View source for Sam Houston

{{short description|American general and statesman (1793–1863)}}
{{Other people}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name                = Sam Houston
| image               = SHouston 2.jpg
| caption             = Portrait by [[Mathew Brady]], {{circa|1848–1850}}
| order               = 7th [[Governor of Texas]]
| lieutenant          = Edward Clark
| term_start          = December 21, 1859
| term_end            = March 15, 1861
| predecessor         = [[Hardin Richard Runnels]]
| successor           = [[Edward Clark (governor)|Edward Clark]]
| jr/sr1              = United States Senator
| state1              = [[Texas]]
| term_start1         = February 21, 1846
| term_end1           = March 3, 1859
| predecessor1        = ''Seat established''
| successor1          = [[John Hemphill (U.S. senator)|John Hemphill]]
| office2             = 1st and 3rd [[President of the Republic of Texas|President of Texas]]
| vicepresident2      = [[Edward Burleson]]
| term_start2         = December 21, 1841
| term_end2           = December 9, 1844 
| predecessor2        = [[Mirabeau B. Lamar]]
| successor2          = [[Anson Jones]]
| vicepresident3      = Mirabeau B. Lamar
| term_start3         = October 22, 1836

| term_end3           = December 10, 1838
| predecessor3        = [[David G. Burnet]] (acting)
| successor3          = Mirabeau B. Lamar
| state_house4        = Texas
| district4           = [[San Augustine, Texas|San Augustine]]
| term_start4         = November 11, 1839
| term_end4           = November 1, 1841
| predecessor4        = ''Multi-member district''
| successor4          = ''Multi-member district''
| order5              = 6th [[Governor of Tennessee]]
| lieutenant5         = William Hall
| term_start5         = October 1, 1827
| term_end5           = April 16, 1829
| predecessor5        = [[William Carroll (Tennessee politician)|William Carroll]]
| successor5          = [[William Hall (governor)|William Hall]]
| state7              = [[Tennessee]]
| district7           = {{ushr|TN|7|7th}}
| term_start7         = March 4, 1823
| term_end7           = March 3, 1827
| predecessor7        = ''Constituency established''
| successor7          = [[John Bell (Tennessee politician)|John Bell]]
| birth_name          = Samuel Houston
| birth_date          = {{birth date|1793|3|2}}
| birth_place         = [[Rockbridge County, Virginia|Rockbridge]], [[Virginia]], U.S.
| death_date          = {{death date and age|1863|7|26| 1793|3|2}}
| death_place         = [[Huntsville, Texas|Huntsville]], [[Texas in the American Civil War|Texas]], C.S.
| party               = [[Democratic-Republican Party|Democratic-Republican]] (before 1830)<br>[[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] (1846–1854)<br>[[Know Nothing]] (1855–1856)<br>[[Independent politician|Independent]] (1856–1863)<br>[[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]] (1860)
| spouse              = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Eliza Allen (Tennessee)|Eliza Allen]]|1829|1837|end=div}}
* {{marriage|[[Dianna Rogers]]|1830|1832|end=annulled}}
* {{marriage|[[Margaret Lea Houston|Margaret Lea]]|1840}}
}}
| children            = 8, including [[Sam Houston Jr.|Sam Jr.]], [[Andrew Jackson Houston|Andrew]], and [[Temple Lea Houston|Temple]]
| education           = [[Maryville College]]
| signature           = Sam Houston signature.svg
| signature_alt       = Cursive signature in ink
| allegiance          = {{flagu|United States|1795}}<br>{{flag|Republic of Texas|1836}}
| branch              = [[United States Army]]<br>[[Army of the Republic of Texas|Texan Army]]
| serviceyears        = 1813–1818 (U.S. Army)<br>1835–1836 (Texan Army)
| rank                = [[First lieutenant|First Lieutenant]] (U.S. Army)<br>[[Major general (United States)|Major General]] (Texan Army)
| unit                = [[39th Infantry Regiment (War of 1812)|39th Infantry Regiment]] (U.S. Army)
| commands            = [[Army of the Republic of Texas]] (Texan Army)
| battles             = {{Tree list}}
*[[War of 1812]]
*[[Creek War]]
**[[Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814)|Battle of Horseshoe Bend]]
*[[Texas Revolution]]
**[[Battle of San Jacinto]]
{{Tree list/end}}
}}
'''Samuel Houston''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Houston.ogg|ˈ|h|juː|s|t|ən}}, {{respell|HEW|stən}}; March 2, 1793 – July 26, 1863) was an American general and statesman who played a prominent role in the [[Texas Revolution]]. He served as the first and third [[president of the Republic of Texas]] and was one of the first two individuals to represent [[Texas]] in the [[United States Senate]]. He also served as the sixth [[governor of Tennessee]] and the seventh [[governor of Texas]], the only individual to be elected governor of two different states in the United States.

Born in [[Rockbridge County, Virginia]], Houston and his family relocated to [[Maryville, Tennessee]], while he was a teenager. Houston later ran away from home, spending about three years living with the [[Cherokee]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sam Houston {{!}} Biography & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sam-Houston|access-date=July 15, 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en}}</ref> becoming known as "Raven". He served under General [[Andrew Jackson]] in the [[War of 1812]]; afterwards, he was appointed as a sub-agent to oversee the [[Indian removal|removal of the Cherokee from Tennessee]] into [[Arkansas Territory]] in 1818. With the support of Jackson, among others, Houston won election to the [[United States House of Representatives]] in 1823. He strongly supported Jackson's presidential candidacies and, in 1827, Houston was elected as the governor of Tennessee. In 1829, after divorcing his first wife, Houston resigned from office, and moved to the Arkansas Territory to live with the Cherokee once more.

Houston settled in Texas in 1832. After the [[Battle of Gonzales]], he helped organize Texas's provisional government and was selected as the top-ranking official in the [[Texian Army]]. He led the Texian Army to victory at the [[Battle of San Jacinto]], the decisive battle in Texas's war for independence against [[Centralist Republic of Mexico|Mexico]]. After the war, Houston won the [[1836 Republic of Texas presidential election|1836 Texan presidential election]]. He left office due to term limits in 1838, but won another term in the [[1841 Republic of Texas presidential election|1841 Texas presidential election]]. Houston played a key role in the [[annexation of Texas]] by the United States in 1845 and, in 1846, was elected to represent Texas in the United States Senate. He joined the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] and supported President [[James K. Polk]]'s prosecution of the [[Mexican–American War]].

His Senate record was marked by his [[Union (American Civil War)|unionism]] and opposition to [[Radical politics|radicals]] from both the [[Northern United States|North]] and [[Southern United States|South]]. He voted for the [[Compromise of 1850]], which settled many of the residual territorial issues from the Mexican–American War and the annexation of Texas. Houston [[Sam Houston and slavery|owned slaves throughout his life]]. He voted against the [[Kansas–Nebraska Act]], as he believed it would lead to increased sectional tensions over slavery, and his opposition to that act led him to leave the Democratic Party. He was an unsuccessful candidate for the presidential nomination of the [[Know Nothing|American Party]] in the [[1856 United States presidential election|1856 presidential election]], as well as for the [[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]] in the [[1860 United States presidential election|1860 presidential election]]. In 1859, Houston won election as the governor of Texas. In this role, he opposed [[secession]], and unsuccessfully sought to keep Texas out of the [[Confederate States of America]]. He was forced out of office in 1861, and died two years later in 1863. Houston's name has been honored in numerous ways, and he is the [[eponym]] of the city of [[Houston]], the fourth-most-populous city in the United States.

