View source for Ficus

{{Short description|Genus of flowering plants in the mulberry family Moraceae}}
{{About||the species commonly known as the "ficus tree"|Ficus benjamina|sea snails|Ficus (gastropod)|Monroe Ficus|Too Close for Comfort}}
{{redirect|Fig tree|the 2009 film|Fig Trees}}
{{Automatic taxobox
|name = Fig trees
|fossil_range = {{fossilrange|Maastrichtian|Present}}
|image = Sycomoros old.jpg
|image_caption = Sycamore fig, ''[[Ficus sycomorus]]''
|parent_authority = [[Dumort.]]
|taxon = Ficus (plant)
|authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]{{R|powo}}
|subdivision_ranks = [[Species]]
|subdivision = About 800, see [[List of Ficus species|List of ''Ficus'' species]]
|type_species = Ficus carica
|type_species_authority = L.<ref name="IPNI">{{cite web |url=https://www.ipni.org/n/327905-2 |title=''Ficus'' L., Sp. Pl. 2: 1059 (1753) |website=[[International Plant Names Index]] (IPNI) |publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]] |year=2025 |access-date=10 June 2025}}</ref>
|synonyms = 
{{species list|header=28 Synonyms|hidden=yes
|Boscheria|Carruth.
|Bosscheria|de Vriese & Teijsm.
|Caprificus|Gasp.
|Covellia|Gasp.
|Cystogyne|Gasp.
|Dammaropsis|Warb.
|Erosma|Booth
|Erythrogyne|Vis.
|Galoglychia|Gasp.
|Gonosuke|Raf.
|Macrophthalma|Gasp.
|Mastosuke|Raf.
|Necalistis|Raf.
|Oluntos|Raf.
|Perula|Raf.
|Pharmacosycea|Miq.
|Plagiostigma|Zucc.
|Pogonotrophe|Miq.
|Rephesis|Raf.
|Stilpnophyllum|(Endl.) Drury
|Sycomorphe|Miq.
|Sycomorus|Gasp.
|Synoecia|Miq.
|Tenorea|Gasp.
|Tremotis|Raf.
|Urostigma|Gasp.
|Varinga|Raf.
|Visiania|Gasp.
}}
|synonyms_ref = <ref name = powo/>
}}

'''''Ficus''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|aɪ|k|ə|s}}<ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|ficus |access-date=2023-06-18}}</ref> or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|iː|k|ə|s}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Sunset Western Garden Book |year=1995 |pages=606–607 |publisher=Sunset Books |isbn=978-0-37603-851-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite Collins Dictionary|ficus}}</ref>) is a [[genus]] of about 850 [[species]] of woody [[tree]]s, [[shrub]]s, [[vine]]s, [[epiphyte]]s and [[hemiepiphyte]]s in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Moraceae]]. Collectively known as '''fig trees''' or '''figs''', they are native throughout the [[tropics]] with a few species extending into the semi-warm [[temperate]] zone. The [[common fig]] (''F.&nbsp;carica'') is a temperate species native to southwest Asia and the [[Mediterranean]] region (from Afghanistan  to Portugal), which has been widely cultivated from ancient times for its [[fruit]], also referred to as figs. The fruit of most other species are also edible though they are usually of only local economic importance or eaten as [[bushfood]]. However, they are extremely important food resources for wildlife. Figs are also of considerable cultural importance throughout the tropics, both as objects of worship and for their many practical uses.

==Description==
[[File:Ficus-AerialRoot.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Aerial root]]s that may eventually provide structural support]]
[[File:Ficus carica tree.jpg|right|thumb|A ''[[Ficus carica]]'' (common fig)]]
[[File:菩提樹 Ficus religiosa 20210421111446 01.jpg|thumb|right|The stipule of ''[[Ficus religiosa]]''. The white [[stipule]] contains a new leaf and a new stipule.]]
''Ficus'' is a [[pantropical]] genus of trees, shrubs, and vines occupying a wide variety of [[ecological niche]]s; most are [[evergreen]], but some deciduous species are found in areas outside of the tropics and to higher elevations.<ref name=Halevy1989>{{Cite book |title=Handbook of Flowering Volume 6 of CRC Handbook of Flowering |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZcTP7Kb01NAC&pg=PA331 |year=1989 |author=Halevy, Abraham H. |publisher=CRC Press |page=331 |isbn=978-0-8493-3916-5 |access-date=2009-08-25}}</ref> Fig species are characterized by their unique [[inflorescence]] and distinctive [[pollination syndrome]], which uses wasp species belonging to the family [[Agaonidae]] for pollination. Adult plants vary in size from ''[[Ficus benghalensis]]'' (the Indian banyan), a tall and speading tree with many adventitious roots which may cover a hectare (2.5 acres) or more of ground to ''Ficus nana'' of [[New Guinea]] which never exceeds one meter (forty inches) in height and width.<ref>{{cite journal | last= <not recorded> | date= 2005 | title= Moraceae - Ficus | journal= Flora Malesiana | volume= 17 | issue= part 2 | page= 436 }}</ref>

Specific identification of many of the species can be difficult, but members of the genus ''Ficus'' are relatively easy to recognize. Many have [[aerial root]]s and a distinctive shape or habit, and their fruits distinguish them from other plants. The aerial roots according to [[Adrian Forsyth]] can hang down freely as much as {{cvt|50|m}}.<ref>{{cite book | last= Forsyth | first= Adrian | date= 1990 | title= Portrait of the Rainforest | location= Camden East | publisher= Camden House, Ontario | page= 19 }}</ref>  The fruit of ''Ficus'' is an [[inflorescence]] enclosed in an urn-like structure called a [[syconium]], which is lined on the inside with the fig's tiny flowers that develop into multiple ovaries on the inside surface.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://waynesword.palomar.edu/fruitid6.htm#figs |title=Ficus: The Remarkable Genus Of Figs |access-date=2021-05-16 |archive-date=2009-12-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091211212639/http://waynesword.palomar.edu/fruitid6.htm#figs |url-status=dead}}</ref> In essence, the fig fruit is a fleshy stem with multiple tiny flowers that fruit and coalesce.

Notably, three vegetative traits together are unique to figs. All figs present a white to yellowish [[latex]], some in copious quantities; the twig shows paired [[stipules]] —or circular scars if the stipules have fallen off; the lateral veins at the base of the leaf are steep, forming a tighter angle with the midrib than the other lateral veins, a feature referred to as "triveined".

Current [[molecular clock]] estimates indicate that ''Ficus'' is a relatively ancient genus, being at least 60 million years old,{{sfnp|Rønsted ''et al.''|2005}} and possibly as old as 80 million years. The main radiation of [[Extant taxon|extant]] species, however, may have taken place more recently, between 20 and 40 million years ago.

