View source for David Livingstone

{{Short description|British colonialist and missionary to Africa (1813–1873)}}
{{other people}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2025}}
{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix   = [[The Reverend]]
| name               = David Livingstone
| honorific_suffix   = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRGS|FRS}}
| image              = David Livingstone by Thomas Annan.jpg
| caption            = Livingstone in 1864
| birth_date         = {{Birth date|df=yes|1813|3|19}}
| birth_place        = [[Blantyre, South Lanarkshire|Blantyre]], [[Lanarkshire]], Scotland
| death_date         = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1873|5|1|1813|3|19}}<ref name="BBC 2014">{{cite web | title = David Livingstone (1813–1873) | work = BBC – History – Historic Figures | date = 2014 | access-date = 12 July 2018 | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/livingstone_david.shtml }}</ref>
| death_place        = [[Livingstone Memorial|Chief Chitambo's Village]], [[Kingdom of Kazembe]]
| resting_place      = [[Westminster Abbey]]
| resting_place_coordinates = {{Coord|51.499444|-0.1275}}
| known_for          = Proselytizing  Christianity, exploration of Africa, and meeting with [[Henry Morton Stanley|Henry Stanley]]
| spouse             = {{marriage|[[Mary Moffat Livingstone|Mary Moffat]]|January 1845|27 April 1862|end=d}}
| children           = 6
| signature          = David Livingstone, signature2.jpg
}}

''' David Livingstone''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|FRGS|FRS}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɪ|v|ɪ|ŋ|s|t|ə|n}}; 19 March 1813&nbsp;– 1 May 1873) was a Scottish physician, [[Congregational church|Congregationalist]], pioneer Christian [[missionary]]<ref>{{cite web | title = Why don't many British tourists visit Victoria Falls? | last = Easton | first = Mark | work = BBC News | date = 3 September 2017 | access-date = 12 July 2018 | url = https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-41083374 }}</ref> with the [[London Missionary Society]], and an [[List of explorers|explorer]] in Africa. Livingstone was married to [[Mary Moffat Livingstone]], from the prominent 18th-century Moffat missionary family.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bayly |first=Paul |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/853507173 |title=David Livingstone, Africa's greatest explorer : the man, the missionary and the myth |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-78155-333-6 |location=Stroud |page=50 |oclc=853507173}}</ref> Livingstone came to have a mythic status as a [[Protestant]] missionary martyr, working-class "[[rags-to-riches]]" inspirational story, scientific investigator and explorer, imperial reformer, anti-slavery crusader, and advocate of British commercial and colonial expansion. As a result, he became one of the most popular British heroes of the late 19th-century [[Victorian era]].

Livingstone's fame as an explorer and his obsession with learning the sources of the [[Nile]] was founded on the belief that if he could solve that age-old mystery, his fame would give him the influence to end the [[Indian Ocean slave trade|East African Arab–Swahili slave trade]]. "The Nile sources", he told a friend, "are valuable only as a means of opening my mouth with power among men. It is this power [with] which I hope to remedy an immense evil."{{sfn | Jeal | 2013 | p=289}} His subsequent exploration of the central African watershed was the culmination of the classic period of European geographical [[European exploration of Africa|discovery and colonial penetration of Africa]]. At the same time, his missionary travels, "disappearance", and eventual death in Africa{{mdashb}}and subsequent glorification as a posthumous national hero in 1874{{mdashb}}led to the founding of several major central African Christian missionary initiatives carried forward in the era of the European "[[Scramble for Africa]]",<ref>{{cite book|last=Mackenzie|first=John M. |editor1-first=Graham |editor1-last=Walker|editor2-first=Tom |editor2-last=Gallagher|title=Sermons and battle hymns: Protestant popular culture in modern Scotland|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OpZnAAAAMAAJ|year=1990|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-0217-9|chapter=David Livingstone: The Construction of the Myth}}</ref> during which almost all of Africa fell under European rule for decades.

==Early life==
[[File:Birthplace of david livingstone.jpg|thumb|Livingstone's birthplace in [[Blantyre, South Lanarkshire]], [[South Lanarkshire]], Scotland]]
[[File:David Livingstones birthplace (geograph 4530192).jpg|thumb|David Livingstone's birthplace, with period furnishings]]
Livingstone was born on 19 March 1813 in the mill town of [[Blantyre, South Lanarkshire|Blantyre]], Scotland, in a [[tenement]] building for the workers of a cotton factory on the banks of the [[River Clyde]] under the bridge crossing into [[Bothwell]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nts.org.uk/Property/23/ |title=David Livingstone Centre: Birthplace Of Famous Scot |access-date=12 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070212012712/https://www.nts.org.uk/Property/23/ |archive-date=12 February 2007 |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref> He was the second of seven children born to Neil Livingstone and his wife Agnes ([[maiden name|née]] Hunter).

David was employed at the age of ten in the cotton mill of Henry Monteith & Co. in [[Blantyre, South Lanarkshire|Blantyre Works]]. He and his brother John worked 14-hour days as [[Spinning mule#Duties of the operatives|piecers]], tying broken cotton threads on the spinning machines.

Neil Livingstone was a [[Sunday school]] teacher and [[teetotaller]] who handed out Christian tracts on his travels as a door-to-door tea salesman. He read books on theology, travel, and missionary enterprises extensively. This rubbed off on the young David, who became an avid reader, but he also loved scouring the countryside for animal, plant, and geological specimens in local limestone quarries. Neil feared that science books were undermining Christianity and attempted to force his son to read nothing but theology, but David's deep interest in nature and science led him to investigate the [[relationship between religion and science]].{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | p=6}} In 1832, he read ''Philosophy of a Future State'', written by [[Thomas Dick (scientist)|Thomas Dick]], and he found the rationale that he needed to reconcile faith and science and, apart from the Bible, this book was perhaps his greatest philosophical influence.<ref name="Blaikie">{{cite book|last=Blaikie|first=William Garden|author-link=William Garden Blaikie |title=The Personal Life of David Livingstone... Chiefly from His Unpublished Journals and Correspondence in the Possession of His Family|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/13262|year=1880|publisher=John Murray|location=London|via=[[Project Gutenberg]]}}</ref>

Other significant influences in his early life were Thomas Burke, a Blantyre [[Evangelism|evangelist]], and David Hogg, his Sunday school teacher.<ref name="Blaikie" /> At age fifteen, David left the [[Church of Scotland]] for a local [[Congregational church]], influenced by preachers like [[Ralph Wardlaw]], who denied [[predestination|predestinarian]] limitations on salvation. Influenced by [[Christian revival|revivalistic]] teachings in the United States, Livingstone entirely accepted the proposition put by Charles Finney, Professor of Theology at Oberlin College, Ohio, that "the Holy Spirit is open to all who ask it". For Livingstone, this meant a release from the fear of eternal damnation.{{sfn | Jeal | 2013 | p=13}} Livingstone's reading of missionary [[Karl Gützlaff]]'s ''Appeal to the Churches of Britain and America on behalf of China'' enabled him to persuade his father that medical study could advance religious ends.<ref name="Vetch">{{cite DNB|wstitle=Livingstone, David|first=Robert Hamilton |last=Vetch|authorlink=Robert Hamilton Vetch|p=385|volume=33}}</ref>

Livingstone's experiences in H. Monteith's Blantyre cotton mill were also important from ages 10 to 26, first as a piecer and later as a [[Spinning mule#Duties of the operatives|spinner]]. This monotonous work was necessary to support his impoverished family, but it taught him persistence, endurance, and a natural empathy with all who labour, as expressed by lines that he used to hum from the egalitarian [[A Man's A Man for A' That|Robert Burns song]]: "When man to man, the world o'er/Shall brothers be for a' that".{{efn|This sentiment today would be expressed along the lines of: "all people, worldwide, are brothers and sisters, despite everything."<ref name="Blaikie" />}}

==Education==
Livingstone attended Blantyre village school, along with the few other mill children with the endurance to do so despite their 14-hour workday (6 am–8 pm). Having a family with a strong, continuing commitment to study reinforced his education.

At the age of 21, he was excited by a pamphlet his father got from the church setting out [[Karl Gützlaff|Gützlaff's]] call for missionaries to China, with the new concept that missionaries should be trained as medical doctors. His father was persuaded and, like many other students in Scotland, Livingstone was to support himself, with the agreement of the mill management, by working at his old job from Easter to October, outwith term time. He joined [[University of Strathclyde|Anderson's University]], Glasgow, in 1836, studying medicine and chemistry, as well as attending theology lectures by the anti-slavery campaigner Richard Wardlaw at the Congregational Church College, where he may also have studied [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]].{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=9–12}}<ref name="Lawrence">{{cite web |first1=Christopher |last1= Lawrence| editor-last =Wisnicki | editor-first =Adrian S. | editor-last2 =Ward | editor-first2 = Megan | title=Livingstone's Medical Education | website=Livingstone Online | url=https://livingstoneonline.org/life-and-times/livingstones-medical-education |year= 2015 | access-date=15 March 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title = The University of Glasgow Story : David Livingstone | work = University of Glasgow | date = n.d. | access-date = 12 July 2018 | url = https://www.universitystory.gla.ac.uk/biography/?id=WH0220&type=P | archive-date = 12 July 2018 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180712154315/https://www.universitystory.gla.ac.uk/biography/?id=WH0220&type=P | url-status = dead }}</ref>
To enter medical school, he needed some knowledge of Latin, and was tutored by a local Roman Catholic man, Daniel Gallagher (later a priest, founder of St Simon's, [[Partick]]).<ref>{{cite web |title=David Livingstone a brief history |url=https://hamiltonurc.org.uk/david-livingstone/ |website=hamiltonurc.org.uk |date=6 September 2011 |access-date=30 October 2019}}</ref> Livingstone worked hard, got a good grounding in science and medicine, and made lifelong friends including [[Andrew Buchanan (surgeon)|Andrew Buchanan]] and [[James Young (chemist)|James Young]].<ref name="Lawrence" />{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=13–14}}

The [[London Missionary Society]] (LMS) was at the time the major organisation in the country for missionary work, and unlike others was open to [[Congregational church|Congregationalists]]. He applied to the LMS in October 1837, and in January was sent questions which he answered.{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | p=16}} He got no reply until he was invited to two interviews in August 1838. He was then accepted as a probationary candidate, and given initial training at [[Ongar, Essex|Ongar]], Essex, as the introduction to studies to become a minister within the [[Congregational Union of England and Wales|Congregational Union]] serving under the LMS, rather than the more basic course for an [[artisan]] missionary. At Ongar, he and six other students had tuition in Greek, Latin, Hebrew and theology from the Reverend Richard Cecil, who in January 1839 assessed that, despite "heaviness of manner" and "rusticity", Livingstone had "sense and quiet vigour", good temper and substantial character "so I do not like the thought of him being rejected." A month later, he still thought Livingstone "hardly ready" to go on to theological studies at [[Cheshunt College]], and "worthy but remote from brilliant".{{sfn | Jeal | 2013 | pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HcDR7nTiVAYC&pg=PA18 18–19]}} In June 1839 the LMS directors accepted Livingstone, and agreed to his request to continue studying with Cecil at Ongar until the end of the year, then have LMS support for medical studies in London.{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=19–20}}

To gain necessary clinical training he continued his medical studies at the [[Charing Cross Hospital Medical School]], with his courses covering medical practice, midwifery, and botany.{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=19–20}}
He qualified as a licentiate of the [[Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow|Faculty (now Royal College) of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow]] on 16 November 1840 (in 1857 he was made an Honorary Fellow of the Faculty).<ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/memorialsoffacul00duncuoft|title=Memorials of the Faculty of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow, 1599–1850|last=Duncan|first=Alexander|publisher=MacLehose|year=1896|location=Glasgow|pages=[https://archive.org/details/memorialsoffacul00duncuoft/page/100 100], 293}}</ref> On 20 November 1840 Livingstone was [[Ordination|ordained]] a [[Minister (Christianity)|minister]] of the church, as was another missionary to South Africa, William Ross, in a service at the [[Albion Chapel]], Finsbury. The ordination service was conducted by Cecil and J. J. Freeman.{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | p=20}}<ref>{{cite book | title=The Evangelical Magazine and Missionary Chronicle | issue=v. 19 | year=1841 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4eI6AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA50 | access-date=15 March 2022 | page=50}}</ref>

