View source for Languages of India

{{Short description|none}} <!-- "none" is preferred when the title is sufficiently descriptive; see [[WP:SDNONE]] -->
{{About|the general overview of Indian languages|historical context|Linguistic history of India}}
{{Distinguish|Languages of South Asia{{!}}Languages of the Indian subcontinent}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Use Indian English|date=April 2025}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox country languages
| country    = India
| official   = {{Plainlist|
* [[Hindi]]<ref name="constitution1"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.archive.india.gov.in/knowindia/profile.php?id=33|title=Official Language&nbsp;– The Union -Profile&nbsp;– Know India: National Portal of India|website=Archive.india.gov.in|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>
* [[English language|English]]<ref name="constitution1"/><ref name="governmentministry1" /><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-gFHBAAAQBAJ|title=Language, Culture, and Society: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology|first1=Zdenek|last1=Salzmann|first2=James|last2=Stanlaw|first3=Nobuko|last3=Adachi|date=8 July 2014|publisher=Westview Press|isbn=9780813349558|via=Google Books}}</ref>}}
| sign = {{Plainlist|
* [[Indo-Pakistani Sign Language]]
* [[Alipur Sign Language]]
* [[Naga Sign Language]] (extinct)
}}
| image      =Languages Of India by Mother-tongues.jpg
| caption    =States and union territories of India by the most commonly spoken (L1) first language<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf |title=50th Report of the Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities in India (July 2012 to June 2013) |publisher=Commissioner for Linguistic Minorities, Ministry of Minority Affairs, Government of India |access-date=17 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141226150914/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/NCLM50thReport.pdf |archive-date=26 December 2014}}</ref>
| regional   =
| indigenous =
| minority   =
| immigrant  = <!-- Please don't put too many languages here -->
| keyboard   = [[QWERTY]] and [[InScript keyboard]]
| keyboard image = [[File:KB United Kingdom.svg|200px]]<br/>[[File:Gujarati InScript Keyboard Layout.jpg|200px]]
| semi-official = {{Plainlist|
* [[Assamese language|Assamese]]
* [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
* [[Bodo language|Bodo]]
* [[Dogri language|Dogri]]
* [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
* [[Kannada]]
* [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]
* [[Konkani language|Konkani]]
* [[Maithili language|Maithili]]
* [[Malayalam]]
* [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
* [[Meitei language|Meitei]]
* [[Nepali language|Nepali]]
* [[Odia language|Odia]]
* [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
* [[Sanskrit]]
* [[Santali language|Santali]]
* [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]]
* [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
* [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
* [[Urdu]]
(total of official languages: 23, including 22 [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India|8th Schedule]] languages and additional official language, English)
}}}}

{{Culture of India}}

'''Languages of India''' belong to several [[list of language families|language families]], the major ones being the [[Indo-Aryan languages]] spoken by 78.05% of [[Indian people|Indians]] and the [[Dravidian languages]] spoken by 19.64% of Indians;<ref name="EBCIndoAryanLanguages">{{cite web|title=Indo-Aryan languages |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/286348/Indo-Aryan-languages |access-date=10 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="EBCDravidianLanguages">{{cite web|title= Hindi languages |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/171083/Dravidian-languages |access-date=10 December 2014}}</ref> both families together are sometimes known as [[languages of South Asia|Indic languages]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Kak|first=Subhash|title=Indic Language Families and Indo-European|url=https://www.academia.edu/45150016|journal=Yavanika|date=January 1996 |quote=The Indic family has the sub-families of North Indian and Dravidian}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|last1=Reynolds|first1=Mike|title=Indic languages|year=2007|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/language-in-the-british-isles/indic-languages/8343FABC094E91986DBD68A492FFEA1B|work=Language in the British Isles|pages=293–307|editor-last=Britain|editor-first=David|place=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-79488-6|access-date=4 October 2021|last2=Verma|first2=Mahendra}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kak|first=Subhash|title=On The Classification Of Indic Languages|url=https://www.ece.lsu.edu/kak/indic.pdf|journal=Louisiana State University}}</ref>{{efn|In modern and colloquial context, the term "'''Indic'''" also refers more generally to the languages of the [[Indian subcontinent]], thus also including non-Indo-Aryan languages. See e.g. {{cite book|last1=Reynolds |first1=Mike |chapter=Indic languages |date=2007 |chapter-url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/language-in-the-british-isles/indic-languages/8343FABC094E91986DBD68A492FFEA1B |title=Language in the British Isles |pages=293–307 |editor-last=Britain |editor-first=David |place=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-79488-6 |access-date=4 October 2021 |last2=Verma |first2=Mahendra}}}} Languages spoken by the remaining 2.31% of the population belong to the [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]], [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino–Tibetan]], [[Kra–Dai languages|Tai–Kadai]], [[Andamanese languages|Andamanese]], and a few other minor language families and [[language isolate|isolates]].<ref name="Moseley2008">{{cite book|last=Moseley|first=Christopher|title=Encyclopedia of the World's Endangered Languages|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p-7ON7Rvx_AC&pg=PT528|date=10 March 2008|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-79640-2}}</ref>{{rp|283}} According to the [[People's Linguistic Survey of India]], India has the [[Number of languages by country|second highest]] number of languages (780), after [[Papua New Guinea]] ([[Languages of Papua New Guinea|840]]).<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/politics-and-nation/seven-decades-after-independence-many-small-languages-in-india-facing-extinction-threat/articleshow/60038323.cms|title=Seven decades after Independence, many small languages in India face extinction threat|first=G.|last=Seetharaman|newspaper=The Economic Times |date=13 August 2017}}</ref> ''[[Ethnologue]]'' lists a lower number of 456.<ref name="ethnologue_world">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/guides/countries-most-languages|title=What countries have the most languages?|date=22 May 2019|website=Ethnologue}}</ref>

Article 343 of the [[Constitution of India]] stated that the [[official language]] of the Union is [[Hindi]] in [[Devanagari]] script, with official use of [[English language|English]] to continue for 15 years from 1947. In 1963, a constitutional amendment, [[Official Languages Act, 1963|The Official Languages Act]], allowed for the continuation of English alongside Hindi in the [[Indian government]] indefinitely until legislation decides to change it.<ref name="governmentministry1">{{Cite web|url=http://meity.gov.in/content/official-language-act|title=Official Language Act {{!}} Government of India, Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology|website=meity.gov.in|access-date=24 January 2017}}</ref> The form of numerals to be used for the official purposes of the Union are "the international form of [[Indian numerals]]",<ref>{{cite news |last1=Aadithiyan |first1=Kavin |title=Notes and Numbers: How the New Currency May Resurrect an Old Language Debate |url=https://thewire.in/politics/of-notes-and-numbers-how-the-new-currency-may-resurrect-the-language-debate |access-date=5 March 2020 |date=10 November 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Article 343 in The Constitution Of India 1949 |url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/379861/ |access-date=5 March 2020}}</ref> which are referred to as [[Arabic numerals]] in most English-speaking countries.<ref name="constitution1">{{cite web|url=http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/coi-indexenglish.htm|title=Constitution of India|access-date=21 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402064301/http://lawmin.nic.in/olwing/coi/coi-english/coi-indexenglish.htm|archive-date=2 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> Despite some misconceptions, Hindi is not the [[national language]] of India; the [[Constitution of India]] does not give any language the status of national language.<ref name="National">{{cite news|last=Khan|first=Saeed|title=There's no national language in India: Gujarat High Court|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Theres-no-national-language-in-India-Gujarat-High-Court/articleshow/5496231.cms|access-date=5 May 2014|newspaper=The Times of India|date=25 January 2010}}</ref><ref name="PTI">{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/hindi-not-a-national-language-court/article94695.ece|title= Hindi, not a national language: Court|website=The Hindu|agency=Press Trust of India|access-date=23 December 2014|date=25 January 2010|location=Ahmedabad}}</ref>

The [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India|Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution]] lists 22 languages,<ref>[http://rajbhasha.nic.in/UI/pagecontent.aspx?pc=MTUz Languages Included in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian {{sic|Constu|tion|nolink=y}}]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160604094122/http://rajbhasha.nic.in/UI/pagecontent.aspx?pc=MTUz|date=4 June 2016}}.</ref> which have been referred to as ''scheduled'' languages and given recognition, status and official encouragement. In addition, the Government of India has awarded the distinction of ''[[Classical Languages of India|classical language]]'' to [[Assamese language|Assamese]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Kannada]], [[Malayalam]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Pali]], [[Prakrit]], [[Sanskrit]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Telugu language|Telugu]]. This [[#Classical|status]] is given to languages that have a rich heritage and independent nature.<ref>{{cite web |title=Cabinet approves conferring status of Classical Language to Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese and Bengali languages |url=https://www.pmindia.gov.in/en/news_updates/cabinet-approves-conferring-status-of-classical-language-to-marathi-pali-prakrit-assamese-and-bengali-languages/ |publisher=www.pmindia.gov.in |access-date=2 April 2025}}</ref>

According to the [[Census of India 2001|Census of India of 2001]], India has 122 ''major'' languages and 1599 ''other'' languages. However, figures from other sources vary, primarily due to differences in the definition of the terms "language" and "dialect". The 2001 Census recorded 30 languages which were spoken by more than a million native speakers and 122 which were spoken by more than 10,000 people.<ref name="Census2001"/> Three [[Contact language|contact languages]] have played an important role in the [[history of India]] in chronological order: [[Sanskrit]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=Eaton |first=Richard M. |date=14 October 2020 |title=The Two Languages That Shaped the History of India |url=https://lithub.com/the-two-languages-that-shaped-the-history-of-india/ |access-date=24 October 2024 |website=Literary Hub |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Persian language|Persian]]<ref name="KachruKachru2008">{{cite book|last1=Abidi|first1=S.A.H.|last2=Gargesh|first2=Ravinder|editor=Kachru, Braj B.|others=Kachru, Yamuna & Sridhar, S.N.|title=Language in South Asia|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=89aPZJ3qCD4C&pg=PA106|year=2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-78141-1|pages=103–120|chapter=4. Persian in South Asia}}</ref> and English.<ref name="contact-lingo">Bhatia, Tej K and William C. Ritchie. (2006) Bilingualism in South Asia. In: Handbook of Bilingualism, pp. 780–807. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing</ref> [[Persian language|Persian]] was the [[Royal court|court]] language during the [[Indo-Muslim period]] in India and reigned as an [[administrative language]] for several centuries until the era of [[British Raj|British colonisation]].<ref>{{Cite news|title = Decline of Farsi language&nbsp;– The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/hyderabad/Decline-of-Farsi-language/articleshow/11395425.cms|website = The Times of India| date=7 January 2012 |access-date = 26 October 2015}}</ref> English continues to be an important language in India. It is used in higher education and in some areas of the Indian government.{{cn|date=May 2024}}

[[Hindi]], which has the largest number of first-language speakers in India today,<ref>{{Cite news|title = Hindi mother tongue of 44% in India, Bangla second most spoken&nbsp;– The Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/hindi-mother-tongue-of-44-in-india-bangla-second-most-spoken/articleshow/64755458.cms|website = The Times of India| date=28 June 2018 |access-date = 6 November 2021}}</ref> serves as the ''[[lingua franca]]'' across much of [[North India|northern]] and [[central India]]. However, there have been concerns raised with Hindi being imposed in [[South India]], most notably in the states of [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Karnataka]].<ref name="nehru1">{{cite book|last1=Nehru|first1=Jawaharlal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R5upQgAACAAJ|title=The question of language: Issue 6 of Congress political and economic studies|last2=Gandhi|first2=Mohandas|publisher=K. M. Ashraf|year=1937|author-link=Jawaharlal Nehru}}</ref><ref name="Hardgrave1965" /> Some in [[Maharashtra]], [[West Bengal]], [[Assam]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[Kerala]] and other non-Hindi regions have also started to voice concerns about imposition of Hindi.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Maharashtra to join 'anti&nbsp;– Hindi' stir at Bengaluru|url=https://www.nagpurtoday.in/maharashtra-to-join-anti-hindi-stir-at-bengaluru/08031021,%20https://www.nagpurtoday.in/maharashtra-to-join-anti-hindi-stir-at-bengaluru/08031021|website=nagpurtoday.in}}</ref> [[Bengali language|Bengali]] is the second most spoken and understood language in the country with a significant number of speakers in [[East India|eastern]] and [[Northeast India|northeastern regions]]. [[Marathi language|Marathi]] is the third most spoken and understood language in the country with a significant number of speakers in the southwest,<ref>{{Cite web|title = The World Factbook|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/india/|publisher = Central Intelligence Agency|access-date = 25 October 2015}}</ref> followed closely by Telugu, which is most commonly spoken in [[South India|southeastern]] areas.<ref>{{Cite web |date=20 October 2023 |title=Telugu language {{!}} Origin, History, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Telugu-language |access-date=28 October 2023 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>

[[Hindi]] is the fastest growing language of India, followed by [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] in the second place, with [[Meitei language|Meitei]] (officially called [[Manipuri language|Manipuri]]) as well as [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], in the third place, and [[Bengali language|Bengali]] in the fourth place, according to the [[2011 census of India]].<ref name="auto">—{{Cite web |title=What census data reveals about use of Indian languages |url=https://www.deccanherald.com/india/what-census-data-reveals-about-use-of-indian-languages-738340.html |access-date=16 November 2023 |website=[[Deccan Herald]]}}<br />—{{Cite web |date=28 June 2018 |title=Hindi Added 100Mn Speakers In A Decade; Kashmiri 2nd Fast Growing Language |url=https://www.indiaspend.com/hindi-added-100mn-speakers-in-a-decade-kashmiri-2nd-fast-growing-language-93096/ |access-date=16 November 2023 }}<br />—{{Cite web |title=Hindi fastest growing language in India, finds 100 million new speakers |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/hindi-fastest-growing-language-in-india-finds-100-million-new-speakers-118070200029_1.html}}<br />—{{Cite web |title=Hindi grew rapidly in non-Hindi states even without official mandate |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/diu/story/hindi-grows-in-non-hindi-states-without-official-mandate-1936196-2022-04-11 |access-date=16 November 2023 |website=[[India Today]] |date=11 April 2022}}</ref>

According to the [[Ethnologue]], India has 148 [[Sino-Tibetan]], 140 [[Indo-European]], 84 [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]], 32 [[Austro-Asiatic]], 14 [[Andamanese languages|Andamanese]], and 5 [[Kra-Dai]] languages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=India |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/IN/ |access-date=26 November 2023 |website=Ethnologue (Free All)}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|Linguistic history of India}}{{Further|Persian language in the Indian subcontinent}}
The [[Southern Indian]] languages are from the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian family]]. The Dravidian languages are indigenous to the Indian subcontinent.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y88nzRtTNUAC|title=India: The Ancient Past: A History of the Indian Sub-Continent from C. 7000 BC to AD 1200|last=Avari|first=Burjor|date=11 June 2007|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9781134251629}}</ref> [[Proto-Dravidian language]]s were spoken in India in the 4th millennium BCE and started disintegrating into various branches around 3rd millennium BCE.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Andronov |first=Mikhail Sergeevich |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vhB60gYvnLgC |title=A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages |date=1 January 2003 |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=9783447044554 |pages=299}}</ref> The Dravidian languages are classified in four groups: North, Central (Kolami–Parji), South-Central (Telugu–Kui), and South Dravidian (Tamil-Kannada).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Krishnamurti |first=Bhadriraju |title=The Dravidian Languages |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0521771110 |pages=19–20}}</ref>

The [[North India|Northern Indian]] languages from the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] branch of the [[Indo-European family]] evolved from Old [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] by way of the [[Middle Indo-Aryan]] [[Prakrit]] languages and [[Apabhraṃśa]] of the [[Middle Ages]]. The Indo-Aryan languages developed and emerged in three stages&nbsp;— Old Indo-Aryan (1500 BCE to 600 BCE), Middle Indo-Aryan stage (600 BCE and 1000 CE), and New Indo-Aryan (between 1000 CE and 1300 CE). The modern north Indian Indo-Aryan languages all evolved into distinct, recognisable languages in the New Indo-Aryan Age.<ref name="Kachru2006">{{cite book|last=Kachru|first=Yamuna|title=Hindi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ooH5VfLTQEQC|series=London Oriental and African language library|date=1 January 2006|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing|isbn=90-272-3812-X|page=1}}</ref>

In the [[Northeast India]], among the [[Sino-Tibetan languages]], [[Meitei language]] (officially known as [[Manipuri language]]) was the court language of the [[Manipur Kingdom]] ({{langx|mni|Meeteileipak}}). It was honoured before and during the [[Durbar (court)|darbar]] sessions before Manipur was merged into the Dominion of the Indian Republic. Its history of existence spans from 1500 to 2000 years according to most eminent scholars including [[Padma Vibhushan]] awardee [[Suniti Kumar Chatterji]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sanajaoba |first=Naorem |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-CzSQKVmveUC&dq=manipuri+court+language&pg=PA290 |title=Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization |date=1988 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-853-2 |pages=290}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mohanty |first=P. K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zkguECp3vKEC&dq=manipuri+court+language&pg=PA149 |title=Encyclopaedia of Scheduled Tribes in India: In Five Volume |date=2006 |publisher= Gyan Publishing House|isbn=978-81-8205-052-5 |pages=149}}</ref> Even according to the "Manipur State Constitution Act, 1947" of the once independent Manipur, Manipuri and English were made the court languages of the kingdom (before merging into Indian Republic).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Sanajaoba |first=Naorem |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO-vtI8NuxIC&dq=manipuri+court+language&pg=PA369 |title=Manipur: Treatise & Documents |date=1993 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-399-5 |pages=369}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Sanajaoba |first=Naorem |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vO-vtI8NuxIC&dq=manipuri+court+language&pg=PA255 |title=Manipur: Treatise & Documents |date=1993 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-399-5 |pages=255}}</ref>