Some better-known species that represent the diversity of the genus include, alongside the [[common fig]], whose fingered [[fig leaf]] is well known in art and [[iconography]]: the [[weeping fig]] (''F.&nbsp;benjamina''), a [[hemiepiphyte]] with thin, tough leaves on pendulous stalks adapted to its [[rain forest]] habitat; the rough-leaved [[sandpaper fig]]s from Australia; and the [[creeping fig]] (''F.&nbsp;pumila''), a vine whose small, hard leaves form a dense carpet of foliage over rocks or garden walls.

Moreover, figs with different plant habits have undergone [[adaptive radiation]] in different [[biogeographic]] regions, leading to very high levels of [[alpha diversity]]. In the tropics,  ''Ficus'' commonly is the most species-rich plant genus in a particular forest. In Asia, as many as 70 or more species can co-exist.{{sfnp|Harrison|2005}} ''Ficus'' [[species richness]] declines with an increase in latitude in both hemispheres.{{sfnp|van Noort|van Harten|2006}}{{sfnp|Berg|Hijmann|1989}}

A description of fig tree cultivation is set out in [[Ibn al-'Awwam]]'s 12th-century agricultural work titled, ''Book on Agriculture''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ibn al-'Awwam |first=Yaḥyá |author-link=Ibn al-'Awwam |title=Le livre de l'agriculture d'Ibn-al-Awam (kitab-al-felahah) |year=1864 |location=Paris |publisher=A. Franck |translator=J.-J. Clement-Mullet |pages=277–281 (ch. 7 - Article 25) |url=https://archive.org/details/lelivredelagric00algoog/page/n14/mode/2up |language=fr |oclc=780050566}} (pp. [https://archive.org/details/lelivredelagric00algoog/page/n384/mode/2up 277]–281 (Article XXV)</ref>

==Ecology==
Figs are [[keystone species]] in many [[tropical forest]] [[ecosystem]]s. Their fruit are a key resource for [[frugivores]] including [[Megabat|fruit bats]], [[capuchin monkey]]s, [[Colobinae|langurs]], [[Nomascus|gibbons]], and [[mangabey]]s. They are even more important for [[bird]]s such as [[megalaimidae|Asian barbets]], [[Columbidae|pigeons]], [[hornbill]]s, [[Cyclopsittacini|fig-parrots]], and [[bulbul]]s, which may subsist almost entirely  on figs when these are plentiful. Many [[Lepidoptera]] [[caterpillar]]s feed on fig leaves, for example several ''[[Euploea]]'' species (crow butterflies), the [[Danaus chrysippus|plain tiger]] (''Danaus chrysippus''), the [[Papilio cresphontes|giant swallowtail]] (''Papilio cresphontes''), the [[Badamia exclamationis|brown awl]] (''Badamia exclamationis''), and ''[[Chrysodeixis eriosoma]]'', [[Choreutidae]] and [[Copromorphidae]] [[moth]]s. The larvae of the [[citrus long-horned beetle]] (''Anoplophora chinensis''), for example, feed on the [[wood]] of the fig tree; the species  can become a [[pest (organism)|pest]] in fig plantations. Similarly, the [[sweet potato whitefly]] (''Bemisia tabaci'') is frequently found as a pest on figs grown as [[houseplant|potted plant]]s and can be spread through the export of these plants to other localities. For a list of other diseases common to fig trees, see [[List of foliage plant diseases (Moraceae)]].

===Fig fruit and reproduction system===
{{anchor|Caprifig}}
{{See also|Fig}}
[[File:Fig.jpg|thumb|A [[common fig]] fruit]]
[[File:Fig (Ficus carica) fruit halved.jpg|right|thumb|Cut through of a ripe common fig]]

Many fig species are grown for their fruits, though only ''[[Common fig|Ficus carica]]'' is cultivated to any extent for this purpose.{{fact|date=July 2022}}{{disputed inline|date=July 2022}} A fig "fruit" is a type of [[multiple fruit]] known as a [[syconium]], derived from an arrangement of many small flowers on an inverted, nearly closed receptacle. The many small flowers are unseen unless the fig is cut open.{{cn|date=June 2023}}

The fruit typically has a bulbous shape with a small opening (the [[ostiole]]) at the outward end that allows access to [[pollinator]]s. The flowers are pollinated by [[Fig wasp|very small wasp]]s such as ''[[Pegoscapus]]'' that crawl through the opening in search of a suitable place to lay eggs. Without this pollinator service fig trees could not reproduce by seed. In turn, the flowers provide a safe haven and nourishment for the next generation of wasps. This accounts for the frequent presence of wasp larvae in the fruit, and has led to a [[coevolution]]ary relationship. Technically, a fig fruit proper would be only one of the many tiny matured, seed-bearing [[Gynoecium|gynoecia]] found inside one fig – if you cut open a fresh fig, individual fruit will appear as fleshy "threads", each bearing a single seed inside. The genus ''[[Dorstenia]]'', also in the fig family (Moraceae), exhibits similar tiny flowers arranged on a receptacle but in this case the receptacle is a more or less flat, open surface.{{cn|date=June 2023}}

Fig plants can be [[Monoecy|monoecious]] ([[Androdioecious|hermaphrodite]]){{clarification needed|reason=androdioecious is neither synonymous with Monoicy or hermaphroditism|date=September 2021}} or [[gynodioecious]] (hermaphrodite and female).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://waynesword.palomar.edu/dawkins.htm |last1=Armstrong |first1=Wayne P |first2=Steven |last2=Disparti |title=A Key to Subgroups of Dioecious* (Gynodioecious) Figs Based On Fig Wasp/Male Syconium Pollination Patterns |website=Wayne's Word |date=4 April 1998 |access-date=2012-01-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120202215506/http://waynesword.palomar.edu/dawkins.htm |archive-date=2012-02-02}}</ref> Nearly half of fig species are gynodioecious, and therefore have some plants with inflorescences (syconium) with long styled pistillate flowers, and other plants with staminate flowers mixed with short styled pistillate flowers.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Plant diversity and complexity patterns: local, regional, and global dimensions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1QwCQFbPsa4C&pg=RA1-PA427 |year=2005 |publisher=Kgl. Danske Videnskabernes Selskab |page=472 |isbn=978-87-7304-304-2 |last1=Friis |first1=Ib |last2=Balslev |first2=Henrik}}</ref> The long-styled flowers tend to prevent wasps from laying their eggs within the ovules, while the short-styled flowers are accessible for egg laying.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Sex Differences and Flowering Phenology in the Common Fig, Ficus carica L. |last1=Valdeyron |first1=Georges |last2=Lloyd |first2=David G. |jstor=2407790 |journal=Evolution |volume=33 |issue=2 |date=June 1979 |pages=673–685 |doi=10.2307/2407790 |pmid=28563939}}</ref>

