europe|migrate to Europe]] from other continents than vice versa.

Southern Europe and Western Europe are the regions with the highest average number of elderly people in the world. In 2021, the percentage of people over 65 years old was 21% in Western Europe and Southern Europe, compared to 19% in all of Europe and 10% in the world.<ref>{{Citation |website=PRB |title=2021 World Population Data Sheet |url=https://interactives.prb.org/2021-wpds/ }}</ref> Projections suggest that by 2050 Europe will reach 30%.<ref>{{Citation |title=Population trends 1950 – 2100: globally and within Europe|url=https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/total-population-outlook-from-unstat-3/assessment-1|website=European Environment Agency }}</ref> This is caused by the fact that the population has been [[total fertility rate|having children below replacement level]] since the 1970s. The [[United Nations]] predicts that Europe will decline in population between 2022 and 2050 by −7 per cent, without changing immigration movements.<ref name="Results">{{Citation |title=World Population Prospects 2022, Summary of Results|publisher=[[United Nations]]|url=https://www.un.org/development/desa/pd/sites/www.un.org.development.desa.pd/files/wpp2022_summary_of_results.pdf |pages=7, 9}}</ref>

According to a population projection of the UN Population Division, Europe's population may fall to between 680 and 720 million people by 2050, which would be 7% of the world population at that time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=World Population Prospects – Population Division – United Nations |url=https://population.un.org/wpp/Graphs/DemographicProfiles/Line/908 |publisher=United Nations |access-date=2 April 2025 |archive-date=3 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241203020416/https://population.un.org/wpp/Graphs/DemographicProfiles/Line/908 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Within this context, significant disparities exist between regions in relation to [[fertility rates]]. The average number of [[List of countries and territories by fertility rate|children per female]] of child-bearing age is 1.52, far below the replacement rate.<ref>{{cite web |title=White Europeans: An endangered species? |url=http://www.yaledailynews.com/articles/view/23784 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080519224458/http://www.yaledailynews.com/articles/view/23784 |archive-date=19 May 2008 |access-date=10 June 2008 |publisher=Yale Daily News}}</ref> The UN predicts a steady [[population decline]] in [[Central and Eastern Europe]] as a result of emigration and low birth rates.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1545634/UN-predicts-huge-migration-to-rich-countries.html UN predicts huge migration to rich countries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220614103137/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/1545634/UN-predicts-huge-migration-to-rich-countries.html|date=14 June 2022}}. Telegraph. 15 March 2007.</ref>

===Ethnic groups===
{{main|Ethnic groups in Europe}}
{{further|Genetic history of Europe}}
Pan and Pfeil (2004) count 87 distinct "peoples of Europe", of which 33 form the majority population in at least one sovereign state, while the remaining 54 constitute [[ethnic minority|ethnic minorities]].<ref>Christoph Pan, Beate Sibylle Pfeil, ''Minderheitenrechte in Europa. Handbuch der europäischen Volksgruppen'' (2002). {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20110720164413/http://www.living-diversity.eu/Introduction.html Living-Diversity.eu]}}, English translation 2004.</ref> [[Romani people]] are the largest ethnic minority in Europe, according to [[European Commission]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/policies/justice-and-fundamental-rights/combatting-discrimination/roma-eu/roma-equality-inclusion-and-participation-eu_en#:~:text=The%20Roma%20are%20Europe's%20largest,or%20residents%20of%20the%20EU.|title=Roma equality, inclusion and participation in the EU|date=7 October 2020 }}</ref>

===Migration===
{{main|Immigration to Europe}}
{{See also|European diaspora}}
Europe is home to the highest number of migrants of all global regions at nearly 87 million people in 2020, according to the [[International Organisation for Migration]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Word migration report 2022. |date=2021 |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1292425355 |access-date=2023-04-28 |place=NEW YORK |publisher=International Organization for Migration (IOM) |isbn=978-92-9268-078-7 |oclc=1292425355 |page = 87}}</ref> In 2005, the EU had an overall net gain from [[immigration]] of 1.8&nbsp;million people. This accounted for almost 85% of Europe's total [[population growth]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?ID=402 |title=Europe: Population and Migration in 2005 |publisher=Migration Information Source |access-date=10 June 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080609075438/http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?ID=402 |archive-date=9 June 2008 |date=June 2006 }}</ref> In 2021, 827,000 persons were given citizenship of an EU member state, an increase of about 14% compared with 2020.<ref name="eurostatMigration">{{Citation |title=Migration and migrant population statistics – Statistics Explained |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Migration_and_migrant_population_statistics#Migration_flows:_Immigration_to_the_EU_was_2.3_million_in_2021 |access-date=2023-04-28 |language=en}}</ref> 2.3 million immigrants from non-EU countries entered the EU in 2021.<ref name="eurostatMigration" />

