View source for Streaming media

{{Short description|Multimedia delivery method}}
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[[File:NASA Spacesuit Development.webm|thumb|upright=1.35|thumbtime=78|On websites such as YouTube, videos such as this short NASA film about spacesuit design are played [[Real-time computer graphics|instantly]] depending on the user's internet connection, and the video is partially [[downloaded]] in the background.]]
{{Ecommerce}}

'''Streaming media''' refers to [[multimedia]]  delivered through a [[Computer network|network]] for playback using a [[Media player (disambiguation)|media player]]. Media is transferred in a ''stream'' of [[Network packet|packets]] from a [[Server (computing)|server]] to a [[client-server model|client]] and is rendered in real-time;<ref>{{Citation |last1=Patrikakis |first1=Charalampos |title=Streaming Content Wars: Download and Play Strikes Back |year=2010 |work=User Centric Media |volume=40 |pages=218–226 |editor-last=Daras |editor-first=Petros |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-642-12630-7_26 |access-date=5 May 2024 |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer Berlin Heidelberg |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-12630-7_26 |isbn=978-3-642-12629-1 |last2=Papaoulakis |first2=Nikos |last3=Stefanoudaki |first3=Chryssanthi |last4=Nunes |first4=Mário |editor2-last=Ibarra |editor2-first=Oscar Mayora|url-access=subscription }}</ref> this contrasts with file [[downloading]], a process in which the end-user obtains an entire media file before consuming the content. Streaming is more commonly used for [[video on demand]], [[streaming television]], and [[music streaming service]]s over the Internet.

While streaming is most commonly associated with multimedia from a remote server over the Internet, it also includes [[offline]] multimedia between devices on a [[local area network]]. For example, using [[DLNA]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://campaign.odw.sony-europe.com/tvme/mySony/my008/BRAVIA_DLNA_EN.pdf |title=DLNA Network Guide |access-date=21 August 2024}}</ref> and a [[home server]], or in a [[personal area network]] between two devices using [[Bluetooth]] (which uses [[radio waves]] rather than [[Internet Protocol|IP]]).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fayyoumi |first1=Ebaa |title=L2CAP-based prototype media streaming via Bluetooth technology |last2=Idwan |first2=Sahar |last3=Muhared |first3=Hiba |last4=Matar |first4=Izzeddin |last5=Rawashdeh |first5=Obaidah |date=November 2014 |journal=International Journal of Networking and Virtual Organisations |volume=14 |issue=3|page=221 |doi=10.1504/IJNVO.2014.065785 }}</ref> Online streaming was initially popularized by [[RealNetworks]] and [[Microsoft]] in the 1990s<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://boyetblog.s3.amazonaws.com/PCPlus/324.Streaming.pdf |title=The history of streaming media - PC Plus |year=2012}}</ref> and has since grown to become the globally most popular method for consuming music and videos,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Music consumption at all time high powered by streaming and video apps {{!}} Complete Music Update |url=https://archive.completemusicupdate.com/article/music-consumption-at-all-time-high-powered-by-streaming-and-video-apps/ |access-date=5 May 2024}}</ref> with numerous competing subscription services being offered since the 2010s.<ref name="StreamingWars" /> Audio streaming to [[wireless speaker]]s, often using Bluetooth, is another use that has become prevalent during that decade.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bonnington |first=Christina |date=12 April 2018 |title=Even Ikea Has a Connected Speaker Now |url=https://slate.com/technology/2018/04/ikea-launching-connected-speaker-to-compete-with-amazon-echo-google-home.html |access-date=5 May 2024 |work=Slate |language=en-US |issn=1091-2339}}</ref> [[Live streaming]] is the real-time delivery of content during production, much as [[live television]] broadcasts content via television channels.<ref>{{Cite web |title=What is live streaming? |url=https://www.cloudflare.com/learning/video/what-is-live-streaming/ |website=[[Cloudflare]]}}</ref>

Distinguishing delivery methods from the media applies specifically to, as most of the traditional media delivery systems are either inherently ''streaming'' (e.g., radio, television) or inherently ''non-streaming'' (e.g., books, [[videotape]]s, [[audio CD]]s). The term "streaming media" can apply to media other than video and audio, such as live [[closed captioning]], [[ticker tape]], and [[real-time text]], which are all considered "streaming text".