All the native fig trees of the American continent are hermaphrodites, as well as species like [[Indian banyan]] (''F.&nbsp;benghalensis''), [[weeping fig]] (''F.&nbsp;benjamina''), [[Indian rubber plant]] (''F.&nbsp;elastica''), [[fiddle-leaved fig]] (''F.&nbsp;lyrata''), [[Moreton Bay fig]] (''F.&nbsp;macrophylla''), [[Chinese banyan]] (''F.&nbsp;microcarpa''), [[sacred fig]] (''F.&nbsp;religiosa'') and [[sycamore fig]] (''F.&nbsp;sycomorus'').{{sfnp|Berg|Corner|2005}} The common fig (''Ficus carica'') is a gynodioecious plant, as well as [[lofty fig]] or clown fig (''[[Ficus aspera|F.&nbsp;aspera]]''), [[Roxburgh fig]] (''[[Ficus auriculata|F.&nbsp;auriculata]]''), [[mistletoe fig]] (''[[Ficus deltoidea|F.&nbsp;deltoidea]]''), ''[[Ficus pseudopalma|F.&nbsp;pseudopalma]]'', [[creeping fig]] (''F.&nbsp;pumila'') and related species. The hermaphrodite common figs are called "inedible figs" or "caprifigs"; in traditional culture in the [[Mediterranean region]] they were considered food for [[goat]]s (''Capra aegagrus''). In the female fig trees, the male flower parts fail to develop; they produce the "'edible figs". [[Fig wasp]]s grow in common fig caprifigs but not in the female syconiums because the female flower is too long for the wasp to successfully lay her eggs in them. Nonetheless, the wasp pollinates the flower with pollen from the caprifig it grew up in. In many situations, the wasp pollinator is unable to escape and dies within the fruit. When the wasp dies, it is broken down by enzymes ([[Ficain]]) inside the fig. Fig wasps are not known to transmit any diseases harmful to humans.

When a caprifig ripens, another caprifig must be ready to be pollinated. In temperate climes, wasps hibernate in figs, and there are distinct crops. Caprifigs have three crops per year; common figs have two.<ref name="Sinha">{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B0-12-227055-X/00463-6 |chapter=FIGS |title=Encyclopedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition |year=2003 |last1=Sinha |first1=K.K. |pages=2394–2399 |isbn=978-0-12-227055-0}}</ref> The first crop ([[breba]]) is larger and juicier, and usually eaten fresh.<ref name=Sinha/>  In cold climates the breba crop is often destroyed by spring frosts.<ref>California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc. (1996): [http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/fig.html Fig] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031124540/http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/fig.html |date=2020-10-31 }}. Retrieved November 1, 2008.</ref> Some [[parthenocarpic]] [[cultivar]]s of common figs do not require pollination at all, and will produce a crop of figs (albeit [[sterility (physiology)|sterile]]) in the absence of caprifigs and fig wasps.

Depending on the species, each fruit can contain hundreds or even thousand of seeds.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Weird Sex Life of the Fig |url=http://figs4fun.com/Links/FigLink006a.pdf |website=Ray's Figs |access-date=2012-01-05}}</ref> Figs can be propagated by seeds, cuttings, air-layering or grafting. However, as with any plant, figs grown from seed are not necessarily genetically identical to the parent and are only propagated this way for breeding purposes.

===Mutualism with the pollinating fig wasps===
{{Further|Reproductive coevolution in Ficus}}
[[File:Ficus exasperata by kadavoor.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Ficus exasperata]]'', fruits]]

The unique fig [[pollination]] system involves tiny, highly specific wasps, known as [[fig wasp]]s, that enter via [[ostiole]] these subclosed inflorescences to both pollinate and lay their own eggs.{{sfnp|Rønsted ''et al.''|2005}} Each species of fig is pollinated by one or a few specialised wasp species, and therefore plantings of fig species outside of their native range results in effectively sterile individuals. For example, in [[Hawaii]], some 60 species of figs have been introduced, but only four of the wasps that fertilize them, so only those species of figs produce viable seeds there and can become [[invasive species]]. This is an example of [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualism]], in which each organism (fig plant and [[fig wasp]]) benefit each other, in this case reproductively.{{cn|date=June 2023}}

The intimate association between fig species and their wasp pollinators, along with the high incidence of a one-to-one plant-pollinator ratio have long led scientists to believe that figs and wasps are a clear example of [[coevolution]]. Morphological and reproductive behavior evidence, such as the correspondence between fig and wasp larvae maturation rates, have been cited as support for this hypothesis for many years.<ref name="Machado Jousselin Kjellberg Compton pp. 685–694">{{cite journal |last1=Machado |first1=C. A. |last2=Jousselin |first2=E. |last3=Kjellberg |first3=F. |last4=Compton |first4=S. G. |last5=Herre |first5=E. A. |title=Phylogenetic relationships, historical biogeography and character evolution of fig-pollinating wasps |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=268 |issue=1468 |date=7 April 2001 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2000.1418 |pmid=11321056 |pmc=1088657 |pages=685–694}}</ref> Additionally, recent genetic and molecular dating analyses have shown a very close correspondence in the character evolution and [[speciation]] phylogenies of these two clades.{{sfnp|Rønsted ''et al.''|2005}}

According to meta-analysis of molecular data for 119 fig species 35% (41) have multiple pollinator wasp species. The real proportion is higher because not all wasp species were detected.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Li-Yuan |last2=Machado |first2=Carlos A. |last3=Dang |first3=Xiao-Dong |last4=Peng |first4=Yan-Qiong |last5=Yang |first5=Da-Rong |last6=Zhang |first6=Da-Yong |last7=Liao |first7=Wan-Jin |title=The incidence and pattern of copollinator diversification in dioecious and monoecious figs |journal=Evolution |date=February 2015 |volume=69 |issue=2 |pages=294–304 |doi=10.1111/evo.12584 |pmid=25495152 |pmc=4328460}}</ref> On the other hand, species of wasps pollinate multiple host fig species.<ref name="Machado Robbins Gilbert Herre pp. 6558–6565">{{cite journal |last1=Machado |first1=C. A. |last2=Robbins |first2=N. |last3=Gilbert |first3=M. T. P. |last4=Herre |first4=E. A. |title=Critical review of host specificity and its coevolutionary implications in the fig/fig-wasp mutualism |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=102 |issue=Supplement 1 |date=3 May 2005 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0501840102 |pmid=15851680 |pmc=1131861 |pages=6558–6565 |bibcode=2005PNAS..102.6558M |doi-access=free}}</ref> Molecular techniques, like [[microsatellite (genetics)|microsatellite]] markers and mitochondrial sequence analysis, allowed a discovery of multiple genetically distinct, [[cryptic species complex|cryptic]] wasp species. Not all these cryptic species are sister taxa and thus must have experienced a host fig shift at some point.<ref name="Molbo et al. 2003">{{cite journal |last1=Molbo |first1=D. |last2=Machado |first2=C.A. |last3=Sevenster |first3=J.G. |last4=Keller |first4=L. |last5=Herre |first5=E.A. |title=Cryptic species of fig-pollinating wasps: Implications for the evolution of the fig-wasp mutualism, sex allocation, and precision of adaptation |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=24 April 2003 |volume=100 |issue=10 |pages=5867–5872 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0930903100 |pmid=12714682 |pmc=156293 |bibcode=2003PNAS..100.5867M |doi-access=free}}</ref> These cryptic species lacked evidence of genetic [[introgression]] or [[backcrossing|backcrosses]] indicating limited fitness for [[hybrid (biology)|hybrid]]s and effective [[reproductive isolation]] and [[speciation]].<ref name="Molbo et al. 2003"/>

