View source for Chamorro language

{{short description|Austronesian language of the Mariana Islands}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{Infobox language
| name             = Chamorro
| nativename       = {{lang|ch|Finuʼ Chamorro}}<br/>{{lang|ch|Finoʼ CHamoru}}
| states           = [[Guam]], [[Northern Mariana Islands]]
| region           = [[Mariana Islands]]
| ethnicity        = [[Chamorro people|Chamorro]]
| speakers         = 58,000
| date             = 2005–2015
| ref              = e19
| familycolor      = Austronesian
| fam2             = [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian]]
| nation           = {{flag|Guam}} <br /> {{flag|Northern Mariana Islands}}
| map2             = Lang Status 80-VU.svg
| mapcaption2      = {{center|{{small|Chamorro is classified as Vulnerable by the [[UNESCO]] ''[[Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger]]''.}}}}
| iso1             = ch
| iso2             = cha
| iso3             = cha
| glotto           = cham1312
| glottorefname    = Chamorro
| notice           = IPA
| map              = Mariana Islands.PNG
| script           = Latin
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|/ˈfinoʔ t͡sɑˈmoɾu/}}
}}
'''Chamorro''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|tʃ|ə|ˈ|m|ɔr|oʊ}}, {{respell|chə|MOR|oh}};<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-08-05 |title=Definition of ''Chamorro'' |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Chamorro |access-date=2024-09-01 |website=www.merriam-webster.com |language=en}}</ref> {{langx|ch|Finuʼ Chamorro|label=[[endonym]]}} [Northern Mariana Islands] or {{lang|ch|Finoʼ CHamoru}} [Guam] {{IPA|/ˈfinoʔ t͡sɑˈmoɾu/}})<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chamorro Orthography Rules |url=https://www.guampedia.com/chamorro-orthography-rules/ |access-date=20 August 2020 |website=Guampedia |archive-date=22 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922175451/https://www.guampedia.com/chamorro-orthography-rules/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> is an [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian language]] spoken by about 58,000 people, numbering about 25,800 on [[Guam]] and about 32,200 in the [[Northern Mariana Islands]] and elsewhere.<ref>{{Citation |title=Chamorro |date=2016 |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/19/language/cha/ |work=[[Ethnologue]] |edition=19th |access-date=4 April 2018 |archive-date=5 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405025129/https://www.ethnologue.com/19/language/cha/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> 

It is the historic native language of the [[Chamorro people]], who are [[indigenous people|indigenous]] to the [[Mariana Islands]], although it is less commonly spoken today than in the past. Chamorro has three distinct [[dialects]]: Guamanian, Rotanese, and that in the other Northern Mariana Islands (NMI).

==Classification==
Unlike most of its neighbors, Chamorro is not classified as a [[Micronesian languages|Micronesian]] or [[Polynesian languages|Polynesian]] language. Rather, like [[Palauan language|Palauan]], it possibly constitutes an independent branch of the [[Malayo-Polynesian languages|Malayo-Polynesian language family]].<ref>{{harvnb|Blust|2000|pp=83–122}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Alexander D. |year=2017 |title=The Western Malayo-Polynesian Problem |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=435–490 |doi=10.1353/ol.2017.0021|s2cid=149377092 }}</ref>

At the time the Spanish rule over Guam ended, it was thought that Chamorro was a semi-[[creole language]], with a substantial amount of the vocabulary of Spanish origin and beginning to have a high level of [[mutual intelligibility]] with Spanish. It is reported that even in the early 1920s, Spanish was reported to be a living language in Guam for commercial transactions, but the use of Spanish and Chamorro was rapidly declining as a result of English pressure.

Spanish influences in Chamorro exist due to three centuries of Spanish colonial rule. Many words in the Chamorro lexicon are of [[Latin]] etymological origin via Spanish, but the pronunciation of these [[loanword]]s has been [[:wikt:nativization|nativized]] to the [[phonology]] of Chamorro, and their use conforms to indigenous grammatical structures. Some authors consider Chamorro a [[mixed language]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rodriguez-Ponga |first=Rafael |title=Del español al Chamorro: Lenguas en contacto en el Pacífico |publisher=Ediciones Gondo |year=2009 |location=Madrid |language=es |trans-title=From Spanish to Chamorro: Languages in Contact in the Pacific |author-link=Rafael Rodriguez-Ponga y Salamanca}}</ref> under a historical point of view, even though it remains independent and unique. In his ''Chamorro Reference Grammar'', Donald M. Topping states:

<blockquote>"The most notable influence on Chamorro language and culture came from the Spanish.... There was wholesale borrowing of Spanish words and phrases into Chamorro, and there was even some borrowing from the Spanish sound system. But this borrowing was linguistically superficial. The bones of the Chamorro language remained intact.... In virtually all cases of borrowing, Spanish words were forced to conform to the Chamorro sound system.... While Spanish may have left a lasting mark on Chamorro vocabulary, as it did on many Philippine and South American languages, it had virtually no effect on Chamorro grammar.... The Japanese influence on Chamorro was much greater than that of German but much less than Spanish. Once again, the linguistic influence was restricted exclusively to vocabulary items, many of which refer to manufactured objects...."<ref name=ChamRefGram>{{cite book|last=Topping|first=Donald|title=Chamorro Reference Grammar|year=1973|publisher=University Press of Hawaii|isbn=978-0-8248-0269-1|pages=6 and 7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iUQle0R4Y3sC}}</ref></blockquote>

In contrast, in the essays found in {{lang|es|Del español al chamorro. Lenguas en contacto en el Pacífico}} (2009), [[Rafael Rodriguez-Ponga y Salamanca|Rafael Rodríguez-Ponga]] refers to modern Chamorro as a "mixed language" of "Hispanic-Austronesian" origins and estimates that approximately 50% of the Chamorro lexicon comes from Spanish, whose contribution goes far beyond loanwords.