[[Persian language|Persian]], or ''Farsi'', was [[Persian language in South Asia|brought]] into India by the [[Ghaznavids]] and other [[Delhi Sultanate|Turko-Afghan dynasties]] as the court language. Culturally Persianized, they, in combination with the later [[Mughal dynasty]] (of [[Turco-Mongol]] origin), influenced the art, history, and literature of the region for more than 500 years, resulting in the Persianisation of many Indian tongues, mainly lexically. In 1837, the British replaced Persian with English and Hindustani in Perso-Arabic script for administrative purposes and the Hindi movement of the 19th Century replaced Persianised vocabulary with [[Sanskritism|Sanskrit derivations]] and replaced or supplemented the use of Perso-Arabic script for administrative purposes with Devanagari.<ref name="KachruKachru2008"/><ref name="Brass2005">{{cite book|last=Brass|first=Paul R.|title=Language, Religion and Politics in North India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SylBHS8IJAUC&pg=PA129|year=2005|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-34394-2|page=129}}</ref>

Each of the northern Indian languages had different influences. For example, [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]] was strongly influenced by [[Sanskrit]], [[Arabic]] and [[Persian language|Persian]], leading to the emergence of [[Modern Standard Hindi]] and [[Modern Standard Urdu]] as [[register (sociolinguistics)|registers]] of the Hindustani language.
[[Bengali language|Bangla]] on the other hand has retained its Sanskritic roots while heavily expanding its vocabulary with words from Persian, English, French and other foreign languages.<ref name="KulshreshthaMathur2012">{{cite book|last1=Kulshreshtha|first1=Manisha|last2=Mathur|first2=Ramkumar|title=Dialect Accent Features for Establishing Speaker Identity: A Case Study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xHmARyhRoNYC&pg=PA16|date=24 March 2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4614-1137-6|page=16}}</ref><ref name="nunley1999">{{Citation | title=The Cultural Landscape an Introduction to Human Geography |author1=Robert E. Nunley |author2=Severin M. Roberts |author3=George W. Wubrick |author4=Daniel L. Roy | year=1999 | isbn=0-13-080180-1 | publisher=Prentice Hall |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7wQAOGMJOqIC | quote=''... Hindustani is the basis for both languages ...''}}</ref>

==Inventories==
{{Main|List of languages by number of native speakers in India}}
The first official survey of language diversity in the Indian subcontinent was carried out by [[Sir George Abraham Grierson]] from 1898 to 1928. Titled the [[Linguistic Survey of India]], it reported a total of 179 languages and 544 dialects.<ref name="Ahmad2009">{{cite book|author=Aijazuddin Ahmad|title=Geography of the South Asian Subcontinent: A Critical Approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I2QmPHeIowoC&pg=PA123|access-date=17 December 2014|year=2009|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|isbn=978-81-8069-568-1|pages=123–124}}</ref> However, the results were skewed due to ambiguities in distinguishing between "dialect" and "language",<ref name="Ahmad2009"/> use of untrained personnel and under-reporting of data from South India, as the former provinces of Burma and Madras, as well as the princely states of Cochin, Hyderabad, Mysore and Travancore were not included in the survey.<ref name="Saba2013">{{cite book |url=http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10603/11248/9/09_chapter+2.pdf |title=Linguistic heterogeneity and multilinguality in India: a linguistic assessment of Indian language policies |author=Naheed Saba |publisher=Aligarh Muslim University |date=18 September 2013 |location=Aligarh |pages=61–68 |chapter=2. Multilingualism |access-date=17 December 2014 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
|caption = Languages of India by language families ([[Ethnologue]])<ref name="Ethnologue"/>
|label1 = [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]] |value1 = 34.90 |color1 = orangered
|label2 = [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] |value2 = 33.01 |color2 = gold
|label3 = [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] |value3 = 19.81 |color3 = deepskyblue
|label4 = [[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]] |value4 = 7.54 |color4 = hotpink
|label5 = [[Andamanese languages|Andamanese]] |value5 = 3.30 |color5 = green
|label6 = [[Kra–Dai languages|Kra–Dai]] |value6 = 1.17 |color6 = maroon
|label7 = Isolates |value7 = 0.23 |color7 = grey
|style=align="left"
}}

Different sources give widely differing figures, primarily based on how the terms "language" and "dialect" are defined and grouped. ''[[Ethnologue]]'', produced by the Christian evangelist organisation [[SIL International]], lists 435 tongues for India (out of 6,912 worldwide), 424 of which are living, while 11 are extinct. The 424 living languages are further subclassified in ''Ethnologue'' as follows:<ref name="Ethnologue">{{cite web|editor=Lewis, M. Paul |editor2=Simons, Gary F. |editor3=Fennig, Charles D.|year=2014|title=Ethnologue: Languages of the World (Seventeenth edition) : India|publisher=SIL International|location= Dallas, Texas|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/country/IN|access-date=29 December 2023}}</ref><ref name="Ethnologue2">[http://archive.ethnologue.com/15/ethno_docs/distribution.asp?by=area Ethnologue : Languages of the World (Seventeenth edition) : Statistical Summaries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141217151950/http://archive.ethnologue.com/15/ethno_docs/distribution.asp?by=area |date=17 December 2014 }}. Retrieved 17 December 2014.</ref>
* Institutional– 45
* Stable– 248
* Endangered– 131
* Extinct– 11

The People's Linguistic Survey of India, a privately owned research institution in India, has recorded over 66 different scripts and more than 780 languages in India during its nationwide survey, which the organisation claims to be the biggest linguistic survey in India.<ref name="PLSI">{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/language-survey-reveals-diversity/article4938865.ece|title=Language survey reveals diversity|newspaper=The Hindu|date=22 July 2013|author=Singh, Shiv Sahay|access-date=15 December 2014}}</ref>

The [[People of India]] (POI) project of [[Anthropological Survey of India]] reported 325 languages which are used for in-group communication by 5,633 Indian communities.<ref name="BanerjeeChaudhuryDas2005">{{cite book|last1=Banerjee|first1=Paula|last2=Chaudhury|first2=Sabyasachi Basu Ray|last3=Das|first3=Samir Kumar|author4=Bishnu Adhikari|title=Internal Displacement in South Asia: The Relevance of the UN's Guiding Principles|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VjGdDo75UssC&pg=PA145|access-date=17 December 2014|year=2005|publisher=SAGE Publications|isbn=978-0-7619-3329-8|page=145}}</ref>

===Census of India figures===
The [[Census of India]] records and publishes data with respect to the number of speakers for languages and dialects, but uses its own unique terminology, distinguishing between ''language'' and ''mother tongue''. The mother tongues are grouped within each language. Many of the mother tongues so defined could be considered a language rather than a dialect by linguistic standards. This is especially so for many mother tongues with tens of millions of speakers that are officially grouped under the language Hindi.

; [[1951 Census of India|1951 Census]]
Separate figures for Hindi, Urdu, and Punjabi were not issued, due to the fact the returns were intentionally recorded incorrectly in states such as [[East Punjab]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Delhi]], [[PEPSU]], and [[Kahlur|Bilaspur]].<ref name="langs1951">{{cite book |last1=Dasgupta |first1=Jyotirindra |title=Language Conflict and National Development: Group Politics and National Language Policy in India |year=1970 |publisher=University of California, Berkeley. Center for South and Southeast Asia Studies |location=Berkeley |isbn=9780520015906 |page=47}}<!--|access-date=25 December 2016 --></ref>

; [[1961 Census of India|1961 Census]]
The 1961 census recognised 1,652 mother tongues spoken by 438,936,918 people, counting all declarations made by any individual at the time when the census was conducted.<ref name="Census1961">{{cite journal |author=Mallikarjun, B. | date=5 August 2002 |publisher=M. S. Thirumalai |journal=Languages in India |url=http://www.languageinindia.com/aug2002/indianmothertongues1961aug2002.html |title=Mother Tongues of India According to the 1961 Census | volume= 2 | issn=1930-2940 |access-date=11 December 2014}}</ref> However, the declaring individuals often mixed names of languages with those of dialects, subdialects and dialect clusters or even castes, professions, religions, localities, regions, countries and nationalities.<ref name="Census1961"/> The list therefore includes languages with barely a few individual speakers as well as 530 unclassified mother tongues and more than 100 idioms that are non-native to India, including linguistically unspecific [[demonym]]s such as "African", "Canadian" or "Belgian".<ref name="Census1961"/>

; [[1991 Census of India|1991 Census]]
The 1991 census recognises 1,576 classified mother tongues.<ref name="Vijayanunni">{{cite web|url=http://www.ancsdaap.org/cencon98/papers/india/india.pdf|title=Planning for the 2001 Census of India based on the 1991 Census |author=Vijayanunni, M. |date= 26–29 August 1998 |work=18th Population Census Conference |location= Honolulu, Hawaii, USA | publisher= Association of National Census and Statistics Directors of America, Asia, and the Pacific |archive-date=19 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081119080707/http://www.ancsdaap.org/cencon98/papers/india/india.pdf |access-date=17 December 2014}}</ref> According to the 1991 census, 22 languages had more than a million native speakers, 50 had more than 100,000 and 114 had more than 10,000 native speakers. The remaining accounted for a total of 566,000 native speakers (out of a total of 838 million Indians in 1991).<ref name="Vijayanunni"/><ref name="Census1991">{{cite web |author=Mallikarjun, B. |title=Languages of India according to 2001 Census |url=http://www.languageinindia.com/nov2001/1991Languages.html |website=Languages in India |date=7 November 2001 |access-date=17 December 2014}}</ref>

; [[2001 Census of India|2001 Census]]
According to the census of 2001, there are 1,635 rationalised mother tongues, 234 identifiable mother tongues and 22 major languages.<ref name="Census2001">{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/gen_note.html |title=Census Data 2001 : General Note |publisher=Census of India |access-date=11 December 2014 }}</ref> Of these, 29 languages have more than a million native speakers, 60 have more than 100,000 and 122 have more than 10,000 native speakers.<ref name="Wischenbart2013">{{cite book|last=Wischenbart|first=Ruediger|title=The Global EBook Market: Current Conditions & Future Projections|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XFmKE7rsKqwC&pg=PA62|access-date=18 December 2014|date=11 February 2013|publisher="O'Reilly Media, Inc."|isbn=978-1-4493-1999-1|page=62}}</ref> There are a few languages like Kodava that do not have a script but have a group of native speakers in [[Coorg]] (Kodagu).<ref name="SchiffrinFina2010">{{cite book|last1=Schiffrin|first1=Deborah|last2=Fina|first2=Anna De|last3=Nylund|first3=Anastasia|title=Telling Stories: Language, Narrative, and Social Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6CXbldT6300C&pg=PA95|access-date=18 December 2014|year=2010|publisher=Georgetown University Press|isbn=978-1-58901-674-3|page=95}}</ref>

; [[2011 Census of India|2011 Census]]
According to the most recent census of 2011, after thorough linguistic scrutiny, edit, and rationalisation on 19,569 raw linguistic affiliations, the census recognises 1,369 rationalised mother tongues and 1,474 names which were treated as ‘unclassified’ and relegated to ‘other’ mother tongue category.<ref>{{cite web|title = Census of India 2011, Paper 1 of 2018, Language – India, States and Union Territories|website = Census of India Website|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf|access-date = 29 August 2019}}</ref> Among, the 1,369 rationalised mother tongues which are spoken by 10,000 or more speakers, are further grouped into appropriate set that resulted into total 121 languages. In these 121 languages, 22 are already part of the [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India]] and the other 99 are termed as "Total of other languages" which is one short as of the other languages recognised in 2001 census.<ref>[http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/gen_note.html Census Data 2001 General Notes]|access-date = 29 August 2019</ref>

==Multilingualism==
{{Main|Multilingualism in India}}
[[File:Danger sign in India.jpeg|thumb|A danger sign in India containing eight languages, all using different scripts.]]
[[File:Road_sign_Kochi.jpeg|thumb|A pentalingual highway sign in Kochi written in Malayalam, English, Hindi, Tamil and Kannada.]]

===2011 Census India===
{{Pie chart
|caption = Languages in India (2011)
|label1  = [[Hindi]]                      |value1  = 43.63 |color1 = orange
|label2  = [[Bengali language|Bengali]]   |value2  = 8.30  |color2 = orchid
|label3  = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]   |value3  = 6.83  |color3 = red
|label4  = [[Telugu Language|Telugu]]     |value4  = 6.70  |color4 = steelblue
|label5  = [[Tamil language|Tamil]]       |value5  = 5.70  |color5 = royalblue
|label6  = [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] |value6  = 4.58  |color6 = skyblue
|label7  = [[Urdu]]                       |value7  = 4.19  |color7 = green
|label8  = [[Kannada]]                    |value8  = 3.61  |color8 = darkslateblue
|label9  = [[Odia language|Odia]]         |value9  = 3.10  |color9 =saddlebrown
|label10 = [[Malayalam]]                  |value10 = 2.88  |color10 =cornflowerblue
|label11 = [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]   |value11 = 2.74  |color11 = pink
|label12 = [[Assamese language|Assamese]] |value12 = 1.16  |color12 = purple
|label13 = [[Maithili language|Maithili]] |value13 = 1.12  |color13 = mistyrose
|label14 = [[Meitei language|Meitei]]     |value14 = 0.15  |color14 = goldenrod
|label15 = Others                         |value15 = 5.31  |color15 = grey
|thumb = right
}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+First, second, and third languages by number of speakers in India (2011 Census)
!rowspan=2|Language
!rowspan=2|Language<br>Family
!colspan=2|First language<br />speakers
!Second<br>language
!Third<br>language
!colspan=2|Total speakers
|-
!Numbers<ref name="1971-2001">{{Cite report|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf|title=Census of India: Comparative speaker's strength of Scheduled Languages-1951, 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991, 2001 and 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180627064326/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf |archive-date=27 June 2018}}</ref>
!As % of total<br>population
!colspan=2|Speakers (millions)
!(millions)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/static/iframes/language_probability_interactive/index.html|title=How many Indians can you talk to?|website=Hindustan Times}}</ref>
!As % of total<br />population<ref name="fulllangdatacensus 2011">{{cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/how-languagesintersect-in-india/story-g3nzNwFppYV7XvCumRzlYL.html|title=How languages intersect in India|date=22 November 2018 |work=Hindustan Times}}</ref>
|-
|[[Hindi]]
|Indo-Aryan
|528,347,193
|43.63
|139
|24
|692
|57.1
|-
|[[Bengali language|Bengali]]
|Indo-Aryan
|97,237,669
|8.30
|9
|1
|107
|8.9
|-
|[[Marathi language|Marathi]]
|Indo-Aryan
|83,026,680
|6.86
|13
|3
|99
|8.2
|-
|[[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|Dravidian
|81,127,740
|6.70
|12
|1
|95
|7.8
|-
|[[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|Dravidian
|69,026,881
|5.70
|7
|1
|77
|6.3
|-
|[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
|Indo-Aryan
|55,492,554
|4.58
|4
|1
|60
|5.0
|-
|[[Urdu]]
|Indo-Aryan
|50,772,631
|4.19
|11
|1
|63
|5.2
|-
|[[Kannada]]
|Dravidian
|43,706,512
|3.61
|14
|1
|59
|4.9
|-
|[[Odia language|Odia]]
|Indo-Aryan
|37,521,324
|3.10
|5
|0.03
|43
|3.5
|-
|[[Malayalam]]
|Dravidian
|34,838,819
|2.88
|0.05
|0.02
|36
|2.9
|-
|[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
|Indo-Aryan
|33,124,726
|2.74
|0.03
|0.003
|36
|3.0
|-
|[[Assamese language|Assamese]]
|Indo-Aryan
|15,311,351
|1.26
|7.48
|0.74
|24
|2.0
|-
|[[Maithili language|Maithili]]
|Indo-Aryan
|13,583,464
|1.12
|0.03
|0.003
|14
|1.2
|-
|[[Meitei language|Meitei]] ([[Manipuri language|Manipuri]])
|Indo-Aryan
|1,761,079
|0.15
|0.4
|0.04
|2.25
|0.2
|-
|[[English language|English]]
|Indo-European<br>Germanic
|259,678
|0.02
|83
|46
|129
|10.6
|-
|[[Sanskrit]]
|Indo-Aryan
|24,821
|0.00185
|1.23
|1.96
|3.21
|0.27<ref>https://censusindia.gov.in/nada/index.php/catalog/10262</ref>
|}

==Language families==
Ethnolinguistically, the languages of South Asia, echoing the complex history and geography of the region, form a complex patchwork of [[language families]], language phyla and [[language isolate|isolates]].<ref name="Moseley2008"/> Languages spoken in [[India]] belong to several [[language families]], the major ones being the [[Indo-Aryan languages]] spoken by 78.05% of Indians and the [[Dravidian languages]] spoken by 19.64% of Indians. The most important language families in terms of speakers are:<ref name="EBIndiaLanguages">{{cite web |title=India : Languages |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46398/Languages |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2 December 2014}}</ref><ref name="EBCIndoAryanLanguages"/><ref name="EBCDravidianLanguages"/><ref name="Moseley2008"/><ref>[https://www.indiastat.com, INDIA STATISTICS REPORT]</ref>

{| class="sortable wikitable" 
! Language family !! Population<br>{{nobold|(2011 census)}}<ref>{{cite report|title=Table C-16: LANGUAGE INDIA, STATES AND UNION TERRITORIES |others=PAPER 1 OF 2018 |work=Census of India, 2011 |publisher=OFFICE OF THE REGISTRAR GENERAL, INDIA |page=21|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220081106/https://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2019}}</ref> !!Pct.
|-
| [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]||{{Number and percent |945333910|1210854977|2|disp=table}}
|-
|[[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]]||{{Number and percent |237840116|1210854977|2|disp=table}}
|-
|[[Austroasiatic languages|Austroasiatic]]||{{Number and percent |13493080|1210854977|2|disp=table}}
|-
|[[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]]||{{Number and percent |12257382|1210854977|2|disp=table}}
|-
|Other languages||{{Number and percent |1930489|1210854977|2|disp=table}}
|-
! Total speaker/population||{{Number and percent |1210854977|1210854977|2|disp=table}}
|}