The existence of cryptic species suggests that neither the number of symbionts nor [[Reproductive coevolution in ficus|their evolutionary relationships]] are necessarily fixed ecologically.<ref name="Molbo et al. 2003"/><!-- supports this sentence because: host shift --> While the morphological characteristics that facilitate the fig-wasp mutualisms are likely to be shared more fully in closer relatives, the absence of unique pairings would make it impossible to do a one-to-one tree comparison and difficult to determine cospeciation.{{cn|date=June 2023}}

==Systematics==
With over 800 species, ''Ficus'' is by far the largest genus in the Moraceae, and is one of the largest genera of flowering plants currently described.<ref name = "Judd">{{cite book |last1=Judd |first1=W.S. |last2=Campbell |first2=C.S. |last3=Kellogg |first3=E.A. |last4=Stevens |first4=P.F. |last5=Donoghue |first5=M.J. |year=2008 |title=Plant Systematics: A phylogenetic approach |edition=3rd |location=Sunderland (Massachusetts) |publisher=Sinauer Associates |isbn=978-0-87893-407-2}}</ref> The species currently classified within ''Ficus'' were originally split into several genera in the mid-1800s, providing the basis for a subgeneric classification when reunited into one genus in 1867. This classification put functionally [[dioecious]] species into four subgenera based on floral characters.<ref name ="Weiblen" /> In 1965, [[E. J. H. Corner]] reorganized the genus on the basis of breeding system, uniting these four dioecious subgenera into a single dioecious subgenus ''Ficus''. [[Monoecious]] figs were classified within the subgenera ''[[Urostigma]]'', ''[[Pharmacosycea]]'' and ''[[Sycomorus]]''.<ref name="Corner-1965">{{Cite journal |last1=Corner |first1=E.J.H. |author-link1=E. J. H. Corner |year=1965 |title=Check-list of ''Ficus'' in Asia and Australasia with keys to identification |journal=The Gardens' Bulletin Singapore |volume=21 |issue=1 |pages=1–186 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/43581709 |via=biodiversitylibrary.org |access-date=5 Feb 2014}}</ref>

This traditional classification has been called into question by recent [[phylogenetic]] studies employing genetic methods to investigate the relationships between representative members of the various sections of each subgenus.{{sfnp|Rønsted ''et al.''|2005}}<ref name="Weiblen">{{cite journal |last=Weiblen |first=G.D. |year=2000 |title=Phylogenetic relationships of functionally dioecious ''Ficus'' (Moraceae) based on ribosomal DNA sequences and morphology |url=http://geo.cbs.umn.edu/Weiblen2000.pdf |journal=American Journal of Botany |volume=87 |issue=9 |pages=1342–1357 |access-date=2018-04-22 |doi=10.2307/2656726 |jstor=2656726 |pmid=10991904 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Herre">{{cite journal |last1=Herre |first1=E. |last2=Machado |first2=C.A. |last3=Bermingham |first3=E. |last4=Nason |first4=J.D. |last5=Windsor |first5=D.M. |last6=McCafferty |first6=S. |last7=Van Houten |first7=W. |last8=Bachmann |first8=K. |year=1996 |title=Molecular phylogenies of figs and their pollinator wasps |journal=Journal of Biogeography |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=521–530 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2699.1996.tb00014.x|bibcode=1996JBiog..23..521H }}</ref><ref name="Jousselin">{{cite journal |last1=Jousselin |first1=E. |last2=Rasplus |first2=J.-Y. |last3=Kjellberg |first3=F. |year=2003 |title=Convergence and coevolution in a mutualism: evidence from a molecular phylogeny of Ficus |journal=Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution |volume=57 |issue=6 |pages=1255–1269 |doi=10.1554/02-445 |pmid=12894934 |s2cid=1962136}}</ref>{{sfnp|Rønsted ''et al.''|2008}} Of Corner's original subgeneric divisions of the genus, only ''Sycomorus'' is supported as monophyletic in the majority of phylogenetic studies.{{sfnp|Rønsted ''et al.''|2005}}<ref name="Weiblen" /><ref name="Jousselin" /> Notably, there is no clear split between dioecious and monoecious lineages.{{sfnp|Rønsted ''et al.''|2005}}<ref name="Weiblen" /><ref name="Herre" /><ref name="Jousselin" />{{sfnp|Rønsted ''et al.''|2008}} One of the two sections of ''Pharmacosycea'', a monoecious group, form a monophyletic clade basal to the rest of the genus, which includes the other section of ''Pharmacosycea'', the rest of the monoecious species, and all of the dioecious species.{{sfnp|Rønsted ''et al.''|2008}} These remaining species are divided into two main monophyletic lineages (though the statistical support for these lineages is not as strong as for the monophyly of the more derived clades within them). One consists of all sections of ''Urostigma'' except for section ''Urostigma s. s.''. The other includes section ''Urostigma s. s.'', subgenus ''Sycomorus'', and the species of subgenus ''Ficus'', though the relationships of the sections of these groups to one another are not well resolved.{{sfnp|Rønsted ''et al.''|2005}}{{sfnp|Rønsted ''et al.''|2008}}

==Selected species==<!--by what criterion if there are redlinks all over?-->
{{main|List of Ficus species|l1=List of ''Ficus'' species}}
As of April 2024, there are 880 accepted ''Ficus'' species according to [[Plants of the World Online]].<ref name = powo>{{cite web |title=''Ficus'' Tourn. ex L. |url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:327905-2 |website=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=22 April 2024}}</ref>

{{Unreferenced section|date=June 2025}}
<!-- no redlinks in this section pls -->
===Subgenus ''Ficus''===
<!--"Ficus subg. Ficus" redirects here and is used in species taxoboxes-->
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* ''[[Ficus amplissima]]'' <small>Sm.</small> – bat fig
* ''[[Ficus carica]]'' <small>L.</small> – common fig
* ''[[Ficus daimingshanensis]]'' <small>Chang</small>
* ''[[Ficus deltoidea]]'' <small>Jack</small> – mistletoe fig
* ''[[Ficus erecta]]'' <small>Thunb.</small> – Japanese fig
* ''[[Ficus fulva]]'' <small>Reinw. ex Blume</small>
* ''[[Ficus grossularioides]]'' <small>Burman f.</small> – white-leaved fig
* ''[[Ficus neriifolia]]'' <small>Sm.</small>
* ''[[Ficus palmata]]'' <small>Forssk.</small>
* ''[[Ficus pandurata]]'' <small>Hance</small>
* ''[[Ficus simplicissima]]'' <small>Lour.</small>
* ''[[Ficus triloba]]'' <small>Buch.-Ham. ex Voigt</small>
{{Div col end}}