Rodríguez-Ponga (1995) considers Chamorro to be either Spanish-Austronesian or a Spanish-Austronesian mixed language, or at least a language that has emerged from a process of contact and ''[[creolization]]'' on the island of Guam since modern Chamorro is influenced in vocabulary and has in its grammar many elements of Spanish origin: [[verb]]s, articles, [[preposition]]s, [[numeral (linguistics)|numerals]], [[conjunction (grammar)|conjunctions]], etc.<ref name="RPonga_cd">{{Cite thesis |last=Rodríguez-Ponga |first=Rafael |title=El elemento español en la lengua chamorra (Islas Marianas) |date=1995 |degree=Doctoral |publisher=Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Facultad de Filología |url=http://eprints.ucm.es/3664/ |language=es |trans-title=The Spanish element in the Chamorro language (Mariana Islands) |author-link=Rafael Rodriguez-Ponga y Salamanca |access-date=5 July 2010 |archive-date=27 June 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100627202213/http://eprints.ucm.es/3664/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

The process, which began in the 17th century and ended in the early 20th century, meant a profound change from the old Chamorro (paleo-Chamorro) to modern Chamorro (neo-Chamorro) in its [[grammar]], [[phonology]], and [[vocabulary]].<ref>[[Rafael Rodriguez-Ponga y Salamanca|Rafael Rodríguez-Ponga]], ''Of Spanish to Chamorro: Language in contact in the Pacific''. Madrid, Ediciones Gondo, 2009, www.edicionesgondo.com [http://www.edicionesgondo.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002161843/http://www.edicionesgondo.com/|date=2 October 2015}}[http://www.edicionesgondo.com/index.php?page=shop.product_details&flypage=shop.flypage&product_id=68&category_id=&manufacturer_id=&option=com_virtuemart&Itemid=8] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151002121934/http://www.edicionesgondo.com/index.php?page=shop.product_details&flypage=shop.flypage&product_id=68&category_id=&manufacturer_id=&option=com_virtuemart&Itemid=8|date=2 October 2015}}</ref>

==Speakers==
[[File:Welcome to Guam2.JPG|thumb|right|The common greeting "{{lang|ch|Hafa Adai}}" at [[Antonio B. Won Pat International Airport]] on Guam. "''Hafa''" here is not written as "''Håfa''" as in the newer, standardised orthography.]]
The Chamorro language is threatened, with a precipitous drop in language fluency over the past century. It is estimated that 75% of the population of Guam was literate in the Chamorro language around the time the United States captured the island during the [[Spanish–American War]]<ref>{{Cite book |title=A Complete History of Guam |last1=Carano |first1=Paul |last2=Sanchez |first2=Pedro |publisher=Charles Tuttle Co. |year=1964 |location=Tokyo and Rutland, VT}}</ref> (there are no similar language fluency estimates for other areas of the [[Mariana Islands]] during this time). A century later, the 2000 U.S. Census showed that fewer than 20% of Chamorros living in Guam speak their heritage language fluently, and the vast majority of those were over the age of 55.

A number of forces have contributed to the steep, post-World War II decline of Chamorro language fluency. There is a long history of colonization of the Marianas, beginning with the Spanish colonization in 1668 and, eventually, the American acquisition of Guam in 1898 (whose hegemony continues to this day). This imposed power structures privileging the language of the region's colonizers. According to estimates, a large majority, as stated above (75%), maintained active knowledge of the Chamorro language even during the Spanish colonial era, but this was all to change with the advent of [[American imperialism]] and enforcement of the English language.

In Guam, the language suffered additional suppression when the U.S. government banned the Chamorro language in schools and workplaces in 1922, destroying all Chamorro dictionaries.<ref>Skutnabb-Kangas 2000: 206; Mühlhäusler 1996: 109; Benton 1981: 122</ref> Similar policies were undertaken by the Japanese government when they controlled the region during World War II. After the war, when Guam was recaptured by the United States, American administrators of the island continued to impose "no Chamorro" restrictions in local schools, teaching only English and [[Corporal punishment|disciplining]] students for speaking their indigenous tongue.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Education During the US Naval Era |url=http://guampedia.com/u-s-naval-era-education/ |access-date=2013-04-22 |website=Guampedia |date=29 September 2009 |archive-date=30 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100530220718/http://guampedia.com/u-s-naval-era-education/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

While these oppressive language policies were progressively lifted, Chamorro usage had substantially decreased. Subsequent generations were often raised in households where only the oldest family members were fluent. Lack of exposure made it increasingly difficult to pick up Chamorro as a second language. Within a few generations, English replaced Chamorro as the language of daily life.{{Citation needed|date=March 2013}}

There is a difference in the rate of Chamorro language fluency between Guam and the rest of the Marianas. On Guam the number of native Chamorro speakers has dwindled since the mid-1990s. In the Northern Mariana Islands (NMI), younger Chamorros speak the language fluently but prefer English when speaking to their children. Chamorro is common in Chamorro households in the Northern Marianas, but fluency has greatly decreased among Guamanian Chamorros during the years of American rule in favor of the [[American English]] commonplace throughout the Marianas.

Today, NMI Chamorros and Guamanian Chamorros disagree strongly on each other's linguistic fluency. An NMI Chamorro would say Guamanian Chamorros speak "broken" Chamorro (i.e., incorrect), whereas a Guamanian Chamorro might consider the form used by NMI Chamorros to be archaic.{{Citation needed|date=March 2019}}

== Revitalization efforts ==
Representatives from Guam have unsuccessfully lobbied the United States to take action to promote and protect the language.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}

In 2013, "Guam will be instituting [https://www.guamlegislature.com/Public_Laws_31st/P.L.%2031-45%20SBill%20No.%2095-31.pdf Public Law 31–45], which increases the teaching of the Chamorro language and culture in Guam schools", extending instruction to include grades 7–10.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.openequalfree.org/ed-news/guam-to-increase-education-in-indigenous-language-culture |title=Guam to Increase Education in Indigenous Language and Culture |last=Jones |first=Michael |date=29 August 2012 |website=Open Equal Free. Education. Development |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906155659/http://www.openequalfree.org/ed-news/guam-to-increase-education-in-indigenous-language-culture |archive-date=6 September 2014 |access-date=2012-09-06 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

Other efforts have been made in recent times, most notably Chamorro immersion schools. One example is Huråo Guåhan Academy at Chamorro Village in downtown Hagåtña. This program is led by Ann Marie Arceo and her husband, Ray. According to the academy's official [[YouTube]] page, "Huråo Academy is one if not the first Chamoru Immersion Schools that focus on the teaching of Chamoru language and Self-identity on Guam. Huråo was founded as a non-profit in June 2005."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/user/HuraoGuahan/about |title=Hurao Guahan |website=YouTube |access-date=19 April 2015 |archive-date=7 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307142126/https://www.youtube.com/user/HuraoGuahan/about |url-status=live }}</ref> The academy has been praised by many for the continuity of the Chamoru language.

