View source for SS Californian

{{Short description|Ship that missed the Titanic's distress signals}}
{{Other ships|Californian (ship)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2020}}

{|{{Infobox ship begin
| infobox caption = SS ''Californian''
}}
{{Infobox ship image
| Ship image = Californian.jpg
| Ship caption = SS ''Californian'' on the morning after ''Titanic'' sank.
}}
{{Infobox ship career
| Hide header = 
| Ship country = [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]
| Ship flag = [[Image:Civil Ensign of the United Kingdom.svg|67px|link=|alt=The British Red Ensign]]
| Ship name = SS ''Californian''
| Ship namesake = [[California|State of California]]
| Ship owner = [[Leyland Line]]
| Ship operator = 
| Ship registry = Liverpool, UK
| Ship route = [[Atlantic Ocean]] crossings
| Ship ordered = 
| Ship awarded = 
| Ship builder = [[Caledon Shipbuilding & Engineering Company]], [[Dundee]], Scotland
| Ship original cost = {{GBP|105000|1901|long=no|round=-5|about=yes}}<ref name=Dundee>"Caledon Built – Dundee Ships", Friends of Dundee City Archives</ref>
| Ship yard number = 159<ref name=Dundee />
| Ship way number = 
| Ship laid down = 
| Ship launched = 26 November 1901
| Ship completed = 
| Ship acquired = 30 January 1902
| Ship recommissioned = 
| Ship sunk = 9 November 1915
| Ship maiden voyage = 31 January 1902
| Ship in service = 1902–1915
| Ship out of service = 9 November 1915
| Ship refit = 
| Ship struck = 
| Ship reinstated = 
| Ship homeport = 
| Ship identification = {{ubl
 | Official number: 115243
 | Code letters: TFLN
 | Radio call sign: MWL
 }}
| Ship motto = 
| Ship nickname = 
| Ship honours = 
| Ship honors = 
| Ship captured = 
| Ship fate = Sunk by German U-boats, 9 November 1915, {{convert|61|mi|km}} southwest of [[Cape Matapan]], Greece.
| Ship notes = 
| Ship badge = 
}}
{{Infobox ship characteristics
| Hide header = 
| Header caption = 
| Ship class = 
| Ship type = [[Cargo liner]]
| Ship tonnage = 6,223 [[gross register tonnage|gross]], 4,038 [[net register tonnage|net]]
| Ship length = {{convert|447|ft|m|abbr=on}} LOA
| Ship beam = {{convert|53|ft|m|abbr=on}}
| Ship height = 
| Ship draught = 30.5 ft
| Ship hold depth = 
| Ship decks = 6 (3 on superstructure [flying bridge, promenade deck and shelter deck] and 3 below deck)
| Ship power = 
| Ship propulsion = *1 × [[triple expansion engine|triple expansion steam engine]]
*2 × double-ended boilers
| Ship speed = {{ubl
 | 13 knots (service speed.) 
 | 12 knots (speed estimated in sea trials.)
 }}
| Ship range = 
| Ship boats = 6 (4 lifeboats, 1 gig and 1 pinnace) with total capacity for 218 people.
| Ship troops = 
| Ship capacity = 47 passengers
| Ship complement = 
| Ship crew = 55 officers and crew
| Ship Passengers = 47 passengers (first-class){{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
}}
|}

'''SS ''Californian''''' was a British [[Leyland Line]] [[steamship]]. She is thought to have been the only ship in sight of the ''[[Titanic]]'', or at least her rockets, during that ship's [[Sinking of the Titanic|sinking]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/abandoning-titanic-promo/5432/|title=Abandoning the Titanic ~ About the Film &#124; Secrets of the Dead|website=[[PBS]]|date=6 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Ringle|first=Ken|date=June 30, 1991|title=THE SHIP THAT PASSED IN THE NIGHT|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/lifestyle/1991/06/30/the-ship-that-passed-in-the-night/70e7a51e-c170-4b2e-8364-6cbed909e303/|access-date=October 24, 2020}}</ref> The crew took no action to assist.

The [[United States Senate inquiry into the sinking of the RMS Titanic|United States Senate inquiry]] and [[British Wreck Commissioner's inquiry into the sinking of the RMS Titanic|British Wreck Commissioner's inquiry]] into the sinking both concluded that many or all of the lives lost could have been saved, had ''Californian'' responded promptly to the'' [[Titanic]]''{{'s}} distress rockets.<ref name="bwccalifornian">{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTReport/BOTRepCalifornian.php | title = Circumstances in Connection with the SS Californian | author = <!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> | date = 30 July 1912 | publisher = British Wreck Commissioner's Inquiry | access-date = 27 April 2016 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160506085649/http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTReport/botRepCalifornian.php | archive-date = 6 May 2016}}</ref> The U.S. Senate inquiry was particularly critical of the vessel's captain, [[Stanley Lord]], calling his inaction during the disaster "reprehensible".<ref name="pleasforhelp">{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/USInq/USReport/AmInqRep06.php | title = United States Senate Inquiry Report: Pleas for Help; Steamship "Californian's" responsibility | author = <!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> | date = 30 July 1912 | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date=28 April 2016}}</ref>

Despite this criticism, no formal charges were ever brought against Lord or his crew. Lord disputed the findings and spent the rest of his life trying to clear his name. In 1992, the UK Government's [[Marine Accident Investigation Branch]] re-examined the case and while condemning Lord's inaction, held that due to the limited time available, "the effect of ''Californian'' taking proper action would have been no more than to place on her the task actually carried out by {{RMS|Carpathia}}, that is the rescue of those who escaped{{Nbsp}}... [no] reasonably probable action by Captain Lord could have led to a different outcome of the tragedy".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Clarke |first1=Jim |title=Titanic disaster: How history has judged Bolton's sea captains |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-manchester-17678822 |access-date=29 June 2020 |work=BBC News |date=11 April 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = https://assets.digital.cabinet-office.gov.uk/media/54c15bf240f0b6158d000027/MAIBReport_ReappraisalOfEvidence-SSCalifornian-Titanic-1992.pdf#page=19 | title = RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN" | author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> | page = 18 | date = 2 April 1992 | publisher = Marine Accident Investigation Branch | access-date = 25 January 2018}}</ref>

''Californian'' was sunk in the Eastern Mediterranean during [[World War I]] on 9 November 1915 by the German submarines {{SMU|U-34|}} and {{SMU|U-35||2}}, while serving as a transport ship.