==Early life==
[[File:Houstonbirthplacemarker.jpg|thumbnail|left|Sam Houston Birthplace Marker in Rockbridge County, Virginia]]

Samuel Houston was born in [[Rockbridge County, Virginia]] on March 2, 1793, to Samuel Houston and Elizabeth Paxton. Both of Houston's parents were descended from Scottish and Irish immigrants who had settled in [[Colonial history of the United States|Colonial America]] in the 1730s,{{sfn|Williams|1994|pp=13–18}} including his great-grandfather [[John Houston (immigrant)|John Houston]].{{sfn|Haley|2002|p=5}} Houston's father was descended from [[Ulster Scots people]] and the [[Houston baronets]], the founders of [[Clan Houston]] in [[Scotland]].{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=4–5}}{{efn|Houston descended from Sir John Houston; who, in the late 1600s, rebuilt the Houston baronial estate, [[Houston House, Renfrewshire]], near [[Johnstone]] and [[Bridge of Weir]], [[Scotland]]. From him came John Houston and Margaret Mary (née Cunningham) Houston, who lived for some time in Ireland; in 1735, they emigrated to America, ending up on the Timber Ridge plantation.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=4–5}}}}{{efn|Houston's uncle, the Presbyterian Rev. Samuel Houston, was an elected member of the "lost" [[State of Franklin]] then in the western frontier of [[North Carolina]], who advocated for the passage of his proposed "A Declaration of Rights or Form of Government on the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Frankland" at the convention that was assembled in Greeneville, Tennessee on November 14, 1785. Rev. Houston returned to Rockbridge County, Virginia after the assembled State of Franklin convention rejected his constitutional proposal.<ref>''Dr. J. G. M. Ramsey Autobiography and Letters'', p. 317. Edited by William B. Hesseltine. The University of Tennessee Press.</ref>}} Samuel inherited the Timber Ridge plantation and mansion in Rockbridge County, Virginia, which was worked by [[Slavery in the United States|enslaved]] African Americans. During the [[American Revolutionary War]], Captain Houston served in [[Morgan's Riflemen|Morgan's Rifle Brigade]] as a paymaster.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=4–5}} He served in the Virginian militia, which required him to pay his own expenses and to be away from his family for long periods of time. Thus, the plantation and his family's finances suffered.{{sfn|Haley|2002|p=5}}

He had five brothers and three sisters:{{sfn|Williams|1994|pp=13–18}} Paxton, Robert, James (married Patience Bills), John, William (married Mary Ball), Isabella, Mary (married Matthew Wallace), and Eliza (who married Samuel Moore).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Houston |first=Sam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qhGFvVAG7e8C&pg=PA372 |title=The Personal Correspondence of Sam Houston: 1839-1845 |date=1996 |publisher=University of North Texas Press |isbn=978-1-57441-000-6 |page=372}}</ref>

His father, Samuel Sr., planned to sell Timber Ridge{{efn|After the Houstons migrated west to Tennessee, Timber Ridge was razed and [[Church Hill (Lexington, Virginia)|Church Hill]] was built on the site.{{sfn|Haley|2002|p=7}}}} and move west to Tennessee, where land was less expensive, but he died in 1806. Elizabeth, his mother, followed through on those plans, settling the family near [[Maryville, Tennessee]], the seat of [[Blount County, Tennessee|Blount County]]. At that time, Tennessee was on the [[American frontier]], and even larger towns like Nashville were vigilant against Native American raids.{{sfn|Williams|1994|pp=21–24}}<ref name=hbot /> He had dozens of cousins who lived in the surrounding area{{sfn|Williams|1994|pp=13–18}} of east-central Tennessee.{{sfn|Haley|2002|p=6}} When they arrived, Elizabeth cleared the land, built a house, and planted crops. Her oldest children, Paxton, Isabella, and Robert died within a few years after they arrived in Tennessee. Elizabeth relied on James and John to run the store in Maryville, to operate the farm, and to watch over the younger children.{{sfn|Haley|2002|p=7}}

Houston had a carefree disposition, however, and liked to escape to explore the frontier. He was at odds with the concepts of hell and damnation preached by his mother's religion, [[Presbyterianism]], and he was not interested in schooling. However, he did take an interest in his father's library, reading works by [[Classical antiquity|classical]] authors like [[Virgil]], as well as more contemporary works by authors such as [[Jedidiah Morse]].{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=7–11}}

After his father's passing in 1807 <ref>{{Cite web |last=The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica |date=April 16, 2025 |title=Sam Houston |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sam-Houston |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Sam-Houston |access-date=May 3, 2025 |website=Britannica.com}}</ref> and his lack of interest in farming and working in the family store, at the age of 16, he ran away from his family and his home to live with a [[Cherokee]] tribe, led by Chief [[John Jolly]] ([[Cherokee language|Cherokee name]]: ''Ahuludegi'', also spelled ''Oolooteka'')<ref name=hbot>{{Handbook of Texas|id=fho73|name=Samuel Houston}}</ref>{{sfn|Williams|1994|pp=21–24}} on [[Hiwassee Island]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=History of Hiwassee Island |url=https://www.mtsuhistpres.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Hiwassee-River-Heritage-Center-Phase-II-Exhibit-Final-Panels-merged-compressed.pdf |website=The Center for Historic Preservation, Middle Tennessee State University |access-date=January 8, 2022 |archive-date=November 8, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108035059/https://www.mtsuhistpres.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Hiwassee-River-Heritage-Center-Phase-II-Exhibit-Final-Panels-merged-compressed.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Houston formed a close relationship with Jolly and learned the Cherokee language, becoming known as 'Raven.'{{sfn|Williams|1994|pp=25–26}} According to James L. Haley, he appreciated the "free and unsophisticated spiritual expression of the Native Americans."{{sfn|Haley|2002|p=8}} He left the tribe to return to Maryville in 1812, and he was hired at age 19 for a term as the schoolmaster of a one-room schoolhouse.{{sfn|Haley|2002|p=10}} He attended Porter Academy, where he was taught by Rev. [[Isaac L. Anderson]], founder of [[Maryville College]].{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=7–8}}

According to biographer John Hoyt Williams, Houston was not close with his siblings or his parents, and he rarely spoke of them in his later life.{{sfn|Williams|1994|pp=13–18}} Haley states that he was interested in his younger brother's and his sisters' welfare when he lived on Hiwassee Island. He felt used by the rest of the family.{{sfn|Haley|2002|p=8}}