Other creative ways to incorporate and promote the Chamorro language have been found in the use of applications for smartphones, internet videos and television. From Chamorro dictionaries,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.chamorrodictionary |url-status=dead |title=Archived copy |access-date=19 April 2015 |archive-date=1 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501233657/https://play.google.com/store/apps/details?id=com.chamorrodictionary }}</ref> to the most recent "Speak Chamorro" app,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sablan |first=Jerick |date=19 March 2015 |title=Apps Help Users Speak, Learn Chamorro |work=Pacific Daily News |url=http://www.guampdn.com/article/20150319/NEWS01/303190006/Apps-help-users-speak-learn-Chamorro |url-status=dead |access-date=2015-04-19 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150419034754/http://www.guampdn.com/article/20150319/NEWS01/303190006/Apps-help-users-speak-learn-Chamorro |archive-date=19 April 2015 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> efforts are growing and expanding in ways to preserve and protect the Chamorro language and identity.

On YouTube, a popular Chamorro soap opera ''Siha''<ref>{{Cite news |last=Martinez |first=Lacee A. C. |date=27 March 2014 |title=Group Produces Chamorro Soap Opera: ''Siha'' Can Be Watched on YouTube |work=Pacific Daily News |url=http://www.guampdn.com/article/20140328/LIFESTYLE/303280019/Group-produces-Chamorro-soap-opera-Siha-can-watched-YouTube |url-status=dead |access-date=2015-04-19 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150419034753/http://www.guampdn.com/article/20140328/LIFESTYLE/303280019/Group-produces-Chamorro-soap-opera-Siha-can-watched-YouTube |archive-date=19 April 2015 |df=dmy-all}}</ref> has received mostly positive feedback from native Chamorro speakers on its ability to weave dramatics, the Chamorro language, and island culture into an entertaining program. On TV, ''Nihi! Kids'' is a first-of-its-kind show, because it is targeted "for Guam's nenis that aims to perpetuate Chamoru language and culture while encouraging environmental stewardship, healthy choices and character development."<ref>{{Citation |title=NIHI! |url=https://www.nihiguam.org/ |access-date=16 October 2019 |archive-date=16 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016152935/https://www.nihiguam.org/ |url-status=live }}{{Citation |title=NIHI! |url=https://www.nihiguam.org/ |access-date=16 October 2019 |archive-date=16 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016152935/https://www.nihiguam.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2019, local news station [[KUAM-TV|KUAM]] News began a series of videos on their YouTube channel, featuring University of Guam's Dr. [[Michael Lujan Bevacqua|Michael Bevacqua]].<ref>
{{cite web |url=https://www.guampdn.com/opinion/bevacqua-focus-on-keeping-a-language-alive-keeping-it-a-living-part-of-the-speaking/article_741d2838-bb9b-11ec-ba63-b3dfb5259019.html |title=Bevacqua: Focus on keeping a language alive; keeping it a living part of the speaking community |date=14 Apr 2022 |website= |publisher=Pacific Daily News |access-date=31 Jan 2024 |quote=}}</ref>

==Phonology==
Chamorro has 24 [[phoneme]]s: 18 are [[consonant]]s and six are [[vowel]]s.

===Vowels===
Chamorro has at least 6 vowels, which include: 
* {{IPAslink|ɑ}}, [[open back unrounded vowel]] equivalent to the "a" in ''f'''a'''ther''. 
* {{IPAslink|æ}}, [[near-open front unrounded vowel]] equivalent to the "a" in ''c'''a'''t''. 
* {{IPAslink|e}}, [[close-mid front unrounded vowel]] equivalent to the "e" in the Received Pronunciation of ''m'''e'''t''. 
* {{IPAslink|i}}, [[close front unrounded vowel]] equivalent to the "ee" in ''sl'''ee'''p''. 
* {{IPAslink|o}}, [[close-mid back unrounded vowel]] equivalent to the "o" in ''c'''o'''rn''.
* {{IPAslink|u}}, [[close back rounded vowel]] equivalent to the "u" in ''fl'''u'''''.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+Table of vowel phonemes of Chamorro
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|- style="text-align: center;"
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|i}}
|{{IPA link|u}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
![[Mid vowel|Mid]]
|{{IPA link|e}}
|{{IPA link|o}}
|- style="text-align: center;"
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|{{IPA link|æ}}
|{{IPA link|ɑ}}
|}

===Consonants===
Below is a chart of Chamorro consonants; all are unaspirated.

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Table of consonant phonemes of Chamorro
!
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]/<br />[[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
! [[Nasal stop|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
| {{IPA link|n}}
| {{IPA link|ɲ}}
| {{IPA link|ŋ}}
|
|-
! [[Plosive]]
| {{IPA link|p}} {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|t}} {{IPA link|d}}
|
| {{IPA link|k}} {{IPA link|ɡ}} {{IPA link|kʷ}} {{IPA link|ɡʷ}}
| {{IPA link|ʔ}}
|-
! [[Affricate]]
|
| {{IPA link|t̪͡s̪}} {{IPA link|d̪͡z̪}}
|
|
|
|-
! [[Fricative]]
| {{IPA link|f}}
| {{IPA link|s}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|h}}
|-
! [[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
|
| {{IPA link|ɾ}}~{{IPA link|ɻ}}
|
|
|
|-
! [[Approximant]]
| ({{IPA link|w}})
| {{IPA link|l}}
|
|
|
|}

* {{IPA|/w/}} does not occur initially.
* Affricates {{IPA|/t̪͡s̪ d̪͡z̪/}} can be realized as palatal {{IPA|[t͡ʃ d͡ʒ]}} before non-low front vowels.{{Sfnp|Chung|1983}}

=== Historical phonology ===
Words containing ''*-VC_CV-'' in [[Proto-Malayo-Polynesian language|Proto-Malayo-Polynesian]] were often syncopated to ''*-VCCV-''. This is most regular for words containing middle ''*ə'' ([[schwa]]), e.g. ''*qaləjaw'' → ''atdaw'' "sun", but sometimes also with other vowels, e.g. ''*[[qanitu]]'' → ''anti'' "soul, spirit, ghost". Then after this syncope, older ''*ə'' merged with ''u''. Later, ''*i'' and ''*u'' were lowered to ''e'' and ''o'' in closed syllables (''*demdem'' → ''homhom'' "dark"), or finally but preceded by a closed syllable (''*peResi'' → ''fokse'' "squeeze out", but ''afok'' "lime" → ''afuki'' "put lime on"). The phonemic split between {{IPAslink|ɑ}} and {{IPAslink|æ}} is still unexplained. Diphthongs ''*ay'' and ''*aw'' are still retained in Chamorro, while ''*uy'' has become ''i''.{{sfnp|Blust|2000|p=88–94}}