Early modern [[emigration from Europe]] began with Spanish and Portuguese settlers in the 16th century,<ref>{{Cite web|first1=Geraldo |last1=Pieroni |title=A pena do degredo nas Ordenações do Reino – Jus.com.br {{!}} Jus Navigandi|url=https://jus.com.br/artigos/2125/a-pena-do-degredo-nas-ordenacoes-do-reino|access-date=11 February 2022|website=jus.com.br|language=pt-br|archive-date=21 June 2022|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220621184943/https://jus.com.br/artigos/2125/a-pena-do-degredo-nas-ordenacoes-do-reino|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ppghis.ifcs.ufrj.br">{{cite web|title=Ensaio sobre a imigração portuguesa e os padrões de miscigenação no Brasil|url=http://www.ppghis.ifcs.ufrj.br/media/manolo_imigracao_lusa.pdf|access-date=18 August 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706162149/http://www.ppghis.ifcs.ufrj.br/media/manolo_imigracao_lusa.pdf|archive-date=6 July 2011}}</ref> and French and English settlers in the 17th century.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/art/AXTELL01.ART |title=The Columbian Mosaic in Colonial America |first=James |last=Axtell |journal=Humanities |date=September–October 1991 |volume=12 |issue=5 |pages=12–18 |access-date=8 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517052031/http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/data/art/AXTELL01.ART |archive-date=17 May 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> But numbers remained relatively small until waves of mass emigration in the 19th century, when millions of poor families left Europe.<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Evans | first1 = N.J. | doi = 10.1080/21533369.2001.9668313 | title = Work in progress: Indirect passage from Europe Transmigration via the UK, 1836–1914 | journal = Journal for Maritime Research | volume = 3 | pages = 70–84 | year = 2001 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

Today, [[European diaspora|large populations of European descent]] are found on every continent. European ancestry predominates in North America and to a lesser degree in South America (particularly in [[Uruguay]], [[Argentina]], [[Chile]] and [[Brazil]], while most of the other [[Latin America]]n countries also have a considerable [[White Latin American|population of European origins]]). Australia and New Zealand have large European-derived populations. Africa has no countries with European-derived majorities (or with the exception of [[Cape Verde]] and probably [[São Tomé and Príncipe]], depending on context), but there are significant minorities, such as the [[White South Africans]] in [[South Africa]]. In Asia, European-derived populations, specifically [[Russians]], predominate in [[North Asia]] and some parts of Northern [[Kazakhstan]].<ref>Robert Greenall, [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4420922.stm Russians left behind in Central Asia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115111257/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4420922.stm |date=15 November 2019 }}, [[BBC News]], 23 November 2005</ref> Also in Asia, Europeans, especially the Spanish are an influential [[Spanish Filipinos|minority population in the Philippines]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations-next-gen/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160407092418/https://genographic.nationalgeographic.com/reference-populations-next-gen/|url-status=dead|archive-date=7 April 2016|title=Reference Populations – Geno 2.0 Next Generation|access-date=21 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Go MC, Jones AR, Algee-Hewitt B, Dudzik B, Hughes C | title = Classification Trends among Contemporary Filipino Crania Using Fordisc 3.1 | journal = Human Biology | volume = 2 | issue = 4 | pages = 293–303 | publisher = University of Florida Press | date = 2019 | language = en | url = https://www.academia.edu/38744342 | doi = 10.5744/fa.2019.1005 | s2cid = 159266278 | quote = [Page 1] ABSTRACT: Filipinos represent a significant contemporary demographic group globally, yet they are underrepresented in the forensic anthropological literature. Given the complex population history of the Philippines, it is important to ensure that traditional methods for assessing the biological profile are appropriate when applied to these peoples. Here we analyze the classification trends of a modern Filipino sample (n = 110) when using the Fordisc 3.1 (FD3) software. We hypothesize that Filipinos represent an admixed population drawn largely from Asian and marginally from European parental gene pools, such that FD3 will classify these individuals morphometrically into reference samples that reflect a range of European admixture, in quantities from small to large. Our results show the greatest classification into Asian reference groups (72.7%), followed by Hispanic (12.7%), Indigenous American (7.3%), African (4.5%), and European (2.7%) groups included in FD3. This general pattern did not change between males and females. Moreover, replacing the raw craniometric values with their shape variables did not significantly alter the trends already observed. These classification trends for Filipino crania provide useful information for casework interpretation in forensic laboratory practice. Our findings can help biological anthropologists to better understand the evolutionary, population historical, and statistical reasons for FD3-generated classifications. The results of our studyindicate that ancestry estimation in forensic anthropology would benefit from population-focused research that gives consideration to histories of colonialism and periods of admixture. | access-date = 13 September 2020 | doi-access =  | archive-date = 7 January 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210107133718/https://www.academia.edu/38744342/Classification_Trends_Among_Modern_Filipino_Crania_Using_Fordisc_3_1 | url-status = live }}</ref>