==Construction and early career==
[[File:SS Californian arriving in port.jpg|thumb|SS Californian arriving in port ]]
''Californian'' was a steamship owned by the [[Leyland Line]], part of [[J.P. Morgan]]'s [[International Mercantile Marine Co.]] She was constructed by the [[Caledon Shipbuilding & Engineering Company]] in [[Dundee, Scotland]],<ref>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=37}}</ref> and was the largest ship built in Dundee up to that time.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fdca.org.uk/Some_Dundee_Ships.html | title = Some Dundee Ships | publisher = Friends of Dundee City Archives | access-date = 29 April 2016 | year = 2011 | last = Wright | first = Jerry | archive-date = 5 August 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210805082728/http://www.fdca.org.uk/Some_Dundee_Ships.html | url-status = dead }}</ref><ref name=DAB38>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=38}}</ref> The ship was built to the maximum dimensions that were allowed to moor and outfit her in the Dundee Docks. The ship's size and importance to the local shipbuilding industry meant that there was a lot of local interest in her construction as it progressed. There were also some problems – when both of the ship's boilers were being transported through the streets from a foundry to the shipyard the weight of them (carried on a wheeled [[bogie]]) caused considerable damage to the city's roads, as well as breaking a number of underground water pipes. Later when a crane was being used to rig a spar on one of ''Californian''{{'s}} four masts, the spar became tangled in nearby telephone wires and severed them.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/the-ss-californian-and-dundee-scotlands-forgotten-leviathan.html|title=The SS Californian and Dundee: Scotland's Forgotten Leviathan|last=Duzen|first=Harland|date=18 October 2018|journal=Encyclopedia Titanica}}</ref>

She was designed primarily to transport [[cotton]], but also had the capacity to carry 47 passengers and 55 crew members.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} The primary clientele was those passengers with too limited the means to travel on board large liners. By offering them comfortable cabins at an affordable prices (£10 per crossing in the direction Liverpool — Boston, £50 in the opposite direction), Leyland Line was able to secure some profits this way.<ref name=GP20>{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|p=20}}</ref><ref name=DAB43>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=43}}</ref> Nonetheless, the ship was still primarily a freighter, as evidenced by her massive bunkers. She was named ''Californian'' according to a tradition specific to the company which gave its ships the name of one of the 46 states of the [[United States]] at the time.<ref name=DAB46>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=46}}</ref> She measured 6,223 tons, was {{convert|447|ft|m}} long, {{convert|53|ft|m}} at her beam,<ref name=DAB38/> and had a [[steam engine|triple expansion steam engine]] powered by two double-ended boilers. Her average full speed was {{convert|12|kn|km/h}}.<ref name=Chirn1>{{harvnb|Chirnside|2004|p=309}}</ref>
The accommodation of most of the fifty or so crew members was located below the foredeck. They stayed there in cabins designed for four to eight people that were quite uncomfortable, poorly ventilated and lit.<ref>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=39}}</ref> In all, the crew included the captain, four officers, a radio operator, and 49 crew members (sailors, drivers, trimmers, etc.).<ref name=DAB44>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=44}}</ref> The cabins were located in the superstructure. The officers of the crew resided on the starboard side and the passengers on the port side. The facilities for passengers corresponded to the second class of most ships of the time. Although the cabins were not of high quality, they remained comfortable and had electric lighting, which was not the case on all contemporary ships. The passengers of ''Californian'' also had at their disposal a smoking room on the upper starboard deck, decorated with oak panels and linoleum, a novelty at the turn of the century. The dining room was also decorated and comfortable.<ref name=DAB43/>
[[File:The SS Californian en route to America.jpg|thumb|An artist's depiction of ''Californian'' under steam.]]
''Californian'' was launched on 26 November 1901 and completed her sea trials on 23 January 1902. From 31 January 1902 to 3 March 1902, she made her maiden voyage from Dundee to [[New Orleans|New Orleans, Louisiana]], United States. Subsequently, she made transatlantic crossings, generally carrying around thirty passengers in addition to her cargo. In 1902, she was chartered by the [[Dominion Line]] for five crossings to [[Portland, Maine]].<ref name=TGOL>{{Cite web |url=http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/californian.html |title=The Great Ocean Liners |access-date=22 April 2021 |archive-date=8 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120208070625/http://www.thegreatoceanliners.com/californian.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> She then returned to the Leyland Line service to serve the southern United States.<ref name=DAB44/> From 1901 to 1911, she was commanded successively by four captains before being finally put under the command of [[Stanley Lord]].<ref name=DAB48>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=48}}</ref>

Between late 1911 and early 1912, ''Californian'' had a [[Marconi Company|Marconi]] wireless apparatus installed in a refitted cabin. Her first radio operator was Cyril Furmstone Evans.

==Sinking of ''Titanic''==
{{main|Sinking of the RMS Titanic}}
On March 30, 1912, ''Californian'' made a stopover in London on a trip to New Orleans during which she had to face a storm which damaged part of her cotton cargo. [[Stanley Lord]], who had commanded ''Californian'' since 27 March 1911, was her captain when she left the [[Royal Albert Dock, Liverpool]], England on 5 April 1912 on her way to [[Boston|Boston, Massachusetts]].<ref name=DAB50>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=50}}</ref> She was not carrying any passengers on this voyage.<ref name=GP20/> On the navigation bridge, Lord was accompanied by three officers and an apprentice: George Stewart (second in command or chief officer), Herbert Stone (second officer), Charles Groves (third officer) and apprentice James Gibson.<ref name=DAB51>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=51}}</ref>