{{Further|Sam Houston's life with the Cherokees}}

==War of 1812 and aftermath==
On March 24, 1813, Houston enlisted in the army at the young age of 20 in the<ref>{{Cite web |last=Association |first=Texas State Historical |title=Sam Houston: A Legacy of Leadership in Texas History |url=https://www.tshaonline.org/handbook/entries/houston-sam |access-date=2025-05-03 |website=Texas State Historical Association |language=en}}</ref> [[War of 1812]] against [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] and Britain's Native American allies.<ref name=txcol>[https://baylorarchives.cuadra.com/cgi-bin/starfetch.exe?79GdoJTeCj1nhB3qUyU26W9gGPVf7FuD0b1dNh@uSAAEXcURaTXNSkkwBitACmw6MgcUehqmfXz1IiV1I@nqtvVBjWZrdjJMvmYEdJ1L6QQ/0001my.xml Sam Houston Papers] #37, The Texas Collection, Baylor University.</ref> He quickly impressed the commander of the [[39th Infantry Regiment (War of 1812)|39th Infantry Regiment]], [[Thomas Hart Benton (politician)|Thomas Hart Benton]], and by the end of 1813, Houston had risen to the rank of third lieutenant. In early 1814, the 39th Infantry Regiment became a part of the force commanded by General [[Andrew Jackson]], who was charged with putting an end to raids by a faction of the [[Muscogee]] (or "Creek") tribe in the [[Old Southwest]].{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=11–14}} Houston was wounded badly in the [[Battle of Horseshoe Bend (1814)|Battle of Horseshoe Bend]], the decisive battle in the [[Creek War]]. Although army doctors expected him to die of his wounds, Houston survived and convalesced in Maryville and other locations. While many other officers lost their positions after the end of the War of 1812 due to military cutbacks, Houston retained his commission with the help of Congressman [[John Rhea]].{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=15–17}} During that time he was promoted to the rank of [[second lieutenant]].<ref name=hbot />

Sometime in early 1817, Sam Houston was assigned to a clerical position in Nashville, serving under the adjutant general for the army's Southern Division. Later in the year, Jackson appointed Houston as a sub-agent to handle the [[Indian removal|removal]] of Cherokee from East Tennessee.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=19–20}} In February 1818, he received a strong reprimand from the Secretary of War [[John C. Calhoun]] after he wore Native American dress to a meeting between Calhoun and Cherokee leaders, beginning an enmity that lasted until Calhoun died in 1850.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=24–25}} Angry over the incident with Calhoun and an investigation into his activities, Houston resigned from the army in 1818. He continued to act as a government liaison with the Cherokee, and in 1818, he helped some of the Cherokee resettle in [[Arkansas Territory]].{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=26–29}}

==Early political career==
[[File:Sam Houston Portrait by Wood 1826 Oval.png|thumb|right|The earliest known likeness of Houston, painted in 1826 during his Congressional tenure<ref>{{cite web |title=President Sam Houston - Growing Up |url=https://www.tsl.texas.gov/exhibits/presidents/houston1/grow.html |website=tsl.texas.gov |publisher=Texas State Library and Archives Commission |access-date=21 March 2025}}</ref>]]
After leaving government service, Houston began an apprenticeship with Judge James Trimble in Nashville. He quickly won admission to the state bar and opened a legal practice in Lebanon, Tennessee. With the aid of Governor [[Joseph McMinn]], Houston won election as the [[district attorney]] for Nashville in 1819. He was also appointed as a major general of the Tennessee militia.<ref name=hbot />{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=31–33}} Like his mentors, Houston was a member of the [[Democratic-Republican Party]], which dominated state and national politics in the decade following the War of 1812.{{citation needed|date=November 2018}} Tennessee gained three seats in the United States House of Representatives after the [[1820 United States census]], and, with the support of Jackson and McMinn, Houston ran unopposed in the 1823 election for Tennessee's 9th congressional district.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=34–35}} In his first major speech in Congress, Houston advocated for the recognition of Greece, which was fighting a [[Greek War of Independence|war of independence]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]].{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=38–39}}

Houston strongly supported Jackson's candidacy in the [[1824 United States presidential election|1824 presidential election]], which saw four major candidates, all from the Democratic-Republican Party, run for president. As no candidate won a majority of the vote, the House of Representatives held a [[contingent election]], which was won by [[John Quincy Adams]].{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=40–41}} Supporters of Jackson eventually coalesced into the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]], and those who favored Adams became known as [[National Republican Party|National Republicans]]. With Jackson's backing, [[1827 Tennessee gubernatorial election|Houston won election as governor of Tennessee in 1827]].{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=45–46}} Governor Houston advocated the construction of internal improvements such as canals, and sought to lower the price of land for homesteaders living in the public domain. He also aided Jackson's successful campaign in the [[1828 United States presidential election|1828 presidential election]].{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=47–49}}

In September 22, 1826, he severely wounded General William A. White in a pistol duel near [[Franklin, Kentucky]], over the patronage political appointment of Nashville's [[Postmaster]].<ref>{{cite web |title=A duel involving Representative Sam Houston of Tennessee: September 22, 1826 |url=http://history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/35380 |access-date=2013-02-23 |publisher=United States House of Representatives, History, Art & Archives: Historical Highlights}}</ref>

In January 1829, Houston married [[Eliza Allen (Tennessee)|Eliza Allen]], the daughter of wealthy plantation owner John Allen of Gallatin, Tennessee. The marriage quickly fell apart, possibly because Eliza loved another man.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=49–57}} In April 1829, following the collapse of his marriage, Houston resigned as governor of Tennessee. Shortly after leaving office, he traveled to Arkansas Territory to rejoin the Cherokee.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=60–61}}

==Political exile and controversy==
Houston was reunited with Ahuludegi's group of Cherokee in mid-1829.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=64–65}} Because of Houston's government experience and connections with President Jackson, several local Native American tribes asked Houston to mediate disputes and communicate their needs to the Jackson administration.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=68–69}} In late 1829, the Cherokee accorded Houston tribal membership and dispatched him to Washington to negotiate several issues.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=71–72}} In anticipation of the removal of the remaining Cherokee east of the Mississippi River, Houston unsuccessfully bid to supply rations to the Native Americans during their journey.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=73–74}} When Houston returned to Washington in 1832, Congressman [[William Stanbery]] alleged that Houston had placed a fraudulent bid in 1830 in collusion with the Jackson administration. On April 13, 1832, after Stanbery refused to answer Houston's letters regarding the incident, Houston beat Stanbery with a cane.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=80–82}} After the beating, the House of Representatives brought Houston to trial. By a vote of 106 to 89, the House convicted Houston, and Speaker of the House [[Andrew Stevenson]] formally reprimanded Houston.<ref name=hbot /> A federal court also required Houston to pay $500 in damages.<ref name="Williams1893">{{cite book|author=Alfred Mason Williams|title=Sam Houston and the War of Independence in Texas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T6MEAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA44|year=1893|publisher=Houghton, Mifflin.|isbn=978-0-7222-9291-4|page=49}}</ref>

==Texas Revolution==
{{main|Texas Revolution}}
[[File:Sam Houston 1836.jpg|thumb|Painting of Houston from 1836]]

In mid-1832, Houston's friends [[William H. Wharton]] and [[John Austin Wharton (1806–38)|John Austin Wharton]] wrote to convince him to travel to the Mexican possession of [[Mexican Texas|Texas]], where unrest among the American settlers was growing.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=87–88}} The Mexican government had invited Americans to settle the sparsely populated region of Texas, but many of the settlers, including the Whartons, disliked Mexican rule. Houston crossed into Texas in December 1832, and shortly thereafter, he was granted land in Texas.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=91–92}} Houston was elected to represent Nacogdoches, Texas at the [[Convention of 1833]], which was called to petition Mexico for statehood (at the time, Texas was part of the state of [[Coahuila y Tejas]]). Houston strongly supported statehood, and he chaired a committee that drew a proposed state constitution.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=96–97}} After the convention, Texan leader [[Stephen F. Austin]] petitioned the Mexican government for statehood, but he was unable to come to an agreement with President [[Valentín Gómez Farías]]. In 1834, [[Antonio López de Santa Anna]] assumed the presidency, took on new powers, and arrested Austin.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=99–100}} In October 1835, the [[Texas Revolution]] broke out with the [[Battle of Gonzales]], a skirmish between Texan forces and the Mexican Army. Shortly after the battle, Houston was elected to the [[Consultation (Texas)|Consultation]], a congregation of Texas leaders.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=109–113}}