===Languages===
{{Main|Languages of Europe}}
[[File:Simplified Languages of Europe map.svg|thumb|right|Distribution of major [[languages of Europe]]|222x222px]]{{See also|List of European languages by number of speakers}}
Europe has about 225 indigenous languages,<ref>[http://edl.ecml.at/LanguageFun/LanguageFacts/tabid/1859/Default.aspx Language facts – European day of languages] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002010444/http://edl.ecml.at/LanguageFun/LanguageFacts/tabid/1859/Default.aspx |date=2 October 2015 }}, Council of Europe. Retrieved 30 July 2015</ref> mostly falling within three [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] language groups: the [[Romance languages]], derived from the [[Latin language|Latin]] of the [[Roman Empire]]; the [[Germanic languages]], whose ancestor language came from southern Scandinavia; and the [[Slavic languages]].<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/> Slavic languages are mostly spoken in Southern, Central and Eastern Europe. Romance languages are spoken primarily in Western and Southern Europe, as well as in [[Switzerland]] in Central Europe and [[Romania]] and [[Moldova]] in Eastern Europe. Germanic languages are spoken in Western, Northern and Central Europe as well as in [[Gibraltar]] and [[Malta]] in Southern Europe.<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/> Languages in adjacent areas show significant overlaps (such as in [[English (language)|English]], for example). Other Indo-European languages outside the three main groups include the [[Baltic languages|Baltic]] group ([[Latvian language|Latvian]] and [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]), the [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] group ([[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic]], [[Manx language|Manx]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Cornish language|Cornish]] and [[Breton language|Breton]]<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica"/>), [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]] and [[Albanian language|Albanian]].

A distinct non-Indo-European family of [[Uralic languages]] ([[Estonian language|Estonian]], [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Erzya language|Erzya]], [[Komi language|Komi]], [[Mari language|Mari]], [[Moksha language|Moksha]] and [[Udmurt language|Udmurt]]) is spoken mainly in [[Estonia]], [[Finland]], [[Hungary]] and parts of Russia. [[Turkic languages]] include [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]], [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]], in addition to smaller languages in Eastern and Southeast Europe ([[Balkan Gagauz Turkish]], [[Bashkir language|Bashkir]], [[Chuvash language|Chuvash]], [[Crimean Tatar language|Crimean Tatar]], [[Karachay-Balkar language|Karachay-Balkar]], [[Kumyk language|Kumyk]], [[Nogai language|Nogai]] and [[Tatar language|Tatar]]). [[Kartvelian languages]] ([[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]] and [[Svan language|Svan]]) are spoken primarily in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. Two other language families reside in the North Caucasus (termed [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]], most notably including [[Chechen language|Chechen]], [[Avar language|Avar]] and [[Lezgian language|Lezgin]]; and [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]], most notably including [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]]). [[Maltese language|Maltese]] is the only [[Semitic language]] that is official within the EU, while [[Basque language|Basque]] is the only European [[language isolate]].

Multilingualism and the protection of regional and minority languages are recognised political goals in Europe today. The [[Council of Europe]] [[Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities]] and the Council of Europe's [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]] set up a legal framework for language rights in Europe.

[[Romani language|Romani]] is spoken throughout Europe by the Roma minority.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/education/roma/source/romanieurope_en.pdf|title=IN EUROPE}}</ref>

