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{{Short description|Anti-Soviet U.S. Cold War foreign policy}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2023}}
{{Use American English|date=October 2023}}
{{Harry S. Truman series}}

The '''Truman Doctrine''' is a [[Foreign policy of the United States|U.S. foreign policy]] that pledges American support for democratic nations against [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]] threats.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Truman Doctrine, 1947 |url=https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/truman-doctrine |access-date=2022-09-24 |website=Office of the Historian, Foreign Service Institute, United States Department of State |archive-date=2017-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170516181411/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/truman-doctrine |url-status=live }}</ref> The doctrine originated with the primary goal of countering the growth of the [[Eastern Bloc|Soviet bloc]] during the [[Cold War]]. It was announced to [[United States Congress|Congress]] by President [[Harry S. Truman]] on March 12, 1947,<ref name=DM/> and further developed on July 4, 1948, when he pledged to oppose the [[Communism|communist]] [[Greek Civil War|rebellions in Greece]] and [[Turkish Straits crisis|Soviet demands on Turkey]]. More generally, the Truman Doctrine implied U.S. support for other nations threatened by Moscow. It led to the formation of [[NATO]] in 1949. Historians often use Truman's speech to Congress on March 12, 1947, to date the start of the Cold War.<ref>{{Cite web|date=November 10, 2020|title=The Truman Doctrine's Significance|url=https://www.historyonthenet.com/truman-doctrine-significance|website=History on the Net|access-date=November 10, 2020|archive-date=May 1, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501090818/https://www.historyonthenet.com/truman-doctrine-significance|url-status=live}}</ref>

Truman told Congress that "it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures."<ref>{{cite book|author=Michael Beschloss|title=Our Documents: 100 Milestone Documents From The National Archives|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qqDA6OGvhmUC&pg=PA194|year=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=194–199|isbn=978-0-19-530959-1|access-date=2015-10-27|archive-date=2023-06-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630110920/https://books.google.com/books?id=qqDA6OGvhmUC&pg=PA194|url-status=live}}</ref> Truman contended that because [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] regimes coerced free peoples, they automatically represented a threat to international peace and the [[national security of the United States]]. Truman argued that if Greece and Turkey did not receive the aid, they would inevitably fall out of the United States' sphere of influence and into the communist bloc, with [[Domino theory|grave consequences]] throughout the region.

The Truman Doctrine was informally extended to become the basis of American Cold War policy throughout Europe and around the world.<ref name="MerrillTruDoct" /> It shifted U.S. policy toward the [[Soviet Union]] from a wartime alliance to [[containment]] of Soviet expansion, as advocated by diplomat [[George F. Kennan]].

==Turkish Straits crisis==
{{Main|Turkish Straits crisis}}At the conclusion of [[World War II]], [[Turkey]] was pressured by the Soviet government to allow Soviet shipping to flow freely through the [[Turkish straits]], which connected the [[Black Sea]] to the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]]. As the Turkish government would not submit to the Soviet Union's requests, tensions arose in the region, leading to a show of naval force on the site of the Straits. Since British assistance to Turkey had ended in 1947, the U.S. dispatched military aid to ensure that Turkey would retain chief control of the passage. Turkey received $100 million in economic and military aid and the [[United States Navy|U.S. Navy]] sent the [[Midway-class aircraft carrier|''Midway''-class aircraft carrier]] {{USS|Franklin D. Roosevelt}}.<ref>Barın Kayaoğlu, "Strategic imperatives, Democratic rhetoric: The United States and Turkey, 1945–52." ''Cold War History,'' Aug 2009, Vol. 9(3)  pp. 321–345</ref>