===Indo-Aryan language family===
{{Main|Indo-Aryan languages}}
[[File:Indo-Aryan language map.svg|thumb| Present-day geographical distribution of the major Indo-Aryan language groups. [[Romani language|Romani]], [[Domari language|Domari]], [[Kholosi language|Kholosi]], [[Luwati language|Luwati]], and [[Lomavren language|Lomavren]] are outside the scope of the map.
{{legend|#ffc0ec|[[Pashai languages|Pashai]] ([[Dardic languages|Dardic]])}}
{{legend|#ffa1e6|[[Khowar language|Khowar]] (Dardic)}}
{{legend|#FF54DE|[[Shina language|Shina]] (Dardic)}}
{{legend|#ff81e0|[[Indus Kohistani|Kohistani]] (Dardic)}}
{{legend|#e03eb9|[[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] (Dardic)}}
{{legend|#855ff8|[[Punjabi languages|Punjabi]] ([[Northwestern Indo-Aryan languages|Northwestern]])}}
{{legend|#699fd0|[[Sindhi languages|Sindhi]] (Northwestern)}}
{{legend|#69d762|[[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani]] ([[Western Indo-Aryan languages|Western]])}}
{{legend|#61b97d|[[Gujarati languages|Gujarati]] (Western)}}
{{legend|#61b762|[[Khandeshi language|Khandeshi]] (Western)}}
{{legend|#a6e7b9|[[Bhili languages|Bhili]] (Western)}}
{{legend|#d79662|[[Western Pahari languages|Western Pahari]] ([[Northern Indo-Aryan languages|Northern]])}}
{{legend|#b9845a|[[Central Pahari languages|Central Pahari]] (Northern)}}
{{legend|#9b7451|[[Eastern Pahari languages|Eastern Pahari]] (Northern)}}
{{legend|#ff8d36|[[Western Hindi languages|Western Hindi]] ([[Central Indo-Aryan languages|Central]])}}
{{legend|#ffb736|[[Eastern Hindi languages|Eastern Hindi]] (Central)}}
{{legend|#fff87c|[[Bengali-Assamese languages|Bengali-Assamese]] ([[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages|Eastern]])}}
{{legend|#f8d836|[[Bihari languages|Bihari]] (Eastern)}}
{{legend|#e0c036|[[Odia language|Odia]] (Eastern)}}
{{legend|#AB8900|[[Halbic languages|Halbic]] (Eastern)}}
{{legend|#e03e36|[[Marathi-Konkani languages|Marathi-Konkani]] ([[Southern Indo-Aryan languages|Southern]])}}
{{legend|#a13e36|[[Sinhala language|Sinhala]] (Southern)}}
{{legend|#e03e36|[[Maldivian language|Dhivehi]] (Southern)}}
(not shown: [[Kunar languages|Kunar]] (Dardic), [[Chinali-Lahul languages|Chinali-Lahuli]] (Unclassified))
]]

The largest of the language families represented in India, in terms of speakers, is the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan language family]], a branch of the [[Indo-Iranian languages|Indo-Iranian family]], itself the easternmost, extant subfamily of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]]. This language family predominates, accounting for some 1035&nbsp;million speakers, or over 76.5 of the population, per a 2018 estimate. The most widely spoken languages of this group are [[Hindi]],<ref group=n>Although linguistically Hindi and Urdu are the same language called [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], the government classifies them as separate languages instead of different [[Register (sociolinguistics)|standard registers]] of same language.</ref> [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]], [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]], [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Marwari language|Marwari]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Assamese language|Assamese (Asamiya)]], [[Chhattisgarhi language|Chhattisgarhi]] and [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/286348/Indo-Aryan-languages|title=Indo-Aryan languages|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=October 2023 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mandryk |first=Jason |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6EOsBQAAQBAJ&dq=indo+aryan+languages+marathi%2C+bhojpuri%2C+bengali%2C+odia%2C+punjabi&pg=PA406 |title=Operation World: The Definitive Prayer Guide to Every Nation |date=15 October 2010 |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-0-8308-9599-1}}</ref> Aside from the Indo-Aryan languages, other Indo-European languages are also spoken in India, the most prominent of which is English, as a ''[[lingua franca]]''.

===Dravidian language family===
{{Main|Dravidian languages}}

The second largest language family is the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian language family]], accounting for some 277 million speakers, or approximately 20.5% per 2018 estimate. The Dravidian languages are spoken mainly in [[southern India]] and parts of [[East India|eastern]] and [[central India]] as well as in parts of northeastern [[Sri Lankan Tamils|Sri Lanka]], Pakistan, [[Nepal]] and [[Bangladesh]]. The Dravidian languages with the most speakers are [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Kannada]] and [[Malayalam]].<ref name="EBCDravidianLanguages"/> Besides the mainstream population, Dravidian languages are also spoken by small [[List of Scheduled Tribes in India|scheduled tribe]] communities, such as the [[Oraon people|Oraon]] and [[Gondi people|Gond]] tribes.<ref name="West2009">{{cite book|last=West|first=Barbara A.|title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA713|date=1 January 2009|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-1-4381-1913-7|page=713}}</ref> Only two Dravidian languages are exclusively spoken outside India, [[Brahui language|Brahui]] in [[Balochistan, Pakistan]] and [[Dhangar language|Dhangar]], a dialect of [[Kurukh language|Kurukh]], in [[Nepal]].<ref name="LevinsonChristensen2002">{{cite book|last1=Levinson|first1=David|last2=Christensen|first2=Karen|title=Encyclopedia of Modern Asia: China-India relations to Hyogo|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jFQYAAAAIAAJ|year=2002|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|isbn=978-0-684-31243-9|page=299}}</ref>

===Austroasiatic language family===
[[File:India austroasiatic map.svg|thumb|right|Approximate distribution of the Austroasiatic languages in India]]
Families with smaller numbers of speakers are [[Austroasiatic]] and numerous small [[Sino-Tibetan languages]], with some 10 and 6 million speakers, respectively, together 3% of the population.<ref name="Ishtiaq 1999">{{cite book|last=Ishtiaq|first=M.|title=Language Shifts Among the Scheduled Tribes in India: A Geographical Study|year=1999|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|location=Delhi|isbn=9788120816176|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fkIgsfb95rAC|access-date=7 September 2012|pages=26–27}}</ref>

The Austroasiatic language family (''austro'' meaning South) is the [[autochthonous language]] in Southeast Asia, arrived by migration. Austroasiatic languages of mainland India are the [[Khasi language|Khasi]] and [[Munda languages]], including [[Bhumij language|Bhumij]] and [[Santali language|Santali]]. The [[Nicobarese languages|languages of the Nicobar islands]] also form part of this language family. With the exceptions of Khasi and Santali, all Austroasiatic languages on Indian territory are endangered.<ref name="Moseley2008"/>{{rp|456–457}}

===Tibeto-Burman language family===
The [[Tibeto-Burman languages|Tibeto-Burman language family]] is well represented in India. However, their interrelationships are not discernible, and the family has been described as "a patch of leaves on the forest floor" rather than with the conventional metaphor of a "family tree".<ref name="Moseley2008"/>{{rp|283–5}}

[[Padma Vibhushan]] awardee Indian [[Bengalis|Bengali]] scholar [[Suniti Kumar Chatterjee]] said, "Among the various Tibeto-Burman languages, the most important and in literature certainly of much greater importance than Newari, is the Meitei or [[Manipuri language]]".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Devi |first=Nunglekpam Premi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kqJVDwAAQBAJ&dq=Dr+Suniti+Kumar+Chatterjee+Manipuri+language&pg=PT5 |title=A Glimpse of Manipuri Literary Works |date=14 April 2018 |pages=5}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Ch Manihar |title=A History of Manipuri Literature |date=1996 |publisher=[[Sahitya Akademi]] |isbn=978-81-260-0086-9 |pages=8}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Anthology of articles |first=Indian and Soviet scholars |title=Problems of Modern Indian Literature |date=1975 |publisher=Statistical Pub. Society : distributor, K. P. Bagchi |location=the [[University of Michigan]] |pages=23}}</ref>

In India, Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken across the Himalayas in the regions of [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Assam]] (hills and autonomous councils), [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Ladakh]], [[Manipur]], [[Meghalaya]], [[Mizoram]], [[Nagaland]], [[Sikkim]], [[Tripura]] and [[West Bengal]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/memorandum_feb02.htm|title=Memorandum of Settlement on Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC)|website=satp.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=89aPZJ3qCD4C&q=tibeto-burman+language+hills+of+assam&pg=PA157|title=Language in South Asia|isbn=9780521781411|access-date=28 December 2017|last1=Kachru|first1=Braj B.|last2=Kachru|first2=Yamuna|last3=Sridhar|first3=S. N.|date=27 March 2008|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://sealang.net/sala/archives/pdf4/burling1999kamarupan.pdf|title=On "Kamarupan"|author=Robbins Burling|website=Sealang.net|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref>

Sino-Tibetan languages spoken in India include two constitutionally recognised official languages, [[Meitei language|Meitei]] (officially known as [[Manipuri language|Manipuri]]) and [[Bodo language|Bodo]] as well as the non-scheduled languages like [[Karbi language|Karbi]], [[Deori language|Deori]], [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]], and many varieties of several related [[Tibetic]], [[West Himalayish]], [[Tani languages|Tani]], [[Sal languages|Brahmaputran]], [[Angami–Pochuri languages|Angami–Pochuri]], [[Tangkhulic languages|Tangkhul]], [[Zeme languages|Zeme]], [[Kukish]] sub linguistic branches, among many others.

===Tai-Kadai language family===
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2018}}
The [[Ahom language]], a [[Southwestern Tai language]], had been once the dominant language of the [[Ahom Kingdom]] in modern-day [[Assam]], but was later replaced by the [[Assamese language]] (known as [[Kamarupi Prakrit|Kamrupi]] in ancient era which is the pre-form of the [[Kamrupi dialect]] of today). Nowadays, small Tai communities and their languages remain in [[Assam]] and [[Arunachal Pradesh]] together with Sino-Tibetans, e.g. [[Tai Phake language|Tai Phake]], [[Tai Aiton language|Tai Aiton]] and [[Khamti language|Tai Khamti]], which are similar to the [[Shan language]] of [[Shan State]], [[Myanmar]]; the [[Tai Lue language|Dai language]] of [[Yunnan]], [[China]]; the [[Lao language]] of [[Laos]]; the [[Thai language]] of [[Thailand]]; and the [[Zhuang language]] in [[Guangxi]], [[China]].

===Andamanese language families===
The languages of the [[Andaman Islands]] form another group:<ref name="Burenhult1996">{{cite journal|title=Deep linguistic prehistory with particular reference to Andamanese|author=Niclas Burenhult|journal=Working Papers|issue=45|pages= 5–24|publisher=Lund University, Dept. of Linguistics|url=http://lup.lub.lu.se/record/528793/file/624474.pdf |access-date=2 December 2014 }}</ref>
* the [[Great Andamanese languages]], comprising a number of extinct, and one highly endangered language [[Aka-Jeru]].
* the [[Ongan languages|Ongan]] family of the southern [[Andaman Islands]], comprising two extant languages, [[Onge language|Önge]] and [[Jarawa language (Andaman Islands)|Jarawa]], and one extinct language, [[Jangil]].

In addition, [[Sentinelese language|Sentinelese]] is thought likely to be related to the above languages.<ref name="Burenhult1996"/>

===Niger-Congo language family===
In addition, a [[Bantu language]], [[Sidi language|Sidi]], was spoken until the mid-20th century in Gujarat by the [[Siddi]].<ref name="Moseley2008"/>{{rp|528}}

===Language isolates===
The only language found in the Indian mainland that is considered a [[language isolate]] is [[Nihali]].<ref name="Moseley2008"/>{{rp|337}} The status of Nihali is ambiguous, having been considered as a distinct Austroasiatic language, as a dialect of [[Korku language|Korku]] and also as being a "thieves' argot" rather than a legitimate language.<ref name="Anderson2007">{{cite book|last=Anderson|first=Gregory D. S.|title=The Munda Verb: Typological Perspectives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FVL2FrA6WboC&pg=PA6|year=2007|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-018965-0|page=6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Anderson|first=G. D. S.|editor=Brown, Keith |editor2=Ogilvie, Sarah|title=Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F2SRqDzB50wC&pg=PA94|date=6 April 2010|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-087775-4|page=94|chapter=Austro-asiatic languages}}</ref>

The other language isolates found in the rest of South Asia include [[Burushaski]], a language spoken in [[Gilgit–Baltistan]] (administered by Pakistan), [[Kusunda language|Kusunda]] (in western Nepal), and [[Vedda language|Vedda]] (in Sri Lanka).<ref name="Moseley2008"/>{{rp|283}} The validity of the [[Great Andamanese languages|Great Andamanese language group]] as a language family has been questioned and it has been considered a language isolate by some authorities.<ref name="Moseley2008"/>{{rp|283}}<ref name = "Greenb">Greenberg, Joseph (1971). "The Indo-Pacific hypothesis." ''Current trends in linguistics vol. 8'', ed. by Thomas A. Sebeok, 807.71. The Hague: Mouton.</ref><ref name="Abbi2006">Abbi, Anvita (2006). ''Endangered Languages of the Andaman Islands.'' Germany: Lincom GmbH.</ref> The [[Hruso language]], which is long assumed to be a [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan language]], it may actually be a [[language isolate]].<ref name="Blench2011">{{citation |last1=Blench |first1=Roger |title=(De)classifying Arunachal languages: Reconstructing the evidence |year=2011 |url=http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/South%20Asia/NEI/General/Lingres/Declassifying%20Arunachal.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526230734/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/South%20Asia/NEI/General/Lingres/Declassifying%20Arunachal.pdf |archive-date=26 May 2013 |url-status=dead |last2=Post |first2=Mark}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2020 |title=Hruso |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/hrus1242 |work=[[Glottolog]] 4.3 |editor-last1=Hammarström |editor-first1=Harald |editor-last2=Forke |editor-first2=Robert |editor-last3=Haspelmath |editor-first3=Martin |editor-last4=Bank |editor-first4=Sebastian}}</ref> [[Roger Blench]] classifies the [[Shompen language]] of the Nicobar Islands as a language isolate.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blench |first=Roger |url=https://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Isolates/Shompen%20paper.pdf |title=The language of the Shom Pen: a language isolate in the Nicobar islands |year=2007 |pages=20–21 |chapter=5. The classification of the Shom Pen language }}</ref> Roger Blench also considers [[Puroik language|Puroik]] to be a [[language isolate]].<ref>Blench, Roger. 2011. [http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/South%20Asia/NEI/General/Lingres/Declassifying%20Arunachal.pdf ''(De)classifying Arunachal languages: Reconsidering the evidence''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526230734/http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/South%20Asia/NEI/General/Lingres/Declassifying%20Arunachal.pdf|date=26 May 2013}}</ref>

==Official languages==
{{Main|Languages with official recognition in India}}
[[File:Official language map of India by state and union territory (claimed and disputed hatched).svg|thumb|Official languages of India by state and union territory. Hindustani refers to both Hindi and Urdu in this map.]]

===Federal level===
{{See also|Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu}}
{{bar box
|title=Language proficiency in India (2001, 2011)<ref>{{cite web |title=C-17 : Population by Bilingualism and Trilingualism |url=https://censusindia.gov.in/DigitalLibrary/TablesSeries2001.aspx |website=Census of India Website}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-17.html|title=Census of India Website : Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India|website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref>
|titlebar=#ddd
|left1=Language
|left2=Year
|right1=percent
|float=right
|bars=
{{bar percent 2|[[Hindi]]|2001|Blue|53.61|2011|Blue|57.11|+3.50%}}
{{bar percent 2|[[English language|English]]|2001|Red|12.19|2011|Red|10.62|-1.57%}}
}}

After Mughal rule and prior to Independence, in [[British India]], English was the sole language used for [[public administration|administrative]] purposes as well as for [[higher education]] purposes.<ref name="Guha2011">{{cite book|last=Guha|first=Ramachandra|title=India After Gandhi: The History of the World's Largest Democracy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8FKepYC6wzwC|access-date=3 January 2015|date=10 February 2011|publisher=Pan Macmillan|isbn=978-0-330-54020-9|pages=117–120|chapter=6. Ideas of India (section IX)}}</ref>

In 1946, the issue of national language was a bitterly contested subject in the proceedings of the [[Constituent Assembly of India]], specifically what should be the language in which the Constitution of India is written and the language spoken during the proceedings of Parliament and thus deserving of the epithet "national".
The [[Constitution of India]] does not give any language the status of [[national language]].<ref name="National"/><ref name="PTI"/>

Members belonging to the northern parts of India insisted that the Constitution be drafted in Hindi with the unofficial translation in English. This was not agreed to by the drafting committee on the grounds that English was much better to craft the nuanced prose on constitutional subjects. The efforts to make Hindi the pre-eminent language were bitterly resisted by the members from those parts of India where Hindi was not spoken natively.