===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Europe}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Religion in Europe according to the ''Global Religious Landscape'' survey by the [[Pew Research Center|Pew Forum]], 2016<ref name="Survey">{{cite web|author=Analysis |url=https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323215026/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf |archive-date=2018-03-23 |url-status=live |title=Global religious landscape|publisher=Pewforum.org |date=19 December 2011 |access-date=17 August 2012}}</ref>
|label1 = [[Christianity]]
|value1 = 76.2
|color1 = Red
|label2 = [[Irreligion|No religion]]
|value2 = 18.3
|color2 = #FFFFFF
|label3 = [[Islam]]
|value3 = 4.9
|color3 = Green
|label4 = [[Buddhism]]
|value4 = 0.2
|color4 = Gold
|label5 = [[Hinduism]]
|value5 = 0.2
|color5 = Orange
|label6 = Folk religion
|value6 = 0.1
|color6 = Chartreuse
|label7 = Other religions
|value7 = 0.1
|color7 = Pink
}}
The largest religion in Europe is [[Christianity]], with 76.2% of Europeans considering themselves [[Christians]],<ref name="Christianity">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/global-christianity-regions/#europe|title=Regional Distribution of Christians: Christianity in Europe|date=18 December 2011|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|access-date=22 February 2015|archive-date=1 August 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801012932/http://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/global-christianity-regions/#europe|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801204254/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |archive-date=2019-08-01 |url-status=live|title=Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population|publisher=Pew Research Center}}</ref> including [[Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and various [[Protestant]] denominations. Among Protestants, the most popular are [[Lutheranism]], [[Anglicanism]] and the [[Reformed faith]]. Smaller Protestant denominations include [[Anabaptists]] as well as denominations centred in the United States such as [[Pentecostalism]], [[Methodism]], and [[Evangelical Protestants|Evangelicalism]]. Although Christianity originated in the Middle East, its centre of mass shifted to Europe when it [[Christianity as the Roman state religion|became the official religion of the Roman Empire]] in the late 4th century. [[Christianity]] played [[Role of Christianity in civilization|a prominent role in the development]] of the [[European culture]] and [[European identity|identity]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Byrnes|first1=Timothy A.|last2=Katzenstein|first2=Peter J.|title=Religion in an Expanding Europe|year=2006|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0521676519|pages=110}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Europe in Crisis: Intellectuals and the European Idea, 1917–1957|last1=Hewitson|first1=Mark|last2=D'Auria|first2=Matthew|publisher=Berghahn Books|year=2012|isbn=9780857457271|page=243|location=New York; Oxford}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Orthodoxy and Islam|first=Archimandrite|last=Nikodemos Anagnostopoulos|year=2017|isbn=9781315297927|page=16|publisher=Taylor & Francis|quote=Christianity has undoubtedly shaped European identity, culture, destiny, and history.}}</ref> Today, just over 25% of the world's Christians live in Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pew Research Center |date=2011-12-19 |title=Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2011/12/19/global-christianity-exec/ |access-date=2023-04-28 |website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |language=en-US}}</ref>

[[Islam]] is the second most popular religion in Europe. Over 25 million, or roughly 5% of the population, adhere to it.<ref name="pewresearch.org" /> In [[Albania]] and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], two countries in the [[Balkan peninsula]] in Southeastern Europe, Islam instead of Christianity is the majority religion. This is also the case in [[Turkey]] and in [[Islam in Russia|certain parts of Russia]], as well as in [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Kazakhstan]], all of which are at the border to Asia.<ref name="pewresearch.org">{{citation |last=Hackett |first=Conrad |title=5 facts about the Muslim population in Europe |date=29 November 2017 |url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/11/29/5-facts-about-the-muslim-population-in-europe/ |work=[[Pew Research Center]] |access-date=30 July 2022 |archive-date=17 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817033409/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/11/29/5-facts-about-the-muslim-population-in-europe/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Many countries in Europe are home to a sizeable Muslim minority, and [[immigration to Europe]] has increased the number of Muslim people in Europe in recent years.

The [[Judaism|Jewish]] population in Europe was about 1.4 million people in 2020 (about 0.2% of the population).<ref name="auto" /> There is a long [[History of the Jews in Europe|history of Jewish life in Europe]], beginning in antiquity. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Russian Empire had the majority of the world's Jews living within its borders.<ref>''[[The Pittsburgh Press]]'', 25 October 1915, p. 11</ref> In 1897, according to [[Russian Empire Census|Russian census of 1897]], the total Jewish population of Russia was 5.1 million people, which was 4.13% of total population. Of this total, the vast majority lived within the [[Pale of Settlement]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Grosfeld|first1=Irena|last2=Rodnyansky|first2=Alexander|last3=Zhuravskaya|first3=Ekaterina|title=Persistent Antimarket Culture: A Legacy of the Pale of Settlement after the Holocaust|journal=American Economic Journal: Economic Policy|date=August 2013|volume=5|number=3|pages=189–226|publisher=[[American Economic Association]]|doi=10.1257/pol.5.3.189 |jstor=43189345}}</ref> In 1933, there were about 9.5 million Jewish people in Europe, representing 1.7% of the population,<ref>{{Cite web |last=United States Holocaust Memorial Museum |title=Jewish Population of Europe in 1933: Population Data by Country |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/jewish-population-of-europe-in-1933-population-data-by-country |access-date=2023-04-29 |website=encyclopedia.ushmm.org |language=en}}</ref> but most were killed, and most of the rest displaced, during [[the Holocaust]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sherwood |first=Harriet |date=2020-10-25 |title=Europe's Jewish population has dropped 60% in last 50 years |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/oct/25/europes-jewish-population-has-dropped-60-in-last-50-years |access-date=2023-04-28 |website=The Guardian |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name="auto">{{Cite web |last=Lipka |first=Michael |title=The continuing decline of Europe's Jewish population |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2015/02/09/europes-jewish-population/ |access-date=2023-04-28 |publisher=Pew Research Center |date=9 February 2015 |language=en-US}}</ref> In the 21st century, [[France]] has the largest [[Jewish population]] in Europe, followed by the United Kingdom, [[Germany]] and Russia.<ref name="Survey" />

Other religions practiced in Europe include [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]], which are minority religions, except in Russia's [[Republic of Kalmykia]], where Tibetan Buddhism is the majority religion.