The first week of the crossing was uneventful.<ref name=DAB52>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=52}}</ref> On Sunday 14 April at 18:30 [[Solar time#Apparent solar time|ship's time]], ''Californian''{{'s}} only [[wireless]] operator, Cyril Furmstone Evans (born 1892 in [[Croydon]], [[Surrey]], [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]), signalled to the ''Antillian'' that three large icebergs were five miles to the south.<ref name=evanstestimony>{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/USInq/AmInq08EvansCF01.php | title = Testimony of Cyril F. Evans | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 28 April 2016 | quote = "[the ice warning] is dated 6.30 p. m. "A.T.S." which means apparent time ship … The sent date was 5.35 p.m., New York time."}}</ref> ''Titanic''{{'s}} wireless operator [[Harold Sydney Bride|Harold Bride]] also received the warning and delivered it to the ship's [[Bridge (ship)|bridge]] a few minutes later.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq14Bride02.php | title = Testimony of Harold S. Bride, recalled | access-date = 29 April 2016 | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | quote = (The Attorney General.): Could you tell us how long it was after you got the message that you delivered it on the bridge? Bride: About two minutes.}}</ref>

''Californian'' encountered a large [[iceberg|ice field]] at 22:20 ship's time,<ref name="bwccalifornian" /> and Captain Lord decided to stop the ship and wait until morning before proceeding further.<ref>{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|p=22}}</ref> Before leaving the bridge, he thought he saw a ship's light away to the eastward but could not be sure it was not just a rising star.<ref name = "uslord03">{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/USInq/AmInq08Lord03.php | title = Testimony of Stanley Lord, cont. | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 29 April 2016 | quote = When I came off the bridge, at half-past 10, I pointed out to the officer that I thought I saw a light coming along, and it was a most peculiar light, and we had been making mistakes all along with the stars, thinking they were signals … He said he thought it was a star, and I did not say anything more.}}</ref> Lord continued to the engineers' cabins and met with the chief, whom he told about his plans for stopping. As they were talking, they saw a ship's lights approaching. Lord asked Evans if he knew of any ships in the area, and Evans responded: "only the ''Titanic''." Lord asked Evans to inform her that ''Californian'' was stopped and surrounded by ice.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq07Lord01.php | title = Testimony of Stanley Lord | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 29 April 2016 | quote = I said, "Let the 'Titanic' know that we are stopped, surrounded by ice."}}</ref> Lord ordered Evans to warn all other ships in the area, which he did.<ref>''[[A Night to Remember (book)|A Night to Remember]]'' p.24</ref>

''Titanic''{{'s}} on-duty wireless operator, [[Jack Phillips (wireless operator)|Jack Phillips]], was busy clearing a backlog of passengers'  messages with the wireless station at [[Cape Race, Newfoundland]], {{convert|800|mi|km}} away, at the time. Evans's message that ''Californian'' was stopped and surrounded by ice was heard very strongly on ''Titanic'' due to the relative proximity of the two ships and drowned out a separate message Phillips had been in the process of receiving from Cape Race, prompting Phillips to tell Evans to stop transmitting in the straight diction of wireless operators: "Keep out. Shut up; I am working Cape Race." (or, in morse code, "DDD").<ref>{{cite journal | url = http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/acquitting-the-iceberg~chapter-9.html | title = Acquitting the Iceberg | journal = Encyclopedia Titanica | access-date = 27 April 2016 | quote = Phillips was tired and on edge and Cyril Evans' call burst in on him like a thunderclap; so loud, we are assured, it hurt his ears.| date = 15 October 2013 | last1 = Elverhøi | first1 = Peter }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|p=23}}</ref> Contrary to common belief, Evans was not offended nor did he take the common code for "stop transmitting" to be an insult. Instead, he listened in for a while before he switched off his wireless equipment and went to bed.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/USInq/AmInq08EvansCF01.php | title = Testimony of Cyril F. Evans | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 5 May 2016 | quote = At 11.25 I still had the phones on my ears and heard him still working Cape Race, about two or three minutes before the half-hour ship's time, that was, and at 11.35 I put the phones down and took off my clothes and turned in.}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|pp=24–25}}</ref> A few minutes later, at 23:40, ''Titanic'' [[Iceberg that struck the Titanic|hit an iceberg]].<ref>{{harvnb|Chirnside|2004|p=155}}</ref> Shortly after midnight, she transmitted her first distress call.

Third Officer Charles Groves of ''Californian'' testified to the British inquiry that at 23:10 ship's time, he had seen the lights of another ship come into view 10 or 12 miles away, 3.5 points above ''Californian''{{'s}} starboard beam. At about 23:30, Groves went below to inform Lord.<ref name = "bwcgroves01">{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq08Groves01.php | title = Testimony of Charles V. Groves | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 28 April 2016}}</ref> The latter suggested that the ship be contacted by [[Signal lamp|Morse lamp]], which was tried, but no reply was seen.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/USInq/AmInq08Lord03.php | title = Testimony of Stanley Lord, cont. | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 27 April 2016 | quote = We signaled her, at half-past 11, with the Morse lamp. She did not take the slightest notice of it.}}</ref> To Groves, she was clearly a large liner, as she had multiple decks brightly lit. The ship finally seemed to stop and extinguish her deck lights at 23:40, the same time ''Titanic'' stopped her engines. At the British inquiry, Groves agreed that if the ship he saw had turned two points to port, it would have concealed her deck lights.<ref name = "bwcgroves01" />

Slightly after midnight, Second Officer Herbert Stone took watch from Groves. He testified that he, too, observed the ship, judging it to be about five miles away. He tried signalling her with the Morse lamp, also without success.<ref name="bwcstone01">{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq07Stone01.php | title = Testimony of Herbert Stone | access-date = 29 April 2016 | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project}}</ref> Apprentice officer James Gibson, who had been doing the Morse signalling, testified that at 00:55, Stone told him he had observed five rockets in the sky above the nearby ship.<ref name="bwcgibson01">{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq07Gibson01.php | title = Testimony of James Gibson | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 27 April 2016}}</ref> Stone testified that he had informed Captain Lord, although the British inquiry did not ask whether or not he communicated the number. Lord asked if the rockets had been a company signal, but Stone did not know. Lord and Stone both testified that Stone reported they were not distress signals.<ref name="uslord03" /><ref name="bwcstone01" /> Lord ordered Stone to tell him if anything about the ship changed, to keep signalling it with the Morse lamp, but did not order that it be contacted by wireless.<ref>{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|p=25}}</ref><ref name=DAB55>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=55}}</ref>