==Vision for Africa==
[[File: Dance of Landeens.jpg|thumb|[[Zulu people|Zulu]] dance, at [[Chupanga|Shupanga]] on the [[Zambesi]], to collect tribute from Portuguese merchants]]
Though Livingstone had responded to [[Karl Gützlaff|Gützlaff's]] call for missionaries to China, the looming [[First Opium War]] made the LMS directors cautious about sending recruits there. When he asked to extend his probationary training at Ongar, Cecil told him of their wish that he should be employed in the [[West Indies]] "in preference to South Africa". On 2 July 1839 he wrote to the LMS directors that the West Indies was by then well served by doctors, and he had always been attracted to other parts of the world rather than a settled [[pastor]]ate. With LMS agreement, he continued to get theological tuition from Cecil until the end of the year, then resumed medical studies.{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=19–20}}<ref>{{cite web | last=Livingstone | first=David |title=Letter to John Arundel, 2 July 1839 | website=Livingstone Online | url=https://livingstoneonline.org/in-his-own-words/catalogue?query=liv_000459&view_pid=liv%3A000459 | access-date=17 March 2022}}</ref>

On beginning his clinical training in January 1840, he returned to Mrs. Sewell's  missionary [[boarding house]] in [[Aldersgate]], where he had stayed previously when in London.<ref name="Lawrence" />{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=19–20}}
Others staying there were visited occasionally by the missionary [[Robert Moffat (missionary)|Robert Moffat]], who was then in England with his family to publicise the work of his LMS mission at [[Kuruman]] in South Africa.  Livingstone questioned him repeatedly about Africa, and as Moffat later recalled; "By and by he asked me whether I thought he would do for Africa. I said I believed he would, if he would not go to an old station, but would advance to unoccupied ground, specifying the vast plain to the north, where I had sometimes seen, in the morning sun, the smoke of a thousand villages, where no missionary had ever been."<ref name="Blaikie" />

He was excited by Moffat's vision of expanding missionary work to the north of [[Bechuanaland]], and by the hotly debated topic of Christianity and commerce. The LMS missionary [[John Philip (missionary)|John Philip]], after discussion with the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolitionist]] [[Fowell Buxton]], published ''Researches in South Africa'' in 1828, proposing that Christianity would always bring "civilisation" including [[free trade]] and [[Free-produce movement|free labour]]. This argument was reinforced for Livingstone when he attended the [[Niger expedition of 1841#Meeting of 1 June 1840|Exeter Hall meeting of 1 June 1840]] where Buxton powerfully made the case that the African slave trade would be ended if chiefs, instead of having to sell slaves, could obtain desired European goods through "legitimate trade", its effect augmented by Christian missions preaching the gospel and introducing school education.<ref name="Vetch" />{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=24–25}}

===Mission stations===
Livingstone left London on 17 November 1840, passenger on a sailing [[brig]] bound for the [[Cape of Good Hope]], along with two other LMS missionaries: Ross, who had been [[Ordination|ordained]] at the same service as him, and Ross's wife. During the long voyage he studied Dutch and the [[Tswana language]], and the captain gave him extensive tuition in navigation. At [[Rio de Janeiro]], unlike the other two, he ventured ashore and was impressed by [[Candelária Church|the cathedral]] and scenery, but not by the drunkenness of British and American sailors, so he gave them [[Tract (literature)|tracts]] in a dockside bar.
On 15 March 1841 the ship arrived at [[Simon's Town|Simon's Bay]], and for a month while it unloaded and loaded, the three stayed at [[Cape Town]] with Mr and Mrs [[John Philip (missionary)|Philip]]. As resident director of the LMS, Philip had continued their policy that all people were equal before God and in law, leading to disputes with [[Boers]], and with [[1820 Settlers|British settlers]] as Philip held that [[Xhosa people]] were not to blame for the [[Xhosa Wars]] over extending the [[Cape Colony]]. Missionary factions disagreed over this, and over his emphasis on missionary work among [[Griqua people]] of the colony, while others like Moffatt wanted more focus on new areas. There were also tensions between [[artisan]] missionaries engaged for lay expertise, and ordained missionaries.{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=25, 33–36, 37–40}}

The ship took Livingstone and the Rosses on to [[Algoa Bay]], from 19 May to 31 July they were on the long trek by [[Ox-wagon|ox-cart]] to the [[Kuruman Moffat Mission|Kuruman Mission]]. The Moffats had not yet returned from Britain, and he immersed himself in Tswana life. From September to late December he trekked {{convert|750|mi|km}} with the artisan missionary Roger Edwards, who had been at Kuruman since 1830 and had been told by Moffat to investigate potential for a new station. They visited and discussed the area called Mabotsa, Botswana,{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=39–43}} near [[Zeerust]], North West Province, South Africa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thema |first1=B.C. |title=The Church and Education in Botswana During the 19th Century |journal=Botswana Notes and Records |date=1968 |volume=1 |pages=1–4 |publisher=[[Botswana Society]] |jstor=40979214 }}</ref>

In 1842 Livingstone went on two treks with African companions; the principals were mission members Paul and Mebalwe, a [[deacon]]. In June 1843, Edwards got LMS approval to set up a mission station with his wife at Mabotsa. Livingstone moved there by agreement, and joined them in the physical work of building facilities.{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=43–45}} He wrote to tell LMS secretary Arthur Tidman, saying he would be delighted to call Mabotsa "the centre of the sphere of my labours", but would try to hold himself "in readiness to go anywhere, provided it be forward".<ref>{{cite book | last1=Livingstone | first1=D. | last2=Schapera | first2=I. | title=Livingstone's Missionary Correspondence, 1841–1856 | publisher=University of California Press | year=1961 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M9X7vglJLgAC&pg=PA48 | access-date=14 October 2021 | page=48}}</ref>

The Moffats, accompanied by two new missionary families, reached the [[Vaal River]] in January 1844. Livingstone rode out to meet them there, and then sat in the Moffats' ox-cart talking with Robert for hours during the seventeen or eighteen days it took to get home to Kuruman. For the first time, he met their daughter [[Mary Moffat Livingstone|Mary]], who had been born and brought up in Africa.{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=44–46, 49}}

[[File:David Livingstone attacked by a lion in Africa. Lithograph. Wellcome V0018847.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Deacon Mebalwe shooting, distracting the lion which had overpowered Livingstone]]
[[File:Livingstone and the Lion.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Livingstone Memorial Sculpture in [[Blantyre, South Lanarkshire|Blantyre]], Scotland]]
[[Lion]]s often attacked the herds of the Mabotsa villagers, and on 16 February, Mebalwe and Livingstone joined them defending sheep.<ref>{{cite web | title=The Personal Life of David Livingstone/CHAPTER IV | website=Wikisource, the free online library | url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Personal_Life_of_David_Livingstone/CHAPTER_IV | access-date=15 October 2021}}</ref> Livingstone got a clear shot at a large lion, but while he was re-loading it attacked, crushing his left arm, and forced him to the ground. His life was saved by Mebalwe diverting its attention by trying to shoot the lion. He too got bitten.  A man who tried spearing it was attacked just before it dropped dead.{{sfn | Livingstone | 1857 | pp=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.33342/page/n28 11–13]}}<ref>{{cite web | last=Volz | first=Stephen | title=Molehabangwe, Mebalwe | website=Dictionary of African Christian Biography | date=21 September 2021 | url=https://dacb.org/stories/botswana/molehabangwe-mebalwe/ | access-date=14 October 2021}}</ref>

Livingstone's broken bone, even though inexpertly set by himself and Edwards, bonded strongly. He went for recuperation to Kuruman, where he was tended by Moffat's daughter Mary, and they became engaged. His arm healed, enabling him to shoot and lift heavy weights, though it remained a source of much suffering for the rest of his life, and he was not able to lift the arm higher than his shoulder.<ref name="Blaikie" />

Livingstone and Mary were married on 9 January 1845.<ref>{{cite web | title=Digital Catalogue Record; liv_002823|quote=Certificate of Marriage for David Livingstone and Mary (Moffat) Livingstone, Attested by Robert Moffat | website=Livingstone Online | url=https://livingstoneonline.org/in-his-own-words/catalogue?query=liv_002823 |date=9 January 1845 | access-date=15 October 2021}}</ref>

Livingstone was obliged to leave his first mission at Mabotsa in Botswana in 1845 after irreconcilable differences emerged between him and his fellow missionary, Rogers Edwards, and because the Bakgatla were proving indifferent to the Gospel. He abandoned Chonuane, his next mission, in 1847 because of drought and the proximity of the Boers and his desire "to move on to the regions beyond".{{sfn | Jeal | 2013 | pp=65, 73–74}} At [[Kolobeng Mission]] Livingstone converted [[Sechele I|Chief Sechele]] in 1849 after two years of patient persuasion. Only a few months later Sechele lapsed.<ref>{{cite book|last=Livingstone|first=David |editor=Isaac Schapera|title=Livingstone's private journals, 1851–1853|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZgQrAAAAIAAJ|year=1960|publisher=University of California Press|page=304}}</ref>

==Exploration of southern and central Africa==
[[File:Map livingstone travels africa.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|The journeys of Livingstone in Africa between 1851 and 1873]]

To improve his [[Tswana language]] skills and find locations to set up mission stations, Livingstone made journeys far to the north of Kolobeng with [[William Cotton Oswell]]. In 1849 they crossed the [[Kalahari Desert]] and reached [[Lake Ngami]]. In 1850, he was recognised by the [[Royal Geographical Society]] which presented him a [[chronometer watch]] for 'his journey to the great lake of Ngami'.<ref name="RGS">{{citation|title=Royal Geographical Society |journal=Journal of the Royal Geographical Society of London|volume=36|date=1866 |place=london |publisher=John Murray |page=lxxxi |jstor=1798483}}</ref> He heard of a river which could potentially become a "Highway" to the coast, and in August 1851 they reached the [[Zambezi]] which he hoped would be a "key to the Interior".<ref name="Wisnicki 2015" />
In 1852, after sending his family to Britain, Livingstone travelled north to the village of Linyanti on the Zambezi river, located roughly midway between the east and west coast of the continent, where [[Sekeletu]], chief of the [[Kololo people|Kololo]], granted Livingstone authority as a [[InDuna|nduna]] to lead a joint investigation of trade routes to the coast, with 27 Kololo warriors acting as interpreters and guides. They reached the Portuguese city of [[Luanda]] on the Atlantic in May 1854 after profound difficulties and the near-death of Livingstone from fever. Livingstone realized the route would be too difficult for future traders, so he retraced the journey back to Linyanti. Then with 114 Kololo men, loaned by the same chief, he set off east down the Zambezi. On this leg he became the first European to see the Mosi-oa-Tunya ("the smoke that thunders") waterfall, which he named [[Victoria Falls, Zambia|Victoria Falls]] after [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]]. Eventually he successfully reached [[Quelimane]] on the Indian Ocean, having mapped most of the course of the Zambezi river.{{sfn | Jeal | 2013 | pp=126, 147–148}}<ref name="Wisnicki 2015" />

For this, Livingstone became famous as the first European to cross south-central Africa at that [[latitude]] and was hailed as having "opened up" Africa,{{sfn | Jeal | 2013 | pp=126, 147–8}} but there was already a  long-established trans-regional network of trade routes.<ref name="Wisnicki 2015" /> Portuguese traders had penetrated to the middle of the continent from both sides, in 1853–1854 two Arab traders crossed the continent from [[Zanzibar]] to [[Benguela]], and around 1800 two native traders crossed from Angola to Mozambique.{{sfn|Jeal|1973b|p=159}}

[[File:Preaching from a Waggon (David Livingstone) by The London Missionary Society.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Livingstone preaching the gospel to unconverted Africans. Like other missionaries of the era he had a low success rate and is credited with a single conversion.{{sfn|Jeal|1973b}}]]

Livingstone advocated the establishment of trade and religious missions in central Africa, but abolition of the [[African slave trade]], as carried out by the Portuguese of [[Tete, Mozambique|Tete]] and the Arab Swahili of [[Kilwa Kisiwani|Kilwa]], became his primary goal. His motto—now inscribed on his statue at Victoria Falls—was "{{visible anchor|Christianity, Commerce and Civilization}}", a combination that he hoped would form an alternative to the slave trade, and impart dignity to the Africans in the eyes of Europeans.<ref name="Tomkins 2013a">{{cite book|last=Tomkins|first=Stephen |title=David Livingstone: The Unexplored Story|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZv7G67rWuwC|year=2013|publisher=Lion Books|isbn=978-0-7459-5568-1}}</ref> He believed that the key to achieving these goals was the navigation of the Zambezi as a Christian commercial highway into the interior.<ref name="Holmes">{{cite book|last=Holmes|first=Tim |title=Spectrum Guide to Zambia|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xlUwAQAAIAAJ|year=1996|publisher=Struik|isbn=978-1-86872-012-5|chapter=The History}}</ref>