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Changes to consonants{{sfnp|Blust|2000|p=94}}
|-
! PMP
| ''*p''
| ''*t''
| ''*c''
| ''*k''
| ''*q''
|-
! Chamorro
| ''f''
| ''t''
| ''s''
| ''h''<br/>''∅'' (#_)<br/>''k''
| ''∅'' (#_)<br/>''ʔ''
|-
! PMP
| ''*b''
| ''*d''
| ''*z''
| ''*j''
| ''*R''
|-
! Chamorro
| ''p''
| ''h''<br/>''∅'' (_#)
| ''ch''
| ''ʔ''
| ''g''<br/>''k'' (_#)
|-
! PMP
| ''*l''
| ''*h''
| ''*w''
| ''*y''
|-
! Chamorro
| ''l''<br/>''t'' (_#)
| ''∅''
| ''gw''<br/>''g'' (_{''o'', ''u''})
| ''y'' {{IPAslink|dz}}
|}

If a word started with a vowel or ''*h'' (but not ''*q''), then [[prothesis (linguistics)|prothesis]] with ''gw'' or ''g'' (before ''o'' or ''u'') occurred: ''*aku'' → ''gwahu'' "I (emphatic)", ''*enem'' → ''gunum'' "six". Additionally, ''*-iaC'', ''*-ua(C)'', and ''*-auC'' have become ''-iyaC'', ''-ugwa(C)'', and ''-agoC'' respectively.{{sfnp|Blust|2000|p=97}}

==Grammar ==
Chamorro is a VSO or [[verb–subject–object]] language. However, the word order can be very flexible and change to SVO ([[subject-verb-object]]), like English, if necessary to convey different types of relative clauses depending on context and to stress parts of what someone is trying to say or convey. Again, that is subject to debate as those on Guam believe the Chamorro word order is flexible, but those in the NMI do not.

Chamorro is also an [[agglutinative language]], whose grammar allows [[root word]]s to be modified by a number of [[affixes]]. For example, {{lang|ch|masanganenñaihon}} 'talked a while (with/to)', passive marking prefix {{lang|ch|ma-}}, root verb {{lang|ch|sangan}}, referential suffix {{lang|ch|i}} 'to' (forced [[morphophonemic]]ally to change to ''e'') with [[excrescence (phonology)|excrescent]] consonant ''n'', and suffix {{lang|ch|ñaihon}} 'a short amount of time'. Thus {{lang|ch|Masanganenñaihon guiʼ}} 'He/she was told (something) for a while'.

Chamorro has many Spanish [[loanword]]s and other words have Spanish etymological roots (such as {{lang|ch|tenda}} 'shop/store' from Spanish {{lang|es|tienda}}), which may lead some to mistakenly conclude that the language is a [[Spanish-based creole languages|Spanish creole]], but Chamorro very much uses its loanwords in an Austronesian way ({{lang|ch|bumobola}} 'playing [[ball]]' from {{lang|ch|bola}} 'ball, play ball' with verbalizing [[infix]] {{lang|ch|-um-}} and [[reduplication]] of the first syllable of root).

Chamorro is a [[predicate (grammar)|predicate]]-initial [[head-marking]] language. It has a rich agreement system in the nominal and in the verbal domains.

Chamorro is also known for its [[wh-agreement]] in the verb. The agreement morphemes agree with features (roughly the [[grammatical case]] feature) of the question phrase and replace the regular subject–verb agreement in transitive realis clauses:<ref>Chung 1998:236 and passim</ref>

{{interlinear|number=(1)
|Ha faʼgåsi si Juan i kareta.
|{{gcl|3sSA|3rd singular Subject Agreement}} wash {{gcl|PND|Proper Noun Determiner, a special article used with names in Chamorro.}} Juan the car
|'Juan washed the car.'|lang=ch}}

{{interlinear|number=(2)
|Håyi fumaʼgåsi i kareta?
|who? WH{{gcl|[NOM]|the infix ''-um-'' is a WH-agreement morpheme for nominative question phrases.}}.wash the car
|'Who washed the car?|lang=ch}}

=== Pronouns ===
The following set of pronouns is found in Chamorro:<ref>{{Cite book |last=Zobel |first=Erik |url=https://www.academia.edu/35325165 |title=The History and Typology of Western Austronesian Voice Systems |date=2002 |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |editor-last=Wouk |editor-first=Fay |location=Canberra |pages=405–434 |chapter=The Position of Chamorro and Palauan in the Austronesian Family Tree: Evidence from Verb Morphosyntax |doi=10.15144/PL-518.405 |editor-last2=Ross |editor-first2=Malcolm |doi-access=free |access-date=22 June 2020 |archive-date=13 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201113192122/https://www.academia.edu/35325165/The_position_of_Chamorro_and_Palauan_in_the_Austronesian_family_tree_evidence_from_verb_morphosyntax |url-status=live}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!&nbsp;
!Free
!Absolutive
!Agentive
!Irrealis nominative 
!Possessive
|-
!1st person singular
|{{lang|ch|guåhu}}
|{{lang|ch|yuʼ}}
|{{lang|ch|hu}}
|{{lang|ch|(bai) hu}}
| {{lang|ch|-hu/-ku}}*
|-
!2nd person singular
|{{lang|ch|hågu}}
|{{lang|ch|hao}}
|{{lang|ch|un}}
|{{lang|ch|un}}
| {{lang|ch|-mu}}
|-
!3rd person singular
|{{lang|ch|guiya}}
|{{lang|ch|guiʼ}}
|{{lang|ch|ha}}
|{{lang|ch|u}}
| {{lang|ch|-ña}}
|-
!1st person plural inclusive
|{{lang|ch|hita}}
|{{lang|ch|hit}}
|{{lang|ch|ta}}
|{{lang|ch|(u) ta}}
| {{lang|ch|-ta}}
|-
!1st person plural exclusive
|{{lang|ch|hami}}
|{{lang|ch|ham}}
|{{lang|ch|in}}
|{{lang|ch|(bai) in}}
| {{lang|ch|-mami}}
|-
!2nd person plural
|{{lang|ch|hamyu}}
|{{lang|ch|hamyu}}
|{{lang|ch|en}}
|{{lang|ch|en}}
| {{lang|ch|-miyu}}
|-
!3rd person plural
|{{lang|ch|siha}}
|{{lang|ch|siha}}
|{{lang|ch|ma}}
|{{lang|ch|uha/u/uma}}
| {{lang|ch|-ñiha}}
|-
| colspan=6 | <small>* For 1st person singular possessives, the NMI orthography also lists ''-su'' and ''-tu'' as allomorphs of ''-hu'' following words ending in ''-s'' and ''-t'', respectively.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://people.ucsc.edu/~schung/Utugrafiha2010.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629120916/http://people.ucsc.edu/~schung/Utugrafiha2010.pdf |title=Utugrafihan Finu' Chamorro |pages=8 |access-date=25 February 2023 |archive-date=29 June 2011 }}</ref></small>