A large and increasing number of people in Europe are [[irreligion|irreligious]], [[atheism|atheist]] and [[agnosticism|agnostic]]. They are estimated to make up about 18.3% of Europe's population currently.<ref name="Survey" />

===Major cities and urban areas===
{{further|List of European cities by population within city limits}}

The three largest [[List of urban areas in Europe|urban areas of Europe]] are [[Moscow]], [[London]] and [[Paris]]. All have over 10 million residents,<ref name="UN WUP 2016">{{cite web|title=The World's Cities in 2016|url=http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/urbanization/the_worlds_cities_in_2016_data_booklet.pdf|publisher=[[United Nations]]|page=11|date=2016|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=1 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001173328/http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/publications/pdf/urbanization/the_worlds_cities_in_2016_data_booklet.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> and as such have been described as [[megacity|megacities]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Istanbul one of four anchor megacities of Europe: Research|url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/istanbul-one-of-four-anchor-megacities-of-europe-research--92496|work=Hürriyet Daily News|date=14 December 2015|language=en|access-date=30 July 2022|archive-date=19 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319194120/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/istanbul-one-of-four-anchor-megacities-of-europe-research--92496|url-status=live}}</ref> While [[Istanbul]] has the highest total city population, it lies partly in [[Asia]]. 64.9% of the residents live on the European side and 35.1% on the Asian side.
The next largest cities in order of population are [[Madrid]], [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Milan]], [[Barcelona]], [[Berlin]], and [[Rome]] each having over three million residents.<ref name="UN WUP 2016" />

When considering the commuter belts or [[List of metropolitan areas in Europe|metropolitan areas within Europe]] (for which comparable data is available), Moscow covers the largest population, followed in order by Istanbul, London, Paris, Madrid, Milan, Ruhr Area, Saint Petersburg, Rhein-Süd, Barcelona and Berlin.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Major Agglomerations of the World – Population Statistics and Maps|url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/world/agglomerations/|access-date=10 September 2020|website=citypopulation.de|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140057/https://www.citypopulation.de/world/Agglomerations.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{multiple image
| align             = center
| direction         = square
| caption_align     = center
| header            = European [[Megacity|megacities]]
| header_align      = left/right/center
| image1            = Business Centre of Moscow 2.jpg
| width1            = 200
| alt1              = Moscow International Business Center
| caption1          = [[Moscow]]
| image2            = Super moon over City of London from Tate Modern 2018-01-31 4.jpg
| alt2              = City of London
| width2            = 237
| caption2          = [[London]]
| image3            = GrandeArche.jpg
| alt3              =
| width3            = 230
| caption3          = [[Paris]]
| image4            = View of Levent financial district from Istanbul Sapphire.jpg
| alt4              = Levent
| width4            = 189
| caption4          = [[Istanbul]]{{ref label|footnote_b|b}}
}}

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Europe}}
{{further|European folklore|European art}}
[[File:Grossgliederung Europas-en.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Map purportedly displaying the European continent split along cultural and state borders as proposed by the German organisation [[Permanent Committee on Geographical Names (Germany)|Ständiger Ausschuss für geographische Namen]] (StAGN)]]

"Europe" as a cultural concept is substantially derived from the shared heritage of [[ancient Greece]] and the [[Roman Empire]] and its cultures. The boundaries of Europe were historically understood as those of [[Christendom]] (or more specifically [[Latin Christendom]]), as established or defended throughout the medieval and early modern history of Europe, especially [[Early Muslim conquests|against Islam]], as in the [[Reconquista]] and the [[Ottoman wars in Europe]].<ref>[[Hilaire Belloc]], [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8442 Europe and the Faith] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180316121024/http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/8442 |date=16 March 2018 }}, Chapter I</ref>

This shared cultural heritage is combined by overlapping indigenous national cultures and folklores, roughly divided into [[Slavic Europe|Slavic]], [[Romance-speaking Europe|Latin (Romance)]] and Germanic, but with several components not part of either of these groups (notably [[Greek culture|Greek]], [[Basque culture|Basque]] and [[Celtic Europe|Celtic]]). Historically, special examples with overlapping cultures are [[Strasbourg]] with Latin (Romance) and Germanic, or [[Trieste]] with Latin, Slavic and Germanic roots.
Cultural contacts and mixtures shape a large part of the regional cultures of Europe. Europe is often described as "maximum cultural diversity with minimal geographical distances".

Different cultural events are organised in Europe, with the aim of bringing different cultures closer together and raising awareness of their importance, such as the [[European Capital of Culture]], the [[European Region of Gastronomy]], the [[European Youth Capital]] and the European Capital of Sport.