===Author and campaigner===
He returned to Britain in December 1856. The [[Royal Geographical Society]] awarded him their [[Patron's Medal]] in 1855 for his explorations in Africa.<ref name="RGS"/> Encouraged by the [[London Missionary Society]], he wrote up his journal, but unconventionally had his ''Missionary Travels'' published in 1857 by [[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]], making it a bestselling travelogue. The book included his field science and sympathetic descriptions of African people. He proposed that missions and "legitimate commerce" by river into central Africa would end slave trading.<ref name="Wisnicki 2015">{{cite web |first1=Adrian S. |last1=Wisnicki |first2= Megan |last2=Ward | title=Livingstone's Life & Expeditions | website=Livingstone Online | url=https://livingstoneonline.org/life-and-times/livingstone-s-life-expeditions |year=2015| access-date=28 September 2021}}</ref>{{sfn | Livingstone | 1857 | pp=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.33342/page/n122 92], [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.33342/page/n740 679–680, 683]}}

[[File:Gang of Captives at Mbame’s.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Slave traders and their captives bound in chains and collared with 'taming sticks'. From Livingstone's ''Narrative'']]

Livingstone was encouraged by the response in Britain to his discoveries and support for future expeditions. He proposed to do more exploration, primarily to find routes for commercial trade which he believed would displace slave trade routes, more so than for solely missionary work.  The London Missionary Society (LMS) on learning of his plans sent a letter which Livingstone received at Quelimane, congratulating him on his journey but said that the directors were "restricted in their power of aiding plans connected only remotely with the spread of the Gospel".{{sfn | Jeal | 2013 | p=156}} This brusque rejection for new mission stations north of the Zambezi and his wider object of opening the interior for trade via the Zambezi, was not enough to make him resign from the LMS at once. When [[Roderick Murchison]], president of the Royal Geographical Society, put him in touch with the foreign secretary, Livingstone said nothing to the LMS directors, even when his leadership of a government expedition to the Zambezi seemed increasingly likely to be funded by the exchequer. "I am not yet fairly on with the Government," he told a friend, "but am nearly quite off with the Society (LMS)." Livingstone resigned from the London Missionary Society in 1857, and in May of that year he was appointed as her majesty's consul with a roving commission, extending through Mozambique to the areas west of it.<ref>Livingstone to Lord Clarendon 19 March 1857 Clarendon Papers Bodleian Library Dep. c 80</ref> In February 1858 his area of jurisdiction was stipulated to be "the Eastern Coast of Africa and the independent districts in the interior".<ref>C. A. Baker, "The Development of the Administration to 1897", in ''The Early History of Malawi'', edited by [[Bridglal Pachai]] (London, [[Longman]], 1972), p. 324.</ref>

While he negotiated with the government for his new position as consul, the LMS thought that he would return to Africa with their mission to the Kololo in [[Barotseland]], which Livingstone had promoted.{{sfn | Jeal | 2013 | pp=169–171, 189}} That mission eventually suffered deaths from malaria of a missionary, his wife, a second missionary's wife, and three children. Livingstone had suffered over thirty attacks during his previous journey but had understated his suffering and overstated the quality of the land they would find, and the missionaries set out for the marshy region with wholly inadequate supplies of quinine. Biographer Tim Jeal considered this episode a major failing for Livingstone, and indicative of a pattern of putting his goals and career above the lives of those around him.{{sfn | Jeal | 2013 | pp=159, 176–185}}

Livingstone was now a celebrity, in great demand as a public speaker, and was elected to the [[Royal Society]]. He gained public backing for his plans, and raised finances for his next expedition by public subscription, as well as £5,000 from the government to investigate the potential for British trade via the Zambezi.<ref name="Wisnicki 2015" />

===Zambezi expedition===<!-- This section is linked from [[Zambezi]] -->
In December 1857 the [[Foreign, Commonwealth and Development Office|Foreign Office]] proposed a huge expedition. Livingstone had envisaged another solo journey with African helpers, and in January 1858 he agreed to lead a [[second Zambezi expedition]] with six specialist officers, hurriedly recruited in the UK.<ref name="Wisnicki 2015" />{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=126–132}}

The prefabricated iron river steamer ''Ma Robert'' was quickly built in portable sections, and loaded onto the [[Colonial Office]] steamer ''Pearl'', which took them out on its way to Ceylon. They left on 10 March, at [[Freetown]] collected twelve [[Krumen people#Seafaring|Kru seafarers]] to man the river steamer, and reached the Zambezi on 14 May. The plan was for both ships to take them up the river to establish bases, but it turned out to be completely impassable to boats past the [[Cahora Bassa]] rapids, a series of [[Waterfall#Types of waterfalls|cataracts]] and [[rapids]] that Livingstone had failed to explore on his earlier travels. ''Pearl'' offloaded their supplies on an island about {{convert|40|mi|km}} upstream. From there, ''Ma Robert'' had to make repeated slow journeys, getting hauled across shoals. The riverbanks were a war zone, with Portuguese soldiers and their slaves fighting the [[Chikunda#The Zambezi wars|Chikunda]] slave-hunters of Matakenya (Mariano), but both sides accepted the expedition as friends.{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=129–138}}<ref>{{cite wikisource|chapter= I|wslink=A Popular Account of Dr Livingstone's Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries|plaintitle=A Popular Account of Dr Livingstone's Expedition to the Zambesi and its Tributaries| last=Livingstone|first=David|year= 1894 |publisher=John Murray|page=|wspage=|scan=}}</ref>

[[File:MaryMoffatGravestone.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|The grave of Livingstone's wife, [[Mary Moffat Livingstone]], in [[Chupanga]], Mozambique. She died in 1862.]]
The experts, stuck at Shupanga, could not make the intended progress, and there were disagreements. Artist [[Thomas Baines]] was dismissed from the expedition. Others on the expedition became the first to reach [[Lake Malawi|Lake Nyasa]] and they explored it in a four-oared [[Captain's gig|gig]]. In 1861 the Colonial Office provided a new wooden paddle survey vessel, ''Pioneer'', which took the [[Universities' Mission to Central Africa]] (UMCA) led by Bishop [[Charles Mackenzie (bishop)|Charles MacKenzie]] up the Shire river to found a new mission.

Livingstone raised funds for a replacement river steamer, ''Lady Nyasa'', specially designed to sail on Lake  Nyasa. It was shipped out in sections, contrary to his request, with a mission party including Mary Livingstone, and arrived in 1862. The ''Pioneer'' was delayed getting down to the coast to meet them, and there were further delays after it was found that the bishop had died. Mary Livingstone died on 27 April 1862 from [[malaria]].

Livingstone took ''Pioneer'' up the coast and investigated the [[Ruvuma River]], and the physician [[John Kirk (explorer)|John Kirk]] wrote "I can come to no other conclusion than that Dr Livingstone is out of his mind and a most unsafe leader".

When ''Pioneer'' returned to Shupanga in December 1862, they paid (in cloth) their "Mazaro men" who left and engaged replacements. On 10 January 1863 they set off, towing ''Lady Nyasa'', and went up the Shire river past scenes of devastation as Mariano's Chikunda slave-hunts caused famine, and they frequently had to clear the paddle wheels of corpses left floating downstream. They reached [[Chikwawa|Chibisa's]] and the [[Kapachira Falls|Murchison Cataracts]] in April, then began dismantling ''Lady Nyasa'' and building a road to take its sections past the cataracts, while explorations continued.{{sfn | Livingstone | Livingstone | 1866 | pp=[https://archive.org/details/narrativeanexpe03livigoog/page/n509/mode/2up 472–475]}}{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | pp=180–182}}

He brought the ships downriver in 1864 after the government ordered the recall of the expedition. The Zambezi Expedition was castigated as a failure in many newspapers of the time, and Livingstone experienced great difficulty in raising funds to further explore Africa. John Kirk, Charles Meller, and Richard Thornton, scientists appointed to work under Livingstone, contributed large collections of botanical, ecological, geological, and ethnographic material to scientific Institutions in the United Kingdom.

===The Nile===
In January 1866, Livingstone returned to Africa, this time to [[Zanzibar]], and from there he set out to seek the source of the [[Nile]]. [[Richard Francis Burton]], [[John Hanning Speke]], and [[Samuel Baker]] had identified either [[Lake Albert (Africa)|Lake Albert]] or [[Lake Victoria]] as the source (which was partially correct, as the Nile "bubbles from the ground high in the mountains of [[Burundi]] halfway between [[Lake Tanganyika]] and [[Lake Victoria]]"{{Sfn|Dugard||2012|p=384}}), but there was still serious debate on the matter. Livingstone believed that the source was farther south and assembled a team to find it consisting of freed slaves, [[Comoros]] Islanders, twelve [[Sepoy]]s, and two servants from his previous expedition, [[Chuma and Susi]]. {{citation needed|date=March 2014}}

[[File:Livingstone House, Mikindani, Tanzania.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|This house in Mikindani in southern Tanzania was the starting point for Livingstone's last expedition. He stayed here from 24 March to 7 April 1866.]]
Livingstone set out from the mouth of the Ruvuma river, but his assistants gradually began deserting him. The Comoros Islanders had returned to Zanzibar and (falsely) informed authorities that Livingstone had died. He reached [[Lake Malawi]] on 6 August, by which time most of his supplies had been stolen, including all his medicines. Livingstone then travelled through swamps in the direction of Lake Tanganyika, with his health declining. He sent a message to Zanzibar requesting that supplies be sent to [[Ujiji]] and he then headed west, forced by ill health to travel with slave traders. He arrived at [[Lake Mweru]] on 8 November 1867 and continued on, travelling south to become the first European to see [[Lake Bangweulu]]. Upon finding the [[Lualaba River]], Livingstone theorised that it could have been the high part of the [[Nile]]; but realised that it in fact flowed into the [[River Congo]] at [[River Congo|Upper Congo Lake]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Livingstone |first1=David |title=Personal Letter to J. Kirk or R. Playfair |url=http://www.livingstoneonline.ucl.ac.uk/view/transcript.php?id=LETT2200 |website=David Livingstone Online |access-date=10 December 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221195004/http://www.livingstoneonline.ucl.ac.uk/view/transcript.php?id=LETT2200 |archive-date=21 December 2014 }}</ref>

The year 1869 began with Livingstone finding himself extremely ill while in the jungle. He was saved by Arab traders who gave him medicines and carried him to an Arab outpost.{{sfn|Livingstone|1874|p=}}

On 15 July 1871,<ref>{{cite book|last=Livingstone|first=David|editor-first=Adrian S.|editor-last=Wisnicki|title=Livingstone's 1871 Field Diary: A Multispectral Critical Edition|url=http://livingstone.library.ucla.edu/1871diary|year=2011|publisher=UCLA Library|access-date=11 November 2011|archive-date=4 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230504101329/http://livingstone.library.ucla.edu/1871diary/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Livingstone recorded in his field diary his immediate impressions as he witnessed around 400 Africans being massacred by Arab slavers at the [[Nyangwe]] market on the banks of the [[Lualaba River]], while he was watching next to the leading Arab trader Dugumbe who had given him assistance.{{sfn|Jeal|1973|pp=331–335}}<ref name="Wisnicki 2011">{{Cite web |title=Livingstone in 1871 |last=Wisnicki |first=Adrian S. |work=livingstoneonline.org |date=2011 |access-date=25 April 2019 |url= http://www.livingstoneonline.org/spectral-imaging/livingstone-in-1871 }}</ref>

The cause behind this attack is stated to be retaliation for actions of Manilla, the head slave who had sacked villages of Mohombo people at the instigation of the Wagenya chieftain Kimburu. The Arabs attacked the shoppers and Kimburu's people.{{sfn|Jeal|1973|pp=331–335}}<ref name="Wisnicki 2011" />