==Greek crisis==
{{Main|White Terror (Greece)|Greek Civil War}}
[[File:Georgeiiofgreece.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|160px|King [[George II of Greece]] (r. 1922–1924, 1935–1947), whose rule was opposed by communist insurgents in the Greek Civil War]]
In October 1944, British and Greek forces [[Operation Manna|landed in Greece]] following the gradual withdrawal of [[Axis occupation of Greece|Axis occupational forces]] from the country. Despite the [[Caserta Agreement]] stipulating that all [[Greek resistance]] factions would join a new [[Hellenic Army|Greek Army]] under British command, General [[Ronald Scobie]] ordered the [[National Liberation Front (Greece)|EAM]]'s armed wing, [[ELAS]], to unilaterally disarm on December, 1 1944. EAM responded to the "Scobie Order" by organizing a rally in [[Athens]] on December 3 in protest, which was fired upon by Greek security forces, killing 28 protestors. This sparked the ''[[Dekemvriana]]'', a series of clashes between EAM and Greek government forces along with their British allies. It ended in EAM's defeat and disarmament under the terms of the [[Treaty of Varkiza]], which marked the end of ELAS and broke EAM's power. This was followed by the [[White Terror (Greece)|White Terror]], a period of persecution against Greek leftists, which contributed to the outbreak of the [[Greek Civil War]] in 1946.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJoqDQAAQBAJ&q=Athens+December+&pg=PA376|title=An International Civil War: Greece, 1943–1949|last=Gerolymatos|first=André|date=2017|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300180602|pages=100–111|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jJoqDQAAQBAJ&q=White+Terror&pg=PA376|title=An International Civil War: Greece, 1943–1949|last=Gerolymatos|first=André|date=2017|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0300180602|pages=194–203|language=en|access-date=2020-11-03|archive-date=2023-06-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630110921/https://books.google.com/books?id=jJoqDQAAQBAJ&q=White+Terror&pg=PA376|url-status=live}}</ref> 

After the civil war broke out, [[Communist Party of Greece]] (KKE) guerrillas revolted against the internationally recognized Greek government which was formed after [[1946 Greek parliamentary election|elections in 1946]] which were boycotted by the KKE. The British realized that the KKE were being directly funded by [[Josip Broz Tito]] in neighboring [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]. In line with the Anglo-Soviet [[percentages agreement]], the KKE received no help from the Soviet Union, and Yugoslavia provided them support and sanctuary against [[Joseph Stalin]]'s wishes.<ref>Bærentzen, Lars, John O. Iatrides, and Ole Langwitz. Smith. ''Studies in the History of the Greek Civil War, 1945–1949''. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum, 1987. 273–280. Google Books. Web. 28 Apr. 2010. [https://books.google.com/books?id=zMr7EK3ms7AC&dq=%22Soviet+Union%22+%22Greek+Civil+War%22&pg=PA267 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406193744/https://books.google.com/books?id=zMr7EK3ms7AC&dq=%22Soviet+Union%22+%22Greek+Civil+War%22&pg=PA267 |date=2023-04-06 }}</ref> By late 1946, Britain informed the U.S. that due to its own declining economy, it could no longer continue to provide military and economic support to the Greek government.<ref>Bullock, ''Ernest Bevin: Foreign Secretary'' (1983) ch 8</ref>

[[File:George F. Kennan 1947.jpg|thumb|252x252px|[[George F. Kennan]] proposed the doctrine of [[containment]] in 1946.]]

In 1946–47, the United States and the Soviet Union moved from being wartime allies to Cold War adversaries. The breakdown of Allied cooperation in [[Allied-occupied Germany|Germany]] provided a backdrop of escalating tensions for the Truman Doctrine.<ref name="MerrillTruDoct" /> To Truman, the growing unrest in Greece began to look like a [[pincer movement]] against the oil-rich areas of the [[Middle East]] and the warm-water ports of the Mediterranean.<ref name="Painter 2012 29">{{Harvnb|Painter|2012|p=29}}: "Although circumstances differed greatly in Greece, Turkey, and Iran, U.S. officials interpreted events in all three places as part of a Soviet plan to dominate the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East. Mention of oil was deliberately deleted from Truman's March&nbsp;12, 1947, address before Congress pledging resistance to communist expansion anywhere in the world; but guarding access to oil was an important part of the Truman Doctrine. The Truman Doctrine was named after Harry S. Truman. This doctrine stated that the United States would provide political, military and economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces."<p>One draft, for example, of Truman's speech spoke of the "great natural resources" of the Middle East at stake ({{Harvnb|Kolko|Kolko|1972|p=341}}).</p></ref> In February 1946, George F. Kennan, an American diplomat in [[Moscow]], sent his famed "[[X Article|Long Telegram]]", which predicted the Soviets would only respond to force and that the best way to handle them would be through a long-term strategy of containment; that is, stopping their geographical expansion. After the British warned that they could no longer help Greece, and following [[Prime Minister of Greece|Prime Minister]] [[Konstantinos Tsaldaris]]'s visit to [[Washington, D.C.]] in December 1946 to ask for assistance,<ref>{{cite book |author=Freeland, Richard M. |title=The Truman Doctrine and the Origins of McCarthyism |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. |year=1970 |pages=g. 90}}</ref> the [[United States Department of State|U.S. State Department]] formulated a plan. Aid would be given to both Greece and Turkey, to help cool the long-standing rivalry between them.{{Citation needed|date=March 2020}}