==Etymology==
The term "streaming" was first used for [[tape drive]]s manufactured by Data Electronics Inc. that were meant to slowly ramp up and run for the entire track; slower ramp times lowered drive costs. "Streaming" was applied in the early 1990s as a better description for [[video on demand]] and later live video on [[IP network]]s. It was first done by [[Starlight Networks]] for video streaming and [[Real Networks]] for audio streaming. Such video had previously been referred to by the misnomer "store and forward video."<ref name=":2">{{cite book| chapter = On buffer requirements for store-and-forward video on demand service circuits | publisher = [[IEEE]]| doi = 10.1109/GLOCOM.1991.188525 | title = IEEE Global Telecommunications Conference GLOBECOM '91: Countdown to the New Millennium. Conference Record | pages = 976–980 | year = 1991 | last1 = Gelman | first1 = A.D. | last2 = Halfin | first2 = S. | last3 = Willinger | first3 = W. | isbn = 0-87942-697-7 | s2cid = 61767197}}</ref>

==Precursors==
Beginning in 1881, [[Théâtrophone]] enabled subscribers to listen to opera and theatre performances over telephone lines. This operated until 1932. The concept of media streaming eventually came to America.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Reason |first1=Samuel |title=Music Streaming Actually Existed Back In 1890 |url=https://blitzlift.com/music-streaming-actually-existed-back-in-1890/ |website=blitzlift.com |date=6 November 2020 |access-date=27 December 2020 |archive-date=1 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201201112651/https://blitzlift.com/music-streaming-actually-existed-back-in-1890/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the early 1920s, [[George Owen Squier]] was granted patents for a system for the transmission and distribution of signals over electrical lines,<ref>{{cite patent | url = http://www.google.com/patents?id=5pV5AAAAEBAJ&dq=1641608| title = Electrical signaling |country=US |number=1,641,608}}</ref> which was the technical basis for what later became ''[[Muzak]]'', a technology for streaming continuous music to commercial customers without the use of radio.

The Telephone Music Service, a live jukebox service, began in 1929 and continued until 1997.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Greene |first1=Bob |title=GETTING PERSONAL WITH THE JUKEBOX |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1987-02-08-8701100626-story.html |work=Chicago Tribune |date=8 February 1987 |access-date=27 December 2020 |archive-date=8 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108000218/https://www.chicagotribune.com/news/ct-xpm-1987-02-08-8701100626-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="pittsburghmagazine.com">{{cite web |last1=Furness |first1=Zack |title=Did You Know Music Streaming Has Roots in Pittsburgh? |url=https://www.pittsburghmagazine.com/did-you-know-music-streaming-has-roots-in-pittsburgh/ |website=pittsburghmagazine.com |date=17 October 2019 |access-date=27 December 2020 |archive-date=4 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204132439/https://www.pittsburghmagazine.com/did-you-know-music-streaming-has-roots-in-pittsburgh/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The clientele eventually included 120 bars and restaurants in the Pittsburgh area. A tavern customer would deposit money in the jukebox, use a telephone on top of the jukebox, and ask the operator to play a song. The operator would find the record in the studio library of more than 100,000 records, put it on a turntable, and the music would be piped over the telephone line to play in the tavern. The music media began as 78s, 33s and 45s, played on the six turntables they monitored. CDs and tapes were incorporated in later years.