Gibson testified that Stone had expressed unease to him about the situation: "A ship is not going to fire rockets at sea for nothing", Stone said. "She looks very queer out of the water—her lights look queer."<ref name="bwcgibson01" /> Gibson observed, "She looks rather to have a big side out of the water", and he agreed that "everything was not all right with her"; that it was "a case of some kind of distress".<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq07Gibson02.php | title = Testimony of James Gibson, cont. | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 27 April 2016}}</ref> Stone, however, under increasingly incredulous questioning by the British inquiry, testified repeatedly that he did not think at the time that the rockets could have been distress signals,<ref name="stone02">{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq07Stone02.php | title = Testimony of Herbert Stone, cont. | access-date = 29 April 2016 | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project}}</ref> and that the possibility did not occur to him until he learned the ''Titanic'' had sunk.

By 02:00, the ship appeared to be leaving the area. A few minutes later, Gibson informed Captain Lord as such and that eight white rockets had been seen. Lord asked whether he was sure of the colour. Gibson said yes and left.<ref name="uslord03" /><ref name="bwcgibson01" />

At 02:20, ''Titanic'' sank. At 03:40, Stone and Gibson, still sharing the middle watch, spotted rockets to the south.<ref name = "bwcgibson01" /> They did not see the ship that was firing them, but at about this same time [[RMS Carpathia|RMS ''Carpathia'']] was coming quickly from the southeast, firing rockets to let ''Titanic'' know that help was on the way.<ref>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=94}}</ref> At 04:16, Chief Officer George F. Stewart relieved Stone, and almost immediately noticed, coming into view from the south, a brilliantly-lit, four-masted steamship with one funnel;<ref name="bwcstewart01">{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq08Stewart01.php | title=Testimony of George F. Stewart | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 29 April 2016}}</ref> ''Carpathia'' arrived on the scene shortly after 04:00.<ref>{{cite web | title = Electronic copies of the inquiries into the disaster | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/ | access-date = 29 April 2016 | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project}}</ref>
Captain Lord woke up at 04:30 and went out on deck to decide how to proceed past the ice to the west. He sent Stewart to wake Evans and find out what happened to the ship they had seen to the south. They subsequently learned from the ''Frankfurt'' that the ''Titanic'' had sunk overnight.<ref>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=96}}</ref><ref name="bwcstewart03">{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq08Stewart03.php | title=Testimony of George F. Stewart, cont. | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 29 April 2016}}</ref> Lord ordered the ship underway. ''Californian''{{'s}} course took her west, slowly passing through the ice field, after which she turned south. ''Californian'' was sighted at 06:00 by {{SS|Mount Temple}} steaming from the north. ''Californian'' actually passed the ''Carpathia'' to the west, then turned, and headed northeast back towards the rescue ship, arriving at 08:30.<ref name="Gérard Piouffre 2009 202">{{harvnb|Piouffre|2009|p=202}}</ref>

''Carpathia'' was just finishing picking up the last of ''Titanic''{{'s}} survivors. After communicating with ''Californian'', ''Carpathia'' left the area, leaving ''Californian'' to search for any other survivors. However, ''Californian'' only found scattered wreckage, empty [[Lifeboat (shipboard)|lifeboat]]s, and corpses,<ref>{{cite news |last1=Clarke |first1=Jim |title=History judges Titanic captains |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-manchester-17678822 |access-date=19 January 2018 |work=BBC News |date=11 April 2012}}</ref><ref name="Gérard Piouffre 2009 202"/> and continued on its route to America. Upon arrival, several key crew members, including Lord and Evans, were summoned to give evidence at the American inquiry. Evans also gave evidence at the British inquiry into the tragedy. Like others involved in the disaster, he was offered large sums of money from newspapers for his story, but he refused it.<ref>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=101}}</ref>

===Aftermath===
A [[United States Senate inquiry into the sinking of the Titanic|United States Senate inquiry into the sinking of the RMS ''Titanic'']] started on 19 April 1912, the day ''Californian'' arrived unnoticed in Boston. Initially, the world was unaware of her proximity to the disaster. On 22 April, the inquiry discovered that a ship near ''Titanic'', whose identity then was unknown, had failed to respond to the distress signals.<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|2008|pp=15–18}}</ref>

The next day, a small newspaper in New England, ''The Clinton Daily Item'', printed a story claiming that ''Californian'' had refused aid to ''Titanic''.<ref name="tis" /> The source for the story was ''Californian''{{'s}} carpenter, James McGregor, who stated that he had seen ''Titanic''{{'s}} lights and distress rockets. On the same day, the ''[[Boston American]]'' printed a story sourced by ''Californian''{{'}}s assistant engineer, Ernest Gill, with essentially the same account.

Captain Lord also spoke with several Boston area newspapers but gave conflicting accounts. In a ''Boston Traveller'' article dated 19 April, Lord claimed that his ship was 30 miles from ''Titanic'',<ref name="Lee 2008 13">{{harvnb|Lee|2008|p=13}}</ref> but in a ''[[Boston Post]]'' article dated 24 April, he claimed 20 miles.<ref>{{harvnb|Lee|2008|p=22}}</ref> Lord told the ''[[Boston Globe]]'' that his ship had spent three hours steaming around the wreck site trying to render assistance,<ref name="Lee 2008 13"/> but Third Officer Grove later stated that the search ended after two hours, at 10:40.<ref name = "bwcgroves02">{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq08Groves02.php | title = Testimony of Charles V. Groves | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 3 May 2016}}</ref> When reporters asked Lord about his exact position the night of the disaster, he refused to respond, calling such information "state secrets".<ref>{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=RdYQBgAAQBAJ&pg=253 | title = RMS Olympic | last = Hamer | first=John | date = 2013 | page = 253 | isbn = 978-1-291-63862-2 | publisher = Rossendale Books}}</ref>