Along with Austin and others, Houston helped organize the Consultation into a provisional government for Texas. In November, Houston joined with most other delegates in voting for a measure that demanded Texas statehood and the restoration of the [[1824 Constitution of Mexico]]. The Consultation appointed Houston as a major general and the highest-ranking officer of the [[Texian Army]],<ref name=hbot /><ref name=txcol /> though the appointment did not give him effective control of the militia units that constituted the Texian Army.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=113–118}} Houston helped organize the [[Convention of 1836]], where the [[Republic of Texas]] [[Texas Declaration of Independence|declared independence]] from Mexico, and appointed him as [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the Texas Army. Shortly after the declaration, the convention received a plea for assistance from [[William B. Travis]], who commanded Texan forces [[Siege of the Alamo|under siege]] by Santa Anna at [[Alamo Mission in San Antonio|the Alamo]]. The convention confirmed Houston's command of the Texian Army and dispatched him to lead a relief of Travis's force, but the Alamo fell before Houston could organize his forces at Gonzales, Texas. Seeking to intimidate Texan forces into surrender, the Mexican army killed every defender at the Alamo; news of the defeat outraged many Texans and caused desertions in Houston's ranks.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=121–124}} Commanding a force of about 350 men that numerically was inferior to that of Santa Anna, Houston retreated east across the Colorado River.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=125–128}}

{{multiple image
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| image1    = Sam Houston at San Jacinto.jpg
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| caption1  = Detail from ''Houston at the [[Battle of San Jacinto]]'' by Henry Arthur McArdle
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| caption2  = ''[[Surrender of Santa Anna]]'' by [[William Henry Huddle]] shows the Mexican general [[Antonio López de Santa Anna|Santa Anna]] surrendering to a wounded Sam Houston. It hangs in the Texas State Capitol.
}}

Though the provisional government, as well as many of his own subordinates, urged him to attack the Mexican army, Houston continued the [[Runaway Scrape|retreat east]], informing his soldiers that they constituted "the only army in Texas now present ... There are but a few of us, and if we are beaten, the fate of Texas is sealed."{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=128–129}}{{efn|Another Texan force had been defeated at the [[Battle of Coleto]]; the Texans captured in that battle were subsequently [[Goliad massacre|massacred]] by order of Santa Anna.{{sfn|Haley|2002|p=129}}}} Santa Anna divided his forces and finally caught up to Houston in mid-April 1836.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=144–147, 158}} Santa Anna's force of about 1,350 soldiers trapped Houston's force of 783 men in a marsh; rather than pressing the attack, Santa Anna ordered his soldiers to make camp. Upon hearing this, the Texian soldiers were wanting to go out and fight. They were tired of retreating and wanted to do something instead of camping there. Even though Houston was hesitant about it, he let them take the reigns and decide to attack.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sam Houston {{!}} The Commanders of San Jacinto |url=https://www.sanjacinto-museum.org/Discover/The_Battle/Commanders/Sam_Houston/ |access-date=2025-05-03 |website=San Jacinto 2022 |language=en}}</ref> On April 21, Houston ordered an attack on the Mexican army, beginning the [[Battle of San Jacinto]]. The Texans quickly routed Santa Anna's force, though Houston's horse was shot out under him and his ankle was shattered by a stray bullet.<ref name=hbot />{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=147–151}} In the aftermath of the Battle of San Jacinto, a detachment of Texans captured Santa Anna.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=153–154}} Santa Anna was forced to sign the [[Treaty of Velasco]], which established a ceasefire between the two forces and laid out the first few steps towards Texan independence. Houston stayed briefly for negotiations, then returned to the United States for treatment of his ankle wound.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Sam Houston {{!}} TSLAC|url=https://www.tsl.texas.gov/treasures/giants/houston-01.html|access-date=January 13, 2021|website=www.tsl.texas.gov}}</ref>

==President of Texas==
[[File:Wpdms republic of texas.svg|thumb|The Republic of Texas after the [[Texas Revolution]]]]

Victory in the Battle of San Jacinto made Houston a hero to many Texans, and he won the [[1836 Republic of Texas presidential election|1836 Texas presidential election]], defeating Stephen F. Austin, who would receive the honor of having the city of [[Austin, Texas|Austin]] named after him, and [[Henry Smith (Texas governor)|Henry Smith]]. Houston took office on October 22, 1836, after interim president [[David G. Burnet]] resigned.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=163–165}} During the presidential election, the voters of Texas overwhelmingly indicated their desire for Texas to be annexed by the United States. Houston, meanwhile, faced the challenge of assembling a new government, putting the country's finances in order, and handling relations with Mexico. He selected [[Mirabeau Lamar]] as vice president, [[Thomas Jefferson Rusk]] as secretary of war, Smith as secretary of the treasury, [[Samuel Rhoads Fisher]] as secretary of the navy, [[James Collinsworth]] as attorney general, and Austin as secretary of state.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=166–169}}{{efn|After Austin died of an illness in December 1836, Houston ordered a month of mourning.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=175–176}}}} Houston sought normalized relations with Mexico, and despite some resistance from the legislature, arranged the release of Santa Anna.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=171–172}} Concerned about upsetting the balance between [[slave states and free states]], U.S. President Andrew Jackson refused to push for the annexation of Texas, but in his last official act in office he granted Texas diplomatic recognition.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=175, 190}} With the United States unwilling to annex Texas, Houston began courting British support; as part of this effort, he urged the end of the importation of slaves into Texas.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=189–190}}

In early 1837, the government moved to a new capital, the city of Houston, named after him as the country's first president.{{sfn|Haley|2002|p=186}} In 1838, Houston frequently clashed with Congress over issues such as a treaty with the Cherokee and a land-office act{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=201–202}} and was forced to put down the [[Córdova Rebellion]], a plot to allow Mexico to reclaim Texas with aid from the [[Kickapoo Indians]].<ref name=hbot /> The Texas constitution barred presidents from seeking a second term, so Houston did not stand for re-election in the [[1838 Republic of Texas presidential election|1838 election]] and left office in late 1838. He was succeeded by [[Mirabeau B. Lamar]], who, along with Burnet, led a faction of Texas politicians opposed to Houston.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=205–206}} The Lamar administration removed many of Houston's appointees, launched a [[Texas–Indian wars#Cherokee War: 1838–39|war against the Cherokee]], and established a new capital at Austin, Texas.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=213–215}} Meanwhile, Houston opened a legal practice and co-founded a land company with the intent of developing the town of [[Sabine Pass, Port Arthur, Texas|Sabine City]].{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=210–211}} In 1839, he was elected to represent San Augustine County in the Texas House of Representatives.{{sfn|Roberts|1993|pp=23–25, 38}}