=== Sport ===
{{Main|Sport in Europe}}
Sport in Europe tends to be highly organised with many sports having professional leagues. The origins of many of the world's most popular sports today lie in the codification of many traditional games, especially in the United Kingdom. However, a paradoxical feature of European sport is the extent to which local, regional and national variations continue to exist, and even in some instances to predominate.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dine |first1=Philip |title=Sport, Representation and Evolving Identities in Europe |last2=Crosson |first2=Seán |publisher=Peter Lang |year=2010 |isbn=9783039119776 |location=Bern |pages=2}}</ref>

=== Social dimension ===

In Europe many people are unable to access basic social conditions, which makes it harder for them to thrive and flourish. Access to basic necessities can be compromised, for example 10% of Europeans spend at least 40% of household income on housing. 75 million Europeans feel [[Social isolation|socially isolated]]. From the 1980s income inequality has been rising and wage shares have been falling. In 2016, the richest 20% of households earned over five times more than the poorest 20%. Many workers experience stagnant [[real wages]] and [[precarious work]] is common even for [[essential workers]].<ref name=SustainableProsperity>{{Cite web|url=https://sustainable-prosperity.eu/story/|title=Sustainable Prosperity – Made in Europe|website=sustainable-prosperity.eu}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Europe|Geography}}
<!-- {{Main|Outline of Europe|Index of Europe-related articles}} -->
{{Div col}}
* [[Early modern Europe]]
* [[Eurodistrict]]
* [[European Games]]
* [[European Union as a potential superpower]]
* [[Euroregion]]
* [[Financial and social rankings of sovereign states in Europe]]
* [[Flags of Europe]]
* [[Healthcare in Europe]]
* [[List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (nominal)]]
* [[List of European television stations]]
* [[List of names of European cities in different languages]]
* [[List of villages in Europe]]
* [[Lists of cities in Europe]]
* [[Modernity]]
* [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe statistics|OSCE countries statistics]]
* [[Pan-European identity]]
* [[Rail transport in Europe]]
* [[Transport in Europe]]
{{Div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Cnote2 Begin|colwidth=30em}}
{{Cnote2|a|n=2|[[Transnistria]], internationally recognised as being a legal part of the [[Moldova|Republic of Moldova]], although ''de facto'' control is exercised by its internationally unrecognised government which declared independence from Moldova in 1990}}
{{Cnote2|b|Russia is a [[List of transcontinental countries|transcontinental country]] spanning Eastern Europe and [[North Asia]]. The vast majority of its population (80%) lives within its [[European Russia|European part]].<ref name="Vishnevsky">{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/popdecline/vishnevsky.pdf |title=Replacement Migration: Is it a solution for Russia? |access-date=14 January 2008 |last=Vishnevsky |first=Anatoly |date=15 August 2000 |publisher=United Nations Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs |website=Expert Group Meeting on Policy Responses to Population Ageing and Population Decline /UN/POP/PRA/2000/14 |pages=6, 10 |archive-date=29 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170829152839/http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/popdecline//vishnevsky.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> However, only the population figure includes the entire state.}}
{{Cnote2|c|n=3|[[Guernsey]], the [[Isle of Man]], and [[Jersey]] are [[Crown Dependencies]] of the United Kingdom. Other [[Channel Islands]] legislated by the [[Bailiwick of Guernsey]] include [[Alderney]] and [[Sark]].}}
{{Cnote2|d|n=2|[[Cyprus]] can be considered part of Europe or [[West Asia]]; it has strong historical and sociopolitical connections with Europe. The population and area figures refer to the entire state, including the ''de facto'' independent part [[Northern Cyprus]] which is not recognised as a sovereign nation by the vast majority of sovereign nations, nor the UN.}}
{{Cnote2|e|Figures for [[Portugal]] include the [[Azores]] and [[Madeira]] archipelagos, both in the North Atlantic.}}
{{Cnote2|f|Area figure for [[Serbia]] includes [[Kosovo]], a province that unilaterally declared its independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008, and whose sovereign status is unclear. Population and density figures are from the first results of 2011 census and are given without the disputed territory of [[Kosovo]].}}
{{Cnote2|g|Figures for [[France]] include only [[metropolitan France]]: some [[Administrative divisions of France|politically integral parts of France]] are geographically located outside Europe.}}
{{Cnote2|h|[[Netherlands]] population for November 2014. Population and area details include European portion only: Netherlands and three entities outside Europe ([[Aruba]], [[Curaçao]], and [[Sint Maarten]], in the [[Caribbean]]) constitute the [[Kingdom of the Netherlands]]. [[Amsterdam]] is the official capital, while [[The Hague]] is the administrative seat.}}
{{Cnote2|i|[[Kazakhstan]] is physiographically considered a transcontinental country, mostly in Central Asia (UN region), partly in Eastern Europe, with European territory west of the [[Ural Mountains]] and [[Ural River]]. However, only the population figure refers to the entire country.}}
{{Cnote2|j|[[Armenia]] can be considered part of Eastern Europe or [[West Asia]]; it has strong historical and sociopolitical connections with Europe. The population and area figures include the entire state, respectively.}}