===Subgenus ''Pharmacosycea''===
<!--"Ficus subg. Pharmacosycea" redirects here and is used in species taxoboxes-->
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* ''[[Ficus crassiuscula]]'' <small>Standl.</small>
* ''[[Ficus gigantosyce]]'' <small>Dugand</small>
* ''[[Ficus insipida]]'' <small>Willd.</small>
* ''[[Ficus lacunata]]'' <small>Kvitvik</small>
* ''[[Ficus maxima]]'' <small>Mill.</small>
* ''[[Ficus mutabilis]]'' <small>Bureau</small>
* ''[[Ficus nervosa]]'' <small>Heyne ex Roth</small>
* ''[[Ficus pulchella]]'' <small>Schott</small>
* ''[[Ficus yoponensis]]'' <small>Desv.</small>
{{Div col end}}

===Subgenus ''Sycidium''===
<!--"Ficus subg. Sycidium" redirects here and is used in species taxoboxes-->
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* ''[[Ficus andamanica]]'' <small>Corner</small>
* ''[[Ficus aspera]]'' <small>G.Forst.</small>
* ''[[Ficus assamica]]'' <small>Miq.</small>
* ''[[Ficus bojeri]]'' <small>Baker</small>
* ''[[Ficus capreifolia]]'' <small>Delile</small>
* ''[[Ficus coronata]]'' <small>Spin</small> – creek sandpaper fig
* ''[[Ficus fraseri]]'' <small>Miq.</small> – shiny sandpaper fig
* ''[[Ficus heterophylla]]'' <small>L.f.</small>
* ''[[Ficus lateriflora]]'' <small>Vahl</small>
* ''[[Ficus montana]]'' <small>Burm.f.</small> – oakleaf fig
* ''[[Ficus opposita]]'' <small>Miq.</small> – sweet sandpaper fig
* ''[[Ficus phaeosyce]]'' <small>K.Schum. & Lauterb.</small>
* ''[[Ficus tinctoria]]'' <small>G.Forst.</small> – dye fig
* ''[[Ficus ulmifolia]]'' <small>Lam.</small>
* ''[[Ficus wassa]]'' <small>Roxb.</small>
{{Div col end}}

===Subgenus ''Sycomorus''===
<!--"Ficus subg. Sycomorus" redirects here and is used in species taxoboxes-->
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* ''[[Ficus auriculata]]'' <small>Lour.</small> – Roxburgh fig
* ''[[Ficus bernaysii]]'' <small>King</small>
* ''[[Ficus dammaropsis]]'' <small>Diels</small> – highland breadfruit, ''kapiak''
* ''[[Ficus fistulosa]]'' <small>Blume</small>
* ''[[Ficus hispida]]'' <small>L.</small>
* ''[[Ficus nota]]'' <small>Merr.</small> – ''tibig''
* ''[[Ficus pseudopalma]]'' <small>Blanco</small>
* ''[[Ficus racemosa]]'' <small>L.</small> – cluster fig
* ''[[Ficus septica]]'' <small>Burm.f.</small> – hauli tree
* ''[[Ficus sycomorus]]'' <small>L.</small> – sycamore fig (Africa)
* ''[[Ficus variegata (plant)|Ficus variegata]]'' <small>Blume</small>
{{Div col end}}

===Subgenus ''Synoecia''===
<!--"Ficus subg. Synoecia" redirects here and is used in species taxoboxes-->
The following species{{sfnp|Berg|2003}} are typically spreading or climbing [[liana]]s:
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* ''[[Ficus hederacea]]'' <small>Roxb.</small>{{sfnp|Berg|2003|page=552}}
* ''[[Ficus pantoniana]]'' <small>King</small>{{sfnp|Berg|2003|page=554}} – climbing fig
* ''[[Ficus pumila]]'' <small>L.</small>{{sfnp|Berg|2003|page=553}} – creeping fig
** [[Ficus pumila var. awkeotsang|''Ficus pumila'' var. ''awkeotsang'']] <small>(Makino) Corner</small> – jelly fig
* ''[[Ficus punctata]]'' <small>Thunb.</small>{{sfnp|Berg|2003|pages=565}}
* ''[[Ficus sagittata]]'' <small>J. König ex [[Martin Vahl|Vahl]]</small>
* ''[[Ficus sarmentosa]]'' <small>Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.</small>
* ''[[Ficus trichocarpa]]'' <small>Blume</small>
* ''[[Ficus villosa]]'' <small>Blume</small>{{sfnp|Berg|2003|pages=553–554}}
{{Div col end}}