Eventually, a compromise was reached not to include any mention of a national language. Instead, [[Hindi]] in [[Devanagari]] script was declared to be the [[official language]] of the union, but for "fifteen years from the commencement of the Constitution, the English Language shall continue to be used for all the official purposes of the Union for which it was being used immediately before such commencement."<ref name="Guha2011"/>

Article 343 (1) of the [[Constitution of India]] states "The Official Language of the Union government shall be Hindi in Devanagari script."<ref name=cons/>{{rp|212}}<ref name="Benedikter2009b">{{cite book|author=Thomas Benedikter|title=Language Policy and Linguistic Minorities in India: An Appraisal of the Linguistic Rights of Minorities in India|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vpZv2GHM7VQC&pg=PA32|access-date=19 December 2014|year=2009|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-643-10231-7|pages=32–35}}</ref> Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of [[English language|English]] for official purposes was to cease 15 years after the constitution came into effect, i.e. on 26 January 1965.<ref name=cons/>{{rp|212}}<ref name="Benedikter2009b"/>

As the date for changeover approached, however, there was much alarm in the non-Hindi-speaking areas of India, especially in [[Kerala]], [[Gujarat]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]], [[West Bengal]], [[Karnataka]], [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]] and [[Andhra Pradesh]]. Accordingly, [[Jawaharlal Nehru]] ensured the enactment of the [[s:Official Languages Act, 1963|Official Languages Act, 1963]],<ref name="OLA163Amdt">{{cite web|title=Official Languages Act, 1963 (with amendments)|url=http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/railwayboard/uploads/directorate/official_lang/downloads/act1963_eng.PDF |website=Indian Railways|date=10 May 1963| access-date=3 January 2015}}</ref><ref name="CPOLch07">{{cite web|url=http://www.rajbhasha.gov.in/khand8-eng7.pdf |title=Chapter 7&nbsp;– Compliance of Section 3(3) of the Official Languages Act, 1963|work=Committee of Parliament on Official Language report|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220150003/http://www.rajbhasha.gov.in/khand8-eng7.pdf|archive-date=20 February 2012}}</ref> which provided that English "may" still be used with Hindi for official purposes, even after 1965.<ref name="Guha2011"/> The wording of the text proved unfortunate in that while Nehru understood that "may" meant shall, politicians championing the cause of Hindi thought it implied exactly the opposite.<ref name="Guha2011"/>

In the event, as 1965 approached, India's new Prime Minister [[Lal Bahadur Shastri]] prepared to make Hindi paramount with effect from 26 January 1965. This led to widespread agitation, riots, self-immolations, and suicides in Tamil Nadu. The split of Congress politicians from the South from their party stance, the resignation of two Union ministers from the South, and the increasing threat to the country's unity forced Shastri to concede.<ref name="Guha2011"/><ref name="Hardgrave1965">{{cite book|author=Hardgrave, Robert L.|date=August 1965|title=The Riots in Tamilnad: Problems and Prospects of India's Language Crisis|series=Asian Survey|publisher=University of California Press}}</ref>

As a result, the proposal was dropped,<ref name="Time1966">{{Cite magazine |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,940936,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071014111537/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,940936,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 October 2007 | title=The force of words | magazine=Time | date=19 February 1965|access-date=3 January 2015|url-access=subscription }}</ref><ref name="Forrester1966">{{citation |last=Forrester |first=Duncan B. |title=The Madras Anti-Hindi Agitation, 1965: Political Protest and its Effects on Language Policy in India |journal=Pacific Affairs |volume=39 |issue=1/2 |pages=19–36 |date=Spring–Summer 1966 |doi=10.2307/2755179|jstor=2755179 }}</ref> and the Act itself was amended in 1967 to provide that the use of English would not be ended until a [[Resolution (law)|resolution]] to that effect was passed by the legislature of every state that had not adopted Hindi as its official language, and by each house of the Indian Parliament.<ref name="OLA163Amdt"/>

====Hindi====
{{Main|Hindi}}

[[File:Hindispeakers.png|thumb|The Hindi-belt, including Hindi-related languages such as Rajasthani and Bhojpuri]]
In the [[2001 Census of India|2001 census]], 422 million (422,048,642) people in India reported Hindi to be their native language.<ref name="CensusData2001S1">{{cite web |url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement1.aspx |title=Statement 1&nbsp;– Abstract of Speakers' Strength of Languages and Mother Tongues&nbsp;– 2001 |publisher=Government of India |access-date=11 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131014133158/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement1.aspx |archive-date=14 October 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> This figure not only included Hindi speakers of [[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], but also people who identify as [[first language|native speakers]] of related languages who consider their speech to be a dialect of Hindi, the [[Hindi belt]]. Hindi (or Hindustani) is the native language of most people living in [[Delhi]] and [[Western Uttar Pradesh]].<ref name="ELL2">{{ELL2|Hindi}}</ref>

"Modern Standard Hindi", a [[Standard language|standardised language]] is one of the [[official languages]] of the [[India|Union of India]]. In addition, it is one of only two languages used for business in Parliament. However, the [[Rajya Sabha]] now allows all 22 official languages on the Eighth Schedule to be spoken.<ref>{{cite news|title=Rajya Sabha MPs can now speak in any of 22 scheduled languages in the house|url=https://wap.business-standard.com/article/current-affairs/rajya-sabha-mps-can-now-speak-in-any-of-22-scheduled-languages-in-the-house-118071001144_1.html|access-date=24 July 2018}}</ref>

Hindustani, evolved from ''khari boli'' (खड़ी बोली), a prominent tongue of [[Mughal Empire|Mughal times]], which itself evolved from [[Apabhraṃśa]], an intermediary transition stage from [[Prakrit]], from which the major North Indian [[Indo-Aryan languages]] have evolved.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

By virtue of its being a ''[[lingua franca]]'', Hindi has also developed regional dialects such as [[Bambaiya Hindi]] in [[Mumbai]]. In addition, a trade language, [[Andaman Creole Hindi]] has also developed in the [[Andaman Islands]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Digital vitality of Uralic languages|year=2017|doi=10.1556/2062.2017.64.3.1|last1=Ács|first1=Judit|last2=Pajkossy|first2=Katalin|last3=Kornai|first3=András|journal=Acta Linguistica Academica|volume=64|issue=3|pages=327–345|s2cid=57699700 |url=http://real.mtak.hu/65041/1/2062.2017.64.3.1.pdf}}</ref> In addition, by use in popular culture such as songs and films, Hindi also serves as a ''lingua franca'' across North-Central India.{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

Hindi is widely taught both as a primary language and language of instruction and as a second tongue in many states.

====English====
{{Main|English language|Indian English}}
British colonialism in India resulted in English becoming a language for governance, business, and education. English, along with Hindi, is one of the two languages permitted in the Constitution of India for business in Parliament. Despite the fact that Hindi has official Government patronage and serves as a ''lingua franca'' over large parts of India, there was considerable opposition to the use of Hindi in the southern states of India, and English has emerged as a [[de facto]] ''[[lingua franca]]'' over much of India.<ref name="Guha2011"/><ref name="Hardgrave1965"/> Journalist [[Manu Joseph]], in a 2011 article in ''[[The New York Times]]'', wrote that due to the prominence and usage of the language and the desire for English-language education, "English is the de facto national language of India. It is a bitter truth."<ref>{{cite web|author=Joseph, Manu|author-link=Manu Joseph|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/17/world/asia/17iht-letter17.html|title=India Faces a Linguistic Truth: English Spoken Here|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=17 February 2011}}</ref> English language proficiency is highest among urban residents, wealthier Indians, Indians with higher levels of educational attainment, Christians, men and younger Indians.<ref>{{Cite web |last=S |first=Rukmini |date=14 May 2019 |title=In India, who speaks in English, and where? |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/in-india-who-speaks-in-english-and-where-1557814101428.html |access-date=11 October 2022 |website=mint}}</ref> In 2017, more than 58 per cent of rural teens could read basic English, and 53 per cent of fourteen year-olds & sixty per cent of 18-year-olds could read English sentences.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Pratim Gohain |first=Manash |date=22 January 2018 |title=58% of rural teens can read basic English: Survey |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/58-of-rural-teens-can-read-basic-english-survey/articleshow/62596824.cms |access-date=11 October 2022 |website=The Times of India}}</ref>

===Scheduled languages===
{{More citations needed section|date=November 2016}}
[[File:Indian Languages Map.jpg|thumb|Main languages of India and their relative size according to how many speakers each has<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://calloftravel.com/20-maps-of-india-that-explain-the-country/|title=20 maps of India that explain the country|last=Snoj|first=Jure|website=Call Of Travel|access-date=17 April 2016|archive-date=17 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170817164557/http://calloftravel.com/20-maps-of-india-that-explain-the-country/|url-status=dead}}</ref>]]Until the [[Twenty-first Amendment of the Constitution of India]] in 1967, the country recognised 14 official regional languages. The [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India|Eighth Schedule]] and the Seventy-First Amendment provided for the inclusion of [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]], [[Meitei language|Meitei]] and [[Nepali language|Nepali]], thereby increasing the number of official regional languages of India to 18. The Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India, as of 1 December 2007, lists 22 languages,<ref name="cons" />{{rp|330}} which are given in the table below together with the regions where they are used.<ref name="CensusData2001S1" />
[[File:Fastest growing languages of India — Hindi (first), Kashmiri (second), Gujarati & Meitei alias Manipuri (third), Bengali (fourth) — based on 2011 census of India.jpg|thumb|150px|Fastest growing languages of India — [[Hindi]] (first), [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]] (second), [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] & [[Meitei language|Meitei]]/[[Manipuri language|Manipuri]] (third), [[Bengali language|Bengali]] (fourth) — based on [[2011 census of India]]<ref name="auto"/>]]
{| class = "wikitable sortable"
! Language
![[Languages of Indian subcontinent|Family]]
![[ISO 639]] code
|-
| '''[[Assamese language|Assamese]]''' || [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] || as
|-
| '''[[Bengali language|Bengali (Bangla)]]''' || [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] || bn
|-
| '''[[Bodo language|Bodo]]''' || [[Sino-Tibetan]] || brx
|-
| '''[[Dogri language|Dogri]]''' || [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] || doi
|-
| '''[[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]''' || [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] || gu
|-
| '''[[Hindi]]''' || [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] || hi
|-
|'''[[Kannada]]''' || [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] || kn
|-
| '''[[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]]''' || [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] || ks
|-
| '''[[Konkani language|Konkani]]''' || [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] || gom
|-
| '''[[Maithili language|Maithili]]''' || [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] || mai
|-
| '''[[Malayalam]]''' || [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] || ml
|-
| '''[[Meitei language|Meitei (Manipuri)]]''' || [[Sino-Tibetan]] || mni
|-
| '''[[Marathi language|Marathi]]''' || [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] || mr
|-
| '''[[Nepali language|Nepali]]''' || [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] || ne
|-
| '''[[Odia language|Odia]]''' || [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] || or
|-
| '''[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]''' || [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] || pa
|-
| '''[[Sanskrit]]''' || [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] || sa
|-
| '''[[Santali language|Santali]]''' || [[Austroasiatic]] || sat
|-
| '''[[Sindhi language|Sindhi]]''' || [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] || sd
|-
| '''[[Tamil language|Tamil]]''' || [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] || ta
|-
| '''[[Telugu language|Telugu]]''' || [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] || te
|-
| '''[[Urdu]]''' || [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] || ur
|}

The individual [[States and territories of India|states]], the borders of most of which are or were drawn on socio-linguistic lines, can legislate their own official languages, depending on their linguistic demographics. The official languages chosen reflect the predominant as well as politically significant languages spoken in that state. Certain states having a linguistically defined territory may have only the predominant language in that state as its official language, examples being [[Karnataka]] and [[Gujarat]], which have [[Kannada]] and [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]] as their sole official language respectively. [[Telangana]], with a sizeable Urdu-speaking Muslim population, and [[Andhra Pradesh]]<ref name="correspondent">{{Cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->  |date=24 March 2022 |title=Urdu second official language in Andhra Pradesh |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/nation/politics/240322/assembly-passes-two-bills-of-minorities-component-and-urdu-as-2nd-offi.html |access-date=26 March 2022 |website=Deccan Chronicle}}</ref> has two languages, [[Telugu language|Telugu]] and [[Urdu]], as its official languages.

Some states buck the trend by using minority languages as official languages. [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] used to have [[Urdu]], which is spoken by fewer than 1% of the population, as the sole official language until 2020. [[Meghalaya]] uses English spoken by 0.01% of the population. This phenomenon has turned majority languages into "minority languages" in a functional sense.<ref>{{citation |last=Pandharipande |first=Rajeshwari |title=Minority Matters: Issues in Minority Languages in India |url=http://www.unesco.org/most/vl4n2pandhari.pdf |journal=International Journal on Multicultural Societies |volume=4 |number=2 |year=2002 |pages=3–4}}</ref>

{{#lsth:Languages with official status in India|Official languages of states}}
{{#lsth:Languages with official status in India|Official languages of Union Territories}}
In addition to states and union territories, India has autonomous administrative regions which may be permitted to select their own official language&nbsp;– a case in point being the [[Bodoland Territorial Council]] in Assam which has declared the [[Bodo language]] as official for the region, in addition to Assamese and English already in use.<ref name="BTC">{{cite web|url=http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/india/states/assam/documents/papers/memorandum_feb02.htm|title=Memorandum of Settlement on Bodoland Territorial Council (BTC)|date=10 February 2003|website=South Asia Terrorism Portal|access-date=25 December 2014}}</ref> and [[Bengali language|Bengali]] in the [[Barak Valley]],<ref name="BarakValleya">{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/india/report-assam-government-withdraws-assamese-as-official-language-in-barak-valley-restores-bengali-2017504|title=Assam government withdraws Assamese as official language in Barak Valley, restores Bengali|website=DNA India|date=10 September 2014|author=ANI|access-date=25 December 2014}}</ref> as its official languages.

==Prominent languages of India==
===Hindi===
{{Main|Hindi}}
[[File:South Indian languages.jpg|thumb|At a tourist site in [[Bengaluru]]&nbsp;– Top to bottom, the languages are Hindi, [[Kannada]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], and [[Malayalam]]. English and many other European languages are also provided here.]]

In [[British India]], English was the sole language used for [[public administration|administrative]] purposes as well as for [[higher education]] purposes. When India became independent in 1947, the Indian [[legislators]] had the challenge of choosing a language for official communication as well as for communication between different linguistic regions across India. The choices available were:
* Making [[Hindustani language|"Hindi"]], which a plurality of the people (41%)<ref name="CensusData2001S1"/> identified as their native language, the official language.
* Making English, as preferred by non-Hindi speakers, particularly [[Kannadigas]] and [[Tamils]], and those from [[Mizoram]] and [[Nagaland]], the official language. ''See also [[Anti-Hindi agitations]]''.
* Declare both Hindi and English as official languages and each state is given freedom to choose the official language of the state.

The [[Constitution of India|Indian constitution]], in 1950, declared [[Hindi]] in [[Devanagari]] script to be the [[official language]] of the union.<ref name=cons>{{cite web|url=http://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf|title=Constitution of India as of 29 July 2008|access-date=13 April 2011|work=The Constitution Of India|publisher=Ministry of Law & Justice|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140621134720/http://lawmin.nic.in/coi/coiason29july08.pdf|archive-date=21 June 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Unless Parliament decided otherwise, the use of [[English language|English]] for official purposes was to cease 15 years after the constitution came into effect, i.e. on 26 January 1965.<ref name=cons/> The prospect of the changeover, however, led to much alarm in the non-Hindi-speaking areas of India, especially in [[South India]] whose native tongues are not related to Hindi. As a result, [[Parliament of India|Parliament]] enacted the [[Official Languages Act in 1963]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rajbhasha.nic.in/dolacteng.htm |title=DOL<!-- Bot-generated title --> |access-date=21 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620135422/http://rajbhasha.nic.in/dolacteng.htm |archive-date=20 June 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/35.htm |title=Commissioner Linguistic Minorities<!-- Bot-generated title --> |access-date=21 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071008113359/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/35.htm |archive-date=8 October 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.languageinindia.com/april2002/officiallanguagesact.html|title=Language in India|website=languageinindia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/RPF/Files/law/BareActs/officiallang1963act.htm |title=THE OFFICIAL LANGUAGES ACT, 1963<!-- Bot-generated title --> |access-date=21 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090601185802/http://www.indianrailways.gov.in/RPF/Files/law/BareActs/officiallang1963act.htm |archive-date=1 June 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://india.gov.in/knowindia/official_language.php |title=National Portal of India : Know India : Profile<!-- Bot-generated title --> |access-date=21 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070417150059/http://india.gov.in/knowindia/official_language.php |archive-date=17 April 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.rajbhasha.gov.in/khand8-eng7.pdf |title=Committee of Parliament on Official Language report |access-date=21 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220150003/http://www.rajbhasha.gov.in/khand8-eng7.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> which provided for the continued use of English for official purposes along with Hindi, even after 1965.

===Bengali===
{{Main|Bengali language}}
Native to the Bengal region, comprising the nation of [[Bangladesh]] and the [[States of India by Bengali speakers|states]] of [[West Bengal]], [[Tripura]] and [[Barak Valley]] region<ref name="The World Factbook">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world/|title=The World Factbook |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency|access-date=21 February 2018}}</ref><ref name="Summary by language size">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size|title=Summary by language size|website=Ethnologue|access-date=21 February 2019}}</ref> of [[Assam]]. Bengali (also spelt as ''Bangla'': বাংলা) is the sixth most spoken language in the world.<ref name="The World Factbook"/><ref name="Summary by language size"/> After the partition of India (1947), refugees from [[East Pakistan]] were settled in [[Tripura]], and [[Jharkhand]] and the union territory of [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]]. There is also a large number of Bengali-speaking people in Maharashtra and Gujarat where they work as artisans in jewellery industries. Bengali developed from [[Abahattha]], a derivative of [[Apabhramsha]], itself derived from [[Magadhi]] [[Prakrit]]. The modern [[Bengali vocabulary]] contains the [[Tatbhava|vocabulary base]] from [[Magadhi Prakrit]] and [[Pali]], also [[Tatsama|borrowings]] from [[Sanskrit]] and other major borrowings from [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Arabic]], [[Austroasiatic languages]] and other languages in contact with.