{{Cnote2|k|[[Azerbaijan]] is physiographically considered a transcontinental country, mostly in Western Asia. A small portion of its territory is located north of [[Greater Caucasus]], considered part of Eastern Europe.<ref name="UNstatsandCIAfacts">The [[UN]] Statistics Department [https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241212024547/https://unstats.un.org/unsd/methodology/m49/ |date=12 December 2024 }} places Azerbaijan and Georgia in [[West Asia]] for statistical convenience ("The assignment of countries or areas to specific groupings is for statistical convenience and does not imply any assumption regarding political or other affiliation of countries or territories"). The [[CIA World Factbook]] places Azerbaijan and Georgia in Southwestern Asia, with a small portion north of the Caucasus range in Europe. ([https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/azerbaijan/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127171042/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/azerbaijan/ |date=27 January 2021 }} and [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/georgia/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204222544/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/georgia/ |date=4 February 2021 }}).</ref> However the population and area figures are for the entire state. This includes the [[exclave]] of the [[Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic]] and the region [[Nagorno-Karabakh]].}}
{{Cnote2|l| [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] can be considered part of Eastern Europe or [[West Asia]];<ref name="UNstatsandCIAfacts" /> it has strong historical and sociopolitical connections with Europe.<ref>[[Council of Europe]] {{cite web |title=47 countries, one Europe |url=http://www.coe.int/aboutCoe/index.asp?page%3D47pays1europe%26l%3Den |access-date=9 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110108003938/http://www.coe.int/aboutCoe/index.asp?l=en&page=47pays1europe |archive-date=8 January 2011 }}, [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office|British Foreign and Commonwealth Office]] {{cite web |title=Country profiles ' Europe ' Georgia |url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/europe/georgia/ |access-date=9 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101231082215/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/europe/georgia |archive-date=31 December 2010 }}, [[World Health Organization]] [http://www.euro.who.int/en/where-we-work] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110112060752/http://www.euro.who.int/en/where-we-work |date=12 January 2011 }}, [[World Tourism Organization]] [http://unwto.org/europe] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101226022941/http://unwto.org/europe |date=26 December 2010 }}, [[UNESCO]] [http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/worldwide/europe-and-north-america/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102075359/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/unesco/worldwide/europe-and-north-america/ |date=2 November 2018 }}, [[UNICEF]] [http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/index.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205015818/http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/index.html |date=5 December 2013 }}, [[UNHCR]] [http://www.unhcr.org/pages/4a02d9346.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702183319/https://www.unhcr.org/pages/4a02d9346.html |date=2 July 2022 }}, [[European Civil Aviation Conference]] {{cite web |title=Member States |url=https://www.ecac-ceac.org//about_ecac/ecac_member_states |access-date=9 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723024001/https://www.ecac-ceac.org//about_ecac/ecac_member_states |archive-date=23 July 2013 }}, [[Euronews]] [http://www.euronews.net/weather/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210509184812/http://www.euronews.net/weather |date=9 May 2021 }}, [[BBC]] [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1102477.stm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220726013804/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1102477.stm |date=26 July 2022 }}, [[NATO]] [http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/official_texts_8443.htm] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220726150643/https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/official_texts_8443.htm |date=26 July 2022 }}, [[Russian Foreign Ministry]] [http://www.mid.ru/ns-reuro.nsf/strana] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121082628/https://mid.ru/ns-reuro.nsf/strana |date=21 January 2022 }}, [[the World Bank]] {{cite web |url=http://data.worldbank.org/region/ECA |title=Europe & Central Asia &#124; Data |access-date=9 January 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110219144231/http://data.worldbank.org/region/ECA |archive-date=19 February 2011 }}.</ref> The population and area figures include Georgian estimates for [[Abkhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]], two regions that have declared and ''[[de facto]]'' [[List of states with limited recognition|achieved]] independence. [[International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia#Positions taken by states|International recognition]], however, is limited.}}
{{Cnote2|m|[[Turkey]] is physiographically considered a transcontinental country, mostly in West Asia (the Middle East). Turkey has a small part of its territory (3%) in Southeast Europe called [[East Thrace]].<ref>{{cite web|author=FAO|author-link=FAO|publisher=FAO|url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/t0377e/t0377e27.htm|title=Inland fisheries of Europe|access-date=26 March 2011|archive-date=26 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120126124249/http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/t0377e/t0377e27.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> However, only the population figure includes the entire state.}}