American policy makers recognized the instability of the region, fearing that if Greece was lost to communism, Turkey would not last long. Similarly, if Turkey yielded to Soviet demands, the position of Greece would be endangered.<ref>{{cite book |author=Spalding, Elizabeth Edwards |title=The First Cold Warrior: Harry Truman, Containment, and the Remaking of Liberal Internationalism |publisher=The University Press of Kentucky |year=2006 |pages=64}}</ref> A regional [[domino effect]] threat therefore guided the American decision. Greece and Turkey were strategic allies important for geographical reasons as well, for the fall of Greece would put the Soviets on a particularly dangerous flank for the Turks, and strengthen the Soviet Union's ability to cut off allied supply lines in the event of war.<ref>{{cite book |author=McGhee, George |title=The US-Turkish-NATO Middle East Connection: How the Truman Doctrine Contained the Soviets in the Middle East |publisher=St. Harry's Press |year=1990 |pages=g. 21}}</ref>

==Truman's address==
{{multiple image
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 | image1 = Truman Doctrine, 03-12-1947, Page 1 (5476286491).jpg
 | image2 = Truman Doctrine, 03-12-1947, Page 2 (5476286595).jpg
 | footer = Truman's 1947 message to Congress, recommending assistance to Greece and Turkey
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To pass any legislation, Truman needed the support of the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republicans]], who controlled both houses of Congress. The chief Republican spokesman Senator [[Arthur Vandenberg]] strongly supported Truman and overcame the doubts of isolationists such as Senator [[Robert A. Taft]].<ref name=JTP/>{{rp|127}} Truman laid the groundwork for his request by having key congressional leaders meet with himself, [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] [[George C. Marshall]], and Undersecretary of State [[Dean Acheson]]. Acheson laid out the "domino theory" in the starkest terms, comparing a communist state to a rotten apple that could spread its infection to an entire barrel. Vandenberg was impressed, and advised Truman to appear before Congress and "scare the hell out of the American people."<ref name=JTP/>{{rp|127–128}} On March 7, Acheson warned Truman that the communists in Greece could win within weeks without outside aid.<ref name=DM/>{{rp|545}}

When a draft for Truman's address was circulated to policymakers, Marshall, Kennan, and others criticized it for containing excess "rhetoric." Truman responded that, as Vandenberg had suggested, his request would only be approved if he played up the threat.<ref name=DM/>{{rp|546}}

On March 12, 1947, Truman appeared before a joint session of Congress. In his eighteen-minute speech, he stated:

{{Blockquote|I believe it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures. 
I believe that we must assist free peoples to work out their own destinies in their own way.

I believe that our help should be primarily through economic and financial aid which is essential to economic stability and orderly political processes.<ref name=DM/>{{rp|547}}}}

The domestic reaction to Truman's speech was broadly positive, though there were dissenters. Anti-communists in both parties supported both Truman's proposed aid package and the doctrine behind it, and ''[[Collier's]]'' described it as a "popularity jackpot" for the President.<ref name=DM/>{{rp|548}}<ref name=JTP/>{{rp|129}} Influential columnist [[Walter Lippmann]] was more skeptical, noting the open-ended nature of Truman's pledge; he felt so strongly that he almost came to blows while arguing with Acheson over the doctrine.<ref name=DM/>{{rp|549}}<ref name="Herring" />{{rp|615}} Others argued that the Greek monarchy Truman proposed to defend was itself a repressive government, rather than a democracy.<ref name="Herring" />{{rp|615}}

Despite these objections, the fear that there was a growing communist threat almost guaranteed the bill's passage.<ref name="Herring" />{{rp|616}} In May 1947, two months after Truman's request, a large majority of Congress approved $400 million in military and economic aid to Greece and Turkey.<ref name="DM">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/truman00mccu|url-access=registration|title=Truman|last=McCullough|first=David|date=1992|publisher=Simon & Schuster|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/truman00mccu/page/547 547–549]|isbn=978-0671456542 }}</ref>{{rp|553–554}}<ref name=JTP/>{{rp|129}} Increased American aid assisted the Greek government's defeat of the KKE, after interim defeats for government forces from 1946 to 1948.<ref name="Herring">{{cite book |last= Herring |first= George C. |title= From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations Since 1776 |year= 2008 |location= New York |publisher= Oxford University Press |isbn= 978-0195078220 |url-access= registration |url= https://archive.org/details/fromcolonytosupe00herr }}</ref>{{rp|616–617}} The Truman Doctrine was the first in a series of containment moves by the United States, followed by economic restoration of Western Europe through the [[Marshall Plan]] and military containment by the creation of [[NATO]] in 1949.{{cn|date=January 2024}}