Houston defeated Burnet in the [[1841 Republic of Texas presidential election|1841 Texas presidential election]], winning a large majority of the vote.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=226–227}} Houston appointed [[Anson Jones]] as secretary of state, [[Asa Brigham]] as secretary of the treasury, [[George Washington Hockley]] as secretary of war, and [[George Whitfield Terrell]] as attorney general.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=233–236}} The republic faced a difficult financial situation; at one point, Houston commandeered an American brig used to transport Texas soldiers because the government could not afford to pay the brig's captain.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=245–246}} The [[Texan Santa Fe Expedition|Santa Fe Expedition]] and other initiatives pursued by Lamar had stirred tensions with Mexico, and rumors frequently raised fears that Santa Anna would launch an invasion of Texas.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=238–242}} Houston continued to curry favor with Britain and France, partly in the hope that British and French influence in Texas would encourage the United States to annex Texas.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=262–263}} The [[Presidency of John Tyler|Tyler administration]] made the annexation of Texas its chief foreign policy priority, and in April 1844, Texas and the United States signed an annexation treaty. Annexation did not have sufficient support in Congress, and the United States Senate rejected the treaty in June.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=279–281, 286}}

[[Henry Clay]] and [[Martin Van Buren]], the respective front-runners for the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig]] and Democratic nominations in the [[1844 United States presidential election|1844 presidential election]], both opposed the annexation of Texas. However, Van Buren's opposition to annexation damaged his candidacy, and he was defeated by [[James K. Polk]], an acolyte of Jackson and an old friend of Houston, at the [[1844 Democratic National Convention]]. Polk defeated Clay in the general election, giving backers of annexation an [[Mandate (politics)|electoral mandate]]. Meanwhile, Houston's term ended in December 1844, and he was succeeded by Anson Jones, his secretary of state. In the waning days of his own presidency, Tyler used Polk's victory to convince Congress to approve of the [[annexation of Texas]]. Seeking Texas's immediate acceptance of annexation, Tyler made Texas a generous offer that allowed the state to retain control of its public lands, though it would be required to keep its public debt.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=285–287}} A Texas convention approved of the offer of annexation in July 1845, and Texas officially became the 28th U.S. state on December 29, 1845.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tsl.texas.gov/ref/abouttx/annexation/timeline.html|title = Annexation Process: 1836-1845 a Summary Timeline &#124; TSLAC}}</ref>

==U.S. Senator==

===Mexican–American War and aftermath (1846–1853)===
{{see also|Presidency of James K. Polk|Presidency of Millard Fillmore}}
[[File:United States 1849-1850.png|thumb|upright=1.5|The United States in 1849, with the full extent of Texas's land claims shown]]

In February 1846, the Texas legislature elected Houston and Thomas Jefferson Rusk as Texas's two inaugural U.S. senators. Houston chose to align with the Democratic Party, which contained many of his old political allies, including President Polk.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=294–295}} As a former president of Texas, Houston is the only former foreign head of state to have served in the U.S. Congress.{{citation needed|date=November 2018}} He was the first person to serve as the governor of a state and then be elected to the U.S. Senate by another state. In 2018, [[Mitt Romney]] became the second.<ref name=":0">{{cite web|url=http://editions.lib.umn.edu/smartpolitics/2017/09/14/mitt-romney-prepares-for-unusual-us-senate-bid/|title=Mitt Romney Prepares for Unusual US Senate Bid {{!}} Smart Politics|website=editions.lib.umn.edu|date=September 14, 2017|language=en-CA|access-date=April 1, 2018}}</ref>
[[William Wyatt Bibb|William W. Bibb]] accomplished the same feat in reverse order.

Breaking with the Senate tradition that held that freshman senators were not to address the Senate, Houston strongly advocated in early 1846 for the annexation of [[Oregon Country]]. In the [[Oregon Treaty]], reached later in 1846, Britain and the United States agreed to split Oregon Country.{{sfn|Haley|2002|p=297}} Meanwhile, Polk ordered General [[Zachary Taylor]] to lead a U.S. army to the [[Rio Grande]], which had been set as the Texas-Mexico border under the Treaty of Velasco; Mexico claimed the Nueces River constituted the true border. After a skirmish between Taylor's unit and the Mexican army, the [[Mexican–American War]] broke out in April 1846. Houston initially supported Polk's prosecution of the war, but differences between the two men emerged in 1847.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=297–298}} After two years of fighting, the United States defeated Mexico and, through the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]], acquired the [[Mexican Cession]]. Mexico also agreed to recognize the Rio Grande as the border between Mexico and Texas.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo|url=https://www.history.com/topics/mexican-american-war/treaty-of-guadalupe-hidalgo|access-date=January 13, 2021|website=HISTORY|language=en}}</ref>

After the war, disputes over the extension of slavery into the [[United States territory|territories]] raised sectional tensions. Unlike most of his Southern colleagues, Houston voted for the [[Oregon Bill of 1848]], which organized [[Oregon Territory]] as a free territory. Defending his vote to create a territory that excluded slavery, Houston stated "I would be the last man to wish to do anything injurious to the South, but I do not think that on all occasions we are justified in agitating [slavery]."{{sfn|Haley|2002|p=301}} He criticized both Northern [[abolitionism in the United States|abolitionists]] and Democratic followers of Calhoun as extremists who sought to undermine the union.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=302–304}} He supported the [[Compromise of 1850]], a sectional compromise on slavery on the territories. Under the compromise, California was admitted as a free state, the slave trade was prohibited in the District of Columbia, a more stringent [[Fugitive Slave Act of 1850|fugitive slave law]] was passed, and [[Utah Territory]] and [[New Mexico Territory]] were established. Texas gave up some of its claims on New Mexico, but it retained El Paso, Texas, and the United States assumed Texas's large public debt.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=304–308}} Houston sought the Democratic nomination in the [[1852 United States presidential election|1852 presidential election]], but he was unable to consolidate support outside of his home state. The [[1852 Democratic National Convention]] ultimately nominated [[Franklin Pierce]], a compromise nominee, who went on to win the election.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=311–313}}

===Pierce and Buchanan administrations (1853–1859)===
{{see also|Presidency of Franklin Pierce|Presidency of James Buchanan}}
[[File:Sam Houston c1856-59-crop.png|thumb|Houston {{circa}} 1856–1859]]

In 1854, Senator [[Stephen A. Douglas]] led the passage of the [[Kansas–Nebraska Act]], which organized [[Kansas Territory]] and [[Nebraska Territory]]. The act also repealed the [[Missouri Compromise]], an act that had banned slavery in territories north of parallel 36°30′ north. Houston voted against the act, in part because he believed that Native Americans would lose much of their land as a result of the act. He also perceived that it would lead to increased sectional tensions over slavery.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=321–326}} Houston's opposition to the Kansas–Nebraska Act led to his departure from the Democratic Party.{{sfn|Cantrell|1993|p=333}} In 1855, Houston began to be associated publicly with the American Party, the political wing of the [[Nativism (politics)|nativist]] and unionist [[Know Nothing]] movement.{{sfn|Cantrell|1993|pp=328–330}} The Whig Party had collapsed after the passage of the Kansas–Nebraska Act, and the Know Nothings and the anti-slavery [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] had both emerged as major political movements.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=340–341}} Houston's affiliation with the party stemmed in part from his fear of the growing influence of Catholic voters; though he opposed barring Catholics from holding office, he wanted to extend the [[naturalization]] period for immigrants to 21 years.{{sfn|Cantrell|1993|pp=330–333}} He was attracted to the Know Nothing's support for a Native American state as well the party's unionist stance.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=341–342}}