{{Cnote2|n|n=4|The total figures for area and population include only European portions of transcontinental countries. The precision of these figures is compromised by the ambiguous geographical extent of Europe and the lack of references for European portions of transcontinental countries.}}
{{Cnote2|o|[[Kosovo]] unilaterally declared its independence from [[Serbia]] on 17 February 2008. Its sovereign status is [[International reaction to the 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence|unclear]]. Its population is July 2009 CIA estimate.}}
{{Cnote2|p|n=2|[[Abkhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]], both of which can be considered part of Eastern Europe or [[West Asia]]<ref name="UNstatsandCIAfacts" /> unilaterally declared their independence from [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] on 25 August 1990 and 28 November 1991, respectively. Their status as sovereign nations is [[International recognition of Abkhazia and South Ossetia|not recognised]] by a vast majority of sovereign nations, nor the UN. Population figures stated as of 2003 census and 2000 estimates, respectively.}}
{{Cnote2|q|[[Nagorno-Karabakh]], which can be considered part of Eastern Europe or [[West Asia]], unilaterally declared its independence from [[Azerbaijan]] on 6 January 1992. Its status as a sovereign nation is not recognised by any sovereign nation, nor the UN. Population figures stated as of 2003 census and 2000 estimates, respectively.}}
{{Cnote2|r|[[Greenland]], an autonomous constituent country within the [[Danish Realm]], is geographically a part of the continent of North America, but has been politically and culturally associated with Europe.}}
{{Cnote2|s|n=2|The [[Donetsk People's Republic]] and [[Luhansk People's Republic]] are internationally recognised as being a legal part of [[Ukraine]], although ''de facto'' control is exercised by governments which declared independence from Ukraine in 2014.}}
{{Cnote2|t|Europe is normally considered its own continent in the English-speaking world, which uses the seven continent model.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/europe |title=Europe |dictionary=Oxford Learner's Dictionary |access-date=5 February 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Europe |title=Europe |dictionary=Merriam-Webster |access-date=5 February 2023}}</ref> Other models consider Europe as part of a Eurasian or Afro-Eurasian continent. See {{slink|Continent|Number}} for more information.}}
{{Cnote2|u|The map shows one of the most commonly accepted delineations of the geographical boundaries of Europe, as used by [[National Geographic Society|National Geographic]] and [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]. Whether countries are considered in Europe or Asia can vary in sources, for example in the classification of the [[CIA World Factbook]] or that of the [[BBC]]. Certain countries in Europe, such as France, have [[List of countries spanning more than one continent#Non-contiguous|territories lying geographically outside Europe]], but which are nevertheless considered integral parts of that country.}}
{{Cnote2|v|This number includes Siberia, (about 38 million people) but excludes European Turkey (about 12 million).}}
{{Cnote2 End}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
* {{Cite book |last1=Brown |first1=Stephen F. |last2=Anatolios |first2=Khaled |last3=Palmer |first3=Martin |year=2009 |editor-last=O'Brien |editor-first=Joanne |title=Catholicism & Orthodox Christianity |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-60413-106-2}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Bulliet |first1=Richard |last2=Crossley |first2=Pamela |last3=Headrick |first3=Daniel |last4=Hirsch |first4=Steven |last5=Johnson |first5=Lyman |year=2011 |title=The Earth and Its Peoples, Brief Edition |volume=1 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-495-91311-5}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Laiou |first1=Angeliki E. |author-link=Angeliki Laiou |last2=Morisson |first2=Cécile |date=2007 |title=The Byzantine Economy |location=Cambridge, England |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-84978-4}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Martin W. |last2=Wigen |first2=Kären |date=1997 |title=The Myth of Continents: A Critique of Metageography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C2as0sWxFBAC |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-20743-1 |language=en}}
* [[National Geographic Society]] (2005). ''National Geographic Visual History of the World''. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society. {{ISBN|0-7922-3695-5}}.
* {{Cite book |last=Pounds |first=Norman John Greville |url=https://archive.org/details/historicalgeogra0000poun |title=An Historical Geography of Europe, 1500–1840 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1979 |isbn=978-0-521-22379-9 |location=Cambridge, England}}

==External links==
* {{GovPubs|Europe}}
* {{Britannica|195686}}
* [https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/europe-human-geography/ Europe: Human Geography] at the [[National Geographic Society]]
* [https://www.loc.gov/rr/european/ European Reading Room] from the United States [[Library of Congress]]
* {{Cite EB1911 |wstitle=Europe |volume=9 |pages=907–953 |short=1}}
* ''[http://www.columbiagazetteer.org/ The Columbia Gazetteer of the World Online]'', [[Columbia University Press]]

'''Historical maps'''
* [http://geacron.com/home-en/?&sid=GeaCron747702 Borders in Europe 3000 BC to the present]—Geacron [[historical atlas]]
* [http://www.euratlas.net/history/europe/index.html Online history of Europe in 21 maps]

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