|}

==Orthography==
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|+ Chamorro alphabet
! colspan=2|Capital !! rowspan=2|Lowercase !! rowspan=2|IPA
|-
! Guam !! NMI
|-
| colspan=3|ʼ{{Efn|Does not occur word initially}} || | {{IPAslink|ʔ}} 
|-
|colspan=2|A || a || {{IPAslink|æ}} 
|-
|colspan=2|Å || å || {{IPAslink|ɑ}} 
|-
|colspan=2|B{{efn|name=end|Does not occur word finally}}{{efn|name=syl|Only syllable final when geminate}} || b || {{IPAslink|b}} 
|-
|CH{{efn|name=end}} || Ch || ch || {{IPAslink|ts}} 
|-
|colspan=2|D{{efn|name=end}}{{efn|name=syl}} || d || {{IPAslink|d}} 
|-
|colspan=2|E || e || {{IPAslink|e}} 
|-
|colspan=2|F || f || {{IPAslink|f}} 
|-
|colspan=2|G{{efn|name=end}}{{efn|name=syl}} || g || {{IPAslink|ɡ}} 
|-
|colspan=2|H{{efn|name=end}} || h || {{IPAslink|h}} 
|-
|colspan=2|I || i || {{IPAslink|i}} 
|-
|colspan=2|K || k || {{IPAslink|k}} 
|-
|colspan=2|L{{efn|name=end}}{{efn|name=syl}} || l || {{IPAslink|l}} 
|-
|colspan=2|M || m || {{IPAslink|m}} 
|-
|colspan=2|N || n || {{IPAslink|n}} 
|-
|colspan=2|Ñ{{efn|name=end}} || ñ || {{IPAslink|ɲ}} 
|-
|NG || Ng || ng || {{IPAslink|ŋ}} 
|-
|colspan=2|O || o || {{IPAslink|o}} 
|-
|colspan=2|P || p || {{IPAslink|p}} 
|-
|colspan=2|R{{efn|name=end}} || r || {{IPAslink|ɾ}} 
|-
|colspan=2|S || s || {{IPAslink|s}} 
|-
|colspan=2|T || t || {{IPAslink|t}} 
|-
|colspan=2|U || u || {{IPAslink|u}} 
|-
|colspan=2|Y{{efn|name=end}} || y || {{IPAslink|dz}} 
|}

{{notelist}}

The letters {{angbr|c}}, {{angbr|j}}, {{angbr|q}}, {{angbr|v}}, {{angbr|w}}, {{angbr|x}}, {{angbr|z}}, {{angbr|ll}}, and {{angbr|rr}} are only used in proper names.<ref name="UCHG">{{cite report |title=Utugrafihan CHamoru, Guåhan |author=Kumisión i Fino’ CHamoru yan i Fina’nå’guen i Historia yan i Lina’la’ i Taotao Tåno’ |date=September 2020 |url=https://kumisionchamoru.guam.gov/sites/default/files/utugrafihan_chamoru_guahan.pdf |archive-date=22 October 2023 |access-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231022151744/https://kumisionchamoru.guam.gov/sites/default/files/utugrafihan_chamoru_guahan.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In loanwords, some letter combinations in Chamorro sometimes represent single phonemes. For instance, "ci+[vowel]" and "ti+[vowel]" are both pronounced {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, as in {{lang|ch|hustisia}} ('justice') and the surname {{lang|ch|Concepcion}} (Spanish influence).

The letter {{angle bracket|y}} is usually (though not always) pronounced more like {{IPAblink|dz}} (cf. ''[[zheísmo]]'' in [[Rioplatense Spanish]]); it is also sometimes used to represent the same sound as the letter {{angbr|i}} by Guamanian speakers. The phonemes represented by {{angle bracket|n}} and {{angle bracket|ñ}} as well as {{angle bracket|a}} and {{angle bracket|å}} are not always distinguished in print. Thus the Guamanian place name spelled {{angbr|[[Yona, Guam|Yona]]}} is pronounced {{angbr|Dzonia}} {{IPA|[dzoɲa]}}, not {{IPA|*[jona]}} as might be expected. {{angle bracket|Ch}} is usually pronounced like {{IPAblink|ts}} rather than like English ''ch''. Chamorro {{angle bracket|r}} is usually a tap {{IPA|/ɾ/}}, but is rolled {{IPA|/r/}} between vowels, and it is a retroflex approximant {{IPA|/ɻ/}}, like English ''r,'' at the beginning of words. Words that begin with ''r'' in the Chamorro lexicon are exclusively loanwords.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}}

Chamorro has [[geminate consonant]]s which are written double {{angbr|gg}}, {{angbr|dd}}, {{angbr|kk}}, {{angbr|mm}}, {{angbr|ngng}}, {{angbr|pp}}, {{angbr|ss}}, and {{angbr|tt}}. Its native [[diphthong]]s are {{angbr|ai}} and {{angbr|ao}}, and {{angbr|oi}}, {{angbr|oe}}, {{angbr|ia}}, {{angbr|iu}}, and {{angbr|ie}} occur in loanwords. When {{angbr|i}} and another vowel are in [[vowel hiatus|hiatus]], (i.e., {{IPA|/i.e/}}, {{IPA|/i.o/}}, {{IPA|/i.a/}}, and {{IPA|/i.u/}}), they are spelled {{angbr|ihe}}, {{angbr|iho}}, {{angbr|iha}}, and {{angbr|ihu}}.<ref name="UCHG"/>

The default stress in Chamorro [[Penult|penultimate stress]], except where marked otherwise. If marked at all in writing, it is usually with an [[acute accent]], as in {{lang|ch|asút}} 'blue' or {{lang|ch|dángkulu}} 'big'. Unstressed vowels are limited to {{IPA|/ə i u/}}, though they are often spelled {{angbr|a e o}}. Syllables may end in at most one consonant, as in {{lang|ch|che’lu}} 'sibling', {{lang|ch|diskåtga}} 'unload', {{lang|ch|mamåhlåo}} 'shy', {{lang|ch|oppop}} 'lie face down', {{lang|ch|gåtus}} (Old Chamorro word for 100), or {{lang|ch|[[Hagåtña]]}} (capital of Guam).