Houston sought the presidential nomination at the [[1856 American National Convention|Know Nothing party's 1856 national convention]], but the party nominated former President [[Millard Fillmore]]. Houston was disappointed by Fillmore's selection as well as the party platform, which did not rebuke the Kansas–Nebraska Act, but he eventually decided to support Fillmore's candidacy. Despite Houston's renewed support, the American Party split over slavery, and Democrat [[James Buchanan]] won the [[1856 United States presidential election|1856 presidential election]]. The American Party collapsed after the election, and Houston did not affiliate with a national political party for the remainder of his tenure in the senate.{{sfn|Cantrell|1993|pp=340–342}} In the [[1857 Texas gubernatorial election]], Texas Democrats nominated [[Hardin Richard Runnels]], who supported the Kansas–Nebraska Act and attacked Houston's record. In response, Houston announced his own candidacy for governor, but Runnels defeated him by a decisive margin.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=344, 352}} It was the only electoral defeat of his career.{{sfn|Campbell|2000}} After the gubernatorial election, the Texas legislature denied Houston re-election in the senate; Houston rejected calls to resign immediately and served until the end of his term in early 1859.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=353, 360}}

==Governor of Texas==
{{see also|Texas in the American Civil War}}
[[File:Sam Houston by Mathew Brady.jpg|thumb|Sam Houston in 1861.]]

Before he successfully became the governor of Texas, Houston had previously run in 1857 but did not win. He then ran in 1859, and won making him the new governor of Texas.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sam Houston {{!}} TSLAC |url=https://www.tsl.texas.gov/treasures/giants/houston-01 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240719051233/https://www.tsl.texas.gov/treasures/giants/houston-01 |archive-date=2024-07-19 |access-date=2025-05-03 |website=www.tsl.texas.gov |language=en}}</ref> Houston ran against Runnels in the [[1859 Texas gubernatorial election|1859 gubernatorial election]]. Capitalizing on Runnels's unpopularity over state issues such as Native American raids, Houston won the election and took office in December 1859.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=362–365}} In the [[1860 United States presidential election|1860 presidential election]], Houston and [[John Bell (Tennessee politician)|John Bell]] were the two major contenders for the presidential nomination of the newly formed [[Constitutional Union Party (United States)|Constitutional Union Party]], which consisted largely of Southern unionists. Houston narrowly trailed Bell on the first ballot of the [[1860 Constitutional Union Convention]], but Bell clinched the nomination on the second ballot.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=371–372}} Nonetheless, some of Houston's Texan supporters nominated him for president in April 1860. Other backers attempted to launch a nationwide campaign, but in August 1860, Houston announced that he would not be a candidate for president. He refused to endorse any of the remaining presidential candidates.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=372–374}} In late 1860, Houston campaigned across his home state, calling on Texans to resist those who advocated for secession if Republican nominee [[Abraham Lincoln]] won the 1860 election.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=380–382}}

After Lincoln won the November 1860 presidential election, several Southern states seceded from the United States and formed the [[Confederate States of America]].{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=383–384}} A Texas political convention voted to secede from the United States on February 1, 1861, and after Houston refused to swear an oath of loyalty to the Confederacy, the legislature declared the governorship vacant. Houston did not recognize the validity of his removal, but he did not attempt to use force to remain in office, and he refused aid from the federal government to prevent his removal. His successor, [[Edward Clark (governor)|Edward Clark]], was sworn in in March 1861.{{sfn|Westwood|1984|pp=128–129, 133–134}} In an undelivered speech, Houston wrote:

{{blockquote|Fellow-Citizens, in the name of your rights and liberties, which I believe have been trampled upon, I refuse to take this oath.  In the name of the nationality of Texas, which has been betrayed by the Convention, I refuse to take this oath.  In the name of the Constitution of Texas, I refuse to take this oath.  In the name of my own conscience and manhood, which this Convention would degrade by dragging me before it, to pander to the malice of my enemies, I refuse to take this oath.  I deny the power of this Convention to speak for Texas. ... I protest. ... against all the acts and doings of this convention and I declare them null and void.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=390–391}}}}

On April 19, 1861, he told a crowd:

{{blockquote|Let me tell you what is coming.  After the sacrifice of countless millions of treasure and hundreds of thousands of lives, you may win Southern independence if God be not against you, but I doubt it.  I tell you that, while I believe with you in the doctrine of states rights, the North is determined to preserve this Union. They are not a fiery, impulsive people as you are, for they live in colder climates. But when they begin to move in a given direction, they move with the steady momentum and perseverance of a mighty avalanche; and what I fear is, they will overwhelm the South.{{sfn|Haley|2002|p=397}}}}

According to historian Randolph Campbell:

<blockquote>Houston did everything possible to prevent secession and war, but his first loyalty was to Texas—and the South. Houston refused offers of troops from the United States to keep Texas in the Union and announced on May 10, 1861 that he would stand with the Confederacy in its war effort.{{sfn|Campbell|2000}}</blockquote>

==Retirement and death==
[[File:Sam Houston Grave.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.3|Houston's grave in [[Huntsville, Texas]]]]

After leaving office, Houston returned to his home in [[Galveston]].{{sfn|Westwood|1984|p= 129}} He later settled in [[Huntsville, Texas]], where he lived in a structure known as the [[Steamboat House (Huntsville, Texas)|Steamboat House]]. In the midst of the Civil War, Houston was shunned by many Texas leaders, though he continued to correspond with Confederate officer [[Ashbel Smith]] and Texas governor [[Francis Lubbock]]. His son, Sam Houston Jr., served in the Confederate army during the Civil War, but returned home after being wounded at the [[Battle of Shiloh]].{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=399–405}} Houston's health suffered a precipitous decline in April 1863, which contributed to his death on July 26, 1863, at 70 years of age.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=412–415}}

The inscription on Houston's tomb reads:

<blockquote><poem>
A Brave Soldier. A Fearless Statesman.
A Great Orator—A Pure Patriot.
A Faithful Friend, A Loyal Citizen.
A Devoted Husband and Father.
A Consistent Christian—An Honest Man.
</poem></blockquote>

== Personal life ==

In January 1829 Sam Houston, then Governor of Tennessee, married 19-year-old Eliza Allen. The marriage lasted 11 weeks. Neither Houston nor Eliza ever gave a reason for their separation, but Eliza refused to sanction divorce. Subsequently, he resigned his governorship and went to live with his Cherokee family for three years.<ref name=hbot /><ref name=txcol /> In the summer of 1830, Houston married [[Dianna Rogers]] (sometimes called Tiana), daughter of Chief John "Hellfire" Rogers (1740–1833), a Scots-Irish trader, and Jennie Due (1764–1806), a sister of [[John Jolly|Chief John Jolly]], in a Cherokee ceremony. The ceremony was modest since it was Dianna's second marriage; she was widowed with two children from her previous marriage: Gabriel, born 1819, and Joanna, born 1822. She and Houston first met when she was ten years old, and he was stunned to see how beautiful she was when he returned to her village years later. The two lived together for several years. Tennessee society disapproved of the marriage because under civil law, he was still legally married to Eliza Allen Houston. After declining to accompany Houston to Texas in 1832, Dianna later remarried. She died in 1838 of pneumonia.{{sfn|Haley|2002|p=70}} [[Will Rogers]] was her nephew, three generations removed.{{sfn|James|1988|pp=150–152}}
[[File:Margaret Lea Houston 1839.jpg|right|thumb|[[Margaret Lea Houston]]]]
In 1837, after becoming President of the Republic of Texas, he was able to acquire, from a district court judge, a divorce from Eliza Allen.<ref>{{cite web |title=Sam Houston and Eliza Allen: "Ten Thousand Imputed Slanders" |date=September 12, 2018 |url=https://www.tennesseehistory.org/sam-houston-eliza-allen-ten-thousand-imputed-slanders/ |publisher=The Tennessee Historical Society |access-date=December 13, 2019}}</ref>