Researchers from the [[Indiana University of Pennsylvania]] who scanned Livingstone's diary suggest that in putting his fragmentary notes about the massacre into the narrative of his journal, he left out his concerns about some of his followers, slaves owned by [[Banyan merchants]] who had been hired by [[John Kirk (explorer)|John Kirk]], acting consul at Zanzibar, and sent to get Livingstone to safety. These slaves had been liberated and added to his party, but had shown violent conduct against local people contrary to his instructions, and he feared they might have been involved in starting the massacre. His diary noted "Dugumbe's men murdering Kimburu and another for slaves" and implied that the slave Manilla played a leading part, but looking back at the events, he says Dugumbé's people bore responsibility, and started it to make an example of Manilla. In the diary he described his sending his men with protection of a flag to assist Manilla's brother. In his journal version it was to assist villagers. The version edited by Waller in the "Last Journals", published in 1874, left out the context of Livingstone's earlier comments about Kirk and bad behaviour of the hired Banyan men, and omitted the villagers' earlier violent resistance to Arab slavers, so it portrayed the villagers as passive victims. The section on the massacre itself had only minor grammatical corrections. Further research into diary notes continues.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Researchers now presume that Dr Livingstone lied |work=CBS News |date=2 November 2011 |access-date=25 April 2019 |url= https://www.cbsnews.com/news/researchers-now-presume-that-dr-livingstone-lied/ }}</ref><ref name="Wisnicki 2011" />

The massacre horrified Livingstone, leaving him too shattered to continue his mission to find the source of the Nile.{{sfn|Livingstone|1874|p=}} Following the end of the wet season, he travelled {{convert|240|mi|km|sigfig=2}} from Nyangwe back to Ujiji, an Arab settlement on the eastern shore of Lake Tanganyika—violently ill most of the way—arriving on 23 October 1871.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2 May 2024 |title=David Livingstone – Zambezi Expedition, Missionary, Explorer {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/David-Livingstone/The-Zambezi-expedition |access-date=13 June 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

===Geographical discoveries===
Livingstone was wrong about the Nile, but he identified numerous geographical features for Western science, such as [[Lake Ngami]], [[Lake Malawi]], and [[Lake Bangweulu]], in addition to Victoria Falls mentioned above.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}} He filled in details of [[Lake Tanganyika]], [[Lake Mweru]], and the course of many rivers, especially the upper Zambezi, and his observations enabled large regions to be mapped which previously had been blank. Even so, the farthest north he reached was the north end of Lake Tanganyika—still south of the [[Equator]]—and he did not penetrate the rainforest of the [[River Congo]] any farther downstream than Ntangwe near [[Misisi]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Map showing Dr David Livingstone's travels in Africa|url=http://www.scran.ac.uk/database/record.php?usi=000-000-099-943-C|access-date=7 February 2023|website=Scran|language=en}}</ref>{{original research inline| date= July 2023 | reason= this citation is to some map you can buy? the resolution is not good enough to see whether or not it supports the claim}}

Livingstone was awarded the gold medal of the [[Royal Geographical Society]] of London and was made a Fellow of the society, with which he had a strong association for the rest of his life.<ref name="Blaikie" />

==Stanley meeting==
[[File:Omani Empire 2.png|thumb|Livingstone's meeting with Stanley took place at [[Ujiji]], an Arab trading post under the [[Sultanate of Zanzibar]], marked in pink at the bottom left of this map.]]
[[File:Henry Morton Stanley meeting David Livingstone at Ujiji, in Wellcome V0006855.jpg|thumb|Henry Morton Stanley meets David Livingstone]]
[[File:Livingstone Memorial, Tanzania.jpg|thumb|Livingstone Memorial in [[Ujiji]], Tanzania]]
Livingstone completely lost contact with the outside world for six years and was ill for most of the last four years of his life. Only one of his 44 letter dispatches made it to [[Zanzibar]]. One surviving letter to [[Horace Waller (activist)|Horace Waller]] was made available to the public in 2010 by its owner Peter Beard. It reads: "I am terribly knocked up but this is for your own eye only... Doubtful if I live to see you again..."<ref>{{cite news|title=David Livingstone letter deciphered at last. Four-page missive composed at the lowest point in his professional life|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna38064893 |agency=Associated Press|date=2 July 2010|access-date=2 July 2010}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref><ref>[http://emelibrary.org/livingstoneletter ''Livingstone's Letter from Bambarre''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100705102958/http://emelibrary.org/livingstoneletter/ |date=5 July 2010 }}, emelibrary.org; accessed 4 July 2010.</ref>

[[Henry Morton Stanley]] had been sent to find him by the ''[[New York Herald]]'' newspaper in 1869. He found Livingstone in the town of [[Ujiji]] on the shores of [[Lake Tanganyika]] on 10 November 1871,<ref name="Stanley" /> apparently greeting him with the now famous words "Dr. Livingstone, I presume?" Livingstone responded, "Yes", and then, "I feel thankful that I am here to welcome you." These famous words may have been a fabrication, as Stanley later tore out the pages of this encounter in his diary.<ref name="Jeal">{{cite book|last=Jeal|first=Tim |author-link=Tim Jeal|title=Stanley: The Impossible Life of Africa's Greatest Explorer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oaxwAAAAMAAJ|year=2007|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-12625-9}}</ref> Even Livingstone's account of this encounter does not mention these words. However, the phrase appears in a ''New York Herald'' editorial dated 10 August 1872, and the ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' and the ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' both quote it without questioning its veracity. The words are famous because of their perceived humour, Livingstone being the only other white person for hundreds of miles, along with Stanley's clumsy attempt at appearing dignified in the bush of Africa by making a formal greeting one might expect to hear in the confines of an upper-class London club. However, readers of the ''Herald'' immediately saw through Stanley's pretensions.<ref name="Jeal"/> As noted by his biographer Tim Jeal, Stanley struggled his whole life with a self-perceived weakness of being from a humble background, and manufactured events to make up for this supposed deficiency.<ref name="Jeal"/> Stanley's book suggests that this greeting was truly motivated by embarrassment, because he did not dare to embrace Livingstone.

Despite Stanley's urgings, Livingstone was determined not to leave Africa until his mission was complete. His illness made him confused and he had judgment difficulties at the end of his life. He explored the Lualaba and, failing to find connections to the Nile, returned to [[Lake Bangweulu]] and its swamps to explore possible rivers flowing out northwards.{{sfn|Livingstone|1874|p=}}

==Christianity and Sechele==
Livingstone is known as "Africa's greatest missionary", yet he is recorded as having converted only one African: [[Sechele I|Sechele]], who was the chief of the [[Koena tribe|Kwena people]] of [[Botswana]] (Kwena are one of the main Sotho-Tswana clans, found in South Africa, Lesotho, and Botswana<ref name="Tomkins 2013b">{{cite web | title = The African chief converted to Christianity by Dr Livingstone | last = Tomkins | first = Stephen | work = BBC News | date = 19 March 2013 | access-date = 12 July 2018 | url = https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-21807368 }}</ref> in all three Sotho-Tswana language groupings). Sechele was born in 1812. His father died when Sechele was 10, and two of his uncles divided the tribe, which forced Sechele to leave his home for nine years. When Sechele returned, he took over one of his uncle's tribes; at that point, he met Livingstone.{{sfn | Ross | 2002 | p=}} {{Pages needed |date=November 2014}} Livingstone immediately became interested in Sechele, and especially his ability to read. Being a quick learner, Sechele learned the alphabet in two days and soon called English a second language. After teaching his wives the skill, he wrote the Bible in his native tongue.{{sfn | Livingstone | 1857 | p=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.33342/page/n34 16]}}

Livingstone was known through a large part of Africa for treating the natives with respect, and the tribes that he visited returned his respect with faith and loyalty. He could never permanently convert the tribesmen to Christianity, however. Among other reasons, Sechele, by then the leader of the African tribe, did not like the way that Livingstone could not demand rain of his God like his rainmakers, who said that they could. After long hesitation from Livingstone, he baptised Sechele and had the church completely embrace him. Sechele was now a part of the church, but he continued to act according to his African culture, which went against Livingstone's teachings.<ref>{{cite book|last=Horne|first=C. Silvester |title=David Livingstone: Man of Prayer and Action|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8xwKvY6zhpcC|year=1999|publisher=Christian Liberty Press|isbn=978-1-930092-11-2}}</ref>{{rp|20}}

Sechele was no different from any other man of his tribe in believing in [[polygamy]]. He had five wives, including MmaKgari (SeTswana for "mother of Kgari"), Mokgokong<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sechele and the Record of Intercultural Encounter {{!}} One More Voice |url=https://onemorevoice.org/html/essays/sechele_record_encounter.html |access-date=16 March 2022 |website=onemorevoice.org |language=en}}</ref> and Masebele<ref>{{Cite web |title=Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa by David Livingstone |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/1039/1039-h/1039-h.htm |access-date=16 March 2022 |website=www.gutenberg.org |at=Chapter 6}}</ref> When Livingstone told him to get rid of four of them, it shook the foundations of the Kwena tribe. After he finally divorced the women, Livingstone baptised them all and everything went well. However, one year later one of his ex-wives became pregnant and Sechele was the father. Sechele begged Livingstone not to give up on him because his faith was still strong, but Livingstone left the country and went north to continue his Christianizing attempts.<ref name="Tomkins 2013a" />{{Pages needed |date=November 2014}}

After Livingstone left the Kwena tribe, Sechele remained faithful to Christianity and led missionaries to surrounding tribes as well as converting nearly his entire Kwena people. In the estimation of Neil Parsons of the University of Botswana, Sechele "did more to propagate Christianity in 19th-century southern Africa than virtually any single European missionary". Although Sechele was a self-proclaimed Christian, many European missionaries disagreed. The Kwena tribe leader kept [[Rainmaking (ritual)|rainmaking]] a part of his life as well as polygamy.<ref name="Tomkins 2013b" />

==Death==
[[File:David Livingstone Medal (p.60) - Copy.jpg|thumb|David Livingstone Medal<ref>{{cite journal|title=A Livingstone Medal|journal=Chronicles of the London Missionary Society|date=February 1890 |url=https://archive.org/stream/chroniclelondon00unkngoog#page/n104/mode/2up/search/livingstone+medal|first=Allen|last=Wyon|page=60|location=London}}</ref>]]

Livingstone died on 1 May 1873 at the age of 60 in Chief Chitambo's village at [[Livingstone Memorial|Chipundu]], southeast of [[Lake Bangweulu]], in present-day [[Zambia]], from [[malaria]] and internal bleeding due to [[dysentery]]. Led by his loyal attendants [[Chuma and Susi]], his expedition arranged funeral ceremonies. They removed his heart and buried it under a tree near the spot where he died, which has been identified variously as a [[Milicia excelsa|mvula tree]] or a [[Adansonia|baobab tree]] but is more likely to be a [[Parinari curatellifolia|mpundu tree]], as baobabs are found at lower altitudes and in more arid regions.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wickens|first1=G. E. |last2= Lowe |first2=P.|title=The Baobabs: Pachycauls of Africa, Madagascar and Australia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jYq6NAEACAAJ|year=2008|publisher=Springer Netherlands|isbn=978-1-4020-6430-2|page=33}}</ref>{{sfn|Dugard|2014|p=147}} That site, now known as the Livingstone Memorial,<ref>{{cite book|last=Bradford|first=Charles Angell |author-link=Charles Angell Bradford|title=Heart Burial|year=1933|publisher=Allen & Unwin|location=London|page=242|oclc=10641494}}</ref> lists his date of death as 4 May, the date reported (and carved into the tree's trunk) by Chuma and Susi; but most sources consider 1 May—the date of Livingstone's final journal entry—as the correct one.{{sfn|Livingstone|1874|pp=242–244}}

The expedition led by Chuma and Susi then carried the rest of his remains, together with his last journal and belongings, on a journey that took 63 days to the coastal town of [[Bagamoyo]], a distance exceeding {{convert|1000|mi|km|sigfig=2}}. The caravan encountered the expedition of English explorer [[Verney Lovett Cameron]], who continued his march and reached Ujiji in February 1874, where he found and sent to England Livingstone's papers.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}} Seventy-nine followers completed the journey, the men were paid their due wages, and Livingstone's remains were returned by ship to Britain for burial. In London, his body lay in repose at No.1 [[Savile Row]], then the headquarters of the [[Royal Geographical Society]], prior to interment at [[Westminster Abbey]].<ref name="Blaikie" /><ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.cigaraficionado.com/Cigar/CA_Archives/CA_Show_Article/0,2322,626,00.html|title=On Savile Row|author=G. Bruce Boyer|magazine=Cigar Aficionado|date=Summer 1996|access-date=21 December 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100817001808/http://www.cigaraficionado.com/Cigar/CA_Archives/CA_Show_Article/0,2322,626,00.html|archive-date=17 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=David Livingstone|url=https://www.westminster-abbey.org/abbey-commemorations/commemorations/david-livingstone|access-date=7 February 2023|website=Westminster Abbey}}</ref>

==Livingstone and slavery==
[[File:The Slave Gang (relates to David Livingstone) by The London Missionary Society.jpg|thumb|Arab slave traders and their captives]]

{{blockquote|And if my disclosures regarding the terrible Ujijian slavery should lead to the suppression of the East Coast slave trade, I shall regard that as a greater matter by far than the discovery of all the Nile sources together.|Livingstone in a letter to the editor of the ''New York Herald''<ref name="Stanley">{{cite book|last=Stanley|first=Henry Morton|author-link=Henry Morton Stanley |title=How I Found Livingstone: Travels, Adventures and Discoveries in Central Africa: Including an Account of Four Months' Residence with Dr. Livingstone|url=https://archive.org/details/howifoundliving01stangoog|year=1872|publisher=Scribner, Armstrong & Company}}</ref>}}

While talking about the slave trade in East Africa in his journals:

{{blockquote|To overdraw its evil is a simple impossibility.{{sfn|Livingstone|1874|p=442}} }}

Livingstone wrote about a group of slaves forced to march by [[Arab slave traders]] in the [[African Great Lakes]] region when he was travelling there in 1866:

{{blockquote|We passed a slave woman shot or stabbed through the body and lying on the path: a group of men stood about a hundred yards off on one side, and another of the women on the other side, looking on; they said an Arab who passed early that morning had done it in anger at losing the price he had given for her, because she was unable to walk any longer.