==Long-term policy and metaphor==
{{See also|Cold War|Foreign policy of the United States}}
Historian [[Eric Foner]] writes that the doctrine "set a precedent for American assistance to [[Anti-communism|anticommunist]] regimes throughout the world, no matter how undemocratic, and for the creation of a set of global military alliances directed against the Soviet Union."<ref>Eric Foner, ''Give Me Liberty! An American History'' (2nd ed., 2008) p. 892</ref>

The Truman Doctrine underpinned American Cold War policy in Europe and around the world. In the words of historian [[James T. Patterson (historian)|James T. Patterson]]:

<blockquote>The Truman Doctrine was a highly publicized commitment of a sort the administration had not previously undertaken. Its sweeping rhetoric, promising that the United States should aid all 'free people' being subjugated, set the stage for innumerable later ventures that led to globalisation commitments. It was in these ways a major step.<ref name=JTP>{{cite book |last=Patterson |first=James T. |date=1996 |title=Grand Expectations |url=https://archive.org/details/grandexpectation00patt |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-507680-6 }}</ref>{{rp|129}}</blockquote>

Historian Dennis Merill argues that the doctrine endured because it addressed broader cultural insecurity regarding modern life in a globalized world. It dealt with Washington's concern over communism's domino effect, it enabled a media-sensitive presentation of the doctrine that won [[bipartisanship|bipartisan]] support, and it mobilized American economic power to modernize and stabilize unstable regions without direct military intervention. It brought nation-building activities and modernization programs to the forefront of foreign policy.<ref name="MerrillTruDoct">{{Harvnb|Merrill|2006}}.</ref>

The Truman Doctrine became a metaphor for aid to keep a nation from communist influence. Truman used disease imagery not only to communicate a sense of impending disaster in the spread of communism but also to create a "rhetorical vision" of containing it by extending a protective shield around non-communist countries throughout the world. It echoed the "[[Quarantine Speech|quarantine the aggressor]]" policy Truman's predecessor, [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]], had sought to impose to contain [[Nazi Germany|German]] and [[Empire of Japan|Japanese]] expansion in 1937 ("quarantine" suggested the role of public health officials handling an infectious disease). The medical metaphor extended beyond the immediate aims of the Truman Doctrine in that the imagery, combined with fire and flood imagery evocative of disaster, provided the U.S. with an easy transition to direct military confrontation in later years with the [[Korean War]] and the [[Vietnam War]]. By framing ideological differences in life or death terms, Truman was able to garner support for this communism-containing policy.<ref>{{Harvnb|Ivie|1999}}.</ref>