After the newspaper revelations on 23 April, the U.S. Senate inquiry issued [[subpoena]]s for multiple members of the crew, including Gill and Lord. During his testimony, Gill repeated his claims.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/USInq/AmInq08Gill01.php | title = Testimony of Ernest Gill | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 27 April 2016}}</ref> Lord's testimony was conflicting and changing. He detailed three different ice conditions; he admitted knowing about the rockets, despite having told Boston newspapers that his ship had not seen any rockets, but insisted that they were not distress rockets.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/USInq/AmInq08Lord03.php | title = Testimony of Stanley Lord, cont. | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 27 April 2016 | quote = Senator SMITH: Captain, did you see any distress signals on Sunday night, either rockets or the Morse signals? Mr. LORD: No sir; I did not. The officer on watch saw some signals, but he said they were not distress signals.}}</ref> He also asserted they were fired not from ''Titanic'' but a small steamship, the so-called "third ship" of the night.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/USInq/AmInq08Lord03.php | title = Testimony of Stanley Lord, cont. | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 27 April 2016 | quote = "I said, 'This is not the Titanic; there is no doubt about it.'"}}</ref> Yet the testimony of Captain J. Knapp, [[U.S. Navy]], and a part of the [[United States Hydrographic Office|Navy Hydrographer's Office]], made clear that ''Titanic'' and ''Californian'' were in sight of each other, and no third vessel had been in the area.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/USInq/AmInq17Knapp01.php | title = Testimony of John J. Knapp | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 27 April 2016}}</ref>

The issue of ''Californian''{{'}}s so-called "scrap log" was also scrutinised; the unofficial log from which the information in the official log is drawn, having been approved by the captain. Company policy of [[International Mercantile Marine Co.]], the parent of both Leyland Line and the White Star Line, required scrap logs to be destroyed daily.<ref name="bwcstewart02">{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq08Stewart02.php | title=Testimony of George F. Stewart, cont. | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 29 April 2016}}</ref> The official log mentioned neither a nearby ship nor rockets. At the British inquiry, Stone was not asked to recall the notations he had actually written in the scrap log, during his bridge-watch between midnight and 4:00 on 15 April.<ref>{{cite book | title = Titanic and the Mystery Ship | last = Molony | first = Senan | page = 278 | date = 2006 | publisher = The History Press}}</ref>

On 2 May, the [[British Wreck Commissioner's inquiry into the sinking of the Titanic]] began. Again, Lord gave conflicting, inconsistent, and evasive testimony. The crew of ''Californian'' also gave conflicting testimonies. Most notably, Lord said he was not told that the nearby ship had disappeared, contradicting James Gibson, who testified he had reported it to Lord, who had acknowledged him.<ref name="bwcgibson01" />

By contrast, Captain [[Arthur Rostron]] of ''Carpathia'', at each inquiry, gave consistent and forthright testimony. During the British Inquiry, Rostron was asked to confirm an affidavit he had made to the United States Inquiry. Among the other things in his affidavit, he confirmed that "It was daylight at about 4.20 a.m. At 5 o'clock it was light enough to see all around the horizon. We then saw two steamships to the northwards, perhaps 7 or 8 miles distant. Neither of them was ''Californian''."<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq28Rostron02.php | title = Testimony of Arthur H. Rostron | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 27 April 2016}}</ref>

Also during the inquiries, ''Titanic'' survivors recalled seeing the lights of another ship after ''Titanic'' had hit the iceberg. To ''Titanic''{{'}}s Fourth Officer Boxhall, the other ship appeared to be off ''Titanic''{{'}}s bow, five miles (8&nbsp;km) away and heading in her direction. Just like ''Californian''{{'s}} officers, Boxhall attempted signaling the ship with a Morse lamp, but received no response.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/BOTInq/BOTInq13Boxhall01.php | title = Testimony of Joseph G. Boxhall | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 27 April 2016}}</ref> However, ''Titanic'' lookout [[Frederick Fleet]], who was in the crow's nest when the iceberg was sighted and remained there for another forty minutes, testified at the US inquiry that he did not see the lights of another ship while in the crow's nest. He only saw a light later after leaving the ship on a lifeboat.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/USInq/AmInq04Fleet02.php | title = Testimony of Frederick Fleet | publisher = Titanic Inquiry Project | access-date = 27 April 2016}}</ref>

''Titanic''{{'}}s Captain Edward Smith had felt the ship was close enough that he ordered the first lifeboats launched on the port side to row over to the ship, drop off the passengers, and come back to ''Titanic'' for more. Moreover, lifeboat occupants reported the other ship's lights were seen from the lifeboats throughout the night; one lifeboat rowed towards them but never seemed to get any closer.<ref>{{cite book | title = 9 Hours to Hell, the Survivors' Story | first = W.B. | last = Bartlett | publisher = Amberly | date = 2010 | isbn = 9781848684225}}</ref>{{page needed | date = April 2016}}

Both the American and British inquires found that ''Californian'' must have been closer than the {{convert|19.5|mi|km}} claimed by Captain Lord, and that each ship was visible from the other. Indeed, when ''Carpathia'' arrived at the wreck site, a vessel was clearly seen to the north; this was later identified as ''Californian''.<ref>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=186}} "There was another vessel within sight of the Carpathia, facing to the west, north of where the Titanic's lifeboats waited, but clearly within visual distance of where the Titanic sank. It was the Californian."</ref> Both inquiries concluded that Captain Lord had failed to provide proper assistance to ''Titanic'', the British Inquiry concluding that had ''Californian'' rendering assistance "… might have saved many if not all of the lives that were lost".<ref name="bwccalifornian" />

In the months and years following the disaster, numerous preventive safety measures were enacted. The United States passed the [[Radio Act of 1912]], which required 24-hour radio watch on all ships in case of an emergency. The first [[International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea]] formed a treaty that also required 24-hour radio monitoring and standardized the use of distress rockets.