27th June 1866 – To-day we came upon a man dead from starvation, as he was very thin. One of our men wandered and found many slaves with slave-sticks on, abandoned by their masters from want of food; they were too weak to be able to speak or say where they had come from; some were quite young.|source={{harvnb|Livingstone|1874|p=62}}}}

He also described: {{blockquote|The strangest disease I have seen in this country seems really to be broken-heartedness, and it attacks free men who have been captured and made slaves... Twenty one were unchained, as now safe; however all ran away at once; but eight with many others still in chains, died in three days after the crossing. They described their only pain in the heart, and placed the hand correctly on the spot, though many think the organ stands high up in the breast-bone.|source={{harvnb|Livingstone|1874|p=352}} }}

Often cited is Livingstone's estimate of the number of slaves that made it to market versus those who died because of the slave trade:

{{blockquote|Flight, starvation, and death ensue; and we must again record our conviction that the mortality after these slave wars, in addition to the losses on the journey to the Coast and during the middle passage, makes it certain that not more than one in five ever reach the "kind masters" in Cuba and elsewhere, whom, according to slave-owners' interpretation of Scripture, Providence intended for them.|source=Livingstone, 1865<ref>{{cite book|first1=Charles|last1=Livingstone|first2=David|last2=Livingstone|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AZ1RAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA593|page=593|title=Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and Its Tributaries|date=24 April 1865 |publisher=Murray}}</ref>}}

Livingstone's letters, books, and journals{{sfn|Livingstone|1874|p=}} did stir up public support for the abolition of slavery;<ref name="BBC 2014" /> however, he became dependent for assistance on the very slave-traders whom he wished to put out of business. He was a poor leader of his peers, and he ended up on his last expedition as an individualist explorer with servants and porters but no expert support around him. At the same time, he did not use the brutal methods of maverick explorers such as [[Henry Morton Stanley|Stanley]] to keep his retinue of porters in line and his supplies secure. For these reasons, he accepted help and hospitality from 1867 onwards from Mohamad Bogharib and Mohamad bin Saleh (also known as "Mpamari"), traders who kept and traded in [[slavery|slaves]], as he recounts in his journals. They, in turn, benefited from Livingstone's influence with local people, which facilitated Mpamari's release from bondage to [[Kazembe|Mwata Kazembe]]. Livingstone was furious to discover that some of the replacement porters sent at his request from Ujiji were slaves.{{sfn|Livingstone|1874|p=}}

Livingstone's figures on slaves have however been criticised as highly exaggerated.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Teelock|first1=Vijayalakshmi|last2=Peerthum|first2=Satyendra|title=Transition from Slavery in Zanzibar and Mauritius|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0iXUDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47|year=2017|publisher=CODESRIA|isbn=978-2-86978-680-6|pages=47–}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Rijpma|first=Sjoerd |title=David Livingstone and the Myth of African Poverty and Disease: A Close Examination of his Writing on the Pre-colonial Era|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0Jj8CQAAQBAJ&pg=PA161|year=2015|publisher=Brill|isbn=978-90-04-29373-1|pages=161–}}</ref>
{{clear left}}

==Legacy==
By the late 1860s Livingstone's reputation in Europe had suffered owing to the failure of the missions he set up, and of the Zambezi Expedition; and his ideas about the source of the Nile were not supported. His expeditions were hardly models of order and organisation. His reputation was rehabilitated by Stanley and his newspaper,<ref name="Holmes" /> and by the loyalty of Livingstone's servants whose long journey with his body inspired wonder. The publication of his last journal revealed stubborn determination in the face of suffering.<ref name="Blaikie" />

In 1860, the [[Universities' Mission to Central Africa]] was founded at his request. Many important missionaries, such as [[Leader Stirling]] and [[Miss Annie Allen]], would later work for this group. This group and the medical missionaries it sponsored came to have major, positive impact on the people of Africa.<ref>{{cite book|last=Stirling|first=Leader |title=Tanzanian Doctor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vNevAwAAQBAJ|year=1977|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|location=Montreal|isbn=978-0-7735-9393-0|author-link=Leader Stirling}}</ref>

Livingstone made geographical discoveries for European knowledge. He inspired abolitionists of the slave trade, explorers, and missionaries. He opened up Central Africa to missionaries who initiated the education and healthcare for Africans, and trade by the [[African Lakes Company]]. He was held in some esteem by many African chiefs and local people and his name facilitated relations between them and the British.<ref name="Blaikie" />

[[File:David Livingstone statue, Princes Street Gardens, Edinburgh.jpg|thumb|[[Statue of David Livingstone, Edinburgh|Livingstone statue]], Edinburgh by [[Amelia Robertson Hill]]]]
Partly as a result, within 50 years of his death, colonial rule was established in Africa, and white settlement was encouraged to extend further into the interior. However, what Livingstone envisaged for "colonies" was not what we now know as colonial rule, but rather settlements of dedicated Christian Europeans who would live among the people to help them work out ways of living that did not involve slavery.<ref name="Tomkins 2013a" /> Livingstone was part of an evangelical and nonconformist movement in Britain which during the 19th century helped change the national mindset from the notion of a divine right to rule 'lesser races', to more modernly ethical ideas in foreign policy.<ref>{{cite book|last=Barnett|first=Correlli |title=The Audit of War: The Illusion and Reality of Britain as a Great Nation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=39a0AAAAIAAJ|year=1986|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=978-0-333-35376-9}}</ref>

The [[David Livingstone Centre]] in Blantyre celebrates his life and is based in the house in which he was born, on the site of the mill in which he started his working life. His Christian faith is evident in his journal, in which one entry reads: "I place no value on anything I have or may possess, except in relation to the kingdom of Christ. If anything will advance the interests of the kingdom, it shall be given away or kept, only as by giving or keeping it I shall promote the glory of Him to whom I owe all my hopes in time and eternity."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Neill|first1=Stephen |last2=Chadwick|first2=Owen |title=A History of Christian Missions|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zT5cRAAACAAJ|year=1990|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-013763-7|page=315}}</ref>

According to Alvyn Austin in 1997:<ref>Alvyn Austin,  "Discovering Livingstone" ''Christian History'' (1997) 16#4 pp 10–19.</ref>
<blockquote>During the anti-colonial 1960s, Livingstone was debunked: he made only one certified convert, who later backslid; he explored few areas not already traveled by others; he freed few slaves; he treated his colleagues horribly; he traveled with Arab slave traders; his family life was in shambles—in short, to many he embodied the "White Man's Burden" mentality. Nonetheless, at a time when countries are being renamed and statues are being toppled, Livingstone has not fallen. Despite modern Africans' animosity toward other Europeans, such as Cecil Rhodes, Livingstone endures as a heroic legend. Rhodesia has long since purged its name, but the cities of Livingstone (Zambia) and Livingstonia (Malawi) keep the explorer's appellation with pride.</blockquote>

In 2002, David Livingstone was ranked 98th among the [[100 Greatest Britons]] following a UK-wide vote.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/programmes/greatbritons/list.shtml/ |title=The Top 100 Great Britons |access-date=19 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20021204214727/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/programmes/greatbritons/list.shtml/ |archive-date=4 December 2002 |url-status=dead | work = BBC | date= 2002}}</ref>

==Family life==
[[File:David Livingstone by Frederick Havill.jpg|thumb|Posthumous portrait of David Livingstone by [[Frederick Havill]]]]
While Livingstone had a great impact on the expansion of the [[British Empire]], he did so at a tremendous cost to his family. In his absences, his children grew up missing their father, and his wife [[Mary Livingstone (nee Moffat)|Mary]] (daughter of Mary and [[Robert Moffat (missionary)|Robert Moffat]]), whom he married in 1845, endured very poor health, and died of malaria on 27 April 1862.<ref>{{cite book|title=Appletons' annual cyclopaedia and register of important events of the year: 1862|year=1863|publisher=D. Appleton & Company|location=New York|page=687|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/1862appletonsan02newyuoft#page/n694/mode/1up|chapter=Obituaries}}</ref>

He had six children:

# Robert died while serving in the [[Union Army]] during the [[American Civil War]];<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=716469|pages=250–252|last1=Chirgwin|first1=A. M.|title=New Light on Robert Livingstone|volume=33|issue=132|journal=Journal of the Royal African Society|year=1934}}</ref> He took the name Rupert Vincent and was the substitute for Horace Heath, and took his place in Company H of the [[3rd New Hampshire Volunteer Infantry|3rd New Hampshire Volunteers]]. Robert ended up being captured by the [[Confederate States Army]] and died at the [[Salisbury National Cemetery|Salisbury prison camp]] in [[Rowan County, North Carolina|Rowan County]], North Carolina,<ref>{{cite web | title = Rupert Vincent, I Presume? | last = Murray | first = John | work = Crossfire |issue=96|date=August 2011 | access-date = 12 July 2018 | url = http://www.acwrt.org.uk/uk-heritage_The-Search-for-Robert-Livingstone.asp }}</ref> which has since been termed, "North Carolina's [[Andersonville Prison|Andersonville]]."<ref>{{Cite web|author=Joel R. Stegall|date=13 September 2018|title=Salisbury Prison: North Carolina's Andersonville|url=https://nccivilwarcenter.org/salisbury-prison-north-carolinas-andersonville/|access-date=7 February 2023|website=North Carolina Civil War & Reconstruction History Center|language=en-US}}</ref>
# Agnes (born 1847 or 1857, died 1912; married A.L. Bruce, a wealthy Scottish brewery executive.{{Sfn|Dugard||2012|p=384}})
# Thomas, died in Egypt in 1876 at the age of 27 from [[Schistosomiasis|bilharzia]], a disease he contracted as a child living in Africa.{{Sfn|Dugard||2012|p=}}
# Elizabeth (who died at two months)
# William Oswell (nicknamed Zouga because of the river along which he was born, in 1851; died in 1892 in Trinidad where he practiced medicine.{{Sfn|Dugard||2012|p=}})
# Anna Mary (born 1858, died 1939)

Only Agnes, William Oswell and Anna Mary married and had children.<ref>{{cite web|author=Steven Wilson|url=http://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~swilson/livingstone/descendants.htm|title=Livingstone Descendants|publisher=Freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.ancestry.com|access-date=23 January 2012}}</ref> His one regret in later life was that he did not spend enough time with his children.<ref>{{cite book|last=Ferguson|first=Niall |author-link=Niall Ferguson|title=Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power|url=https://archive.org/details/empire00nial|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=Basic Books|isbn=978-0-465-02329-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/empire00nial/page/158 158]}}</ref>

==Exhibition of Livingstone curios==
In 1932, several items related to Livingstone were put on display at a Missionary Exhibition in [[Bromley]]: a piece of wood from the tree under which his heart had been buried plus slave chains and irons brought to England by Livingstone himself  According to the extensive article about the exhibition published in the "''Bromley'' ''Mercury''", they were especially lent for the occasion by one of Livingstone's daighters.<ref>{{Cite news |date=3 June 1932 |title=Livingstone curios in Bromley: Slave chains in missionary exhibition |access-date= |work=The Bromley Mercury |pages=12}}</ref>