The business had a succession of owners, notably Bill Purse, his daughter Helen Reutzel, and finally Dotti White. The revenue stream for each quarter was split between 60% for the music service and 40% for the tavern owner.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bradley-Steck |first1=Tara |title=Complex Link-Up of Phone Lines, Old Phonograph Records : 'Human Jukebox' Spins Sounds for the Heart |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-09-04-mn-1987-story.html |website=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=4 September 1988 |access-date=27 December 2020 |archive-date=25 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210125214037/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1988-09-04-mn-1987-story.html |url-status=live }}</ref> This business model eventually became unsustainable due to city permits and the cost of setting up these telephone lines.<ref name="pittsburghmagazine.com"/>

==History==
===Early development===
{{See also|Timeline of online video}}
Attempts to display media on [[Personal computer|computers]] date back to the earliest days of computing in the mid-20th&nbsp;century. However, little progress was made for several decades, primarily due to the high cost and limited capabilities of computer hardware. From the late 1980s through the 1990s, consumer-grade personal computers became powerful enough to display various media. The primary technical issues related to streaming were having enough [[CPU]] and [[bus (computing)|bus]] [[Bandwidth (computing)|bandwidth]] to support the required data rates and achieving the [[real-time computing]] performance required to prevent [[buffer underrun]]s and enable smooth streaming of the content. However, computer networks were still limited in the mid-1990s, and audio and video media were usually delivered over non-streaming channels, such as playback from a local [[hard disk drive]] or [[CD-ROM]]s on the end user's computer.

Terminology in the 1970s was at best confusing for applications such as telemetered aircraft or missile test data. By then PCM [Pulse Code Modulation] was the dominant transmission type. This PCM transmission was bit-serial and not packetized so the 'streaming' terminology was often a confusion factor. In 1969 Grumman acquired one of the first telemetry ground stations [Automated Telemetry Station, 'ATS'] which had the capability for reconstructing serial telemetered data which had been recorded on digital computer peripheral tapes. Computer peripheral tapes were inherently recorded in blocks. Reconstruction was required for continuous display purposes without time-base distortion. The Navy implemented similar capability in DoD for the first time in 1973. These implementations are the only known examples of true 'streaming' in the sense of reconstructing distortion-free serial data from packetized or blocked recordings.<ref>IEEE Aero & AES Magazine, May 2022 ISSN 0885-8985, Vol 37, No.5 pp. 40</ref> 'Real-time' terminology has also been confusing in streaming context. The most accepted definition of 'real-time' requires that all associated processing or formatting of the data must take place prior to availability of the next sample of each measurement. In the 1970s the most powerful mainframe computers were not fast enough for this task at significant overall data rates in the range of 50,000 samples per second. For that reason both the Grumman ATS and the Navy Real-time Telemetry Processing System [RTPS] employed unique special purpose digital computers dedicated to real-time processing of raw data samples.

In 1990, the first commercial [[Ethernet switch]] was introduced by [[Kalpana, Inc.|Kalpana]], which enabled the more powerful computer networks that led to the first streaming video solutions used by schools and corporations.

Practical streaming media was only made possible with advances in [[data compression]] due to the impractically high bandwidth requirements of uncompressed media. Raw [[digital audio]] encoded with [[pulse-code modulation]] (PCM) requires a bandwidth of 1.4{{nbsp}}[[Mbit/s]] for uncompressed [[CD audio]], while raw [[digital video]] requires a bandwidth of 168{{nbsp}}Mbit/s for [[SD video]] and over 1000{{nbsp}}Mbit/s for [[FHD]] video.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Jack |title=Scalable Continuous Media Streaming Systems: Architecture, Design, Analysis and Implementation |date=2005 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9780470857649 |page=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7fuvu52cyNEC&pg=PA25}}</ref>

=== Late 1990s to early 2000s ===
{{See also|Original net animation}}

During the late 1990s and early 2000s, users had increased access to computer networks, especially the Internet. During the early 2000s, users had access to increased network [[Bandwidth (signal processing)|bandwidth]], especially in the [[Last mile (telecommunications)|last mile]]. These technological improvements facilitated the streaming of audio and video content to computer users in their homes and workplaces. There was also an increasing use of standard protocols and formats, such as [[TCP/IP]], [[HTTP]], and [[HTML]], as the Internet became increasingly commercialized, which led to an infusion of investment into the sector.