In 1839, he purchased a horse which became one of the foundation sires of the [[American Quarter Horse]] breed named [[Copperbottom]]. He owned the horse until its death in 1860.<ref name="History">{{Cite web|url=https://www.aqha.com/history-of-the-quarter-horse|title=History of the Quarter Horse - AQHA|website=www.aqha.com}}</ref><ref name="Lost">{{Cite web |url=http://horsesonly.com/pednotes/WL/copperb.htm |title=Copperbottom: A Lost Bloodline |access-date=November 9, 2019 |archive-date=October 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191028170709/http://horsesonly.com/pednotes/WL/copperb.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Copperbottom">{{Cite web |url=http://quarterhorserecord.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Copperbottom.pdf |title=Copperbottom |access-date=November 9, 2019 |archive-date=October 26, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026145237/http://quarterhorserecord.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Copperbottom.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>

On May 9, 1840, Houston, aged 47, married for a third time. His bride was 21-year-old [[Margaret Lea Houston|Margaret Moffette Lea]] of Marion, Alabama, the daughter of planters. They had eight children, including [[Sam Houston Jr.|Sam Jr.]], [[Andrew Jackson Houston|Andrew]], and [[Temple Lea Houston|Temple]]. With Margaret being a woman of Baptist faith, she had influenced him to quit many of the bad habits he had developed, such as drinking and acting out.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2009-11-09 |title=Sam Houston - Biography & Facts |url=https://www.history.com/articles/sam-houston |access-date=2025-05-03 |website=HISTORY |language=en}}</ref> Although the Houstons had numerous houses, they kept only one continuously: Cedar Point (1840–1863) on [[Trinity Bay (Texas)|Trinity Bay]].{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}

In 1833, Houston was baptized into the Catholic faith in order to qualify under the existing Mexican law for property ownership in [[Coahuila y Tejas]]. The sacrament was held in the living room of the [[Adolphus Sterne House]] in Nacogdoches, Texas.{{sfn|Haley|2002|pp=104–105}} By 1854, Margaret had spent 14 years trying to convert Houston to the Baptist church. With the assistance of [[George Washington Baines]], she convinced Houston to convert, and he agreed to adult baptism. Spectators from neighboring communities came to Independence, Texas, to witness the event. On November 19, 1854, Houston was baptized by Rev. [[Rufus Columbus Burleson|Rufus C. Burleson]], president of [[Baylor University]], by immersion in Little Rocky Creek, two miles southeast of Independence.<ref>{{cite web|last=Augustin|first=Byron|title=Independence, Texas|url=https://tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/hli03|work=Handbook of Texas Online|publisher=Texas State Historical Association|access-date=March 9, 2012|author2=Pitts, William L}}</ref>{{sfn|Seale|1992|pp=167–171}}

== Relationship to slavery ==
{{Further|Sam Houston and slavery}}
Houston was a slaveholder who had a complicated history with the institution of slavery. He was the president of the independent Republic of Texas, which was founded as a slave-holding nation, and governor of Texas after its 1845 annexation to the union as a slave state. He voted various times against the extension of slavery into the Western United States and he did not swear an oath to the Confederate States of America, which marked the end of his political career.

Houston believed that it was more important to stand by other states and their interests than to divide the United States over slavery. He stated that the country was founded on slavery, but when it did not suit the economic needs of Northern states, those states abolished slavery. He claimed that Northern states benefited from slave labor when they bought cotton and sugar produced from Southern plantations. Although he governed Texas as a slave-holding state and was a slave owner himself, he did not feel that it was in the best interests of Texas to secede from the Union over slavery.

Houston and his wife Margaret Lea relied on slaves to perform household, agricultural, carpentry, blacksmithing, and other duties for the family. Eliza, who came with Margaret into Houston's family, was critical to running the household and raising the children. She stayed with the daughters of Sam and Margaret until she died in 1898. The multi-skilled Joshua was important to meeting the needs of the family. Houston often hired his slaves out for money and allowed  them to keep a portion of the money for themselves. When Houston died, Joshua offered to give money to Margaret to help support her children.

Until they were emancipated, Houston's slaves did not control where and how they were employed. There were limits to how they could spend their free time. They had little power to make decisions for themselves and their children.

==Legacy==
[[Houston]], the largest city in Texas and the [[Southern United States|American South]], is named in his honor. Several [[List of places named for Sam Houston|other things and places]] are named for Houston, including Sam Houston State University; Houston County, Minnesota; Houston County, Tennessee; Houston County, Texas. Other [[List of monuments and memorials to Sam Houston|monuments and memorials]] include [[Sam Houston National Forest]], Sam Houston Regional Library and Research Center, U.S. Army post [[Fort Sam Houston]] in San Antonio, the [[USS Sam Houston (SSBN-609)|USS ''Sam Houston'' (SSBN-609)]], and [[Sam Houston Monument|a sculpture of Houston]] in the city of Houston's [[Hermann Park]].

{{anchor|A Tribute to Courage}}[[File: A Tribute to Courage (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|''A Tribute to Courage'' statue in [[Hunstville, Texas]].]]
A 67-foot-tall statue of Houston, created by sculptor [[David Adickes]] in 1994, named ''A Tribute to Courage'' (and colloquially called "Big Sam") stands next to [[Interstate 45|I-45]], between Dallas and Houston, in Huntsville, Texas.<ref>{{cite web |title=Giant Statue of Sam Houston|url=http://www.roadsideamerica.com/story/7247|publisher=RoadsideAmerica.com|access-date=April 11, 2017}}</ref> It is the [[List of the tallest statues in the United States|ninth-tallest statue in the United States]] and was vandalized with graffiti in March 2008.<ref>{{cite news |title=Sam Houston statue vandalized |url=http://www.itemonline.com/news/local_news/sam-houston-statue-vandalized/article_731e78f2-3040-59a0-bfb9-b5a1fab252ee.html |newspaper=[[The Huntsville Item]] |first=Kristin |last=Edwards |date=March 20, 2008 |access-date=February 20, 2022}}</ref> Along with Stephen F. Austin, Houston is one of two Texans with a statue in the [[National Statuary Hall]]. Houston has been portrayed in works such as ''[[Man of Conquest]]'', ''[[Gone to Texas (film)|Gone to Texas]]'', ''[[Texas Rising]]'', and ''[[The Alamo (1960 film)|The Alamo]]''. In 1960, he was inducted into the [[Hall of Great Westerners]] of the [[National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hall of Great Westerners |url=https://nationalcowboymuseum.org/hall-of-great-westerners/ |website=National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum |access-date=November 22, 2019}}</ref>