== Livingstone Centenary ==
Many events were held on 1913 to celebrate the centenary of  Livingstone's birth, the principal of which took pace in the [[Royal Albert Hall|Royal Albert Hall.]] The [[Archbishop of Canterbury]], [[Randall Davidson]], presided and stated that Livingstone "carved his name on the history of manknd" and "literally left his footprints on the sands of time"<ref>{{Cite news |date=20 March 1913 |title=Livingstone Centenary: celebratuins in London and the provinces |url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000644/19130320/182/0007# |access-date=8 June 2025 |work=Birmingham Mail |pages=7}}</ref>  Another speaker was [[Harry Johnston|Harry Johnston,]] who expressed his feekibgs about what he termed the "inadequate consideration" shown to Livingstone during his lifetime and the "stupidity" preventing the piblication of his journals. <ref name=":0">{{Cite news |date=20 March 1913 |title=The Livingstone Centenary: tributes to his memory |url=https://www.britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000540/19130320/235/0008 |access-date=8 June 2025 |work=The Scotsman |pages=5}}</ref>

As well as speeches, there was a performance by a choir of 300 of the [[cantata]] "Livingstone the pilgrim" composed by the Reverend [[Silvester Horne]] and [[Hamish MacCunn|Hamish McCunn]].<ref name=":0" />

== David Livingstone Centenary Medal ==
The [[Hispanic Society of America]] was responsible for instituting this medal. This award was set up to coincide with Livingstone's Centenary and is awarded by the [[American Geographical Society|American Geographical Society ']] Theodore Roosevelt was awarded the nedal in 1917.  The designer of the medal was [[Gutzon Borglum]], most famous for the sculptures on [[Mount Rushmore]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=DAVID LIVINGSTONE CENTENARY MEDAL |url=https://www.americangeo.org/livingstone-medal |access-date=8 June 2025 |website=American Geographical Society}}</ref>

==Livingstone Archives<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 June 2025 |title=DAVID LIVINGSTONE CENTENARY MEDAL |url=https://www.americangeo.org/livingstone-medal |access-date=8 June 2025 |website=American Geographical Society}}</ref>==
On 11 November 2011, Livingstone's 1871 Field Diary, as well as other original works, was published online for the first time by the David Livingstone Spectral Imaging Project.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Livingstone's 1871 Field Diary – Index|url=http://livingstone.library.ucla.edu/1871diary/index.htm|access-date=7 February 2023|website=David Livingstone Spectral Imaging Project|archive-date=20 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130120062546/http://livingstone.library.ucla.edu/1871diary/index.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Papers relating to Livingstone's time as a London Missionary Society missionary (including hand-annotated maps of South East Africa) are held by the Archives of the School of Oriental and African Studies.<ref>{{cite web|title=Images of Livingstone letter now available online|url=http://www.soas.ac.uk/news/newsitem66750.html|publisher=SOAS, University of London|access-date=7 March 2013|date=15 December 2008|archive-date=5 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105025515/http://www.soas.ac.uk/news/newsitem66750.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Digital archives unifying these and other sources are made publicly available by the Livingstone Online project at the [[University of Nebraska-Lincoln]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://today.oregonstate.edu/archives/2015/jun/scottish-explorer-david-livingstone%E2%80%99s-writings-drawings-now-available-through-onli|title=Scottish explorer David Livingstone's writings, drawings now available through online archive|date=24 June 2015|website=Life at OSU|language=en|access-date=19 February 2019|archive-date=20 February 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220063211/https://today.oregonstate.edu/archives/2015/jun/scottish-explorer-david-livingstone%E2%80%99s-writings-drawings-now-available-through-onli|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.livingstoneonline.org/about-this-site/livingstone-online-introduction|title=Livingstone Online: An Introduction {{!}} Livingstone Online|website=www.livingstoneonline.org|language=en|access-date=19 February 2019}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=November 2018}}

==Place names and other memorials==
[[File:Portrait of David Livingstone (4671614).jpg|thumb|upright|Photograph of Livingstone in later life]]

===Africa===
'''Botswana'''
* Scottish Livingstone Hospital in Molepolole 50&nbsp;km west of [[Gaborone|Gaborone, Botswana]]
* There is a memorial to Livingstone at the ruins of the [[Kolobeng Mission]], 40&nbsp;km west of Gaborone, Botswana.
* Livingstone Kolobeng College, a private secondary school in Gaborone, Botswana.

'''Burundi'''

The [[Livingstone–Stanley Monument]] in [[Mugere, Burundi|Mugere]] (present-day [[Burundi]]) marks a spot that Livingstone and Stanley visited on their exploration of Lake Tanganyika, mistaken by some as the first meeting place of the two explorers.

'''Congo'''
* [[Livingstone Falls]] on the River Congo, named by Stanley.
* The [[Livingstone Inland Mission]], a Baptist mission to the [[Central Africa]] 1877–1884, located in present-day [[Kinshasa|Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo]].

'''Ghana'''
* Livingstone House, Achimota School, Ghana (boys' boarding house).

'''Kenya'''
* Dr Livingstone Primary School in [[Nairobi]], [[Kenya]].
* Livingstone house, Alliance Highschool in [[Kiambu]], Kenya.

[[File:David Livingstone memorial at Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe.jpg|thumb|[[Statue of David Livingstone, Zimbabwe|David Livingstone statue]] at [[Victoria Falls]], the first statue on the Zimbabwean side]]'''Malawi'''
* The town of [[Livingstonia, Malawi]].
* The city of [[Blantyre, Malawi]] is named after Livingstone's birthplace in Scotland, and includes a memorial.
* The ''David Livingstone Scholarships'' for students at the [[University of Malawi]], funded through [[Strathclyde University]], Scotland.
* The David Livingstone Clinic was founded by the University of Strathclyde's Millennium Project in [[Lilongwe]], Malawi.<ref>{{Cite web |title=David Livingstone Clinic – University of Strathclyde |url=http://www.strath.ac.uk/malawi/projects/davidlivingstoneclinic}}</ref>
* The [[Kipengere Range]] in south-west Tanzania at the north-eastern end of [[Lake Malawi]] is also called the Livingstone Mountains.

'''Namibia'''
* David Livingstone Museum in [[Sangwali]], north-eastern [[Namibia]]. Livingstone stayed at Sangwali in the 1850s before travelling further north.

'''South Africa'''
* David Livingstone Senior Secondary School in Schauderville, [[Port Elizabeth]], South Africa.
* Livingstone Hospital, Port Elizabeth, South Africa.

'''Tanzania'''
* A memorial in [[Ujiji]] commemorates his meeting with Stanley.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Grant |first=C. H. B. |date=April 1932 |title=The Livingstone-Stanley Memorials in Africa |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=79 |issue=4 |pages=318–319 |doi=10.2307/1784331 |issn=0016-7398 |jstor=1784331|bibcode=1932GeogJ..79..318G }}</ref>
* The church tower of the Holy Ghost Mission (Roman Catholic) in [[Bagamoyo]], Tanzania, is sometimes called "Livingstone Tower" as Livingstone's body was laid down there for one night before it was shipped to London. {{citation needed|date=January 2014}}
* Livingstone House in [[Stone Town]], [[Zanzibar]], provided by the [[Majid bin Said of Zanzibar|Sultan]] for Livingstone's use, January to March 1866, to prepare his last expedition; the house was purchased by the Zanzibar government in 1947. {{citation needed|date=January 2014}}
* Plaque commemorating his departure from [[Mikindani]] (present-day [[Tanzania]]) on his final expedition on the wall of the house that has been built over the house he reputedly stayed in.
* [http://tz.geoview.info/livingstone_street,25108633w Livingstone Street] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020221743/http://tz.geoview.info/livingstone_street,25108633w |date=20 October 2018 }}, [[Dar es Salaam]], Tanzania.

'''Uganda'''
* Livingstone Hall, Men's Hall of residence at [[Makerere University]], [[Kampala, Uganda]].

'''Zambia'''
* The [[Livingstone Memorial]] in [[Zambia|Ilala, Zambia]] marks where David Livingstone died
* The city of [[Livingstone, Zambia]], which includes a memorial in front of the [[Livingstone Museum]] and a new statue erected in 2005.<ref name="times.co.zm">{{cite web |url=http://www.times.co.zm/news/viewnews.cgi?category=6&id=1132264497 |title=David Livingstone Remembered |access-date=27 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927225346/http://www.times.co.zm/news/viewnews.cgi?category=6&id=1132264497 |archive-date=27 September 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* The [[Rhodes-Livingstone Institute]], located a few miles outside [[Lusaka, Zambia]], 1937 to 1964, was a pioneering research institution in anthropology.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Crehan |first1=Kate |date=1997 |title=The Fractured Community: Landscapes of Power and Gender in Rural Zambia|place=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |url=http://ark.cdlib.org/ark:/13030/ft0779n6dt/ |chapter-url=https://publishing.cdlib.org/ucpressebooks/view?docId=ft0779n6dt&chunk.id=d0e2527&toc.depth=100&toc.id=d0e2413&brand=ucpress |chapter=Max Gluckman and the Rhodes-Livingstone Institute}}</ref><ref>Schumaker, Lynette Louise, "The lion in the path: Fieldwork and culture in the history of the Rhodes–Livingstone Institute, 1937–1964" (1994). Dissertations available from ProQuest. AAI9521118.
https://repository.upenn.edu/dissertations/AAI9521118</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Heron |first1=Alastair |title=Rhodes-Livingstone Institute, Lusaka |journal=The Journal of Modern African Studies |date=March 1964 |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=112–113 |doi=10.1017/S0022278X00003724|s2cid=155082162 }}</ref>
* David Livingstone Teachers' Training College, Livingstone, Zambia.
* A new statue of David Livingstone was erected in November 2005 on the Zambian side of Victoria Falls.<ref name="times.co.zm" />
'''Zimbabwe'''
* The David Livingstone Memorial statue at [[Victoria Falls, Zimbabwe]], erected in 1934<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.rhodesia.me.uk/victoria-falls/ | title=Victoria Falls }}</ref> on the western bank of the falls.<ref>{{cite book|last=Michler|first=Ian|title=Victoria Falls & Surrounds: The Insider's Guide|url=https://globaltravelmoments.com/an-insiders-guide-to-victoria-falls/|year=2007|publisher=Penguin|isbn=978-1-77007-361-6|page=11|archive-date=11 December 2024|access-date=19 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241211160254/https://globaltravelmoments.com/an-insiders-guide-to-victoria-falls/|url-status=dead}}</ref> {{harvnb|Michler|2007}} quoted 1954 which is wrong. The statue was unveiled on 5 August 1934<ref>{{cite sign|url=https://www.rhodesia.me.uk/victoria-falls/|title=David Livingstone's statue|date=1934|location=[[Victoria Falls]]|access-date=30 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150309063629/https://www.rhodesia.me.uk/victoria-falls/|archive-date=9 March 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* A plaque was unveiled in November 2005 at Livingstone Island on the lip of Victoria Falls marking where Livingstone stood to get his first view of the falls.<ref name="times.co.zm" />
* David Livingstone Primary School in [[Harare|Salisbury, Rhodesia (present-day Harare, Zimbabwe)]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dr.livingstone.primary.school.co.ke/|title=Dr Livingstone Primary School – Nairobi|website=dr.livingstone.primary.school.co.ke|access-date=28 August 2017|archive-date=3 June 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603205706/http://dr.livingstone.primary.school.co.ke/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* David Livingstone Secondary School in Ntabazinduna about 40&nbsp;km from [[Bulawayo]], Zimbabwe.
* Livingstone House in Harare, Zimbabwe, designed by Leonora Granger.{{Who|date=January 2014}}<ref>{{cite news | title=Museum to honour David Livingstone | last=Lottering | first=Francois | work=[[The Namibian]] | date=28 October 2016 | page=7 | url=http://www.namibian.com.na/47333/read/Museum-to-honour-David-Livingstone | access-date=29 October 2016 | archive-date=29 October 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161029174306/http://www.namibian.com.na/47333/read/Museum-to-honour-David-Livingstone | url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Oceania===
'''New Zealand'''
* Livingstone Street in Westmere, Auckland
* Livingstone Road in Flaxmere, Hastings