The band [[Severe Tire Damage (band)|Severe Tire Damage]] was the first group to perform live on the Internet. On 24 June 1993, the band was playing a gig at [[Xerox PARC]], while elsewhere in the building, scientists were discussing new technology (the [[Mbone]]) for broadcasting on the Internet using [[multicast]]ing. As proof of PARC's technology, the band's performance was broadcast and could be seen live in Australia and elsewhere. In a March 2017 interview, band member Russ Haines stated that the band had used approximately "half of the total bandwidth of the internet" to stream the performance, which was a {{resx|152|76}} pixel video, updated eight to twelve times per second, with audio quality that was, "at best, a bad telephone connection."<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRa2pE5-Ny0 "History of the Internet Pt. 1 – The First Live Stream"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190129023330/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRa2pE5-Ny0&gl=US&hl=en |date=29 January 2019 }}. Via YouTube. Internet Archive – Stream Division. 5 April 2017. Retrieved 13 January 2018.</ref> In October 1994, a school music festival was webcast from the Michael Fowler Centre in Wellington, New Zealand. The technician who arranged the webcast, local council employee Richard Naylor, later commented: "We had 16 viewers in 12 countries."<ref>{{cite book |last1=Newman |first1=Keith |title=Connecting the Clouds: The Internet in New Zealand |date=2008 |publisher=Activity Press |location=Auckland |isbn=978-0-9582634-4-3 |page=90}}</ref>

[[RealNetworks]] pioneered the broadcast of a baseball game between the [[New York Yankees]] and the [[Seattle Mariners]] over the Internet in 1995.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/RealNetworks-Inc-Company-History.html |publisher=Funding Universe |title=RealNetworks Inc. |access-date=23 July 2011 |archive-date=11 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711054958/http://www.fundinguniverse.com/company-histories/RealNetworks-Inc-Company-History.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The first symphonic concert on the Internet—a collaboration between the [[Seattle Symphony]] and guest musicians [[Slash (musician)|Slash]], [[Matt Cameron]], and [[Barrett Martin]]—took place at the [[Paramount Theatre (Seattle, Washington)|Paramount Theater]] in [[Seattle]], Washington, on 10&nbsp;November 1995.<ref>{{cite magazine |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title= Cyberian Rhapsody |magazine=Billboard |location= United States|publisher= Lynne Segall|date=17 February 1996}}</ref>

In 1996, [[Marc Scarpa]] produced the first large-scale, online, live broadcast, the [[Adam Yauch]]–led [[Tibetan Freedom Concert]], an event that would define the format of social change broadcasts. Scarpa continued to pioneer in the streaming media world with projects such as [[Woodstock '99]], Townhall with [[Presidency of Bill Clinton|President Clinton]], and more recently Covered CA's campaign "Tell a Friend Get Covered", which was livestreamed on YouTube.

=== Business developments ===
[[Xing Technology]] was founded in 1989 and developed a JPEG streaming product called "StreamWorks".  Another streaming product appeared in late 1992 and was named StarWorks.<ref name="StarWorks">{{Cite book |doi = 10.1109/CMPCON.1993.289623|title = Digest of Papers. Compcon Spring|year = 1993|last1 = Tobagi|first1 = F.A.|last2 = Pang|first2 = J.| chapter=StarWorks-a video applications server |pages = 4–11|isbn = 0-8186-3400-6|s2cid = 61039780}}</ref> StarWorks enabled on-demand MPEG-1 full-motion videos to be randomly accessed on corporate [[Ethernet]] networks. Starworks was from [[Starlight Networks]], which also pioneered live video streaming on Ethernet and via [[Internet Protocol]] over satellites with [[Hughes Network Systems]].<ref name="Starlight Networks and Hughes Network Systems">{{cite web |url=http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Starlight+Networks+and+Hughes+Network+Systems+Plan+Corporate...-a017588314 |title=Starlight Networks and Hughes Network Systems |access-date=10 May 2017 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402180803/https://www.thefreelibrary.com/Starlight+Networks+and+Hughes+Network+Systems+Plan+Corporate...-a017588314 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other early companies that created streaming media technology include Progressive Networks and Protocomm prior to widespread World Wide Web usage.  After the [[Netscape IPO]] in 1995 (and the release of [[Windows 95]] with built-in [[TCP/IP]] support), usage of the Internet expanded, and [[Dot-com bubble|many companies "went public"]], including Progressive Networks (which was renamed "[[RealNetworks]]", and listed on [[Nasdaq]] as "RNWK"). As the web became even more popular in the late 90s, streaming video on the internet blossomed from startups such as [[Vivo Software]] (later acquired by RealNetworks), VDOnet (acquired by RealNetworks), Precept (acquired by [[Cisco]]), and Xing (acquired by RealNetworks).<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Sullivan |first=Jennifer |title=Revived RealNetworks Buys Xing |language=en-US |magazine=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/1999/04/revived-realnetworks-buys-xing/ |access-date=5 October 2022 |issn=1059-1028}}</ref>