==See also==
* [[Containment]]
* [[Eisenhower Doctrine]]
* [[Foreign policy of the Harry S. Truman administration]]
* [[Free World]]
* [[Greece–United States relations]]
* [[Liberal internationalism]]
* [[Reverse Course]]
* [[Turkey–United States relations]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{Refbegin|40em}}
* Beisner, Robert L. ''Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War'' (2006)
* Bostdorff, Denise M. ''Proclaiming the Truman Doctrine: The Cold War Call to Arms'' (2008) [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1603440321 excerpt and text search] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630110922/https://www.amazon.com/dp/1603440321 |date=2023-06-30 }}
* Brands, H. W. ''Into the Labyrinth: The United States and the Middle East, 1945–1993'' (1994) [https://books.google.com/books?id=xV1tAAAAMAAJ excerpt] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630110923/https://books.google.com/books?id=xV1tAAAAMAAJ |date=2023-06-30 }} pp 12–17.
* Bullock, Alan. ''Ernest Bevin: Foreign Secretary, 1945–1951'' (1983) on British roles
* Capaccio, George. ''The Marshall Plan and the Truman Doctrine'' (Cavendish Square, 2017).
* Edwards, Lee. "Congress and the Origins of the Cold War: The Truman Doctrine," ''World Affairs,'' Vol. 151, 1989 [https://web.archive.org/web/20120128213150/http://www.questiamedia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=95322176 online edition]
* Frazier, Robert. "Acheson and the Formulation of the Truman Doctrine" ''Journal of Modern Greek Studies'' 1999 17(2): 229–251. {{ISSN|0738-1727}}
* Frazier, Robert. "Kennan, 'Universalism,' and the Truman Doctrine," ''Journal of Cold War Studies,'' Spring 2009, Vol. 11 Issue 2, pp 3–34
* Gaddis, John Lewis. "Reconsiderations: Was the Truman Doctrine a Real Turning Point?" ''Foreign Affairs'' 1974 52(2): 386–402. {{ISSN|0015-7120}}
* Gleason, Abbott. "The Truman Doctrine and the Rhetoric of Totalitarianism." in ''The Soviet Empire Reconsidered'' (Routledge, 2019) pp.&nbsp;11–25.
* Haas, Lawrence J. ''Harry and Arthur: Truman, Vandenberg, and the Partnership That Created the Free World'' (U of Nebraska Press, 2016).
* Hinds, Lynn Boyd, and Theodore Otto Windt Jr. ''The Cold War as Rhetoric: The Beginnings, 1945–1950'' (1991) [https://web.archive.org/web/20120128181908/http://www.questiamedia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=14289583 online edition]
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  | doi = 10.1111/j.0268-2141.2003.00050.x }}
* Jeffrey, Judith S.  ''Ambiguous Commitments and Uncertain Policies: The Truman Doctrine in Greece, 1947–1952'' (2000). 257 pp.
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* Kayaoğlu, Barın. "Strategic imperatives, Democratic rhetoric: The United States and Turkey, 1945–52.," ''Cold War History,'' Aug 2009, Vol. 9(3).  pp.&nbsp;321–345
* Kiliç, Emrullah Can, and İ. M. E. R. İtır. "Legacy of the Truman Doctrine on Turkish-American Relations: A Political Economy Perspective." ''Sosyoekonomi'' 29.50 (2021): 109-130; [https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/877086 online for Turkish perspective] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230618225025/https://dergipark.org.tr/en/download/article-file/877086 |date=2023-06-18 }}.
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* Leffler, Melvyn P. "Strategy, Diplomacy, and the Cold War: the United States, Turkey, and NATO, 1945–1952" ''Journal of American History'' 1985 71(4): 807–825. {{ISSN|0021-8723}} [https://www.jstor.org/pss/1888505 in JSTOR]
* Lykogiannis, Athanasios.  ''Britain and the Greek Economic Crisis, 1944–1947: From Liberation to the Truman Doctrine.'' (U. of Missouri Press, 2002). 287 pp.  [https://archive.org/details/britaingreekecon00lyko online]
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* {{Cite journal
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  | doi = 10.1111/j.1741-5705.2006.00284.x }}
* Meiertöns, Heiko: ''The Doctrines of US Security Policy – An Evaluation under International Law'' (2010), {{ISBN|978-0-521-76648-7}}.
* Offner, Arnold A. "'Another Such Victory': President Truman, American Foreign Policy, and the Cold War." ''Diplomatic History'' 1999 23(2): 127–155.{{ISSN|0145-2096}}
* Pach, Chester J. Jr. ''Arming the Free World: The Origins of the United States Military Assistance Program, 1945–1950,'' (1991) [https://web.archive.org/web/20120128151444/http://www.questiamedia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=96830986 online edition]
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* {{cite web|url=http://www.studentpulse.com/articles/672/containment-and-the-cold-war-reexaming-the-doctrine-of-containment-as-a-grand-strategy-driving-us-cold-war-interventions|title=Containment and the Cold War: Reexaming the Doctrine of Containment as a Grand Strategy Driving US Cold War Interventions|author=Pieper, Moritz A.|publisher=StudentPulse.com|year=2012|access-date=22 August 2012|archive-date=9 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120809044433/http://www.studentpulse.com/articles/672/containment-and-the-cold-war-reexaming-the-doctrine-of-containment-as-a-grand-strategy-driving-us-cold-war-interventions|url-status=live}}
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* Spalding, Elizabeth Edwards. "The enduring significance of the Truman doctrine." ''Orbis'' 61.4 (2017): 561–574.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Wikisource|Truman Doctrine}}
* [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/doctrine/large/doctrine.htm Truman Library website with papers related to the Truman Doctrine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080930165903/http://trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/doctrine/large/doctrine.htm |date=2008-09-30 }}
* [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/trudoc.asp Full text of the speech]
* [https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/harrystrumantrumandoctrine.html Full text, audio, video excerpt of the speech]
* [http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/acd.2a10540 Cartoon on display at the Library of Congress]

{{Harry S. Truman}}
{{Cold War}}
{{Greek Civil War}}
{{Turkey–United States relations}}
{{Foreign relations of the United States|expanded=DPC}}
{{Soviet Union–United States relations|state=collapsed}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1947 in American politics]]
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[[Category:Anti-communism in the United States]]
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[[Category:March 1947 in the United States]]
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