===Europe===
'''Scotland'''
[[File:David Livingstone statue, Glasgow.JPG|thumb|Livingstone statue, [[Glasgow]]]]
* The [[David Livingstone Centre|David Livingstone Birthplace Museum]] in [[Blantyre, South Lanarkshire]], is a museum in his honour, operated by the David Livingstone Trust.
* David Livingstone Memorial Primary School in Blantyre.
* David Livingstone Memorial Church of the Church of Scotland in Blantyre.
* A statue of Livingstone in [[Cathedral Square, Glasgow|Cathedral Square]], [[Glasgow]].
* A [[Statue of David Livingstone, Edinburgh|statue]] of Livingstone in [[Princes Street Gardens]], Edinburgh.
* A bust of Livingstone is among those of famous Scotsmen in the [[Wallace Monument]] near [[Stirling]].
* [[Strathclyde University]], Glasgow (which evolved from Anderson's University, later the [[Royal College of Science and Technology]]), commemorates him in the David Livingstone Centre for Sustainability<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.strath.ac.uk/dlcs|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120807084611/http://www.strath.ac.uk/dlcs/|url-status=dead|title=David Livingstone Centre for Sustainability webpage|archive-date=7 August 2012}}</ref> and the [[Livingstone Tower]] where there is a statue of him in the building's foyer.
* The David Livingstone Room in the [[Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Glasgow]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fifteenninetynine.co.uk/venue/the-david-livingstone-room.aspx|title=David Livingstone Meeting & Function Room {{!}} Fifteen Ninety Nine|website=fifteenninetynine.co.uk|access-date=23 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160531140052/http://fifteenninetynine.co.uk/venue/the-david-livingstone-room.aspx|archive-date=31 May 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> A portrait of Livingstone by [[Thomas Annan]] (a photograph painted over in oils) hangs outside the room.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://libraryblog.rcpsg.ac.uk/2016/01/05/thomas-annan-and-the-documentary-photograph/|title=Thomas Annan and the Documentary Photograph|last=Andrew McAinsh|date=5 January 2016|website=College Library|access-date=23 August 2016|archive-date=29 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160629185327/https://libraryblog.rcpsg.ac.uk/2016/01/05/thomas-annan-and-the-documentary-photograph/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* The ''David Livingstone (Anderson College) Memorial Prize in Physiology'' commemorates him at the [[University of Glasgow]].
* Livingstone Place, a street in the [[Sciennes]] neighbourhood of Edinburgh.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Harris |first1=Stuart |title=The Place Names of Edinburgh: Their Origins and History |date=2002 |publisher=Steve Savage Publishers |isbn=1-904246-06-0 |page=371}}</ref>
* Livingstone Street in [[Addiewell]].
* A memorial plaque commemorating the centenary of Livingstone's birth was dedicated in [[Hamilton United Reformed Church|St. James's Congregational Church in Hamilton]], the church he attended as a boy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://hamilton.urc.org.uk/david-livingstone/ |title=David Livingstone – a brief history |publisher=Hamilton.urc.org.uk |date=13 January 2012 |access-date=7 March 2013 |archive-date=21 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021144458/http://hamilton.urc.org.uk/david-livingstone/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Livingstone lived at 17 Burnbank Road in [[Hamilton, South Lanarkshire]], for a short time in 1862. The house still stands and has a memorial plaque outside. He was awarded the [[Freedom of the City|Freedom of the Town]] of Hamilton.<ref>{{cite book|author=Blaikie, William Garden|title=The Personal Life of David Livingstone|publisher=Project Gutenberg|year=2004|orig-year=1880|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/13262/13262-h/13262-h.htm}}</ref>

'''England'''
* A statue of David Livingstone stands in a niche on the outer wall of the [[Royal Geographical Society]] on Kensington Gore, London, looking out across Kensington Gardens. It was unveiled in 1953.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Unveiling of the Livingstone Statue|journal=The Geographical Journal|volume=120|issue=1|pages=15–20|year=1954|issn=0016-7398|doi=10.2307/1791984|jstor=1791984|bibcode=1954GeogJ.120...15. }}</ref>
* Livingstone is one of the four houses at [[Eltham College]].
* David Livingstone Primary School in Thornton Heath, South London.
* The former headquarters building of the [[London Missionary Society]] in Carteret Street, London, SW1 was named Livingstone House.
* There is a room named after Livingstone in [[Corpus Christi College, Oxford]].
* In 1913, a plaque was unveiled on [[Livingstone Cottage and Monken Cottage|Livingstone Cottage]] in Hadley Green, High Barnet commemorating Livingstone's birth.
* A road in Stratford, London, was named after Livingstone, with the adjacent named after Henry Morgan Staley. Now situated adjacent to Rick Roberts Way. Both since demolished. 

===North America===
'''Canada'''
* The [[Livingstone Range (Canada)|Livingstone Range]] of mountains in southern [[Alberta]].
* David Livingstone Elementary School, [[Vancouver]].
* David Livingstone Community School, [[Winnipeg]].
* Bronze bust in [[City of Halifax|Halifax]], Nova Scotia.
* Gold bust in the city of Borden, Ontario.
* Livingstone Avenue in Barrie, Ontario.
* Livingstone Street, St. John's, [[Newfoundland and Labrador]], Canada.

'''United States'''
* The town of [[Livingston, California|Livingston]], California
* [[Livingstone College]], Salisbury, North Carolina.
* Livingstone Adventist Academy, [[Salem, Oregon|Salem]], Oregon.
* Livingston Falls, Busch Gardens, Tampa Bay

===South America===
* The Livingstone Healthservice in Jardín América, Misiones, Argentina is named in his honour.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.accc-ja.com/0000009f7f0a5e705/0000009ff00e61617/index.html |title=Livingstone Healthservice |access-date=7 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304104452/http://www.accc-ja.com/0000009f7f0a5e705/0000009ff00e61617/index.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=usurped }}</ref>

===Banknotes===
In 1971–1998 Livingstone's image was portrayed on [[Banknotes of the pound sterling|£10 notes]] issued by the [[Clydesdale Bank]]. He was originally shown surrounded by palm tree leaves with an illustration of African [[tribesmen]] on the back.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aes.iupui.edu/rwise/banknotes/scotland/ScotlandP213a-10Pounds-1982-donatedth_b.jpg |title=Clydesdale 10 Pounds, 1982 |publisher=Ron Wise's Banknoteworld |access-date=15 October 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081021212133/http://aes.iupui.edu/rwise/banknotes/scotland/ScotlandP213a-10Pounds-1982-donatedth_b.jpg |archive-date=21 October 2008 }}</ref> A later issue showed Livingstone against a background graphic of a map of Livingstone's Zambezi expedition, showing the [[Zambezi|River Zambezi]], [[Victoria Falls, Zambia|Victoria Falls]], [[Lake Nyasa]] and [[Blantyre, Malawi]]; on the reverse, the African figures were replaced with an image of Livingstone's birthplace in [[Blantyre, South Lanarkshire|Blantyre]], Scotland.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aes.iupui.edu/rwise/banknotes/scotland/ScotlandP214-10Pounds-1990-donatedth_f.jpg |title=Clydesdale 10 Pounds, 1990 |publisher=Ron Wise's Banknoteworld |access-date=15 October 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081021212114/http://aes.iupui.edu/rwise/banknotes/scotland/ScotlandP214-10Pounds-1990-donatedth_f.jpg |archive-date=21 October 2008 }}</ref>

===Science===
The following species have been named in honour of David Livingstone:
* Livingston's cichlid, ''[[Nimbochromis livingstonii]]''
* Livingstone's eland, ''[[Taurotragus oryx]] livingstonii''
* [[Livingstone's fruit bat]], ''Pteropus livingstonii''

The mineral [[livingstonite]] is named in his honor.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barcena |first1=M |title=On livingstonite, a new mineral |journal=American Journal of Science |date=1874 |volume=108 |pages=145–146}}</ref> It was described in 1874 from Mexico.

==Portrayal in film and books==
* Livingstone has been portrayed by [[M. A. Wetherell]] in [[Livingstone (film)|''Livingstone'']] (1925), [[Percy Marmont]] in [[David Livingstone (film)|''David Livingstone'']] (1936), Sir [[Cedric Hardwicke]] in ''[[Stanley and Livingstone]]'' (1939), [[Michael Gough]] in BBC television series ''[[The Search for the Nile]]'' (1971), [[Bernard Hill]] in [[Mountains of the Moon (film)|''Mountains of the Moon'']] (1990) and Sir [[Nigel Hawthorne]] in the TV movie ''Forbidden Territory'' (1997).<ref>{{IMDb title|qid=Q123536796|title=Forbidden Territory: Stanley's Search for Livingstone (1997)}}</ref>
* [[Marvel Comics]]' ''[[Young Allies (Marvel Comics)|The Young Allies]]'' #2 featured an explorer named "Martin Livingstone" who discovered a new territory he dubbed "New America" and claimed it for the United States.  [[Bucky Barnes]] greets him with the famous, "Dr. Livingstone, I presume?" The story was at least partially drawn by [[Ernie Hart]], but the writer is unknown—[[Otto Binder]] had written the preceding issue and [[Stan Lee]] the following one.<ref>Stan Lee, Otto Binder, et al. ''[[Marvel Masterworks]]: Young Allies''.  New York: Marvel Publishing, 2009.</ref>
* The 1949 [[comedy film]] ''[[Africa Screams]]'' is the story of a dimwitted clerk named Stanley Livington (played by [[Lou Costello]]), who is mistaken for a famous African explorer and recruited to lead a treasure hunt. The character's name appears to be a play on Stanley and Livingstone.
* Stanley Livingston, played by [[Mort Marshall]], whose name invokes both Stanley and David Livingtone, was the zoo director on ''[[Tennessee Tuxedo and His Tales]]'', a 1963-66 animated series.
* ''Out of Darkness, Shining Light'' (2019) by [[Petina Gappah]] is a fictionalized account of how Livingstone's body, papers, and maps traveled 1,500 miles across the continent of Africa, so his remains could be returned to England and his work preserved there.

==In popular culture==
In the 1940 [[Warner Bros.]] [[Looney Tunes]] cartoon "[[Africa Squeaks]]", a caricature of [[Spencer Tracy]] as [[Henry Morton Stanley]] erroneously presumes Porky Pig to be Livingstone in the heart of "Darkest Africa".

The [[Moody Blues]] 1968 single [[Dr. Livingstone, I Presume (song)|"Dr. Livingstone, I Presume"]] paints the adventures of Livingstone, [[Captain Scott]], and [[Christopher Columbus|Columbus]] with the refrain "What did you find there? Did you stand awhile and stare? Did you meet anyone?", followed by a repeated chorus of "We're all looking for someone".

The ABBA song "[[What About Livingstone?|What about Livingstone?]]"<ref>{{cite book|last1=Sheridan|first1=Simon|title=The Complete ABBA|date=2012|publisher=Titan Books|isbn=978-0857687241|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=glQ4CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT69|page=69|edition=40th Anniversary}}</ref> mentions Livingstone "traveling up the Nile". Livingstone made 4 great journeys into Africa, three of them starting in Cape Town, South Africa and the last at Zanzibar. None of the routes traveled on the Nile which lay far to the north. He may have crossed sections of the headwaters of Nile on his final expedition but he would not have known so as these areas were not considered in the Nile watershed until much later.

A song from American [[Heavy metal music|heavy metal]] band [[Alcatrazz]] called Jet to Jet from 1983's [[No Parole from Rock 'n' Roll]] contains the lyrics "Dr. Livingstone where are you, when We need you the most" which is in reference to the famed doctor and his expedition to [[Africa]].

Stanley's search for and discovery of Livingstone is the subject of the [[Hugh Masekela]] song "Witch Doctor" that appears on his 1976 album, ''[[Colonial Man]]''.

''[[Civilization V: Brave New World]]'' includes an achievement called "Dr. Livingstone, I presume?" The achievement requires playing as Belgium, moving H. M. Stanley within a space of Dr. Livingstone.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.ign.com/wikis/sid-meiers-civilization-5-brave-new-world/Achievements|title=Achievements|date=10 July 2013|access-date=27 August 2024|last=Claiborne|first=Samuel|publisher=IGN|website=IGN.com}}</ref>

Ray Stevens' 1990 song This Ain't Exactly What I Had in Mind includes a humorous reference to Dr. David Livingstone. The lyrics play on the famed explorer's unexpected discoveries, using his name as a metaphor for unforeseen circumstances in life.
The song, known for its comedic storytelling, follows a character who finds himself in an unexpected situation, much like Livingstone's legendary expeditions into the heart of Africa. The use of Livingstone in the song continues the tradition of referencing the explorer in popular music and entertainment.
An animated music video for the song was later released, further cementing its place in Stevens' extensive catalog of humorous country and pop songs.