[[Microsoft]] developed a media player known as [[ActiveMovie]] in 1995 that supported streaming media and included a proprietary streaming format, which was the precursor to the streaming feature later in [[Windows Media Player]] 6.4 in 1999. In June 1999, [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] also introduced a streaming media format in its [[QuickTime]] 4 application. It was later also widely adopted on websites, along with RealPlayer and Windows Media streaming formats. The competing formats on websites required each user to download the respective applications for streaming, which resulted in many users having to have all three applications on their computer for general compatibility.

In 2000, Industryview.com launched its "world's largest streaming video archive" website to help businesses promote themselves.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Hebert |first=Steve |date=November 2000 |title=Streaming Video Opens New Doors |magazine=Videography|page=164}}</ref> Webcasting became an emerging tool for business marketing and advertising that combined the immersive nature of television with the interactivity of the Web. The ability to collect data and feedback from potential customers caused this technology to gain momentum quickly.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Reinstein |first=Bill |date=25 June 2001 |title=Webcasts Mature as Marketing Tool |magazine=DM News|page=24}}</ref>

Around 2002, the interest in a single, unified, streaming format and the widespread adoption of [[Adobe Flash]] prompted the development of a video streaming format through Flash, which was the format used in Flash-based players on [[video hosting]] sites. The first popular video streaming site, YouTube, was founded by [[Steve Chen]], [[Chad Hurley]], and [[Jawed Karim]] in 2005. It initially used a Flash-based player, which played [[MPEG-4 AVC]] video and [[Advanced Audio Coding|AAC]] audio, but now defaults to [[HTML video]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://youtube-eng.googleblog.com/2015/01/youtube-now-defaults-to-html5_27.html|title=YouTube now defaults to HTML5 <nowiki><video></nowiki>|work=YouTube Engineering and Developers Blog|access-date=20 February 2018|archive-date=10 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180910204225/https://youtube-eng.googleblog.com/2015/01/youtube-now-defaults-to-html5_27.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Increasing consumer demand for live streaming prompted YouTube to implement a new live streaming service for users.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.cnet.com/8301-17939_109-9883062-2.html |first=Josh |last=Lowensohn |year=2008 |title=YouTube to Offer Live Streaming This Year |access-date=23 July 2011 |archive-date=10 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810020943/http://news.cnet.com/8301-17939_109-9883062-2.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> The company currently also offers a (secure) link that returns the available connection speed of the user.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/my_speed# | title=YouTube Video Speed History | via=YouTube |access-date=30 April 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120426225550/http://www.youtube.com/my_speed |archive-date=26 April 2012 }}</ref>