There is a question about whether Houston made a pejorative comment about Mexicans in an 1835 speech to the Texas volunteer army at Refugio.  One second hand source makes this claim;<ref>{{cite book |last1=De León |first1=Arnoldo |title=They Called Them Greasers: Anglo Attitudes toward Mexicans in Texas, 1821–1900 |date=January 1, 1983 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0292780545 |page=7 |edition=1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BJkGwn6H14IC |access-date=August 24, 2020}}</ref> however, subsequent research casts doubt on the source and concludes that the disparaging comment is unlikely to have occurred.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crisp |first1=James E. |title=Sleuthing the Alamo: Davy Crockett's Last Stand and Other Mysteries of the Texas Revolution (New Narratives in American History) |date=February 24, 2005
|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0195163506 |edition=1}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bartleby.com/essay/Analysis-Of-Sleuthing-The-Alamo-F3ZQLVNHZSR|title = Analysis of Sleuthing the Alamo - 980 Words &#124; Bartleby}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[History of slavery in Texas]]
* [[Joshua Houston]]
* [[List of duels#United States]]
* [[Nathaniel Hale Pryor]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{Further|Bibliography of Sam Houston}}
{{external media | width = 210px | float = right | headerimage= | video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?40390-1/sword-san-jacinto-life-sam-houston ''Booknotes'' interview with Marshall DeBruhl on ''Sword of San Jacinto: The Life of Sam Houston'', May 2, 1993], [[C-SPAN]]}}

===Works cited===
{{refbegin}}
* {{citation |last=Campbell |first=Randolph B |title=Houston, Sam |work=American National Biography |date=2000 |doi=10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.0400528}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Cantrell|first1=Gregg|title=Sam Houston and the Know-Nothings: A Reappraisal|journal=The Southwestern Historical Quarterly|date=1993|volume=96|issue=3|pages=327–343|jstor=30237138}}
* {{cite book|last1=Haley|first1=James L.|title=Sam Houston|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780806136448|url-access=registration|date=2002|publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]]|isbn=978-0-8061-3644-8|location=Norman, OK}}
* {{cite book|last1=Roberts|first1=Madge Thornall|title=Star of Destiny: The Private Life of Sam and Margaret Houston|date=1993|publisher=[[University of North Texas Press]]|location=Denton, TX|isbn=0-929398-51-3|url=https://www.questia.com/library/99687525/star-of-destiny-the-private-life-of-sam-and-margaret|access-date=March 26, 2016|archive-date=March 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309102306/https://www.questia.com/library/99687525/star-of-destiny-the-private-life-of-sam-and-margaret|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book|first1=William|last1=Seale|title=Sam Houston's Wife: A Biography of Margaret Lea Houston|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nycc4POjolMC|date=April 1992|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=978-0-8061-2436-0}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Westwood |first1=Howard C. |title=President Lincoln's Overture to Sam Houston |journal=The Southwestern Historical Quarterly |date=1984 |volume=88 |issue=2 |pages=125–144 |jstor=30239858}}
* {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=John H. |title=Sam Houston: Life and Times of Liberator of Texas an Authentic American Hero|date=1994 |orig-year=1993|publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=9780671880712}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{Library resources box|viaf=30337897|onlinebooksby=yes|by=yes}}
{{refbegin}}
* Brinkley, William. ''The Texas Revolution''. Texas A&M Press: {{ISBN|0-87611-041-3}}.
* {{cite journal |last1=Crook |first1=Elizabeth |title=Sam Houston and Eliza Allen: The Marriage and the Mystery |journal=The Southwestern Historical Quarterly |date=1990 |volume=94 |issue=1 |pages=1–36 |jstor=30237054}}
* DeBruhl, Marshall ''Sword of San Jacinto''. Random House. {{ISBN|0-394-57623-3}}.
* {{cite book |last1=Flanagan |first1=Sue |title=Sam Houston's Texas|date=June 28, 2010|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uTSD2w4SIVQC|publisher=University of Texas Press|isbn=978-0-292-78921-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hunt |first1=Lenoir |title=My Master, The Inside Story of Sam Houston and His Times, By His Former Slave Jeff Hamilton|date=1992|publisher=State House Press|isbn=978-1-933337-23-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Haley |first=James L.|title=Sam Houston|year=2015|place=[[Norman, Oklahoma|Norman, OK]]|publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]]|asin=B00VY161EI}}
* Hitsman, J. Mackay (February 1960). [https://www.historytoday.com/archive/texan-war-1835-1836 "The Texas War of 1835–1836"] {{subscription required}}. ''History Today'' 10#2 pp.&nbsp;116–123.
* {{cite book |last=James |first=Marquis|author-link=Marquis James|orig-year=1929|year=1988|title=The Raven: A Biography of Sam Houston|place=[[Austin, Texas|Austin, TX]]|publisher=[[University of Texas Press]]|isbn=978-0292770409}}.
* {{cite journal |last1=MacKinnon |first1=William P. |title=Into the Fray: Sam Houston's Utah War |journal=Journal of Mormon History |date=2013 |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=198–243 |doi=10.2307/24243857 |jstor=24243857|s2cid=254486356 }}
* Michener, James A. (1990). ''[[The Eagle and the Raven]]''. Austin, Tex.: State House Press. {{ISBN|0-938349-57-0}}. {{OCLC|21338112}}.
* {{cite book |last1=O'Neal |first1=Bill |title=Sam Houston: A Study in Leadership |date=2016 |publisher=Eakin Press |isbn=9781681790374}}
* {{cite book |last1=Rozelle |first1=Ron |date=2017 |title=Exiled: The Last Days of Sam Houston |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |isbn=9781623495879}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{CongBio|H000827}}
* [http://archives.library.rice.edu/repositories/2/resources/48 Sam Houston papers] (Woodson Research Center, Fondren Library, Rice University, Houston, Texas)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060301165018/http://texashistory.unt.edu/permalink/meta-pth-2408 ''Life of General Houston, 1793–1863''] published 1891, hosted by the [http://texashistory.unt.edu/ Portal to Texas History].
* {{Handbook of Texas|id=fho73|name=Samuel Houston}}
* [http://samhoustonmemorialmuseum.com Sam Houston Memorial Museum] in Huntsville, Texas
* [http://www.samhoustonhistoricschoolhouse.org/ Sam Houston Historic Schoolhouse] in Maryville, Tennessee
* [http://www.samhoustonmovie.com/ Documentary film ''Sam Houston: American Statesman, Soldier, and Pioneer''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120303140507/http://samhoustonmovie.com/ |date=March 3, 2012 }} 2009, The Sam Houston Project.
* [http://tennesseeencyclopedia.net/entry.php?rec=663 Tennessee Encyclopedia of History and Culture entry]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20131207033256/http://www.tennessee.gov/tsla/history/govpapers/findingaids/gp8.pdf Tennessee State Library & Archives, Papers of Governor Sam Houston, 1827–1829]
* [http://texashistorypage.com/Sam-Houston-Rode-a-Gray-Horse.html Sam Houston Rode a Gray Horse]
* [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/ttusw/00229/tsw-00229.html Houston Family Papers, 1836–1869 and undated, in the Southwest Collection/Special Collections Library at Texas Tech University]
* [https://archive.org/details/lifeselectlitera00cran Life and select literary remains of Sam Houston of Texas published 1884]
* [https://www.tsl.texas.gov/ref/abouttx/prestx.html Presidents and Vice Presidents of the Republic of Texas, 1836–1846]. Texas State Library and Archive Commission.

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