==See also==
* [[John McKendree Springer]] – pioneer missionary in central Africa
* [[Thomas Baines]]
* [[John Kirk (explorer)|John Kirk]]
* [[Livingstone Inland Mission]]
* [[History of Christianity in Zambia]]

==References==
===Notes===
{{notelist}}

===Citations===
{{reflist}}

===Sources and further reading===
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* Austin, Alvyn. "Discovering Livingstone" ''Christian History'' (1997) 16#4 pp.&nbsp;10–19.
* Dritsas, Lawrence. ''Zambesi: David Livingstone and expeditionary science in Africa'' (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2020).
* {{cite book|last=Dugard|first=Martin |title=Into Africa: The Epic Adventures Of Stanley And Livingstone|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X5xM29LaRZQC&pg=PA384|year=2012|publisher=Transworld|isbn=978-1-4464-3720-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Dugard|first=Martin |title=The Explorers: A Story of Fearless Outcasts, Blundering Geniuses, and Impossible Success|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_HumAwAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4516-7757-7}}
* Gooding, Philip. "David Livingstone, UNESCO, and Nation-Building in 19th-21st-Century Scotland and East and Central Africa." ''Journal of Indian Ocean World Studies'' 5.2 (2021): 243–269. [https://jiows.mcgill.ca/article/view/117/72 online]
* Groop, Kim Stefan. "Exploring Africa in the Nordic Press: David Livingstone, Henry Stanley and the Popular Fascination with Exploration and Adventure in Africa in the Late 19th Century." in ''Modernity, Frontiers and Revolutions: Proceedings of the 4th International Multidisciplinary Congress'' (CRC Press, 2018). [https://www.academia.edu/download/57545041/Grooop_-_Exploring_Africa.pdf online]{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* Holmes, Timothy (1993). ''Journey to Livingstone: Exploration of an Imperial Myth''. Edinburgh: Canongate Press. {{ISBN|978-0-86241-402-3}}; scholarly biography
* {{cite book|first=Tim|last=Jeal|author-link=Tim Jeal|title=Livingstone|year=1973|publisher=[[Heinemann (book publisher)|Heinemann]]|location=London|isbn=978-0-434-37208-9}}, scholarly biography
* {{cite book|last=Jeal|first= Tim |url=https://archive.org/details/livingstone00jeal |date=1973b |title=Livingstone |location=New York |publisher=G. P. Putnum's Sons|isbn= 9780399112157 |lccn=73-82030}}, first American edition
* {{cite book|last=Jeal|first=Tim|author-link=Tim Jeal |title=Livingstone: Revised and Expanded Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HcDR7nTiVAYC|year=2013|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-19100-4}}
* Kilbride, Daniel. "The Old South Confronts the Dilemma of David Livingstone." ''Journal of Southern History'' (2016) 82#4 pp.&nbsp;789–822; how he was seen in the American South.
* Lewis, Joanna. ''Empire of sentiment: the death of Livingstone and the myth of Victorian imperialism'' (Cambridge University Press, 2018) .
* Liebenberg, Elri. "'I Will Open a Path into the Interior (of Africa), or Perish': David Livingstone and the Mapping of Africa." ''Cartographic Journal'' 58.1 (2021): 29–49.

<!--*{{cite book|last=Livingstone|first=David|title=Journeys in South Africa, or Travels and Researches in South Africa|orig-year=1857|year=1905|publisher=The Amalgamated Press Ltd.|location=London, UK}}-->
* {{cite book|last=Livingstone|first=David |title=Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa: Including a Sketch of Sixteen Years' Residence in the Interior of Africa|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.33342/page/n3 |year=1857|publisher=Murray|location=London|page=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.33342 Contents]}}
* {{cite book | last1=Livingstone | first1=D. | last2=Livingstone | first2=C. | title=Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and Its Tributaries: And of the Discovery of the Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa. 1858–1864 | publisher=Harper & Brothers  |  year=1866 | url=https://archive.org/details/narrativeanexpe03livigoog }}
* {{cite book|last=Livingstone|first=David |editor-first=Horace |editor-last=Waller|editor-link=Horace Waller (activist)|title=The Last Journals of David Livingstone, in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death: Continued by a Narrative of His Last Moments and Sufferings, Obtained from His Faithful Servants Chuma and Susi; in Two Volumes|url=https://archive.org/details/lastjournalsdav00livigoog|year=1874|publisher=J. Murray}}
* Livingstone, David and James I. Macnair (eds) (1954). ''Livingstone's Travels''. London: J.M. Dent.
* Livingstone, David (1999) [1875]. [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927214512/http://www.arlea.fr/article.php3?id_article=493&var_recherche=livingstone%2F ''Dernier Journal'']. Paris: [[Arléa]]; {{ISBN|2-86959-215-9}} {{in lang|fr}}
* Livingstone, David; I. Schapera (ed.) ''David Livingstone: Family Letters 1841–1856''. London: Chatto & Windus (1959) in two volumes.
* Livingstone, Justin D. "Livingstone's Life & Expeditions." in Adrian S. Wisnicki and Megan Ward, eds. ''Livingstone Online'' (2015) [http://livingstoneonline.org/uuid/node/76ab1aa0-2bf4-4c42-adf7-c8c4ee960236 online].
* MacKenzie, John M. "David Livingstone, the Scottish cultural and political revival and the end of empire in Africa." in ''Scotland, empire and decolonisation in the twentieth century'' (Manchester University Press, 2017) pp.&nbsp;180–199.
* [[Thomas Banks Maclachlan|Maclachlan, T. Banks.]] ''David Livingstone,'' Edinburgh: [[Oliphant, Anderson and Ferrier]], 1901, ([[List of books for the "Famous Scots Series"|"Famous Scots Series"]]).
* Martelli, George (1970). ''Livingstone's River: A History of the Zambezi Expedition'', 1858–1864. London: Chatto & Windus. {{ISBN|978-0-7011-1527-2}}
* {{cite book|first=Jay|last=Milbrandt|title=The Daring Heart of David Livingstone: Exile, African Slavery, and the Publicity Stunt that Saved Millions|year=2014|publisher=[[Thomas Nelson (book publisher)|Thomas Nelson]]|location=Nashville, TN|isbn=978-1-59555-592-2}} scholarly biography
* [[Basil Joseph Mathews|Mathews, Basil Joseph]], ''Livingstone, the Pathfinder'', illustrated by [[Ernest Prater]] (Oxford and London: Henry Frowde Oxford University Press, 1913)
* Mkenda, Festo. "A Protestant Verdict on the Jesuit Missionary Approach in Africa: David Livingstone and Memories of the Early Jesuit Presence in South Central Africa." in ''Encounters between Jesuits and Protestants in Africa'' (Brill, 2017). 59–79 [https://brill.com/view/book/edcoll/9789004347151/B9789004347151_006.xml online].
* Morrill, Leslie, and Madge Haines (1959). ''Livingstone, Trail Blazer for God''. Mountain View: Pacific Press Publication Association.
* [[M. NourbeSe Philip|Philip, M. NourbeSe]] (1991). ''Looking for Livingstone: An Odyssey of Silence''. Stratford: The Mercury Press; {{ISBN|978-0-920544-88-4}}
* Rea, W. F. "Livingstone's Rhodesian Legacy." '' History Today'' (Sept 1973), Vol. 23 Issue 9, pp.&nbsp;633–639 online.
* {{cite book | last=Ross | first=Andrew | title=David Livingstone : Mission and Empire | publisher=Hambledon Continuum | publication-place=London | year=2002 | isbn= 978-1-85285-285-6 | oclc=}}
* Rotberg, Robert I. "His Brother's Keeper: Charles Livingstone and the 'Failure' of David Livingstone's Zambezi Expedition." ''Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History'' 47.1 (2019): 76–99.
* Seaver, George. ''David Livingston: His Life and Letters'' (1957), a standard biography
* Shepperson, George. "David Livingstone 1813–1873: a centenary assessment." ''Geographical Journal'' (1973): 205–219. {{doi|10.2307/1796089}}
* Stanley, Henry M. ''How I Found Livingstone'' (1872) [https://archive.org/details/howifoundliving00stangoog famous primary source].
* Stuart, John. "David Livingstone, British Protestant missions, memory and empire." in Dominik Geppert, ed., ''Sites of imperial memory'' (Manchester University Press, 2016).
* Waters, John (1996). ''David Livingstone: Trail Blazer''. Leicester: Inter-Varsity; {{ISBN|978-0-85111-170-4}}
* Wisnicki, Adrian S. (2009). "Interstitial Cartographer: David Livingstone and the Invention of South Central Africa". ''Victorian Literature and Culture'' 37.1 (Mar.): 255–271.

{{EB1911|wstitle=Cameron, Verney Lovett|volume=5|page=109}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{sister project links||d=Q48373|c=Category:David Livingstone|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=Author:David Livingstone|wikt=no|species=David Livingstone}}
{{EB1911 poster|David Livingstone}}
* [https://livingstoneonline.org/ Livingstone Online]
* [http://livingstone.library.ucla.edu/ Livingstone Spectral Imaging Project] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170715215339/http://livingstone.library.ucla.edu/ |date=15 July 2017 }}). Many of Livingstone's original papers spectrally imaged.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080217151257/http://www.livingstoneonline.ucl.ac.uk/index.html Livingstone Online – Explore the manuscripts of David Livingstone] Images of original documents alongside transcribed, critically edited versions
* [http://ssa.nls.uk/film.cfm?fid=0192 David Livingstone (c. 1956)]. Archive film from the National Library of Scotland: Scottish Screen Archive
* {{Gutenberg author |id=519| name=David Livingstone}}
** ''[[Gutenberg:1039|Missionary Travels and Researches in South Africa]]''
** ''[https://gutenberg.org/etext/2519 A Popular Account of Dr Livingstone's Expedition to the Zambesi and Its Tributaries]''
** ''[https://gutenberg.org/etext/13262 The Personal Life of David Livingstone]''
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=David Livingstone}}
* {{Librivox author|id=18525}}
* {{Cite journal |publisher=Macmillan & Co. |pages=225–236 |year=1892 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0CMYAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA225 |title=Dr. Livingston (obituary, Wed., 28 Jan. 1874) |journal=Eminent Persons: Biographies Reprinted from the Times. Vol. 1–6. D. Vol. I, 1870–1875}}
* [https://www.pbs.org/wnet/secrets/the-lost-diary-of-dr-livingstone-about-this-episode/1103/ ''The Lost Diary of Dr. Livingstone'']{{snd}}Documentary produced by the [[PBS]] series ''[[Secrets of the Dead]]''
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20150309063629/http://www.rhodesia.me.uk/VictoriaFalls.htm "Victoria Falls: How Livingstone discovered the Falls". by J. Desmond Clark M.A. PH.D. F.S.A. Curator of the Rhodes-Livingstone Museum. 1955]
* [http://labs.jstor.org/zambezi/?cid=soc_JSTORedu# Interactive map of Livingstone's Zambezi expedition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413235642/http://labs.jstor.org/zambezi/?cid=soc_JSTORedu |date=13 April 2017 }}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Livingstone, David}}
[[Category:David Livingstone| ]]
[[Category:1813 births]]
[[Category:1873 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century British letter writers]]
[[Category:19th-century Congregationalist ministers]]
[[Category:19th-century British explorers]]
[[Category:19th-century Scottish diarists]]
[[Category:19th-century Scottish medical doctors]]
[[Category:Alumni of Charing Cross Medical School]]
[[Category:Alumni of the University of Glasgow]]
[[Category:Burials at Westminster Abbey]]
[[Category:Congregationalist missionaries in Africa]]
[[Category:Deaths from dysentery]]
[[Category:Deaths from malaria]]
[[Category:British explorers of Africa]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Geographical Society]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Infectious disease deaths in Zambia]]
[[Category:Medical missionaries]]
[[Category:People from Blantyre, South Lanarkshire]]
[[Category:Plant collectors]]
[[Category:Scottish Congregationalist missionaries]]
[[Category:Scottish explorers]]
[[Category:Scottish evangelicals]]
[[Category:Deaths from bleeding]]
[[Category:Scottish Congregationalist ministers]]
[[Category:Scottish abolitionists]]
[[Category:Congregationalist abolitionists]]