===Subgenus ''[[Banyan|Urostigma]]''===
<!--"Ficus subg. Urostigma" redirects here and is used in species taxoboxes-->
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* ''[[Ficus abutilifolia]]'' <small>Miq.</small>
* ''[[Ficus albert-smithii]]'' <small>Standl.</small>
* ''[[Ficus altissima]]'' <small>Blume</small>
* ''[[Ficus amazonica]]'' <small>Miq.</small>
* ''[[Ficus americana]]'' <small>Aubl.</small>
* ''[[Ficus aripuanensis]]'' <small>Berg & Kooy</small>
* ''[[Ficus arpazusa]]'' <small>Carauta and Diaz</small> – Brazil{{sfnp|Carauta|Diaz|2002|pages=38–39}}
* ''[[Ficus aurea]]'' <small>Nutt.</small> – Florida strangler fig
* ''[[Ficus benghalensis]]'' <small>L.</small> – Indian banyan
* ''[[Ficus benjamina]]'' <small>L.</small> – weeping fig<ref name ="figweb">{{cite web |url=https://www.figweb.org/Ficus/Subgenus_Urostigma/Section_Urostigma/Subsection_Conosycea/index.htm |last1=van Noort |first1=S. |last2=Rasplus |first2=J.Y. |date=2020 |work=Figweb: figs and fig wasps of the world |title=Subsection ''Conosycea'' |access-date=11 August 2019}}</ref>
* ''[[Ficus bizanae]]'' <small>Hutch. & Burtt-Davy</small>
* ''[[Ficus blepharophylla]]'' <small>Vázquez Avila</small>
* ''[[Ficus broadwayi]]'' <small>Urb.</small>
* ''[[Ficus burtt-davyi]]'' <small>Hutch.</small>
* ''[[Ficus calyptroceras]]'' <small>Miq.</small>
* ''[[Ficus castellviana]]'' <small>Dugand</small>
* ''[[Ficus catappifolia]]'' <small>Kunth & Bouché</small>
* ''[[Ficus citrifolia]]'' <small>Mill.</small> – short-leaved fig
* ''[[Ficus consociata]]'' <small>[[Carl Ludwig Blume|Bl.]]</small>
* ''[[Ficus cordata]]'' <small>Thunb.</small>
* ''[[Ficus costata]]'' <small>Ait.</small><ref name ="figweb"/>
* ''[[Ficus crassipes]]'' <small>F.M.Bailey</small> – round-leaved banana fig
* ''[[Ficus craterostoma]]'' <small>Mildbr. & Burret</small>
* ''[[Ficus cyathistipula]]'' <small>Warb.</small>
* ''[[Ficus cyclophylla]]'' <small>(Miq.) Miq.</small>
* ''[[Ficus dendrocida]]'' <small>Kunth</small>
* ''[[Ficus depressa]]'' <small>[[Carl Ludwig Blume|Bl.]]</small>
* ''[[Ficus destruens]]'' <small>F.White</small>
* ''[[Ficus drupacea]]'' <small>Thunb.</small>
* ''[[Ficus elastica]]'' <small>Hornem.</small> – rubber plant
* ''[[Ficus exasperata]]'' <small>Vahl.</small>
* ''[[Ficus faulkneriana]]'' <small>Berg</small>
* ''[[Ficus fergusonii]]'' <small>(King) T.B.Worth. ex Corner</small>
* ''[[Ficus glaberrima]]'' <small>Blume</small>
* ''[[Ficus glumosa]]'' <small>Delile</small>
* ''[[Ficus greiffiana]]'' <small>Dugand</small>
* ''[[Ficus henneana]]'' <small>Miq.</small>
* ''[[Ficus hirsuta]]'' <small>Schott</small>
* ''[[Ficus ilicina]]'' <small>Miq.</small>
* ''[[Ficus kurzii]]'' <small>King</small>
* ''[[Ficus luschnathiana]]'' <small>Miq.</small>
* ''[[Ficus ingens]]'' <small>Miq.</small>
* ''[[Ficus krukovii]]'' <small>Standl.</small>
* ''[[Ficus lacor]]'' <small>Buch.-Ham.</small>
* ''[[Ficus lapathifolia]]'' <small>Miq.</small>
* ''[[Ficus lauretana]]'' <small>Vázquez Avila</small>
* ''[[Ficus longifolia]]'' <small>Schott</small> – narrow leaf fig
* ''[[Ficus lutea]]'' <small>Vahl</small>
* ''[[Ficus lyrata]]'' <small>Warb.</small> – fiddle-leaved fig
* ''[[Ficus maclellandii]]'' <small>King</small> – Alii fig
* ''[[Ficus macrophylla]]'' <small>Desf. ex Pers.</small> – Moreton Bay fig
* ''[[Ficus malacocarpa]]'' <small>Standl.</small>
* ''[[Ficus mariae]]'' <small>Berg, Emygdio & Carauta</small>
* ''[[Ficus mathewsii]]'' <small>Miq.</small>
* ''[[Ficus matiziana]]'' <small>Dugand</small>
* ''[[Ficus microcarpa]]'' <small>L.</small> – Chinese banyan
* ''[[Ficus muelleriana]]'' <small>Berg</small>
* ''[[Ficus natalensis]]'' <small>Hochst.</small> – Natal fig
* ''[[Ficus obliqua]]'' <small>G.Forst.</small> – small-leaved fig
* ''[[Ficus obtusifolia]]'' <small>Kunth</small>
* ''[[Ficus pakkensis]]'' <small>Standl.</small>
* ''[[Ficus pallida]]'' <small>Vahl</small>
* ''[[Ficus panurensis]]'' <small>Standl.</small>
* ''[[Ficus pertusa]]'' <small>L.f.</small>
* ''[[Ficus petiolaris]]'' <small>Kunth</small>
* ''[[Ficus pisocarpa]]'' <small>[[Carl Ludwig Blume|Bl.]]</small>
* ''[[Ficus platypoda]]'' <small>Cunn.</small> – desert fig
* ''[[Ficus pleurocarpa]]'' <small>DC.</small> – banana fig
* ''[[Ficus polita]]'' <small>Vahl</small>
* ''[[Ficus religiosa]]'' <small>L.</small> – sacred fig
* ''[[Ficus roraimensis]]'' <small>Berg</small>
* ''[[Ficus rubiginosa]]'' <small>Desf.</small> – Port Jackson fig
* ''[[Ficus rumphii]]'' <small>Blume</small>
* ''[[Ficus salicifolia]]'' <small>Vahl</small> – willow-leaved fig
* ''[[Ficus sansibarica]]'' <small>Warb.</small>
* ''[[Ficus schippii]]'' <small>Standl.</small>
* ''[[Ficus schultesii]]'' <small>Dugand</small>
* ''[[Ficus schumacheri]]'' <small>Griseb.</small>
* ''[[Ficus sphenophylla]]'' <small>Standl.</small>
* ''[[Ficus stuhlmannii]]'' <small>Warb.</small>
* ''[[Ficus subcordata]]'' <small>[[Carl Ludwig Blume|Bl.]]</small>
* ''[[Ficus subpisocarpa]]'' <small>Gagnep.</small>
* ''[[Ficus subpuberula]]'' <small>Corner</small>
* ''[[Ficus sumatrana]]'' <small>Miq.</small>
* ''[[Ficus superba]]'' <small>Miq.</small>
* ''[[Ficus thonningii]]'' <small>Blume</small>
* ''[[Ficus trichopoda]]'' <small>Baker</small>
* ''[[Ficus trigona]]'' <small>L.f.</small>
* ''[[Ficus trigonata]]'' <small>L.</small>
* ''[[Ficus triradiata]]'' <small>Corner</small> – red-stipule fig
* ''[[Ficus ursina]]'' <small>Standl.</small>
* ''[[Ficus velutina]]'' <small>Willd.</small>
* ''[[Ficus verruculosa]]'' <small>Warb.</small>
* ''[[Ficus virens]]'' <small>Aiton</small> – white fig
* ''[[Ficus watkinsiana]]'' <small>F.M.Bailey</small> – Watkins' fig
{{Div col end}}

===Unplaced species===
{{Div col|colwidth=20em}}
* ''[[Ficus callosa]]'' Willd.
* ''[[Ficus hebetifolia]]''
* ''[[Ficus punctata]]''
* ''[[Ficus salomonensis]]''
* ''[[Ficus tsjahela]]'' <small>Burm.f.</small>
* ''[[Ficus vogeliana]]''