Chamorro language orthography differs between NMI Chamorros and Guamanian Chamorros (example: NMI {{lang|ch|Chamorro}} vs. Guamanian {{lang|ch|CHamoru}}). In 2021, Guam's {{lang|ch|Kumisión I Fino' CHamoru}} (CHamoru Language Commission) released the {{lang|ch|Utgrafihan CHamoru}} as the [[Spelling reform|latest spelling standard]] for the local dialect and place names.<ref name="UCHG"/> The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands revised their official Chamorro orthography in 2010,<ref>Dipattamentun Kinalamtin Komunidåt yan Kuttura. [https://people.ucsc.edu/~schung/Utugrafiha2010.pdf Uttugrafihan Finu' Chamorro] (2010).</ref> which included a version translated into English.<ref>Dipattamentun Kinalamtin Komunidåt yan Kuttura. [https://people.ucsc.edu/~schung/ChamorroOrthogEng.pdf Chamorro Orthography]  (2010).</ref>

==Vocabulary==
=== Numbers ===
Current common Chamorro uses only the number words of Spanish origin: {{lang|ch|uno}}, {{lang|ch|dos}}, {{lang|ch|tres}}, etc. Old Chamorro used different number words based on categories: basic numbers (for date, time, etc.), living things, inanimate things, and long objects.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="2" | English 
! rowspan="2" |Spanish!! rowspan="2" | Modern Chamorro!! colspan="4" | Old Chamorro
|-
! Basic Numbers !! Living Things !! Inanimate Things !! Long Objects
|-
| one 
|{{lang|es|uno}}|| {{lang|ch|unu/una}} (time) || {{lang|ch|håcha}} || {{lang|ch|maisa}} || {{lang|ch|hachiyai}} || {{lang|ch|takhachun}}
|-
| two 
|{{lang|es|dos}}|| {{lang|ch|dos}} || {{lang|ch|hugua}} || {{lang|ch|hugua}} || {{lang|ch|hugiyai}} || {{lang|ch|takhuguan}}
|-
| three 
|{{lang|es|tres}}|| {{lang|ch|tres}} || {{lang|ch|tulu}} || {{lang|ch|tatu}} || {{lang|ch|toʼgiyai}} || {{lang|ch|taktulun}}
|-
| four 
|{{lang|es|cuatro}}|| {{lang|ch|kuåttruʼ}} || {{lang|ch|fatfat}} || {{lang|ch|fatfat}} || {{lang|ch|fatfatai}} || {{lang|ch|takfatun}}
|-
| five 
|{{lang|es|cinco}}|| {{lang|ch|singkuʼ}} || {{lang|ch|lima}} || {{lang|ch|lalima}} || {{lang|ch|limiyai}} || {{lang|ch|takliman}}
|-
| six 
|{{lang|es|seis}}|| {{lang|ch|sais}} || {{lang|ch|gunum}} || {{lang|ch|guagunum}} || {{lang|ch|gonmiyai}} || {{lang|ch|taʼgunum}}
|-
| seven 
|{{lang|es|siete}}|| {{lang|ch|sietti}} || {{lang|ch|fiti}} || {{lang|ch|fafiti}} || {{lang|ch|fitgiyai}} || {{lang|ch|takfitun}}
|-
| eight 
|{{lang|es|ocho}}|| {{lang|ch|ochuʼ}} || {{lang|ch|guåluʼ}} || {{lang|ch|guagualu}} || {{lang|ch|guatgiyai}} || {{lang|ch|taʼgualun}}
|-
| nine 
|{{lang|es|nueve}}|| {{lang|ch|nuebi}} || {{lang|ch|sigua}} || {{lang|ch|sasigua}} || {{lang|ch|sigiyai}} || {{lang|ch|taksiguan}}
|-
| ten 
|{{lang|es|diez}}|| {{lang|ch|dies}} || {{lang|ch|månot}} || {{lang|ch|maonot}} || {{lang|ch|manutai}} || {{lang|ch|takmaonton}}
|-
| hundred 
|{{lang|es|ciento}}|| {{lang|ch|siento}} || {{lang|ch|gåtus}} || {{lang|ch|gåtus}} || {{lang|ch|gåtus}} || {{lang|ch|gåtus/manapo}}
|}
* The number 10 and its multiples up to 90 are {{lang|ch|dies}} (10), {{lang|ch|benti}} (20), {{lang|ch|trenta}} (30), {{lang|ch|kuårenta}} (40), {{lang|ch|sinkuenta}} (50), {{lang|ch|sisenta}} (60), {{lang|ch|sitenta}} (70), {{lang|ch|ochenta}} (80), {{lang|ch|nubenta}} (90). These are similar to the corresponding Spanish terms {{lang|ch|diez}} (10), {{lang|ch|veinte}} (20), {{lang|ch|treinta}} (30), {{lang|ch|cuarenta}} (40), {{lang|ch|cincuenta}} (50), {{lang|ch|sesenta}} (60), {{lang|ch|setenta}} (70), {{lang|ch|ochenta}} (80), {{lang|ch|noventa}} (90).