Despite the criticisms of Lord's conduct, no formal charges were ever brought against him. As a result, he had no right of appeal against the inquiry's findings.<ref name="auto">{{cite web | url = https://assets.digital.cabinet-office.gov.uk/media/54c15bf240f0b6158d000027/MAIBReport_ReappraisalOfEvidence-SSCalifornian-Titanic-1992.pdf#page=5 | title = RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN" | author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> | page = 18 | date = 2 April 1992 | publisher = Marine Accident Investigation Branch | access-date = 25 January 2018 }}</ref> The issue was not considered again until the publication of [[Walter Lord]]'s (unrelated to Captain Lord) book ''[[A Night to Remember (book)|A Night to Remember]]'' in 1955 and the release of the 1958 film [[A Night to Remember (1958 film)|of the same name]] prompted Lord to seek a re-hearing of the inquiry relating to his ship, to counter the allegations made in the book and his portrayal in the film. Petitions presented to the UK Government in 1965 and 1968 by the [[Mercantile Marine Service Association]] (MMSA), a union to which Captain Lord belonged, failed to get the matter re-examined.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://assets.digital.cabinet-office.gov.uk/media/54c15bf240f0b6158d000027/MAIBReport_ReappraisalOfEvidence-SSCalifornian-Titanic-1992.pdf#page=5 | title = RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN" | author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> | page = 1 | date = 2 April 1992 | publisher = Marine Accident Investigation Branch | access-date = 27 April 2016 }}</ref> However, when the wreck of the ''Titanic'' was discovered by Ballard's expedition in 1985, it was found to be 13 miles from its reported position (the location accepted by both inquiries), so the Board of Trade ordered a re-examination.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://assets.digital.cabinet-office.gov.uk/media/54c15bf240f0b6158d000027/MAIBReport_ReappraisalOfEvidence-SSCalifornian-Titanic-1992.pdf#page=6 | title = RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN" | author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> | page = 2 | date = 2 April 1992 | publisher = Marine Accident Investigation Branch | access-date = 27 April 2016 }}</ref>

The British Government's [[Marine Accident Investigation Branch]] (MAIB) concluded its reappraisal of evidence in 1992. The conclusions were those of Deputy Chief Inspector, James de Coverly, stating: "What is significant, however, is that no ship was seen by the ''Titanic'' until well after the collision{{Nbsp}}… watch was maintained with officers on the bridge and seamen in the crow's nest, and with their ship in grave danger the lookout for another vessel which could come to their help must have been most anxious and keen. It is in my view inconceivable that ''Californian'' or any other ship was within the visible horizon of the ''Titanic'' during that period; it equally follows that the ''Titanic'' can't have been within the ''Californian's'' horizon." The report went on: "More probably, in my view, the ship seen by ''Californian'' was another, unidentified, vessel."<ref name="reappraisalp12">{{cite web | url = https://assets.digital.cabinet-office.gov.uk/media/54c15bf240f0b6158d000027/MAIBReport_ReappraisalOfEvidence-SSCalifornian-Titanic-1992.pdf#page=16 | title = RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN" | author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> | page = 12 | date = 2 April 1992 | publisher = Marine Accident Investigation Branch | access-date = 27 April 2016}}</ref>

The original investigator of the 1992 reappraisal was a Captain Barnett, who unlike de Coverly, concluded "that the ''Titanic'' ''was'' seen by the ''Californian'' and indeed kept under observation from 23:00 or soon after on 14 April until she sank{{Nbsp}}... [based on] the evidence from Captain Lord and the two watch officers, Mr. Grove and Mr. Stone".<ref name="reappraisalp12" /> It was after Barnett's original report was submitted that Captain de Coverly was given the task of further examination. Both Barnett and de Coverly had concluded that ''Titanic''{{'s}} rockets had been seen and that Stone and Lord had not responded appropriately to signals of distress.

The 1992 MAIB report concluded that Captain Lord and his crew's actions "fell far short of what was needed,"<ref>{{cite web | url = https://assets.digital.cabinet-office.gov.uk/media/54c15bf240f0b6158d000027/MAIBReport_ReappraisalOfEvidence-SSCalifornian-Titanic-1992.pdf#page=19 | title = RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN" | author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> | page = 15 | date = 2 April 1992 | publisher = Marine Accident Investigation Branch | access-date = 27 April 2016}}</ref> but conceded that absent this, ''Californian'' could not have arrived on the scene until "well after the sinking".<ref name="auto" /> It also noted that when he did know of ''Titanic''{{'s}} distress, Lord twice took his ship across an ice field to help search for survivors.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://assets.digital.cabinet-office.gov.uk/media/54c15bf240f0b6158d000027/MAIBReport_ReappraisalOfEvidence-SSCalifornian-Titanic-1992.pdf#page=5 | title = RMS "TITANIC" Reappraisal of Evidence Relating to SS "CALIFORNIAN" | author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> | page = 16 | date = 2 April 1992 | publisher = Marine Accident Investigation Branch | access-date = 25 January 2018 }}</ref> Captain Lord's chief defender, union attorney Leslie Harrison, who had led the fight to have the ''Californian'' incident re-examined by the British government, called the dual conclusions of the report "an admission of failure to achieve the purpose of the reappraisal".<ref>{{cite book | title = A Titanic Myth: The Californian Incident | date = 1992 | publisher = S.P.A | isbn = 9781854211842 | last = Harrison | first = Leslie}}{{page needed|date = April 2016}}</ref>

Author Paul Lee accused Captain Lord of an "inability or unwillingness to adjust to an entirely new situation".<ref name="tis">{{harvnb|Lee|2008|p=180}}</ref> Although Lord had stopped his ship upon encountering ice, the British inquiry concluded that if ''Californian'' had acted upon the rockets and pushed through the ice, ''Californian'' "might have saved many, if not all, of the lives that were lost".<ref name="bwccalifornian" /> The U.S Senate inquiry was also critical of Lord's inaction, the final report stating that "such conduct, whether arising from indifference or gross carelessness, is most reprehensible, and places upon the commander the ''Californian'' a grave responsibility".<ref name="pleasforhelp" />

Senator [[William Alden Smith]], in a speech to the U.S. Senate inquiry, said: "the failure of Capt. Lord to arouse the wireless operator on his ship, who could have easily ascertained the name of the vessel in distress and reached her in time to avert loss of life, places a tremendous responsibility upon this officer from which it will be very difficult for him to escape".<ref name = "sensmith">{{cite web | url = http://www.titanicinquiry.org/USInq/USReport/AmInqRepSmith02.php | title = Speech of Senator William Alden Smith, cont. | publisher = United States Senate Inquiry | access-date = 27 April 2016}}</ref> Author Daniel Allen Butler wrote: "The crime of Stanley Lord was not that he may have ignored the ''Titanic's'' rockets, but that he unquestionably ignored ''someone's'' cry for help."<ref>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=199}}</ref>