{{Div col end}}

==Uses==
The wood of fig trees is often soft and the [[latex]] precludes its use for many purposes. It was used to make [[mummy]] [[Coffin|casket]]s in [[Ancient Egypt]]. Certain fig species (mainly [[Ficus cotonifolia|''F.&nbsp;cotinifolia'']], ''[[Ficus insipida|F.&nbsp;insipida]]'' and ''[[Ficus padifolia|F.&nbsp;padifolia]]'') are traditionally used in [[Mesoamerica]] to produce ''[[papel amate]]'' ([[Nahuatl]]: ''āmatl''). ''Mutuba'' (''[[Ficus natalensis|F.&nbsp;natalensis]]'') is used to produce [[barkcloth]] in Uganda. ''Pou'' (''[[Ficus religiosa|F.&nbsp;religiosa]]'') leaves' shape inspired one of the standard ''[[kbach|kbach rachana]]'', decorative elements in Cambodian architecture. [[Ficus benghalensis|Indian banyan]] (''F.&nbsp;benghalensis'') and the Indian rubber plant, as well as other species, have use in [[herbalism]].{{citation needed|date=August 2021}} The inner bark of an unknown type of wild fig, locally known as ''urú'', was once used by the {{ill|Moré people|es|Pueblo moré}} of Bolivia to produce a fibrous cloth used for clothing.<ref>{{cite book |last=Castedo |first=Luis D. Leigue |date=1957 |title=El Itenez Selvaje |url=https://www.andesacd.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/El-It%C3%A9nez-Salvaje.pdf |location=La Paz |publisher=Ministerio de Educación |page=9, 16, 19, 23 |language=es}}</ref>

Figs have figured prominently in some human cultures. There is evidence that figs, specifically the [[common fig]] (''F.&nbsp;carica'') and sycamore fig (''[[Ficus sycomorus]]''), were among the first plant species that were deliberately bred for agriculture in the Middle East, starting more than 11,000 years ago. Nine [[subfossil]] ''F.&nbsp;carica'' figs dated to about [[10th millennium BCE|9400–9200 BCE]] were found in the early [[Neolithic]] village [[Gilgal I]] (in the [[Jordan Valley (Middle East)|Jordan Valley]], 13&nbsp;km, or 8.1&nbsp;mi, north of [[Tell es-Sultan|Jericho]]). These were a [[parthenogenesis|parthenogenetic]] type and thus apparently an early cultivar. This find predates the first known cultivation of [[cereal|grain]] in the Middle East by many hundreds of years.{{sfnp|Kislev|Hartmann|Bar-Yosef|2006}}

===Cultivation===
Numerous species of fig are found in cultivation in domestic and office environments, including:<ref name=RHSAZ>{{cite book |editor-last=Brickell |editor-first=Christopher |title=The Royal Horticultural Society A-Z Encyclopedia of Garden Plants |year=2008 |page=448 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |location=United Kingdom |isbn=9781405332965}}</ref>
* ''[[Ficus carica|F. carica]]'', common fig – hardy to {{convert|-10 |C|F|abbr=on}}. Shrub or small tree which can be grown outdoors in mild temperate regions, producing substantial harvests of fruit. Many cultivars are available.
* ''[[Ficus benjamina|F. benjamina]]'', weeping fig, ficus – hardy to {{convert| 5|C|F|abbr=on}}. Widely used as an indoor plant for the home or the office. It benefits from the dry, warm atmosphere of centrally-heated interiors, and can grow to substantial heights in a favoured position. Several variegated cultivars are available.
* ''[[Ficus elastica|F. elastica]]'', rubber plant – hardy to {{convert|10 |C|F|abbr=on}}: widely cultivated as a houseplant; several cultivars with variegated leaves
* ''[[Ficus lyrata|F. lyrata]]'', fiddle-leaf fig – hardy to {{convert|10 |C|F|abbr=on}}
* ''[[Ficus maclellandii|F. maclellandii]]'' – hardy to {{convert|5 |C|F|abbr=on}}
* ''[[Ficus microcarpa|F. microcarpa]]'', Indian laurel – hardy to {{convert|10 |C|F|abbr=on}}
* ''[[Ficus pumila|F. pumila]]'', creeping fig – hardy to {{convert|1 |C|F|abbr=on}}
* ''[[Ficus rubiginosa|F. rubiginosa]]'', Port Jackson fig – hardy to {{convert|10 |C|F|abbr=on}}

===Cultural and spiritual significance===
{{Further|Fig leaf|Figs in the Bible}}

Fig trees have profoundly influenced culture through several religious traditions. Among the more famous species are the [[sacred fig]] tree (Pipal, bodhi, bo, or po, ''Ficus religiosa'') and other [[banyan]] figs such as ''Ficus benghalensis''. The oldest living plant of known planting date is a ''Ficus religiosa'' tree known as the [[Sri Maha Bodhi]] planted in the temple at [[Anuradhapura]], Sri Lanka by King Tissa in 288 BCE. In Asia, figs are important in [[Buddhism]] and [[Hinduism]]. The [[Buddha]] is traditionally held to have found ''[[bodhi]]'' (enlightenment) while meditating for 49 days under a [[sacred fig]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://buddhists.org/buddhist-art/the-bodhi-tree/ |title=The Bodhi Tree: Uniting all Worlds |website=Buddhists.org |access-date=17 January 2020}}</ref> The same species was ''[[Ashvattha]]'', the "[[world tree]]" of Hinduism. The ''[[Sacred fig|Plaksa Pra-sravana]]'' was said to be a fig tree between the roots of which the [[Sarasvati River]] sprang forth; it is usually held to be a sacred fig but more probably is ''[[Ficus virens]]''. In [[Jainism]], the consumption of any fruit belonging to this genus is prohibited.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B0IYAAAAIAAJ |title=Compendium of Jainism |last1=Tukol |first1=T.K. |year=1980 |author-link=T. K. Tukol |location=Prasaranga |publisher=Karnatak University |page=206}}</ref> The common fig is one of two significant trees in [[Islam]], and there is a [[sura]] in Quran named "The Fig" or [[At-Tin]] (سوره تین). The common fig tree is cited in the [[Bible]]: [[Adam and Eve]] cover their nakedness with fig leaves. The fig fruit is one of the [[Seven Species|traditional crops of Israel]], and is included in the list of food found in the Promised Land. The fig tree was sacred in ancient [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] and [[Cyprus]], where it was a symbol of [[fertility]].{{cn|date=June 2023}}

==Famous fig trees==
* ''[[Ashvattha]]'' – the [[world tree]] of [[Hinduism]], held to be a supernatural ''F.&nbsp;religiosa''
* [[Bodhi tree]] – a ''F.&nbsp;religiosa''
* [[Charybdis Fig Tree]] of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Odyssey]]'', presumably a ''F.&nbsp;carica''
* [[Curtain Fig Tree]] – a ''F.&nbsp;virens''
* [[Ficus Ruminalis]] – a ''F.&nbsp;carica''
* ''[[Plaksa]]'' – another supernatural fig in Hinduism; usually identified as ''F.&nbsp;religiosa'' but is probably ''F.&nbsp;virens''
* [[Santa Barbara's Moreton Bay Fig Tree]] – a ''F.&nbsp;macrophylla''
* [[Sri Maha Bodhi]] – another ''F.&nbsp;religiosa'', planted in 288 BCE, the oldest human-planted tree on record
* ''[[The Barren Fig Tree]]'' – Matthew 21:19 of the [[Christian Bible]], Jesus [[Cursing of the fig tree|put a curse on the tree]] and used this as an example for believers of the promise of the power faith in the only true God. ''
* [[The Great Banyan]] – a ''F.&nbsp;benghalensis'', a [[clonal colony]] and once the largest organism known
* [[Vidurashwatha]] – "[[Vidura]]'s Sacred Fig Tree", a village in India named after a famous ''F.&nbsp;religiosa'' that until recently stood there
* [[Wonderboom (tree)|Wonderboom]] – the largest fig tree in Pretoria, South Africa, which has grown very large, through self-[[layering (horticulture)|layering]] (limbs laying in the ground take root).