===Days of the week===
Current common Chamorro uses only the days of the week which are Spanish in origin but are spelled and pronounced differently. There is currently an effort by Chamorro language advocates to introduce or re-introduce native terms for the Chamorro days of the week.
However, both major dialects differ in the terminology used. Guamanian advocates support a number-based system derived from Old Chamorro numerals, whereas the NMI advocates support a more unique system.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! rowspan="1" | English 
!Spanish!! rowspan="1" | Contemporary Chamorro !! rowspan="1" | Modern Chamorro (NMI Dialect)!! colspan="4" | Modern Chamorro (Guamanian Dialect)
|-
| Sunday 
|{{lang|es|Domingo}} || {{lang|ch|Damenggo/Damenggu}} || {{lang|ch|Gonggat}} || {{lang|ch|Hachåni}} (Day One)
|-
| Monday 
|{{lang|es|Lunes}} || {{lang|ch|Lunes/Lunis}} || {{lang|ch|Ha'åni}} (literally means 'day') || {{lang|ch|Haguåni}} (Day Two)
|-
| Tuesday 
|{{lang|es|Martes}} || {{lang|ch|Måttes/Måttis}} || {{lang|ch|Gua'åni}} || {{lang|ch|Tulåni}} (Day Three)
|-
| Wednesday 
|{{lang|es|Miércoles}} || {{lang|ch|Métkoles/Metkolis}} || {{lang|ch|Tolu'åni}} || {{lang|ch|Fatfåni}} (Day Four)
|-
| Thursday 
|{{lang|es|Jueves}} || {{lang|ch|Huebes/Huebis}} || {{lang|ch|Fa'guåni}} || {{lang|ch|Limåni}} (Day Five)
|-
| Friday 
|{{lang|es|Viernes}} || {{lang|ch|Betnes/Betnis}} || {{lang|ch|Nimpu'ak}} || {{lang|ch|Gunumåni}} (Day Six)
|-
| Saturday 
|{{lang|es|Sábado}} || {{lang|ch|Såbalu}} || {{lang|ch|Sambok}} || {{lang|ch|Fitåno}} (Day Seven)
|}

===Months===
Before the Spanish-based 12-month calendar became predominant, the Chamoru 13-month lunar calendar was commonly used. The first month in the left column below corresponds with January.

{| class="wikitable"
|+ Traditional Chamorro Months
!No. !! Cunningham<ref name="Cunningham">{{Cite book |last=Cunningham |first=Lawrence J. |title=Ancient Chamorro Society |publisher=The Bess Press |year=1992 |isbn=1-880188-05-8 |location=Honolulu, Hawaii |page=144}}</ref>  !! Topping{{sfn|Topping|Ogo|Dungca|1975}} !! Kumisión<ref name="UCHG"/>
|-
| 1 || {{lang|ch|Tumaiguini}} || {{lang|ch|Tumaiguini}} || {{lang|ch|Tumaiguini}}
|-
| 2 || {{lang|ch|Maimo}} || {{lang|ch|Maimo}} || {{lang|ch|Maimoʼ}}
|-
| 3 || {{lang|ch|Umatalaf}} || {{lang|ch|Umátalaf}} || {{lang|ch|Umatålaf}}
|-
| 4 || {{lang|ch|Lumuhu}} || {{lang|ch|Lumuhu}} || {{lang|ch|Lumuhu}}
|-
| 5 || {{lang|ch|Makmamao}} || {{lang|ch|Makmamao}} ||{{lang|ch|Makmamao}}
|-
| 6 || {{lang|ch|Mananaf}} or {{lang|ch|Fananaf}} || {{lang|ch|Mananaf}} || {{lang|ch|Manånaf}}
|-
| 7 || {{lang|ch|Semo}} || {{lang|ch|Semo}} || {{lang|ch|Semu}}
|-
| 8 || {{lang|ch|Tenhos}} || {{lang|ch|Tenhos}} || {{lang|ch|Tenhos}}
|-
| 9 || {{lang|ch|Lumamlam}} or {{lang|ch|Lamlam}} || {{lang|ch|Lumamlam}} || {{lang|ch|Lumåmlam}}
|-
| 10 || {{lang|ch|Fangualoʼ}} or {{lang|ch|Faʼgualo}} || {{lang|ch|Fagualoʼ}} || {{lang|ch|Fangguåloʼ}}
|-
| 11 || {{lang|ch|Sumongsong}} || {{lang|ch|Sumongsong}} || {{lang|ch|Sumongsong}}
|-
| 12 || {{lang|ch|Umayanggan}} || {{lang|ch|Umayangan}} || {{lang|ch|Umayanggan}}
|-
| 13 || {{lang|ch|Umagahaf}} or {{lang|ch|Omagahaf}} || --- || {{lang|ch|Umagåhaf}}
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+Gregorian Months
!No. || English || Topping{{sfn|Topping|Ogo|Dungca|1975}} || Kumisión<ref name="UCHG"/>
|-
|1 || January || {{lang|ch|Eneru}} || {{lang|ch|Ineru}}
|-
|2 || February || {{lang|ch|Febreru}} || {{lang|ch|Fibreru}}
|-
|3 || March || {{lang|ch|Matso}} || {{lang|ch|Måtso}}
|-
|4 || April || {{lang|ch|Abrít}} || {{lang|ch|Abrit}}
|-
|5 || May || {{lang|ch|Mayu}} || {{lang|ch|Måyu}}
|-
|6 || June || {{lang|ch|Junio}} || {{lang|ch|Hunio}}
|-
|7 || July || {{lang|ch|Julio}} || {{lang|ch|Hulio}}
|-
|8 || August || {{lang|ch|Agosto}} || {{lang|ch|Agosto}}
|-
|9 || September || {{lang|ch|Septembre}} || {{lang|ch|Septiembre}}
|-
|10 || October || {{lang|ch|Oktubre}} || {{lang|ch|Oktubri}}
|-
|11 || November || {{lang|ch|Nobiembre}} || {{lang|ch|Nubiembre}}
|-
|12 || December || {{lang|ch|Disiembre}} || {{lang|ch|Disiembre}}
|}