Others have suggested that, considering all the circumstances, there was actually little if anything ''Californian'' could have done to prevent or reduce the loss of life. Allegations have been made that trade unions defending Captain Lord succeeded in influencing the reports from the official investigations before they were available to the public.<ref name="unsinkablebook">{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5NykAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA241 | title = Unsinkable: The Full Story | last = Butler | first = Daniel Allen | date = 2011 | page = 241 | publisher = Frontline Books| isbn = 9781848326415 }}</ref> Williams and Kamps wrote in ''Titanic and the Californian'': "Bearing [the] distance in mind, and recalling that a mere fifty-five minutes had elapsed from the time Captain Lord was first informed about the rockets to the moment the ''Titanic'' slipped beneath the waves, it would have been nothing short of a miracle for Lord to bring his ship to the ''Titanic'' and effect a rescue in such a short space of time."<ref>{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tyY7AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA98 | title = Titanic and the Californian | last1 = Williams | last2=Kamps | first1=Thomas | first2=Rob | date = 2007 | page = 98 | publisher = The History Press | access-date = 27 April 2016| isbn = 9780752467610 }}</ref>

''Titanic'' historian Tim Maltin<!--Q119846417--> theorized{{Clarify|reason=If this is not the accepted viewpoint then it is not a theory. It should be 'hypothesis' (if testable) or 'conjecture' (if simply a guess).|date=August 2021}} that ''Californian''{{'}}s inaction was the result of a cold water mirage, or [[superior mirage]], arising from differences in air temperature over the warmer waters of the Atlantic Ocean and the colder waters of the Labrador Current. Maltin suggested that this would cause a superior refraction, superimposing and stretching and distorting the edge of the sea and lifting images of objects, distorting their appearance. This would explain why the ''Titanic''{{'s}} Morse lamp was believed to be a flickering oil lamp on the mast of a much smaller ship, and why Capt. Lord thought the ''Titanic'' was a different vessel. If correct, Maltin's theory may further explain why the ''Titanic''{{'s}} lookouts did not spot the iceberg earlier.<ref>{{cite AV media |people= Levy, Nigel (Director)|date= 15 April 2012|title= Titanic's Final Mystery|medium= Motion Picture|language= en|location= Various|publisher= Breen, Simon}}</ref>

Cyril Evans continued his service with the [[Marconi Company|Marconi's Wireless Telegraph Company]] and its successor companies (Eastern Telegraph Company and Cable & Wireless: the later part of his career was spent as manager for Cable and Wireless on the West Indian island of [[St Lucia]]) for the rest of his life. He also served at sea in [[World War I]] and [[World War II]], running mobile telecommunications for the [[British Army]] in North Africa and then Italy. He married and raised a family. In the film ''[[A Night to Remember (1958 film)|A Night to Remember]]'', Evans was portrayed by [[Geoffrey Bayldon]].<ref>{{cite web |title=A Night to Remember (1958) Full Cast & Crew |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0051994/fullcredits/?ref_=tt_cl_sm |website=www.imdb.com |access-date=2 July 2023}}</ref>

==Later career and sinking==
{{Location map many|Greece
| width = 300px
| lat_deg = 35
| lat_min = 32
| lat_sec = 30
| lat_dir = N
| lon_deg = 22
| lon_min = 06
| lon_sec = 06
| lon_dir = E
| mark =Diamond_sheer_black_20.png
| marksize = 20
| lat2_deg = 36
| lat2_min = 23
| lat2_sec = 06
| lat2_dir = N
| lon2_deg = 22
| lon2_min = 28
| lon2_sec = 58
| lon2_dir = E
| caption = Site of sinking (diamond), off Cape Matapan (red dot)}}

On 2 July 1913, ''Californian'' was docked in [[Veracruz (city)|Veracruz]] when a fire erupted in her {{Abbr|nos.|numbers}} 3 and 4 holds, sustaining serious damage to herself and her cargo.<ref name="flickr.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/dundeecityarchives/13086422434/|title=SS Californian|date=11 March 2014|via=Flickr}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/titanic-ships/californian.html|title = Californian}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=October 2020}}

''Californian'' continued in normal commercial service until [[World War I]], when the British government took control of her. She was responsible for transporting equipments and troops for the Allies mired in the [[Battle of Gallipoli]].<ref name=DAB214>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=214}}</ref>

At 07:45 on 9 November 1915, while en route from [[Thessaloniki]] to [[Marseille]] at a speed of 12 knots, with a French torpedo boat escort,<ref>[https://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/articles/Appendix-Summary-of-the%20Californians-Career-1902-1915.pdf The SS Californian and Dundee: Scotland’s Forgotten Leviathan by Harland Duzen, Appendix: Summary of the Californian’s Career 1902 -1915]</ref> she was torpedoed by the German U-boat {{SMU|U-34|Germany|6}}. The escort tried to take her under tow, but the tow rope broke at 13:20. During a second attempt at 14:15, she was torpedoed again by sister {{SMU|U-35|Germany|6}} and began to sink quickly. The crew evacuated onto the patrol boat, and finally ''Californian''<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.rulit.me/books/the-sea-hunters-ii-more-true-adventures-with-famous-shipwrecks-read-314988-70.html |title=Read online: "The Sea Hunters II: More True Adventures with Famous Shipwrecks" |author=Clive Cussler |page=70 |website=rulit.me |access-date=20 April 2020 |archive-date=9 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409111827/https://www.rulit.me/books/the-sea-hunters-ii-more-true-adventures-with-famous-shipwrecks-read-314988-70.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> sank in 10–13,000 feet of water, approximately {{convert|60|mi|nmi km|sigfig=1}} south-southwest of [[Cape Matapan]], Greece.  Fireman Richard John Harding<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/titanic-ships/californian.html|title=Californian|website=Encyclopedia Titanica}}</ref> was killed during the first torpedo attack, and two other firemen were scalded.<ref name="flickr.com"/> To date, ''Californian''{{'}}s wreck remains undiscovered.<ref>{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dDv573hawjcC&pg=PA153 | title = British Merchant Ships Sunk by U-boats in World War One | last=Tennent | first=A.J | page = 153 | date = 2006 | publisher = Periscope Publishing | access-date = 27 April 2016 | isbn = 9781904381365 }}</ref> ''Californian'' sunk less than {{convert|200|mi|nmi km}} from where {{ship|HMHS|Britannic}}, a sister ship to ''Titanic'', would sink only a little over a year later by striking a [[Naval mine|mine]] laid by German [[SM U-73]].<ref name=DAB215>{{harvnb|Butler|2009|p=215}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
The involvement of ''Californian'' in the sinking of the ''Titanic'' is examined in the 2012 BBC TV drama ''SOS''{{Snd}}''The Titanic Inquiry''. The drama tells the story of the original British Inquiry into the sinking of ''Titanic'', which decided, using the facts that were available at the time, whether ''Californian'' was in near enough proximity to the vessel to rescue some, if not all, of the 1,500 lives lost.<ref>{{cite news |title=Titanic drama focuses on Californian question |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-17703092 |access-date=29 June 2020 |work=BBC News |date=15 April 2012}}</ref>