== Citations ==
{{reflist}}

== General references ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite journal |last=Berg |first=C.C. |title=Flora Malesiana Precursor for the Treatment of Moraceae 4: ''Ficus'' subgenus ''Synoecia'' |journal=Blumea |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=551–571 |date=28 November 2003 |doi=10.3767/000651903X489546 |bibcode=2003Blume..48..551B |url=http://www.repository.naturalis.nl/document/565443 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Berg |first1=C.C. |last2=Hijmann |first2=M.E.E. |title=Flora of Tropical East Africa |year=1989 |editor=R.M. Polhill |chapter=Chapter 11: ''Ficus'' |pages=43–86}}
* {{cite book |last1=Berg |first1=C.C. |last2=Corner |first2=E.J.H. |year=2005 |title=Flora malesiana. Series I, Seed plants. Volume 17. Part 2, Moraceae (Ficus) |location=Leiden |publisher=National herbarium Nederland, Universiteit Leiden branch |isbn=978-9-07123-661-7 |oclc=492578589}}
* {{cite book |last1=Carauta |first1=Pedro |last2=Diaz |first2=Ernani |year=2002 |title=Figueiras no Brasil |publisher=Editora UFRJ |location=Rio de Janeiro |isbn=978-85-7108-250-2}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Ira J. Condit |last=Condit |first=Ira J |date=1969 |title=Ficus: the exotic species |publisher=University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences |oclc=1086743649}}
* {{cite book |last=Denisowski |first=Paul |year=2007 |url=http://www.mandarintools.com/worddict.html |title=Chinese–English Dictionary |chapter-url=http://www.mandarintools.com/cgi-bin/wordlook.pl?word=fig&searchtype=english&where=whole |chapter=Fig |access-date=November 1, 2008 }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Harrison |first1=Rhett D |year=2005 |title=Figs and the diversity of tropical rain forests |journal=BioScience |volume=55 |issue=12 |pages=1053–1064 |doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055[1053:FATDOT]2.0.CO;2 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Kislev |first1=Mordechai E. |last2=Hartmann |first2=Anat |last3=Bar-Yosef |first3=Ofer |year=2006 |title=Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=312 |issue=5778 |pages=1372–1374 |doi=10.1126/science.1125910 |pmid=16741119 |bibcode=2006Sci...312.1372K |s2cid=42150441}} [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/sci;312/5778/1372/DC1 Supporting Online Material]
* {{cite journal |ref=none |last1=Kislev |first1=Mordechai E. |last2=Hartmann |first2=Anat |last3=Bar-Yosef |first3=Ofer |year=2006 |title=Response to Comment on "Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley" |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=314 |issue=5806 |page=1683b |doi=10.1126/science.1133748 |pmid=17170278 |bibcode=2006Sci...314.1683K |s2cid=84471716 |doi-access=}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Lev-Yadun |first1=Simcha |last2=Ne'eman |first2=Gidi |last3=Abbo |first3=Shahal |last4=Flaishman |first4=Moshe A |year=2006 |title=Comment on "Early Domesticated Fig in the Jordan Valley" |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=314 |issue=5806 |page=1683a |doi=10.1126/science.1132636 |pmid=17170278 |bibcode=2006Sci...314.1683L |s2cid=45767896 |doi-access=}}
* {{cite book |last1=Lewington |first1=Anna |last2=Parker |first2=Edward |year=1999 |title=Ancient trees: Trees that live for 1000 years |location=London |publisher=Collins & Brown |isbn=978-18-5585-704-9}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rønsted |first1=Nina |last2=Weiblen |first2=George D. |last3=Cook |first3=James M. |last4=Salamin |first4=Nicholas |last5=Machado |first5=Carlos A. |last6=Savoainen |first6=Vincent |year=2005 |title=60 million years of co-divergence in the fig-wasp symbiosis |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences]] |volume=272 |issue=1581 |pages=2593–2599 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2005.3249 |pmid=16321781 |ref={{harvid|Rønsted ''et al.''|2005}} |pmc=1559977}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Rønsted |first1=N |last2=Weiblen |first2=G.D. |last3=Clement |first3=W.L. |last4=Zerega |first4=N.J.C. |last5=Savolainen |first5=V. |year=2008 |title=Reconstructing the phylogeny of figs (Ficus, Moraceae) to reveal the history of the fig pollination mutualism |url=http://geo.cbs.umn.edu/RonstedEtAl2008a.pdf |journal=Symbiosis |volume=45 |issn=0334-5114 |ref={{harvid|Rønsted ''et al.''|2008}} }}
* {{cite journal |last1=Shanahan |first1=M. |last2=Compton |first2=S. G. |last3=So |first3=Samson |last4=Corlett |first4=Richard |year=2001 |title=Fig-eating by vertebrate frugivores: a global review |journal=[[Biological Reviews]] |volume=76 |issue=4 |pages=529–572 |doi=10.1017/S1464793101005760 |pmid=11762492 |s2cid=27827864}} [https://web.archive.org/web/20091019170541/http://geocities.com/mikeshanahan/figs/figreview.html Electronic appendices]
* {{cite journal |last1=van Noort |first1=Simon |last2=van Harten |first2=Antonius |title=The species richness of fig wasps (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Agaonidae, Pteromalidae) in Yemen |journal=Fauna of Arabia |year=2006 |volume=22 |pages=449–472 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230600455 |access-date=2013-01-01 }}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Ficus}}
* [http://www.figweb.org/Ficus/index.htm Figweb]—Major reference site for the genus ''Ficus''
* [http://www.catalogueoflife.org/annual-checklist/2019/browse/classification/kingdom/Plantae/genus/Ficus/fossil/0/match/1 World checklist of Ficus species from the Catalogue of Life], 845 species supplied by M. Hassler's World Plants.
* [http://www.figweb.org/Interaction/Video/index.htm Video: Interaction of figs and fig wasps]—Multi-award-winning documentary
* [http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/fig.html Fruits of Warm Climates: Fig]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5038116.stm BBC: Fig fossil clue to early farming]
* [https://www.etawau.com/Flora/Family__Moraceae/Genus_Ficus.htm Checklist of Ficus species in Borneo Island]

'''Video'''
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UCUtpmwacoE How the fig tree strangles other plants for survival in the rainforest]

{{Moraceae genera}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q59798}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ficus| ]]
[[Category:Moraceae genera]]
[[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]]