The [[Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) revealed through its 2015, earnings report that streaming services were responsible for 34.3 percent of the year's total [[music industry]]'s revenue, growing 29 percent from the previous year and becoming the largest source of income, pulling in around $2.4&nbsp;billion.<ref>{{cite web|title=News and Notes on 2015 RIAA Shipment and Revenue Statistics|url=https://www.riaa.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/RIAA-2015-Year-End-shipments-memo.pdf|publisher=Recording Industry Association of America|access-date=5 January 2017|archive-date=6 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190606161536/https://www.riaa.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/03/RIAA-2015-Year-End-shipments-memo.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Streaming made more revenue for music industry in 2015 than digital downloads, physical sales|url=http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2016/mar/23/streaming-made-more-revenue-for-music-industry-in-/|newspaper=The Washington Times|access-date=5 January 2017|archive-date=5 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170105180057/http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2016/mar/23/streaming-made-more-revenue-for-music-industry-in-/|url-status=live}}</ref> US streaming revenue grew 57 percent to $1.6&nbsp;billion in the first half of 2016 and accounted for almost half of industry sales.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Shaw|first1=Lucas|title=The Music Industry Is Finally Making Money on Streaming|newspaper=Bloomberg.com|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-09-20/spotify-apple-drive-u-s-music-industry-s-8-first-half-growth|publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|access-date=5 January 2017|date=20 September 2016|archive-date=22 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190522143903/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-09-20/spotify-apple-drive-u-s-music-industry-s-8-first-half-growth|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Streaming wars ===
{{See also|List of streaming media services}}
{{Redirect|Streaming wars|the South Park film|South Park The Streaming Wars}}{{For|competition between music streaming platforms|#Music streaming platforms}}{{History of American television}}
The term ''streaming wars'' was coined to describe the new era (starting in the late 2010s) of competition between video streaming services such as [[Netflix]], [[Amazon Prime Video]], [[Hulu]], [[Max (streaming service)|Max]], [[Disney+]], [[Paramount+]], [[Apple TV+]], [[Peacock (streaming service)|Peacock]], and many more.<ref name=StreamingWars>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theverge.com/streaming-wars|title=Streaming Wars|website=The Verge|access-date=1 December 2019|archive-date=6 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206031626/https://www.theverge.com/streaming-wars|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chalaby |first1=Jean K |title=The streaming industry and the platform economy: An analysis |journal=[[Media, Culture & Society]] |year=2024 |volume=46 |issue=3 |pages=552–571 |doi=10.1177/01634437231210439 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

The competition between increasingly popular online platforms, such as Netflix and Amazon, and legacy broadcasters and studios moving online, like Disney and NBC, has driven each service to find ways to differentiate from one another. A key differentiator has been offering exclusive content, often self-produced and created for a specific [[market segment]]. 

When Netflix first launched in 2007, it became one of the more dominant streaming platforms even though it initially offered no original content. It would be nearly a half-dozen years before Netflix began offering its own shows, such as House of Cards, Orange Is the New Black, and Hemlock Grove. The legacy services also began producing original digital-only content, but they also began restricting their back catalog of shows and movies to their platforms, one of the most notable examples being Disney+. Disney took advantage of owning popular movies and shows like Frozen, Snow White, and the Star Wars and Marvel franchises, which could draw in more subscribers and make it a more serious competitor to Netflix and Amazon.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why the Streaming Wars Will Change the TV Industry Forever {{!}} Paramount |url=https://www.paramount.com/news/why-the-streaming-wars-will-change-the-tv-industry-forever |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=www.paramount.com |language=en}}</ref> Research suggests that this approach to streaming competition can be disadvantageous for consumers by increasing spending across platforms, and for the industry as a whole by dilution of subscriber base. Once specific content is made available on a streaming service, piracy searches for the same content decrease; competition or legal availability across multiple platforms appears to deter online piracy. Exclusive content produced for subscription services such as Netflix tends to have a higher production budget than content produced exclusively for [[pay-per-view]] services, such as Amazon Prime Video.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Streaming wars (Creative Economy Notes Series)|url=https://www.wipo.int/edocs/infogdocs/creative_industries/en/streaming-wars|access-date=29 December 2021|website=wipo.int|language=en}}</ref>

This competition increased during the first two years of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] as more people stayed home and watched TV. "The COVID-19 pandemic has led to a seismic shift in the film & TV industry in terms of how films are made, distributed, and screened. Many industries have been hit by the economic effects of the pandemic" (Totaro Donato).<ref name=":2" /> In August 2022, a CNN headline declared that "The streaming wars are over" as pandemic-era restrictions had largely ended and audience growth had stalled. This led services to focus on profit over market share by cutting production budgets, cracking down on password sharing, and introducing ad-supported tiers.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/11/media/streaming-disney-netflix/index.html |title=The streaming wars are over |publisher=[[CNN]] |first=Frank |last=Pallotta |date=11 August 2022 |access-date=19 August 2022 |archive-date=19 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220819180708/https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/11/media/streaming-disney-netflix/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref> A December 2022 article in ''[[The Verge]]'' echoed this, declaring an end to the "golden age of the streaming wars".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cranz |first=Alex |date=14 December 2022 |title=The golden age of the streaming wars has ended |url=https://www.theverge.com/2022/12/14/23507793/streaming-wars-hbo-max-netflix-ads-residuals-warrior-nun |access-date=29 December 2022 |website=[[The Verge]] |archive-date=29 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229202957/https://www.theverge.com/2022/12/14/23507793/streaming-wars-hbo-max-netflix-ads-residuals-warrior-nun |url-status=live }}</ref>