The 2016 novel ''The Midnight Watch'' by David Dyer explores the ''Titanic'' tragedy from the perspective of the crew of ''Californian.'' The narrative centres around a fictional American reporter who tries to uncover what really happened on board ''Californian'' that fateful night.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Krist|first=Gary|date=2016-04-29|title='The Midnight Watch,' by David Dyer (Published 2016)|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/01/books/review/the-midnight-watch-by-david-dyer.html|access-date=2021-01-01|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite web | title=Caledon Built – Dundee Ships | url=http://www.fdca.org.uk/pdf%20files/Caledon%20C.pdf|website=Friends of Dundee City Archives | publisher=Friends of Dundee | access-date=28 April 2015}}
* {{cite book|last=Butler|first=Daniel Allen|title=The Other Side of the Night: The Carpathia, the Californian and the Night the Titanic Was Lost|publisher=Casemate Publishers|year=2009|isbn=978-1-935149-02-6}}
* {{cite book|last=Chirnside|first=Mark|title=The Olympic-class ships: Olympic, Titanic, Britannic|publisher=Tempus|year=2004|isbn=0-7524-2868-3}}
* {{cite book|language=fr|last1=Codet|first1=François|last2=Mendez|first2=Olivier|last3=Dufief|first3=Alain|last4=Gavard-Perret|first4=Franck|title=Les Français du Titanic|location=Rennes|publisher=Marine Editions|year=2011|isbn=978-2-35743-065-5}}
* {{cite book | title = The Titanic and the Indifferent Stranger | last = Lee | first = Paul | date = 2008 | publisher = Paul Lee | isbn = 978-0-9563015-0-5}}
* {{cite book | last=Lord | first=Walter | title=A Night to Remember | date=1955 | publisher=St. Martin's Griffin | location=New York, New York | isbn=978-0-8050-7764-3 | edition=2005}}
* {{cite book | url = http://www.maib.gov.uk/cms_resources/titanic.pdf | author=MAIB | title=''Titanic'': Reappraisal of Evidence}}
* {{Cite book | last = Tennent | first = A.J. | title=British Merchant Ships Sunk by U-boats in World War One | publisher=Periscope Publishing | year=2006 | location=Cornwall, U.K. | isbn = 978-1-904381-36-5}}
* {{cite book|language=fr|last=Piouffre|first=Gérard|title=Le Titanic ne répond plus|location=Paris|publisher=Larousse|year=2009|isbn=978-2-03-584196-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Riffenburgh|first=Beau|title=Toute l'histoire du Titanic|publisher=Sélection du Reader's Digest|year=2008|isbn=978-2-7098-1982-4}}

== Further reading ==
{{Refbegin}}
*Eaton, John P. and Haas, Charles A. ''Titanic: Triumph and Tragedy'' (2nd ed.). New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 1995.
*Halpern, Samuel. ''Strangers on the Horizon: Titanic and Californian – A Forensic Approach'', 2019.
*Lord, Walter. ''[[The Night Lives On]]''. Morrow and Company, 1986.
*Lynch, Donald and [[Ken Marschall|Marschall, Ken]]. ''Titanic: An Illustrated History''. Hyperion, 1995.
*Molony, Senan. ''Titanic and the Mystery Ship''. Tempus Publishing, 2006.
*[[Peter Padfield|Padfield, Peter]]. ''The Titanic and the Californian''. The John Day Company, 1965.
*Reade, Leslie. ''The Ship That Stood Still: The Californian and Her Mysterious Role in the Titanic Disaster''. W. W. Norton & Co Inc, 1993.
*Dyer, David (2016), ''The Midnight Watch'', Atlantic Books, 2016
{{Refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/manifest.php?q=7 ''Californian'' Crew List with Biographies]
*[http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/biography/2459/ Captain Stanley Lord]
*[http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/ship.php?id=149 SS ''Californian'']
*[http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/mount_temple_pv.html A PV Solves a Puzzle] by Senan Molony
*[http://www.encyclopedia-titanica.org/californian-incident.html The Californian Incident, A Reality Check]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070220111159/http://home.earthlink.net/~dnitzer/Titanic.html The ''Titanic'' and the ''Californian'']

{{coord|35|32|30|N|22|06|06|E|display=title}}
{{1912 shipwrecks}}
{{November 1915 shipwrecks}}
{{RMS Titanic}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Californian}}
[[Category:Steamships of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Merchant ships of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Sinking of RMS Titanic]]
[[Category:Ships built in Dundee]]
[[Category:Ships of the Leyland Line]]
[[Category:Ships sunk by German submarines in World War I]]
[[Category:1901 ships]]
[[Category:Maritime incidents in 1912]]
[[Category:Maritime incidents in 1915]]
[[Category:World War I shipwrecks in the Mediterranean Sea]]