Like most Indian languages, Bengali has a number of dialects. It exhibits [[diglossia]], with the literary and standard form differing greatly from the colloquial speech of the regions that identify with the language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lrc.cornell.edu/asian/courses/bengali|title=The Bengali Language at Cornell&nbsp;– Department of Asian Studies|website=Lrc.cornell.edu|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref> Bengali language has developed a rich cultural base spanning art, music, literature, and religion. Bengali has some of the oldest literature of all modern Indo-Aryan languages, dating from about 7th to 12th century ('[[Charyapada|Charyapada]]' Buddhist songs).<ref>{{Cite web |date=31 August 2024 |title=Bengali language {{!}} History, Writing System & Dialects {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bengali-language |access-date=3 October 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |quote=The Bengali linguists Suniti Kumar Chatterji and Sukumar Sen suggested that Bengali had its origin in the 10th century ce, deriving from Magahi Prakrit (a spoken language) through Magahi Apabhramsha (its written counterpart).<br/>The Bengali scholar Muhammad Shahidullah and his followers offered a competing theory, suggesting that the language began in the 7th century CE and developed from spoken and written Gauda (also, respectively, a Prakrit and an Apabhramsha).}}</ref><ref name="Mitra">{{cite news |last1=Mitra |first1=Atri |title=Behind Bengali's classical language tag, a Kolkata institute's 2,000-page research document |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/kolkata/bengalis-classical-language-tag-kolkata-institute-research-9609939/ |access-date=2 April 2025 |work=The Indian Express |date=8 October 2024 |location=Kolkata |quote=…a Chinese-Sanskrit Dictionary compiled by Li-Yen bears testimony to the fact that at least 51 Bangla words made their way into that dictionary…The Chinese-Sanskrit dictionary, compiled in the 8th Century CE, included or rather was compelled to include words of a third language, i.e., Bangla.}}</ref> There have been many movements in defence of this language and in 1999 [[UNESCO]] declared 21 Feb as the [[International Mother Language Day]] in commemoration of the [[Bengali Language Movement]] in 1952.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Chu|first1=Emily|title=UNESCO Dhaka Newsletter|url=http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/FIELD/Dhaka/pdf/Publications/UNESCO%20Dhaka%20Newsletter%203v2.pdf|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=24 January 2015}}</ref>

===Assamese===
{{Main|Assamese language}}
[[File:Illustrated Manuscript of Dakhinpat Sattra( Bhagawat).jpg|thumb|A [[Bhagavata]] manuscript written in Early Assamese, from [[Dakhinpat Satra]].]]
Asamiya or Assamese language is most spoken in the state of [[Assam]].<ref name="india-travel-agents.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.india-travel-agents.com/india-guide/languages.html|title=Common Languages of India&nbsp;– Popular Indian Language&nbsp;– Languages Spoken in India&nbsp;– Major Indian Languages|website=India-travel-agents.com|access-date=28 December 2017}}</ref> It is an [[Eastern Indo-Aryan language]] with more than 23 million total speakers including more than 15&nbsp;million native speakers and more than 7&nbsp;million [[L2 speakers]] per the 2011 Census of India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011census/C-17.html|title=C-17 POPULATION BY BILINGUALISM AND TRILINGUALISM|first=Ministry of Home Affairs|last=Government of India|access-date=22 August 2021}}</ref> Along with other [[Eastern Indo-Aryan languages]], Assamese evolved at least before the 7th century CE<ref>Sen, Sukumar (1975), ''Grammatical sketches of Indian languages with comparative vocabulary and texts, Volume 1'', P 31</ref> from the middle Indo-Aryan [[Magadhi Prakrit]]. Assamese is unusual among Eastern Indo-Aryan languages for the presence of the {{IPA|/x/}} (which, phonetically, varies between velar ({{IPAblink|x}}) and a uvular ({{IPAblink|χ}}) pronunciations). The first characteristics of this language are seen in the [[Charyapada]]s composed in between the eighth and twelfth centuries. The first examples emerged in writings of court poets in the fourteenth century, the finest example of which is Madhav Kandali's [[Saptakanda Ramayana]] composed during 14th century CE, which was the first translation of the [[Ramayana]] into an [[Indo-Aryan language]].

===Marathi===
{{Main|Marathi language}}
[[Marathi language|Marathi]] is an [[Indo-Aryan language]]. It is the official language and co-official language in [[Maharashtra]] and [[Goa]] states of Western India respectively, and is one of the official languages of India. There were 83 million speakers of the language in 2011.<ref name="Language and Mother Tongue">{{cite web|title=Language and Mother Tongue|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language_MTs.html|publisher=MHA, Gov. of India}}</ref> Marathi has the third-largest number of native speakers in India and ranks 10th in the [[List of languages by number of native speakers|list of most spoken languages in the world]]. Marathi has some of the oldest literature of all modern Indo-Aryan languages; Oldest stone inscriptions from 8th century & literature dating from about 1100 AD (Mukundraj's ''Vivek Sindhu'' dates to the 12th century). The major dialects of Marathi are Standard Marathi (Pramaan Bhasha) and the Varhadi dialect. There are other related languages such as [[Khandeshi|Ahirani]],  Dangi, [[Phudagi language|Vadvali]], [[Kadodi language|Samavedi]]. [[Malvani Konkani]] has been heavily influenced by Marathi varieties. Marathi is one of several languages that descend from Maharashtri Prakrit. The further change led to the Apabhraṃśa languages like [[Old Marathi]].

[[Marathi Language Day]] (मराठी दिन/मराठी दिवस (transl. Marathi Dina/Marathi Diwasa) is celebrated on 27 February every year across the Indian states of Maharashtra and Goa. This day is regulated by the State Government. It is celebrated on the birthday of eminent Marathi Poet Vishnu Vaman Shirwadkar, popularly known as [[Kusumagraj]] .<!-- Citation for this is in the article linked -->

Marathi is the official language of Maharashtra and co-official language in the union territories of [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli and Daman and Diu]]. In [[Goa]], [[Konkani language|Konkani]] is the sole official language; however, Marathi may also be used for all official purposes.<ref name="goa">The Goa, Daman, and Diu Official Language Act, 1987 makes Konkani the official language, but provides that Marathi may also be used "for all or any of the official purposes". The Government also has a policy of replying in Marathi to correspondence received in Marathi. Commissioner Linguistic Minorities, [http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/35.htm], pp. para 11.3 {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090919055657/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/35.htm|date=19 September 2009}}</ref>

Over a period of many centuries the Marathi language and people came into contact with many other languages and dialects. The primary influence of [[Prakrit]], [[Maharashtri]], [[Apabhraṃśa]] and [[Sanskrit]] is understandable. Marathi has also been influenced by the [[Austroasiatic]], [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] and foreign languages such as [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic]]. Marathi contains loanwords from Persian, Arabic, [[English language|English]] and a little from [[French language|French]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].

===Meitei===
{{Main|Meitei language}}
''[[Meitei language]]'' (officially known as ''[[Manipuri language]]'') is the [[List of languages by number of native speakers in India#List of languages by number of native speakers|most widely spoken]] Indian [[Sino-Tibetan language]] of [[Tibeto-Burman]] linguistic sub branch. It is the sole official language in [[Manipur]] and is one of the official languages of India. It is one of the two [[Sino-Tibetan]] [[languages with official status in India]], beside [[Bodo language|Bodo]]. It has been recognised as one of the advanced modern languages of India by the National [[Sahitya Academy]] for its rich literature.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bareh |first=Hamlet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XScmdGvMf7IC&q=Owing+to+its+richness+%2C+the+language+has+been+recognized+as+one+of+the+advanced+modern+languages+of+India+by+the+National+Sahitya+Academy+Manipuri&pg=PA80 |title=Encyclopaedia of North-East India |date=2001 |publisher=Mittal Publications |isbn=978-81-7099-790-0 |pages=80}}</ref> It uses both [[Meitei script]] as well as [[Bengali script]] for writing.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manipuri language and alphabets |url=https://omniglot.com/writing/manipuri.htm |access-date=29 July 2022 |website=omniglot.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Manipuri language {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Manipuri-language |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}</ref>

Meitei language is currently proposed to be included in the elite category of "[[Classical Language]]s" of India.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Government must take concrete step for recognition of Manipuri as classical language |url=https://www.ifp.co.in/manipur/government-must-take-concrete-step-for-recognition-of-manipuri-as-classical-language |access-date=29 July 2022 |website=Imphal Free Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=IANS |date=20 August 2016 |title=Classic language status for Manipuri demanded |work=Business Standard India |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/classic-language-status-for-manipuri-demanded-116082000690_1.html |access-date=29 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=21 August 2019 |title=Manipur Govt Begins Efforts for Inclusion of Manipuri Among 'Classical' Languages |url=http://www.indiatodayne.in/breaking-news/story/manipur-govt-begins-efforts-inclusion-manipuri-among-classical-languages-397876-2019-08-21 |access-date=29 July 2022 |website=India Today NE |language=hi}}</ref> Besides, it is also currently proposed to be an associate official language of [[Government of Assam]]. According to [[Leishemba Sanajaoba]], the present titular king of [[Manipur]] and a [[Rajya Sabha]] member of Manipur state, by recognising Meitei as an ''associate official language'' of Assam, the identity, history, culture and tradition of Manipuris residing in Assam could be protected.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manipuri as associate official language in Assam Sanajaoba approaches Sonowal |url=https://www.thesangaiexpress.com/Encyc/2020/9/24/Manipuri-as-associate-official-language-in-AssamSanajaoba-approaches-Sonowal-.html |access-date=29 July 2022 |website=thesangaiexpress.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Manipuri language should be one of Assam's associate official languages: AAMSU |url=https://www.ifp.co.in/9888/manipuri-language-should-be-one-of-assams-associate-official-languages-aamsu |access-date=29 July 2022 |website=Imphal Free Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Laithangbam |first=Iboyaima |date=27 September 2020 |title=Assam to look into demand to include Manipuri in list of associate languages|work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/minister-to-look-into-demand-to-include-manipuri-in-the-list-of-associate-languages-of-assam/article32707194.ece |access-date=29 July 2022 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

[[Meitei Language Day]] ([[Manipuri Language Day]]) is celebrated on 20 August every year by the Manipuris across the Indian states of Manipur, Assam and Tripura. This day is regulated by the [[Government of Manipur]]. It is the commemoration of the day on which Meitei was included in the [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India]] on 20 August 1992.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Dr Th Suresh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kbu_AwAAQBAJ&dq=meitei+language+day&pg=PA24 |title=The Endless Kabaw Valley: British Created Visious [sic] Cycle of Manipur, Burma and India |date=2 June 2014 |publisher=Quills Ink Publishing |isbn=978-93-84318-00-0 |pages=24}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Singh |first=Dr Th Suresh |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kbu_AwAAQBAJ&dq=meitei+language+day&pg=PA25 |title=The Endless Kabaw Valley: British Created Visious Cycle of Manipur, Burma and India |date=2 June 2014 |publisher=Quills Ink Publishing |isbn=978-93-84318-00-0 |pages=25}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Coleman |first1=Daniel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eu8cTROu4LcC&dq=meitei+language+day&pg=PA131 |title=Countering Displacements: The Creativity and Resilience of Indigenous and Refugee-ed Peoples |last2=Glanville |first2=Erin Goheen |last3=Hasan |first3=Wafaa |last4=Kramer-Hamstra |first4=Agnes |date=26 April 2012 |publisher=University of Alberta |isbn=978-0-88864-592-0 |pages=131}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=30th Manipuri Language Day observed : 21st aug21 ~ E-Pao! Headlines |url=http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=7..210821.aug21 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=20 August 2017 |title=Manipuri Language Day observed in Manipur&nbsp;– Eastern Mirror |url=https://easternmirrornagaland.com/manipuri-language-day-observed-in-manipur/ |website=easternmirrornagaland.com}}</ref>

===Telugu===
{{Main|Telugu language}}
Telugu is the [[List of languages by number of native speakers in India#List of languages by number of native speakers|most widely spoken]] [[Dravidian language]] in India and around the world. Telugu is an official language in [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Telangana]] and [[Yanam]], making it one of the few languages (along with Hindi, Bengali, and Urdu) with official status in more than one state. It is also spoken by a significant number of people in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, and by the Sri Lankan Gypsy people. It is one of six languages with [[#Classical|classical status in India]]. Telugu ranks fourth by the number of native speakers in India (81&nbsp;million in the 2011 Census),<ref name="Language and Mother Tongue"/> fifteenth in the ''Ethnologue'' list of most-spoken languages worldwide and is the most widely spoken Dravidian language.

===Tamil===
{{Main|Tamil language}}
[[File:Thiruppugazh - Umbartharu - Hamsadhwani.wav|thumb|15th-century anthology of Tamil religious poetry dedicated to [[Ganesha]]]]
Tamil is a [[Dravidian language]] predominantly spoken in [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]] and many parts of [[Sri Lanka]]. It is also spoken by large mino Telugu is the second oldest language in Dravidian languages, after Tamil.rities in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[Mauritius]] and throughout the world. Tamil ranks fifth by the number of native speakers in India (61&nbsp;million in the 2001 Census)<ref>{{Cite web|title=Scheduled Languages in descending order of speaker's strength&nbsp;– 2001|url=https://www.censusindia.gov.in/census_data_2001/census_data_online/language/Statement4.htm|website=censusindia.gov.in}}</ref> and ranks 20th in the [[List of languages by number of native speakers|list of most spoken languages]].{{Citation needed|reason=Contradicted by other articles which have reliable sources|date=November 2016}} It is one of the 22 [[scheduled languages of India]] and was the first Indian language to be declared a [[Classical language of India|classical language]] by the [[Government of India]] in 2004. Tamil is one of the longest surviving [[classical language]]s in the world.<ref name="Circulation and the Historical Geog">{{Citation | first= Burton |last=Stein |date=November 1977 | title = Circulation and the Historical Geography of Tamil Country | journal = The Journal of Asian Studies | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 7–26| doi = 10.2307/2053325 | jstor=2053325|s2cid=144599197 }}</ref><ref>Steever, Sanford B. ''"The Dravidian languages"'', First Published (1998), pp. 6–9. {{ISBN|0-415-10023-2}}</ref> It has been described as "the only language of contemporary India which is recognisably continuous with a classical past".<ref name="richestClassical">Kamil Zvelebil, ''The Smile of Murugan'' Leiden 1973, p11-12</ref> The two earliest manuscripts from India,<ref>{{Citation |url=http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=23087&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081027173647/http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D23087%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 October 2008 |title=The I.A.S. Tamil Medical Manuscript Collection |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=13 September 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |url=http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=23084&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090804195118/http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D23084%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 August 2009 |title=Saiva Manuscript in Pondicherry |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=13 September 2012 }}</ref> acknowledged and registered by [[Memory of the World Programme|UNESCO Memory of the World register]] in 1997 and 2005, are in Tamil.<ref>{{Citation |url=http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=26531&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091012181205/http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D26531%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 October 2009 |title=Memory of the World Register: India |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=13 September 2012 }}</ref> Tamil is an official language of [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]], [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]], [[Sri Lanka]] and [[Singapore]]. It is also recognised as a minority language in [[Canada]], [[Malaysia]], [[Mauritius]] and [[South Africa]].

===Urdu===
{{Main|Urdu}}
After independence, [[Modern Standard Urdu]], the Persianised register of Hindustani became the [[national language of Pakistan]]. During British colonial times, knowledge of Hindustani or Urdu was a must for officials. Hindustani was made the second language of British Indian Empire after English and considered as the language of administration.{{Citation needed|date=February 2019}} The British introduced the use of Roman script for Hindustani as well as other languages. Urdu had 70 million speakers in India (per the Census of 2001), and, along with Hindi, is one of the 22 officially recognised regional languages of India and also an official language in the Indian states of [[Andhra Pradesh]]<ref name="correspondent"/>[[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|, Jammu and Kashmir]], [[National Capital Territory of Delhi|Delhi]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[Bihar]] and [[Telangana]] that have significant Muslim populations.

===Gujarati===
{{Main|Gujarati language}}
Gujarati is an [[Indo-Aryan language]]. It is native to the [[west India]]n region of [[Gujarat]]. Gujarati is part of the greater [[Indo-European]] [[language family]]. Gujarati is descended from [[Old Gujarati]] ({{circa|1100}}&nbsp;– 1500&nbsp;CE), the same source as that of [[Rajasthani languages|Rajasthani]]. Gujarati is the chief and official language in the Indian state of Gujarat. It is also an official language in the [[union territories]] of [[Daman and Diu]] and [[Dadra and Nagar Haveli]]. According to the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA), 4.5% of population of India (1.21&nbsp;billion according to 2011 census) speaks Gujarati. This amounts to 54.6&nbsp;million speakers in India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wwt-services.co.uk/translations/languages/gujarati-translation-216|title=Translation from Gujarati to English and from English to Gujarati&nbsp;– Translation Services|author=Sandra Küng|date=6 June 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141017024018/http://www.wwt-services.co.uk/translations/languages/gujarati-translation-216|archive-date=17 October 2014}}</ref>

===Kannada===
{{Main|Kannada}}
Kannada is a Dravidian language which branched off from [[Kannada-Tamil]] sub group around 500 B.C.E according to the Dravidian scholar Zvelebil.<ref name="constitution">Zvelebil in H. Kloss & G.D. McConnell; ''Constitutional languages'', p.240, Presses Université Laval, 1 January 1989, {{ISBN|2-7637-7186-6}}</ref> It is the official language of [[Karnataka]]. According to the Dravidian scholars Steever and Krishnamurthy, the study of Kannada language is usually divided into three linguistic phases: Old (450–1200 CE), Middle (1200–1700 CE) and Modern (1700–present).<ref>Steever, S. B., ''The Dravidian Languages'' (Routledge Language Family Descriptions), 1998, p.129, London, Routledge, {{ISBN|0-415-10023-2}}</ref><ref name="krishna">Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju, ''The Dravidian Languages'' (Cambridge Language Surveys), 2003, p.23, Cambridge and London: Cambridge University Press, {{ISBN|0-521-77111-0}}</ref> The earliest written records are from the 5th century,<ref name="record">H. Kloss & G.D. McConnell, ''Constitutional languages'', p.239, Presses Université Laval, 1 January 1989, {{ISBN|2-7637-7186-6}}</ref> and the earliest available literature in rich manuscript (''[[Kavirajamarga]]'') is from {{circa|850}}.<ref name="literature1">Narasimhacharya R; ''History of Kannada Literature'', p.2, 1988, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, {{ISBN|81-206-0303-6}}</ref><ref name="literature2">Sastri, Nilakanta K.A.; ''A history of South India from prehistoric times to the fall of Vijayanagar'', 1955, 2002, India Branch of Oxford University Press, New Delhi, {{ISBN|0-19-560686-8}}</ref> Kannada language has the second oldest written tradition of all languages of India.<ref name="verna1">Das, Sisir Kumar; ''A History of Indian Literature, 500–1399: From Courtly to the Popular'', pp.140–141, Sahitya Akademi, 2005, New Delhi, {{ISBN|81-260-2171-3}}</ref><ref name="oldest">R Zydenbos in Cushman S, Cavanagh C, Ramazani J, Rouzer P, ''The Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics: Fourth Edition'', p.767, Princeton University Press, 2012, {{ISBN|978-0-691-15491-6}}</ref> Current estimates of the total number of [[Epigraphy|epigraph]] present in Karnataka range from 25,000 by the scholar [[Sheldon Pollock]] to over 30,000 by the [[Sahitya Akademi]],<ref name="current">Datta, Amaresh; ''Encyclopaedia of Indian literature&nbsp;– vol 2'', p.1717, 1988, Sahitya Akademi, {{ISBN|81-260-1194-7}}</ref> making Karnataka state "one of the most densely inscribed pieces of real estate in the world".<ref name="dense">Sheldon Pollock in Dehejia, Vidya; ''The Body Adorned: Sacred and Profane in Indian Art'', p.5, chapter:''The body as Leitmotif'', 2013, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0-231-14028-7}}</ref> According to Garg and Shipely, more than a thousand notable writers have contributed to the wealth of the language.<ref name="wealth1">Garg, Gaṅgā Rām; ''Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World, Volume 1'', p.68, Concept Publishing Company, 1992, New Delhi, {{ISBN|978-81-7022-374-0}}</ref><ref name="wealth2">Shipley, Joseph T.; ''Encyclopedia of Literature&nbsp;– Vol I'', p.528, 2007, READ BOOKS, {{ISBN|1-4067-0135-1}}</ref>