=== Basic phrases ===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-3}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{lang|ch|Håfa adai!}} / {{lang|ch|Håfa dei!}} (phonetic spelling) || 'Hello!'
|-
| {{lang|ch|Buenas}} [Spanish introduced] || 'Greetings'
|-
| {{lang|ch|Kao mamaolek hao?}} || 'How are you? [lit.: Are you doing well?][informal]
|-
| {{lang|ch|Håfa tatatmanu hao?}} || 'How are you? [formal]'
|-
| {{lang|ch|Håyi naʼån mu?}} || 'What is your name?'
|-
| {{lang|ch|I naʼån hu si Chris}} || 'My name is Chris.'
|-
| {{lang|ch|Ñålang yuʼ}} || 'I'm hungry.'
|-
| {{lang|ch|Måʼo yuʼ}} || 'I'm thirsty.'
|}
{{col-3}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{lang|ch|Adios}} or {{lang|ch|Esta}} [Spanish introduced] || 'Good bye.'
|-
| {{lang|ch|Put Fabot}} [Spanish introduced formal] or {{lang|ch|Fan}} [Chamorro informal] || 'please'
|-
| {{lang|ch|Fanatåtti}} [Indigenous] || 'leave later [informal]'
|- 
| {{lang|ch|Buenas dias}} [Spanish introduced] or {{lang|ch|Manana si Yuʼus}} (mostly used on Guam) || 'Good morning.'
|-
| {{lang|ch|Buenas tåtdes}} [Spanish introduced] || 'Good afternoon.'
|-
| {{lang|ch|Buenas noches}} [Spanish introduced] or {{lang|ch|Puengen Yuʼus}} || 'Good night.'
|}
{{col-3}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
| {{lang|ch|Esta/asta agupaʼ}} || 'Until tomorrow'
|-
| {{lang|ch|Si Yuʼus maʼåsiʼ}} || 'Thank you (lit: God have mercy)'
|-
| {{lang|ch|Buen probechu}} [Spanish introduced] or {{lang|ch|Hågu mås}}|| 'You're welcome'
|}
{{col-end}}

==Studies==
Chamorro is studied at the [[University of Guam]], the [[University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa|University of Hawai'i at Mānoa]] and in several academic institutions of Guam and the Northern Marianas.

Researchers in several countries are studying aspects of Chamorro. In 2009, the Chamorro Linguistics International Network (CHIN) was established in Bremen, Germany. CHiN was founded on the occasion of the Chamorro Day (27 September 2009) which was part of the programme of the Festival of Languages. The foundation ceremony was attended by people from Germany, Guam, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Spain, Switzerland, and the United States of America.<ref>The Maga’låhi (president) is Dr. Rafael Rodríguez-Ponga Salamanca (Madrid, Spain); Maga’låhi ni onrao (honorary president): Dr. Robert A. Underwood (president, University of Guam); Teniente maga’låhi (vice-president): Prof. Dr. Thomas Stolz (Universität Bremen).</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{Cite journal |last=Blust |first=Robert |year=2000 |title=Chamorro Historical Phonology |journal=Oceanic Linguistics |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |volume=39 |issue=1 |pages=83–122 |doi=10.1353/ol.2000.0002 |jstor=3623218}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Chung |first=Sandra |author-link=Sandra Chung |year=1983 |title=Transderivational Relationships in Chamorro Phonology |journal=Language |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=35–66 |doi=10.2307/414060 |jstor=414060}}
* {{Cite book |last=Chung |first=Sandra |author-link=Sandra Chung |title=The Design of Agreement: Evidence from Chamorro |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-226-10607-6 |location=Chicago}}
* {{Cite thesis |last=Rodríguez-Ponga |first=Rafael |title=El elemento español en la lengua chamorra |degree=PhD |publisher=[[Complutense University of Madrid]] |url=http://eprints.ucm.es/3664/ |hdl=20.500.14352/63537 |year=2003 |location=Madrid}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rodríguez-Ponga |first=Rafael |title=Del español al chamorro. Lenguas en contacto en el Pacífico |publisher=Ediciones Gondo |year=2009 |location=Madrid}}
* {{Cite book |last=Topping |first=Donald M. |title=Chamorro reference grammar |publisher=[[University of Hawaii Press]] |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-8248-0269-1 |location=Honolulu}}
* {{Cite book |last1=Topping |first1=Donald M. |title=Chamorro-English dictionary |last2=Ogo |first2=Pedro M. |last3=Dungca |first3=Bernadita C. |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1975 |isbn=978-0-8248-0353-7 |location=Honolulu}}
* {{Cite book |last=Topping |first=Donald M. |title=Spoken Chamorro: with grammatical notes and glossary |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-8248-0417-6 |edition=2nd |location=Honolulu}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Aguon |first=Katherine Bordallo |year=1995 |title=Chamorro: A Complete Course of Study |location=Agana, Guam |publisher=K.B. Aguon}}
** {{cite book |last=Aguon |first=Katerine Bordallo |title=Chamorro: A Complete Course of Study |edition=Revised |isbn=978-0964841109 |year=2007|publisher=K.B. Aguon }}
* {{cite book |author-link=Sandra Chung |last=Chung |first=Sandra |year=2020 |url=https://escholarship.org/content/qt2sx7w4h5/qt2sx7w4h5.pdf |title=Chamorro Grammar |place=Santa Cruz |publisher=University of California |doi=10.48330/E2159R |isbn=9780578718224 |doi-access=free}}

==External links==
{{InterWiki|Chamorro language|code=ch}}
{{Wikivoyage|Chamorro phrasebook|Chamorro phrasebook|an entry}}
{{wiktionary category}}
*[http://www.chamoru.info/dictionary/ Chamorro-English Online Dictionary] (''chamoru.info'' homepage)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050405213852/http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definition/Chamorro-english/ Webster's Chamorro-English Online Dictionary] (archived version)
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VJUK0Nb_D3Q Learn Chamoru! CHamoru sentences], videos by [[Michael Lujan Bevacqua|Michael Bevacqua]].
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20031119062318/http://www.chamorro.com/fino/fino.html Chamorro lessons]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20131223170220/http://ns.gov.gu/language.html Chamorro Language Lessons] (archived version)
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060613193013/http://www.offisland.com/thelanguage.html Chamorro/Chamoru – The Language] (archived version)
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=fu2Au0dreyYC Chamorro-English dictionary], partially available at Google Books.
*[https://books.google.com/books?id=iUQle0R4Y3sC Chamorro Reference Grammar], partially available at Google Books.
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20071212072402/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/austronesian/language.php?id=18 Chamorro Wordlist at the Austronesian Basic Vocabulary Database]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110716095102/http://www.fb10.uni-bremen.de/chin/ Chamorro Linguistics International Network] (CHIN).
*[[hdl:10125/33150|Text and software files from "Chamorro-English Dictionary]] (PALI Language Texts: Micronesia)" by Donald M. Topping, Pedro M. Ogo, and Bernadita C. Dungca, published in 1975 by University of Hawaii Press archived at [[Kaipuleohone]].
*[[hdl:10125/32780|Index cards of plant and animal names in Chamorro language]] in [[Kaipuleohone]].
{{Languages of the United States}}
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