===Malayalam===
{{Main|Malayalam}}
Malayalam has [[official language]] status in the state of [[Kerala]] and in the union territories of [[Lakshadweep]] and [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]]. It belongs to the [[Dravidian family of languages]] and is spoken by some 38 million people. Malayalam is also spoken in the neighbouring states of [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Karnataka]]; with some speakers in [[the Nilgiris District|the Nilgiris]], [[Kanyakumari district|Kanyakumari]] and [[Coimbatore district|Coimbatore]] districts of [[Tamil Nadu]], and the [[Dakshina Kannada]] and the [[Kodagu district]] of [[Karnataka]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.karnatakavision.com/dakshin-kannada.php|title=Dakshina Kannada District: Dakshin Kannada also called South Canara&nbsp;– coastal district of Karnataka state|publisher=Karnatakavision.com|access-date=20 February 2012|archive-date=20 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220061237/http://www.karnatakavision.com/dakshin-kannada.php|url-status=usurped}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/11/26/stories/2008112656840300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105143606/http://www.hindu.com/2008/11/26/stories/2008112656840300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 November 2012|location=Chennai, India|work=[[The Hindu]]|title=Kodagu-Kerala association is ancient|date=26 November 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hindu.com/2008/12/09/stories/2008120951660300.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121105143619/http://www.hindu.com/2008/12/09/stories/2008120951660300.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=5 November 2012|location=Chennai, India|work=[[The Hindu]]|title=Virajpet Kannada Sahitya Sammelan on January 19|date=9 December 2008}}</ref> Malayalam originated from [[Middle Tamil language|Middle Tamil (Sen-Tamil)]] in the 7th century.<ref name="Asher2013">{{cite book|last1=Asher|first1=R|last2=Kumari|first2=T. C.|title=Malayalam|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hRNTAQAAQBAJ&pg=PR24|access-date=19 December 2016|date=11 October 2013|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-136-10084-0|page=xxiv}}</ref> As Malayalam began to freely borrow words as well as the rules of grammar from [[Sanskrit]], the [[Grantha alphabet]] was adopted for writing and came to be known as ''Arya Eluttu''.<ref>[http://www.tnarch.gov.in/epi/ins3.htm Epigraphy&nbsp;– Grantha Script] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111183842/http://www.tnarch.gov.in/epi/ins3.htm |date=11 January 2010 }} Tamil Nadu State Department of Archaeology</ref> This developed into the modern [[Malayalam script]].<ref>Andronov, Mikhail Sergeevich. ''A Grammar of the Malayalam Language in Historical Treatment''. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1996.</ref>

===Odia===
{{Main|Odia language}}
Odia (formerly spelled ''Oriya'')<ref>{{cite news|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/orissa-to-odisha-negotiable-instruments-act/1/158874.html|title=Mixed views emerge as Orissa becomes Odisha|work=India Today|access-date=10 November 2011}}</ref> is one of the modern language officially recognised as a classical language from the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] group. Odia is primarily spoken and has official language status in the Indian state of [[Odisha]] and has over 40 million speakers. It was declared as a classical language of India in 2014. Native speakers comprise 91.85% of the population in Odisha.<ref>{{cite web|title=Scheduled Languages in descending order of speaker's strength&nbsp;– 2011|url=http://www.censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/Language-2011/Statement-1.pdf|publisher=[[Registrar General and Census Commissioner of India]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=CENSUS OF INDIA 2011 |title=LANGUAGE |url=http://censusindia.gov.in/2011Census/C-16_25062018_NEW.pdf |publisher=Government of India |page=12}}</ref> Odia originated from Odra Prakrit which developed from [[Magadhi Prakrit]], a language spoken in eastern India over 2,500 years ago. The history of Odia language can be divided to Old Odia (3rd century BC −1200 century AD),<ref>{{cite book |title= Classical Odia |first1=Debi Prasanna |last1= Pattanayak |first2=Subrat Kumar |last2= Prusty |publisher= KIS Foundation |location= [[Bhubaneswar]] |url=http://www.orissalinks.com/odia/classical3.pdf#16 |page=54 |access-date= 26 July 2016}}</ref> Early Middle Odia (1200–1400), Middle Odia (1400–1700), Late Middle Odia (1700–1870) and Modern Odia (1870 until present day). The [[National Mission for Manuscripts|National Manuscripts Mission of India]] have found around 213,000 unearthed and preserved manuscripts written in Odia.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Kumarl|first1=Chethan|title=Manuscript mission: Tibetan beats all but three Indian languages&nbsp;– Times of India|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Manuscript-mission-Tibetan-beats-all-but-three-Indian-languages/articleshow/53284630.cms|access-date=11 November 2016|work=The Times of India|date=19 July 2016}}</ref>

===Santali===
{{Main|Santali language}}
[[Santali language|Santali]] is a [[Munda languages|Munda language]], a branch of [[Austroasiatic languages]] spoken widely in [[Jharkhand]] and other states of [[eastern India]] by [[Santal people|Santhal]] community of tribal and non-tribal.<ref>{{Cite web |date=22 July 2022 |title=Santhals: A Look At The Tribal Community Of India's New President Droupadi Murmu |url=https://www.outlookindia.com/national/santhals-a-look-at-the-tribal-community-of-india-s-new-president-droupadi-murmu-news-211156 |access-date=27 July 2022 |website=outlookindia.com}}</ref> It is written in [[Ol Chiki script]] invented by [[Raghunath Murmu]] at the end of 19th century.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ol Chiki Script |url=https://wesanthals.tripod.com/id45.html |access-date=27 July 2022 |website=wesanthals.tripod.com}}</ref> Santali is spoken by 0.67% of India's population.<ref name=":022">{{Cite web |title=Summary by language size |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/statistics/size |access-date=12 March 2019 |website=Ethnologue}} For items below No. 26, see individual ''Ethnologue'' entry for each language.</ref><ref name="fulllangdatacensus 20112">{{cite web |title=How languages intersect in India |date=22 November 2018 |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/how-languagesintersect-in-india/story-g3nzNwFppYV7XvCumRzlYL.html |work=Hindustan Times}}</ref> About 7 million people speak this language.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Santali language and alphabets |url=https://omniglot.com/writing/santali.htm |access-date=27 July 2022 |website=omniglot.com}}</ref> It is also spoken in [[Bangladesh]] and [[Nepal]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Project |first=Joshua |title=Santal (Sawntal) in Nepal |url=https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/14743/NP |access-date=27 July 2022 |website=joshuaproject.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Santals, The&nbsp;– Banglapedia |url=https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Santals,_The |access-date=27 July 2022 |website=en.banglapedia.org}}</ref> The language is major tribal language of Jharkhand and thus [[Santal people|Santhal]] community is demanding to make it as the official language of [[Jharkhand]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=21 February 2017 |title=ASA demands Santali as first official language in Jharkhand |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/asa-demands-santali-as-first-official-language-in-jharkhand-4536259/ |access-date=27 July 2022 |website=The Indian Express}}</ref>

===Punjabi===
{{Unreferenced section|date=October 2020}}
{{Main|Punjabi language}}
[[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], written in the [[Gurmukhi script]] in India, is one of the prominent languages of India with about 32 million speakers. In Pakistan it is spoken by over 80&nbsp;million people and is written in the [[Shahmukhi alphabet]]. It is mainly spoken in [[Punjab, India|Punjab]] but also in neighbouring areas. It is an official language of [[Delhi]] and [[Punjab]].

===Maithili===
{{Main|Maithili language}}
[[Maithili language|Maithili]] is an [[Indo-Aryan language]] native to India and Nepal. In India, it is widely spoken in the [[Bihar]] and [[Jharkhand]] states.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ndtv.in/india-news/prakash-javadekar-likely-to-call-meeting-of-experts-to-promote-maithili-script-1826774|title=मैथिली लिपि को बढ़ावा देने के लिए विशेषज्ञों की जल्द ही बैठक बुला सकते हैं प्रकाश जावड़ेकर|website=NDTVIndia}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.livehindustan.com/jharkhand/story-maithili-will-get-second-state-language-status-in-jharkhand-1835624.html,|title=मैथिली को भी मिलेगा दूसरी राजभाषा का दर्जा|website=Hindustan}}</ref> Native speakers are also found in other states and union territories of India, most notably in [[Uttar Pradesh]] and the [[National Capital Territory of Delhi]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://zeenews.india.com/hindi/india/bihar-jharkhand/bjp-trying-to-influence-maithil-voters-in-delhi/635693/amp?espv=1,|title=BJP trying to influence Maithil voters in delhi &#124; मैथिल मतदाताओं को मोहने की कोशिश में है बीजेपी, दिल्ली में हैं कुल 40 लाख वोटर्स&#124; Hindi News, बिहार एवं झारखंड|website=zeenews.india.com}}</ref> In the [[2011 census of India]], It was reported by {{formatnum:13583464}} people as their mother tongue comprising about 1.12% of the total population of India.<ref>[https://www.jagranjosh.com/current-affairs/language-census-2011-surge-in-hindi-speakers-south-indian-language-and-urdu-speakers-decline-1530869001-1, Rise in Hindi language speakers, ''Statement-4'' Retrieved on 22 February 2020]{{Dead link|date=June 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
In [[Nepal]], it is spoken in the eastern [[Terai]], and is the second most prevalent language of Nepal.<ref name=Sah2013>{{cite journal |author=Sah, K. K. |year=2013 |title=Some perspectives on Maithili |journal=Nepalese Linguistics |issue=28 |pages=179–188 }}</ref> [[Tirhuta]] was formerly the primary script for written Maithili. Less commonly, it was also written in the local variant of [[Kaithi]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Brass, P. R. |year=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SylBHS8IJAUC&pg=PP1 |title=Language, Religion and Politics in North India |publisher=iUniverse |location=Lincoln |access-date=1 April 2017 |isbn=0-595-34394-5}}</ref> Today it is written in the [[Devanagari]] script.<ref name=Yadava2013>Yadava, Y. P. (2013). Linguistic context and language endangerment in Nepal. [http://himalaya.socanth.cam.ac.uk/collections/journals/nepling/pdf/Nep_Ling_28.pdf Nepalese Linguistics 28]: 262–274.</ref>

In 2003, Maithili was included in the [[8th Schedule|Eighth Schedule]] of the [[Indian Constitution]] as a recognised regional language of India, which allows it to be used in education, government, and other official contexts.<ref name=Singh2011>Singh, P., & Singh, A. N. (2011). Finding Mithila between India's Centre and Periphery. ''Journal of Indian Law & Society'' 2: 147–181.</ref>

=={{anchor|Classical}}Classical languages of India==
{{Main|Classical Languages of India}}
{{Further|Meitei classical language movement}}
In 2004, the [[Government of India]] declared that languages that met certain requirements could be accorded the status of a "Classical Language" of India.<ref name="bbcclassical">{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3667032.stm |publisher=BBC |title=India sets up classical languages |access-date=1 May 2007 | date=17 September 2004}}</ref>

Languages thus far declared to be classical:
* [[Tamil language|Tamil]] (in 2004),<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/2004/09/18/stories/2004091806530100.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180303153544/http://www.thehindu.com/2004/09/18/stories/2004091806530100.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 March 2018 |title=Front Page : Tamil to be a classical language |date=18 September 2004 |access-date=1 August 2010 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref>
* [[Sanskrit]] (in 2005),<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/2005/10/28/stories/2005102809281200.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160904105019/http://www.thehindu.com/2005/10/28/stories/2005102809281200.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 September 2016 |title=National : Sanskrit to be declared classical language |date=28 October 2005 |access-date=1 August 2010 |work=[[The Hindu]] |location=Chennai, India}}</ref>
* [[Kannada]] (in 2008),<ref name="antiquity"/>
* [[Telugu language|Telugu]] (in 2008),<ref name="antiquity">{{cite web|url=http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelease.aspx?relid=44340|title=Declaration of Telugu and Kannada as classical languages|work=Press Information Bureau|publisher=Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Government of India|access-date=31 October 2008}}</ref>
* [[Malayalam]] (in 2013),<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-national/classical-status-for-malayalam/article4744630.ece | title='Classical' status for Malayalam |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=24 May 2013 |access-date=25 May 2013 |location=Thiruvananthapuram, India}}</ref>
* [[Odia language|Odia]] (in 2014),<ref name=Hindu-Oriya-Classical>{{cite news|title=Odia gets classical language status|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/odia-gets-classical-language-status/article5709028.ece|access-date=20 February 2014|newspaper=The Hindu|date=20 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/bhubaneswar/Milestone-for-state-as-Odia-gets-classical-language-status/articleshow/30779140.cms|title=Milestone for state as Odia gets classical language status|work=The Times of India|date=21 February 2014 }}</ref>
* [[Assamese language |Assamese]] (in 2024)<ref name=pressrelise/><ref name=classical-lang-status/>
* [[Bengali language|Bangla]] (in 2024),<ref name=pressrelise>{{cite news|title=Cabinet approves conferring status of Classical Language to Marathi, Pali, Prakrit, Assamese and Bengali|url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=2061660 |access-date=4 October 2024}}</ref><ref name=classical-lang-status>{{cite news|title=Cabinet approves classical language status to five languages, including Marathi and Bengali|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/cabinet-classical-language-status-five-languages-marathi-bengali-9602341/|access-date=4 October 2024|newspaper=The Indian Express}}</ref>
* [[Marathi language|Marathi]] (in 2024)<ref name=pressrelise/><ref name=classical-lang-status/>
* [[Pali]] (in 2024)<ref name=pressrelise/><ref name=classical-lang-status/>
* [[Prakrit]] (in 2024)<ref name=pressrelise/><ref name=classical-lang-status/>

Over the next few years, several languages were granted the Classical status, and demands have been made for other languages, including [[Maithili language|Maithili]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.jagran.com/bihar/madhubani-not-a-single-language-of-bihar-has-become-a-classical-language-yet-maithili-may-be-included-21816443.html |title=बिहार की एक भी भाषा अब तक नहीं बनी शास्त्रीय भाषा, मैथिली हो सकता शामिल|date=9 July 2021 |author=Jagran Team |newspaper=Jagran}}</ref> and [[Meitei language|Meitei]] (officially called [[Manipuri language|Manipuri]]).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manipur steps up to renew push for inclusion of Manipuri among India's classical languages (time duration of the movement) |url=https://www.ifp.co.in/manipur/manipur-steps-up-to-renew-push-for-inclusion-of-manipuri-among-indias-classical-languages |website=[[Imphal Free Press]]|quote=The movement for recognizing Manipuri as a classical language began in 2013, yet there has been a gap in the follow up actions.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=MP for classical language status : 23rd sep20 ~ E-Pao! Headlines |url=http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=17..230920.sep20 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Process for recognising Manipuri as classical language of India underway: MP Sanajaoba |url=https://www.ifp.co.in/4203/process-for-recognising-manipuri-as-classical-language-of-india-underway-mp-sanajaoba |website=[[Imphal Free Press]]}}</ref>

==Other regional languages and dialects==
The 2001 census identified the following native languages having more than one million speakers. Most of them are dialects/variants grouped under Hindi.<ref name="CensusData2001S1"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Languages !! No. of native speakers<ref name="CensusData2001S1"/>
|-
|[[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] || 33,099,497
|-
|[[Rajasthani language|Rajasthani]] || 18,355,613
|-
|[[Magahi language|Magadhi/Magahi]] || 13,978,565
|-
|[[Chhattisgarhi]] || 13,260,186
|-
|[[Haryanvi]] || 7,997,192
|-
|[[Marwari language|Marwari]] || 7,936,183
|-
|[[Malvi language|Malvi]] || 5,565,167
|-
|[[Mewari language|Mewari]] || 5,091,697
|-
|[[Khortha language|Khorth/Khotta]] || 4,725,927
|-
|[[Bundeli]] || 3,072,147
|-
|[[Bagheli]] || 2,865,011
|-
|[[Pahari language|Pahari]] || 2,832,825
|-
|[[Lamani language|Laman/Lambadi]] || 2,707,562
|-
|[[Awadhi language|Awadhi]] || 2,529,308
|-
|[[Harauti]] || 2,462,867
|-
|[[Garhwali language|Garhwali]] || 2,267,314
|-
|[[Nimadi]] || 2,148,146
|-
|[[Sadri language|Sadan/Sadri]] || 2,044,776
|-
|[[Kumauni language|Kumauni]] || 2,003,783
|-
|[[Dhundhari]] || 1,871,130
|-
|[[Tulu language|Tulu]] || 1,722,768
|-
|[[Surgujia]] || 1,458,533
|-
|[[Bagri language|Bagri Rajasthani]] || 1,434,123
|-
|[[Banjari language|Banjari]] || 1,259,821
|-
|[[Sadri language|Nagpuria]] || 1,242,586
|-
|[[Surajpuri language|Surajpuri]] || 1,217,019
|-
|[[Kangri language|Kangri]] || 1,122,843
|}

===Practical problems===
[[File:Linguistic map of Northeast India English Native.png|thumb|300px|[[Scheduled languages of India|"Scheduled"]] and "non-scheduled" official languages of [[Northeast India]]n states; most of the languages in Northeast are unrecognised by the [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India]]]]

India has several languages in use; choosing any single language as an official language presents problems to all those whose "mother tongue" is different. However, all the boards of education across India recognise the need for training people to one common language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cgs.illinois.edu/content/language-and-globalization|title= Language and Globalization: Center for Global Studies at the University of Illinois|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510062844/http://cgs.illinois.edu/content/language-and-globalization|archive-date=10 May 2013}}</ref> There are complaints that in [[North India]], non-Hindi speakers have language trouble. Similarly, there are complaints that North Indians have to undergo difficulties on account of language when travelling to [[South India]]. It is common to hear of incidents that result due to friction between those who strongly believe in the chosen [[official language]], and those who follow the thought that the chosen language(s) do not take into account everyone's preferences.<ref>{{cite news|last=Prakash|first=A Surya|url=http://www.dailypioneer.com/columnist1.asp?main_variable=Columnist&file_name=surya%2Fsurya25.txt&writer=surya |title=Indians are no less racial|work=The Pioneer|date=27 September 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927033944/http://www.dailypioneer.com/columnist1.asp?main_variable=Columnist&file_name=surya%2Fsurya25.txt&writer=surya|archive-date=27 September 2007}}</ref> Local official language commissions have been established and various steps are being taken in a direction to reduce tensions and friction.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}}

==Languages by earliest known inscriptions==
{{Further|Sanskrit epigraphy}}

Earliest known manuscripts are often subjected to debates and disputes, due to the conflicting opinions and assumptions of different scholars, claiming high antiquity of the languages. So, inscriptions are studied more in depth for understanding the chronology of the oldest known languages of the Indian subcontinent.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Date !! Language !! Earliest known inscriptions !! Images !! Notes
|-
| {{nowrap|early 2nd century BC}} || [[Old Tamil]]|| rock inscription ARE 465/1906 at [[Mangulam]] caves, [[Tamil Nadu]]<ref>{{cite book |title=Early Tamil Epigraphy |given=Iravatham |surname=Mahadevan |author-link=Iravatham Mahadevan |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-674-01227-1 |pages=7, 97 }}</ref> (Other authors give dates from late 3rd century BC to 1st century AD.<ref>{{cite book | first = Kamil Veith | last = Zvelebil | title = Companion Studies to the History of Tamil Literature | page = 42 | publisher = BRILL | year = 1992 | isbn = 978-90-04-09365-2 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Indian Epigraphy |given=Richard |surname=Salomon| publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-19-509984-2 |page=35 }}</ref>)
|| [[File:2nd century BCE Tamil Brahmi inscription Arittapatti Madurai India.jpg|thumb|2nd century BCE Tamil Brahmi inscription Arittapatti, Madurai, India]]
||
|-
| 1st century BC || [[Sanskrit]] || [[Ayodhya Inscription of Dhana]], and [[Hathibada Ghosundi Inscriptions]] (both near [[Chittorgarh]])<ref>{{cite book | title = Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages | first = Richard | last = Salomon | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1998 | isbn = 978-0-19-535666-3 | pages = 86–87 }}</ref>
|| [[File:Dhanadeva Ayodhya inscription.jpg|thumb|Dhanadeva Ayodhya inscription]]
|| The [[Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman]] (shortly after 150 AD) is the oldest long text.<ref>Salomon (1998), p. 89.</ref>
|-
| {{circa|lk=no}} 450 || [[Old Kannada]] || [[Halmidi inscription]]{{sfnp|Krishnamurti|2003|p=23}}
|| [[File:Halmidi OldKannada inscription.JPG|thumb|Halmidi inscription]]
||
|-
| c. 568 CE
|| [[Meitei language|Meitei]]
|| ''Yumbanlol'' [[Indian copper plate inscriptions|copper plate inscriptions]] about literature of sexuality, the relationships between husbands and wives, and instructions on how to run a household.<ref>{{Cite web |others=Manuscript Treasures of India, [[Ministry of Culture (India)|Ministry of Culture]], [[Government of India]] |title=National Mission of Manuscripts : 88 Vijñānanidhi: m a n |url=https://www.yumpu.com/en/document/read/34231921/manuscript-treasures-of-india-national-mission-for-manuscripts/88 |access-date=29 April 2024 |website=National Mission of Manuscripts |page=88, 89}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |others=[[Ministry of Culture (India)|Ministry of Culture, Government of India]] |title=Vijnananidhi |url=https://www.namami.gov.in/flipbook/images/vijnananidhi-page-088.jpg |website=namami.gov.in |page=88, 89}}</ref>
|| [[File:Yumbanlol (Yumpanlol) - a 6th century Classical Meitei language copper manuscript text - in Meetei script - works on sensuality & relationship between husbands & wives and how to run a household in Ancient Kangleipak civilisation state.jpg|thumb|Yumbanlol copper plate inscriptions]]
||
|-
| c. 575 CE
|| [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
|| Kalamalla inscription<ref>{{Cite web |last=Service |first=Express News |date=9 January 2022 |title=First Telugu inscription dating back to 575 AD found in Kadapa village |url=https://www.newindianexpress.com/states/andhra-pradesh/2022/Jan/09/first-telugu-inscriptiondating-back-to-575-ad-found-in-kadapa-village-2404759.html |access-date=20 May 2024 |website=The New Indian Express}}</ref>
||
||
|-
| c. 849/850 CE
|| [[Malayalam]]
|| [[Quilon Syrian copper plates]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Narayanan|first=M. G. S.|year=2013|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=Perumals+of+Kerala|title=Perumals of Kerala: Brahmin Oligarchy and Ritual Monarchy|publisher=CosmoBooks|isbn=9788188765072|location=Thrissur (Kerala)|orig-date=1972|access-date=7 June 2021|archive-date=7 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607091744/https://books.google.com/books?id=0YDCngEACAAJ&q=Perumals+of+Kerala|url-status=live}}</ref>
|| [[File:Quilon Syrian copper plates (849 CE) plates 1 and 4.jpg|thumb|Quilon Syrian copper plates plates]]
||
|-
| c. 1012 CE
|| [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
|| A stone inscription from Akshi taluka of [[Raigad district]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Novetzke |first=Christian Lee |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z9kbDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA53 |title=The Quotidian Revolution: Vernacularization, Religion, and the Premodern Public Sphere in India |date=18 October 2016 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-54241-8 |pages=53, 54}}</ref>
||
||
|-
| c. 1051 CE
|| [[Odia language|Odia]]
|| Urajam inscription<ref>{{Cite book |last=Tripāṭhī |first=Kuñjabihārī |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b8MKAQAAIAAJ |title=The Evolution of Oriya Language and Script |date=1963 |publisher=Utkal University |pages=29, 222}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Mahapatra |first=B. P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yU8nq-C6wnoC&pg=PA389 |title=Constitutional languages |date=1989 |publisher=Presses Université Laval |isbn=978-2-7637-7186-1 |pages=389}}</ref>
|| [[File:Odia- Urajam inscription.jpg|thumb|Odia - Urajam inscription]]
||
|}

==Language policy==
{{Further|Three language formula|National Education Policy 2020}}
The [[Union Government of India]] formulated the [[Three language formula]].

===In the Prime Minister's Office===
{{See also|Prime Minister's Office (India)|Prime Minister of India|}}
The official website of the [[Prime Minister's Office (India)|Prime Minister's Office of India]] publishes its official information in 11 [[official languages of India|Indian official languages]], namely [[Assamese language|Assamese]], Bengali, Gujarati, [[Kannada]], [[Malayalam]], [[Meitei language|Meitei]] ([[Manipuri language|Manipuri]]), Marathi, Odia, Punjabi, Tamil and Telugu, out of the [[22 official languages of the Indian Republic]], in addition to English and [[Hindi]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=PMINDIA Multilingual Website now available in 13 languages Assamese and Manipuri versions of Prime Minister's Official Website launched |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1514873 |access-date=28 January 2023 |website=pib.gov.in}}</ref>

===In the Press Information Bureau===
{{Main|Press Information Bureau}}
The Press Information Bureau (PIB) selects 14 [[official languages of India|Indian official languages]], which are [[Dogri language|Dogri]], Punjabi, Bengali, Odia, Gujarati, [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Meitei language|Meitei]] ([[Manipuri language|Manipuri]]), [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Kannada]], Telugu, [[Malayalam]], Konkani and [[Urdu]], in addition to Hindi and English, out of the [[22 official languages of the Indian Republic]] to render its information about all the [[Central Government of India|Central Government]] press releases.{{efn|The [[Meitei language]] (officially called [[Manipuri language|Manipuri]]) versions of the press releases are presently available in Bengali script, but there is plan of changing the script into [[Meitei script]] ([[Manipuri script]]) in due course of time.}}<ref>{{Cite web |title=PIB press releases in Manipuri : 25th nov15 ~ E-Pao! Headlines |url=http://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=17..251115.nov15 |access-date=28 January 2023 |website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Press |first=Imphal Free |author-link=Imphal Free Press |title=PIB website has news in regional languages now&nbsp;– KanglaOnline |date=24 November 2015 |url=http://kanglaonline.com/2015/11/pib-website-has-news-in-regional-languages-now/ |access-date=28 January 2023}}</ref>

===In the Staff Selection Commission===
{{Main|Staff Selection Commission}}
The Staff Selection Commission (SSC) selected 13 [[official languages of India|Indian official languages]], which are [[Urdu]], Tamil, [[Malayalam]], Telugu, [[Kannada]], Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Konkani, [[Meitei language|Meitei]] ([[Manipuri language|Manipuri]]), Marathi, Odia and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], in addition to [[Hindi]] and English, out of the [[22 official languages of the Indian Republic]], to conduct the Multi-Tasking (Non-Technical) Staff examination for the first time in its history.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Union Minister Dr Jitendra Singh lauds SSC for deciding to conduct the Multi-Tasking (Non-Technical) Staff examination 2022 in 13 regional languages in addition to Hindi and English for the first time |url=https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleseDetailm.aspx?PRID=1892439 |access-date=28 January 2023 |website=pib.gov.in}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=হিন্দি অমসুং ইংলিসকী মথক্তা অহানবা ওইনা লম-লমগী লোন ১৩দা মল্তি-তাস্কিং(নন-তেক্নিকেল) স্তাফ এজামিনেসন ২০২২ পাংথোক্নবা ৱারেপ লৌখিবগীদমক য়ুনিয়ন মিনিস্তর দোক্তর জিতেন্দ্র সিংহনা এস.এস.সি থাগৎখ্রে |url=https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1892624 |access-date=28 January 2023 |website=pib.gov.in |language=mni}}</ref>

===In the Central Armed Police Forces===
The [[Union Government of India]] selected Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, [[Malayalam]], [[Meitei language|Meitei]] ([[Manipuri language|Manipuri]]), [[Kannada]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], Telugu, Odia, [[Urdu]], Punjabi, and Konkani, 13 out of the [[22 official languages of the Indian Republic]], in addition to Hindi & English, to be used in the recruitment examination of the [[Central Armed Police Forces]] (CAPF). The decision was taken by the [[Minister of Home Affairs (India)|Home Minister]] after having an agreement between the [[Ministry of Home Affairs (India)|Ministry of Home Affairs]] and the [[Staff Selection Commission]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Manipuri among 13 regional languages approved for CAPF exam |url=https://www.ifp.co.in/manipur/manipuri-among-13-regional-languages-approved-for-capf-exam |access-date=19 April 2023 |website=[[Imphal Free Press]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=15 April 2023 |title=CAPF Recruitment Examination In Assamese, Manipuri, Bengali, Odia & Other Regional Languages&nbsp;– NE India Broadcast |url=https://neindiabroadcast.com/2023/04/15/capf-recruitment-examination-in-assamese-manipuri-bengali-odia-other-regional-languages/ |access-date=19 April 2023}}</ref> The official decision will be converted into action from {{Start date and age|df=y|2024|01|01}}.<ref>{{Cite web |last=NEWS |first=NE NOW |date=16 April 2023 |title=Manipur CM lauds Centre for introducing Manipuri in CAPF exams |url=http://nenow.in/north-east-news/manipur/manipur-cm-lauds-centre-introducing-manipuri-capf-exams.html |access-date=19 April 2023 |website=NORTHEAST NOW}}</ref>

==Language conflicts==
{{Further|Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu |Pure Tamil movement|Meitei linguistic purism movement|Gokak agitation}}

There are conflicts over [[linguistic rights]] in India. The first major linguistic conflict, known as the [[Anti-Hindi agitations of Tamil Nadu]], took place in Tamil Nadu against the implementation of Hindi as the official language of India. Political analysts consider this as a major factor in bringing [[Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam|DMK]] to power and leading to the ousting and nearly total elimination of the Congress party in Tamil Nadu.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Guha |first1=Ramachandra |author-link1=Ramachandra Guha |url=http://www.thehindu.com/mag/2005/01/16/stories/2005011600272536.htm |title=Hindi against India |date=16 January 2005 |access-date=1 August 2010 |location=Chennai, India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110629020349/http://www.hindu.com/mag/2005/01/16/stories/2005011600260300.htm |archive-date=29 June 2011 |work=[[The Hindu]] |url-status=dead}}</ref> Strong cultural pride based on language is also found in other Indian states such as Assam, Odisha, Karnataka, West Bengal, Punjab and Maharashtra. To express disapproval of the [[imposition of Hindi]] on its states' people as a result of the central government, the government of Maharashtra made the state language Marathi mandatory in educational institutions of [[Central Board of Secondary Education|CBSE]] and [[Indian Certificate of Secondary Education|ICSE]] through Class/Grade 10.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/marathi-a-must-in-maharashtra-schools/28502-3.html |title=Marathi a must in Maharashtra schools |publisher=CNN-IBN |date=3 February 2010 |access-date=1 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110812002609/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/marathi-a-must-in-maharashtra-schools/28502-3.html |archive-date=12 August 2011 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The [[Government of India]] attempts to assuage these conflicts with various campaigns, coordinated by the [[Central Institute of Indian Languages]], [[Mysore]], a branch of the Department of Higher Education, Language Bureau, and the [[Ministry of Human Resource Development (India)|Ministry of Human Resource Development]].{{clarify|date=December 2014}}{{citation needed|date=December 2014}}

==Linguistic movements==
In the history of India, various linguistic movements were and are undertaken by different literary, political and social associations as well as organisations, advocating for the changes and the developments of several languages, dialects and vernaculars in diverse critical, discriminative and unfavorable circumstances and situations.

===Bengali===
{{Further|Bengali language}}
* [[Bengali language movement in India]]

===Bhojpuri===
The Bhojpuri language movement, a linguistic movement that has been actively campaigning for greater recognition of the [[Bhojpuri language]] since 1947.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 January 2021 |title=भोजपुरी को आधिकारिक भाषा का दर्जा देने के सवाल पर सरकार से क्या मिला जवाब, जानिए |url=https://www.aajtak.in/india/news/story/language-bhojpuri-8th-schedule-constitution-rti-answer-central-govt-ministry-of-home-affairs-1191031-2021-01-12 |access-date=17 November 2024 |website=आज तक |language=hi}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YZhjAAAAMAAJ |title=Śrī Nāgendra Prasāda Siṃha ke "Soca-vicāra" para bāta-vicāra |date=1999 |publisher=Loga Prakāśana |language=bh}}</ref>

There have been several protests and demands to include the Bhojpuri language in the [[Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India|Eighth Schedule of the Indian Constitution]] for a long time. In 1971, CPI MP [[Bhogendra Jha]] introduced a bill on this issue in the Lok Sabha, but it was rejected.

In 2009 and 2016, [[Yogi Adityanath]], the Chief Minister of [[Uttar Pradesh]] and former MP from [[Gorakhpur Lok Sabha constituency|Gorakhpur]], raised the issue of Bhojpuri's recognition in the Lok Sabha. He emphasised that Bhojpuri, spoken in parts of India and 27 countries, is one of the world's major languages.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 July 2024 |title=क्या हिंदी-संस्कृत की तरह भोजपुरी भी बनेगी आधिकारिक भाषा? रवि किशन का बिल कानून बना तो क्या होगा फायदा |url=https://www.aajtak.in/explained/story/ravi-kishan-bhojpuri-official-language-constitution-eighth-schedule-bhojpuri-demand-ntc-pryd-1994961-2024-07-29 |access-date=17 November 2024 |website=आज तक |language=hi}}</ref>

===Meitei (Manipuri)===
{{Further|Meitei language}}
* [[Meitei language movement]]s (aka [[Manipuri language movement]]s), various linguistic movements for the cause of [[Meitei language]] (officially called [[Manipuri language]])
** [[Meitei linguistic purism movement]], an ongoing linguistic movement, aimed to attain [[linguistic purism]] in [[Meitei language]]
** [[Meitei language movement#Scheduled language movement|Scheduled language movement]], a historical linguistic movement in [[Northeast India]], aimed at the recognition of [[Meitei language]] as one of the [[scheduled languages of India]]n Republic
** [[Meitei classical language movement]], an ongoing linguistic movement in [[Northeast India]], aimed at the recognition of [[Meitei language]] as an officially recognised "[[classical language]]"
** [[Meitei associate official language movement]], a semi active linguistic movement in [[Northeast India]], aimed at the recognition of [[Meitei language]] as an "associate" official language of [[Assam]]

===Rajasthani===
{{Further|Rajasthani language}}
* [[Rajasthani language movement]], a linguistic movement that has been campaigning for greater recognition for the [[Rajasthani language]] since 1947

===Tamil===
{{Further|Tamil language}}
* [[Tanittamil Iyakkam]] ([[Pure Tamil Movement]]), a [[linguistic purism]] movement for the [[Tamil language]], to ignore the loanwords borrowed from [[Sanskrit]]

==Developmental works==
In the age of technological advancements, the [[Google Translate]] supports the following Indian languages: [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]],<ref>{{Cite web |title=Google Translate now supports Sanskrit and Bhojpuri |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/technology/news/story/google-translate-gets-24-new-languages-including-assamese-bhojpuri-sanskrit-1948298-2022-05-11 |access-date=9 June 2023 |website=India Today |date=11 May 2022}}</ref> [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]], [[Hindi]], [[Kannada]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]], [[Malayalam language|Malayalam]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Meiteilon (Manipuri)]]{{efn|[[Google Translate]] mentions both "[[Meiteilon]]" as well as "[[Manipuri language|Manipuri]]" (within the [[parentheses]]) at the same time for the [[Meitei language]] (officially known as [[Manipuri language]]).}} (in [[Meitei script]]{{efn|[[Meitei language]] uses both [[Meitei script]] as well as [[Bengali script]] officially but Google Translate uses [[Meitei script]] only.}}), [[Odia language|Odia]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (in [[Gurmukhi script]]{{efn|[[Punjabi language]]
uses both [[Gurmukhi script]] as well as [[Shahmukhi script]] officially but Google Translate uses [[Gurmukhi script]] only.}}), [[Sanskrit]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Telugu language|Telugu]], [[Urdu language|Urdu]].

===Meitei (Manipuri)===
{{Further|Meitei language|Meitei script|Directorate of Language Planning and Implementation}}
On 4 September 2013, the [[Directorate of Language Planning and Implementation]] (DLPI) was established for the development and the promotion of [[Meitei language]] (officially called [[Manipuri language]]) and the [[Meitei script]] ([[Manipuri script]]) in [[Manipur]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=14 March 2018 |title=Department of language planning and implementation trying to resolve all language issues in the state |url=https://www.pothashang.in/2018/03/14/department-language-planning-implementation-trying-resolve-language-issues-state/|archive-date=13 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313201109/https://www.pothashang.in/2018/03/14/department-language-planning-implementation-trying-resolve-language-issues-state/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=21 August 2013 |title=Separate directorate for M'puri language {{!}} Nagaland Post |url=https://nagalandpost.com/index.php/separate-directorate-for-mpuri-language/ |access-date=24 November 2023}}</ref>

The [[Manipuri Sahitya Parishad]] is given annual financial support of {{INRConvert|500000|year=2015}} by the [[Government of Manipur]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=31..110515.may15|title=Govt to give Rs 5 lakh to Manipur Sahitya Parishad: CM : 11th may15 ~ E-Pao! Headlines|website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=24..250619.jun19|title=Titles, cash awards presented on 85th foundation day of Manipuri Sahitya Parishad : 25th jun19 ~ E-Pao! Headlines|website=e-pao.net}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://e-pao.net/GP.asp?src=29..100515.may15|title=Annual meet of Manipur Sahitya Parishad held : 10th may15 ~ E-Pao! Headlines|website=e-pao.net}}</ref>

Since 2020, the [[Government of Assam]] is giving annual financial support of {{INR Convert|500000|year=2020}} to the [[Manipuri Sahitya Parishad|Assam Manipuri Sahitya Parishad]]. Besides, the Assam government financed {{INR Convert|6|c|year=2020}} for the creation of a corpus for the development of the [[Meitei language]] (officially called [[Manipuri language]]).<ref>{{Cite news |last=Laithangbam |first=Iboyaima |date=27 September 2020 |title=Assam to look into demand to include Manipuri in list of associate languages|work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/minister-to-look-into-demand-to-include-manipuri-in-the-list-of-associate-languages-of-assam/article32707194.ece |access-date=24 November 2023 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref>

In September 2021, the [[Central Government of India]] released {{INRConvert|180|m}} as the first instalment for the development and the promotion of the [[Meitei language]] (officially called [[Manipuri language]]) and the [[Meitei script]] ([[Manipuri script]]) in [[Manipur]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Laithangbam |first=Iboyaima |date=15 September 2021 |title=Centre has released ₹18 crore for promotion of Manipuri language, says State Education Minister|work=The Hindu |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/other-states/centre-has-released-18-crore-for-promotion-of-manipuri-language-says-state-education-minister/article36466705.ece |access-date=21 August 2022 |issn=0971-751X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=14 September 2021 |title=Centre to release Rs 18 crore to promote Manipuri language {{!}} Pothashang News |url=https://www.pothashang.in/2021/09/14/centre-to-release-rs-18-crore-to-promote-manipuri-language/ |access-date=21 August 2022 |website=Pothashang}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=15 September 2021 |title=State Education Minister says Center has released ₹18 crore to promote Manipuri language&nbsp;– Bharat Times |url=https://news.bharattimes.co.in/state-education-minister-says-center-has-released-%e2%82%b918-crore-to-promote-manipuri-language/ |access-date=21 August 2022}}</ref>

The [[Department of Language Planning and Implementation]] of the [[Government of Manipur]] offers a sum of {{INRConvert|5000|year=2013}}, to every individual who learns [[Meitei language]] (officially called [[Manipuri language]]), having certain terms and conditions.<ref>{{Cite web |title=মণিপুরি ভাষা শিখলেই মিলবে কড়কড়ে ৫০০০ টাকা |trans-title=Manipuri Language : If you learn Manipuri language, you will get 5000 rupees, new strategy to prevent English? |url=https://eisamay.com/north-east-india/manipur-govt-to-offer-5-thousand-rupees-for-learning-manipuri-language/articleshow/94956201.cms |access-date=24 November 2023 |website=Eisamay |language=bn}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Applications invited for local language training programme |url=https://www.ifp.co.in/manipur/applications-invited-for-local-language-training-programme |access-date=24 November 2023 |website=[[Imphal Free Press]]}}</ref>

===Sanskrit===
{{Further|Sanskrit}}
The [[Central Government of India]] allocated ₹6438.4&nbsp;million in the last three years for the development and the promotion of [[Sanskrit]], ₹2311.5&nbsp;million in 2019–20, around ₹2143.8&nbsp;million in 2018–19, and ₹1983.1&nbsp;million in 2017–18.<ref name="hindustantimes.com">{{Cite web |date=16 February 2020 |title=₹643.84 crore spent on promotion of Sanskrit in 3 years: Government data |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/rs-643-84-cr-spent-on-promotion-of-sanskrit-in-3-years-govt-data/story-8LLLjyebUs8RbaL2J1LS9H.html |access-date=21 August 2022 |website=Hindustan Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web  |date=18 February 2020 |title=Why ₹643 crores spent on Sanskrit, ₹ 3 crore on flowers to greet Trumps, but ₹29 crore on five other languages |url=https://www.nationalheraldindia.com/india/why-indian-rupee643-crores-spent-on-sanskrit-and-just-indian-rupee29-crores-on-other-five-classical-languages-ask-twitterati |access-date=21 August 2022 |website=National Herald}}</ref>

===Tamil===
{{Further|Tamil language}}
The [[Central Government of India]] gave an allocation of Rs 105.9&nbsp;million in 2017–18, Rs 46.5&nbsp;million in 2018–19 and Rs 77&nbsp;million in 2019–20 to the "Central Institute of Classical Tamil" for the development and the promotion of [[Tamil language]].<ref name="hindustantimes.com"/><ref name="thewire.in">{{Cite web |title=Centre Spent 22 Times More on Promoting Sanskrit Than Other 5 Classical Languages Combined |url=https://thewire.in/government/sanskrit-language-promotion |access-date=21 August 2022 |website=The Wire}}</ref>

===Telugu and Kannada===
{{Further|Telugu language|Kannada language}}
The [[Central Government of India]] gave an allocation of Rs 10&nbsp;million in 2017–18, Rs 9.9&nbsp;million in 2018–19 and Rs 10.7&nbsp;million in 2019–20, each for the development and the promotion of [[Telugu language]] and [[Kannada language]].<ref name="hindustantimes.com"/><ref name="thewire.in"/>

==Computerisation==
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center; width: auto; table-layout: fixed;"
|+ Multi-pair translations
|-
! Language
!Language code
! [[Google Translate]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Language support {{!}} Cloud Translation |url=https://cloud.google.com/translate/docs/languages |website=Google Cloud |access-date=18 September 2021}}</ref>
! [[Bhashini]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bhashini |url=https://bhashini.gov.in/ |access-date=3 January 2024 |website=bhashini.gov.in}}</ref>
! [[Microsoft Translator]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Language support – Translator – Azure AI services |url=https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/azure/ai-services/translator/language-support |website=learn.microsoft.com |access-date=7 November 2023|date=7 November 2023}}</ref>
! [[Yandex Translate]]<ref>{{cite web |title=Supported languages |url=https://yandex.com/support/translate/supported-langs.html |website=yandex.com |access-date=18 September 2021}}</ref>
! [[Watson (computer)|IBM Watson]]<ref>{{cite web |title=IBM Cloud Docs |url=https://cloud.ibm.com/docs/language-translator?topic=language-translator-translation-models |website=cloud.ibm.com |access-date=18 September 2021}}</ref>
|-
| [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]]
| awa || {{yes}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}} || {{no}}
|-
| [[Bengali language|Bengali]]
| bn || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}}
|-
| [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]]
|bho || {{yes}} || {{no}} || {{yes}} || {{no}} || {{no}}
|-
| [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]]
| gu || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}}
|-
| [[Hindi]]
| hi || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}}
|-
| [[Kannada]]
| kn || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}}
|-
| [[Maithili language|Maithili]]
| mai || {{yes}} || {{beta}} || {{yes}} || {{no}} || {{no}}
|-
| [[Malayalam]]
| ml || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}}
|-
| [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| mr || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}}
|-
| [[Meitei language|Meitei]] (Manipuri)
| mni {{small|(in script specific case, mni-Mtei)}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{no}} || {{no}}
|-
| [[Odia language|Odia]] (Oriya)
| or || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{no}} || {{no}}
|-
| [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]]
| pa || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}}
|-
| [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
| ta || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}}
|-
| [[Telugu language|Telugu]]
| te || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}} || {{yes}}
|}

==Writing systems==
{{Main|Official scripts of the Indian Republic|Brahmic scripts|Nastaliq}}Most languages in India are written in scripts derived from [[Brahmic scripts|Brahmi]].<ref name="DanielsBright1996">{{cite book|author1=Peter T. Daniels|author2=William Bright|title=The World's Writing Systems|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ospMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA384|year=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507993-7|pages=384–}}</ref> These include [[Devanagari]], [[Tamil alphabet|Tamil]], [[Telugu alphabet|Telugu]], [[Kannada alphabet|Kannada]], [[Meitei Mayek]], [[Odia alphabet|Odia]], Eastern Nagari&nbsp;– Assamese/Bengali, [[Gurumukhi]] and other. Urdu is written in [[Urdu alphabet|a script derived from Arabic]]. A few minor languages such as [[Santali language|Santali]] use independent scripts (see [[Ol Chiki script]]).

Various Indian languages have their own scripts. [[Hindi]], [[Marathi language|Marathi]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ethnologue.com/17/language/mai/ |title=Maithili: A language of India |website=Ethnologue |access-date=15 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304205942/http://www.ethnologue.com/17/language/mai/ |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> and [[Angika]] are languages written using the [[Devanagari]] script. Most major languages are written using a script specific to them, such as [[Assamese language|Assamese (Asamiya)]]<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OtCPAgAAQBAJ&q=asamiya+language&pg=PA430|title=The Indo-Aryan Languages|isbn=9781135797119|access-date=28 December 2017|last1=Jain|first1=Danesh|last2=Cardona|first2=George|date=26 July 2007|publisher=Routledge }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zkguECp3vKEC&q=asamiya+language&pg=PA58|title=Encyclopaedia of Scheduled Tribes in India|isbn=9788182050525|access-date=28 December 2017|last1=Mohanty|first1=P. K.|year=2006|publisher=Gyan Publishing House }}</ref> with [[Assamese alphabet|Asamiya]],<ref name="books.google.co.uk">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HUXrVyUk0RAC&q=asamiya+language&pg=PA348|title=The Brahmaputra Basin Water Resources|isbn=9781402017377|access-date=28 December 2017|last1=Singh|first1=Vijay|last2=Sharma|first2=Nayan|last3=Ojha|first3=C. Shekhar P.|date=29 February 2004|publisher=Springer }}</ref> [[Bengali language|Bengali]] with [[Bengali alphabet|Bengali]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] with [[Gurmukhi]], [[Meitei language|Meitei]] with [[Meitei Mayek]], [[Odia language|Odia]] with [[Odia script]], Gujarati with [[Gujarati script|Gujarati]]; [[Awadhi language|Awadhi]], [[Magahi language|Magahi]] and [[Bhojpuri language|Bhojpuri]] with [[Kaithi|Kaithi script]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Humanity |url=https://archive.org/details/languageandlinguisticsseriesr.pischelagrammaroftheprakritlanguagesmotilalbanarsidass1981/07418-unicode-kaithi/page/n18/mode/1up?q=+awadhi+bhojpuri+braj |title=The 'Awadhi, Magadhi, Prakrit, Kaithi, Sanskrit, Ashokan, Bhojpuri, Bihari, Siddham, Eastern Indo-Aryan, Indic, Maithili' Collection |publisher=Humanity |others=Humanity |language=English}}</ref> etc. [[Urdu]] and [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Saraiki language|Saraiki]] and [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] are written in modified versions of the [[Urdu alphabet|Perso-Arabic script]]. With this one exception, the scripts of Indian languages are native to India. Some languages like [[Kodava language|Kodava]] that didn't have a script, as well as some languages such as [[Tulu language|Tulu]] which already had a script, adopted the [[Kannada script]] due to its readily available printing settings.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/18/language/kfa/|title=Kodava|newspaper=[[Ethnologue]]|access-date=14 October 2016}}</ref>

[[File:Handwriting_of_Mudhoji_Bhonsle.jpg|thumb|right|Seal, signature and handwriting of Maratha Senadhurandar Mudhoji Bhonsle I of Chandrapur and Nagpur. This text is written in [[Modi script]] which was used as an alternative script for Marathi.]]

<gallery widths="220px" heights="220px">
File:ANDRO INSCRIBED STONE.jpg|A [[Meitei language]] stone inscription in [[Meitei script]] about a royal decree of a Meitei king found in the sacred site of God [[Panam Ningthou]] in [[Andro, Imphal East]], [[Manipur]]
File:Development of Orissan scripts.jpg|Development of Odia script
File:Jambai Tamil Brahmi.jpg|[[Tamil-Brahmi]] inscription in [[Jambai village#Jambaimalai|Jambaimalai]]
File:Silver rupee of Rudra Simha.jpg|Silver coin issued during the reign of [[Rudra Singha]] with [[Assamese language|Assamese]] inscriptions
File:Asokan brahmi pillar edict.jpg|North Indian Brahmi found in Ashok pillar
File:Halmidi OldKannada inscription.JPG|The [[Halmidi inscription]], the oldest known inscription in the Kannada script and language. The inscription is dated to the 450 CE - 500 CE period.
File:Telugu inscription at Srikakulam, Krishna District in Andhra Pradesh.jpg|An early [[Telugu script|Telugu]] inscription found in the [[Krishna district]] of [[Andhra Pradesh]]
</gallery>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Caribbean Hindustani]]
* [[Fiji Hindi]]
* [[Indo-Portuguese creoles]]
* [[Languages of Bangladesh]]
* [[Languages of Bhutan]]
* [[Languages of China]]
* [[Languages of Fiji]]
* [[Languages of Guyana]]
* [[Languages of Malaysia]]
* [[Maldives#Languages|Languages of Maldives]]
* [[Languages of Mauritius]]
* [[Languages of Myanmar]]
* [[Languages of Nepal]]
* [[Languages of Pakistan]]
* [[Réunion#Language|Languages of Réunion]]
* [[Languages of Singapore]]
* [[Languages of Sri Lanka]]
* [[Trinidad and Tobago#Languages|Languages of Trinidad and Tobago]]
* [[List of endangered languages in India]]
* [[List of languages by number of native speakers in India]]
* [[National Translation Mission]]
* [[Romanisation of Sindhi]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
{{reflist|group=n}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
* [http://www.muturzikin.com/cartesasie/10.htm Linguistic map of India] with a detailed map of [http://www.muturzikin.com/cartesasiesudest/7.htm the Seven Sister States (India)] at Muturzikin.com
* [http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/scripts.html Languages and Scripts of India]
* Kulkarni-Joshi, Sonal. "[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334266653_Linguistic_history_and_language_diversity_in_India_Views_and_counterviews Linguistic history and language diversity in India: Views and counterviews.]" Journal of Biosciences 44 (2019): 1–10.
* [http://www.kamat.com/indica/diversity/languages.htm Diversity of Languages in India]
* [http://www.ciil.org/ A comprehensive federal government site that offers complete info on Indian Languages]
* [http://www.tdil.meity.gov.in/Services/Lang_Tech_Product.aspx Technology Development for Indian Languages, Government of India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191115113958/http://www.tdil.meity.gov.in/Services/Lang_Tech_Product.aspx |date=15 November 2019 }}
* [https://www.himachalpariksha.in/2020/03/languages-spoken-in-himachal-pradesh.html Languages Spoken in Himachal Pradesh&nbsp;– Himachal Pariksha] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406143423/https://www.himachalpariksha.in/2020/03/languages-spoken-in-himachal-pradesh.html |date=6 April 2023 }}

{{Languages of India}}
{{Languages of South Asia}}
{{Asia topic|Languages of}}
{{Life in India}}
{{Portalbar|India|Languages}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Languages of India| ]]
[[Category:Demographics of India]]