In September 2023, several streaming services formed a [[trade association]] named the Streaming Innovation Alliance (SIA), spearheaded by [[Charles Rivkin]] of the [[Motion Picture Association]] (MPA). Former [[U.S. representative]] [[Fred Upton]] and former [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC) acting chair [[Mignon Clyburn]] serve as senior advisors. Founding members include AfroLandTV, America Nu Network, [[BET+]], [[Demand Africa|The Africa Channel]], [[Discovery+]], FedNet, For Us By Us Network, In the Black Network, [[Max (streaming service)|Max]], [[Motion Picture Association]], MotorTrend+, [[Netflix]], [[Paramount+]], [[Peacock (streaming service)|Peacock]], [[Pluto TV]], Radiant, SkinsPlex, [[Telemundo]], [[TelevisaUnivision]], TVEI, Vault TV, [[Vix (streaming service)|Vix]], and [[The Walt Disney Company]]. Notably absent were [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], [[Roku]], and [[Tubi]].<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Huston |first=Caitlin |date=26 September 2023 |title=Netflix, Max, Disney and More Form Streaming Industry Trade Alliance |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/business-news/netflix-max-disney-and-more-form-streaming-industry-trade-alliance-1235600700/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926171324/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/business-news/netflix-max-disney-and-more-form-streaming-industry-trade-alliance-1235600700/ |archive-date=26 September 2023 |access-date=26 September 2023 |magazine=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Davis |first=Wes |date=26 September 2023 |title=Streaming giants have banded together for lobbying power |url=https://www.theverge.com/2023/9/26/23890778/streaming-companies-trade-group-sia-regulation-net-neutrality |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230926171450/https://www.theverge.com/2023/9/26/23890778/streaming-companies-trade-group-sia-regulation-net-neutrality |archive-date=26 September 2023 |access-date=26 September 2023 |website=[[The Verge]]}}</ref>

== Use by the general public ==
[[File:羽村市動物公園 ニコ生 2017 (32782507624).jpg|thumb|A camera [[live streaming]] at a zoo by [[Niconico]]]]

Advances in [[computer network]]ing, combined with powerful home computers and operating systems, have made streaming media affordable and easy for the public. Stand-alone [[Internet radio device]]s emerged to offer listeners a non-technical option for listening to audio streams. These audio-streaming services became increasingly popular; music streaming reached 4 trillion streams globally in 2023—a significant increase from 2022—jumping 34% over the year.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sherman |first=Maria |date=2024-01-10 |title=Music streams hit 4 trillion in 2023. Country and global acts — and Taylor Swift — fueled the growth |url=https://apnews.com/article/music-streams-2023-luminate-54aa3735ed707c1d5e9649724cc78c1f |access-date=2024-11-21 |website=AP News |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:Bluetooth Music Streaming - 2014 Scion tC (15664918268).jpg|thumb|A [[car audio]] receiver playing music being streamed via Bluetooth from a smartphone]]
In general, multimedia content is data-intensive, so media storage and transmission costs are still significant. Media is generally [[data compression|compressed]] for transport and storage. Increasing consumer demand for streaming [[High-definition television|high-definition]] (HD) content has led the industry to develop technologies such as [[WirelessHD]] and [[G.hn]], which are optimized for streaming HD content. Many developers have introduced HD streaming apps that work on smaller devices, such as tablets and smartphones, for everyday purposes.

{{quote box
| quote = "Streaming creates the illusion—greatly magnified by headphone use, which is another matter—that music is a utility you can turn on and off; the water metaphor is intrinsic to how it works. It dematerializes music, denies it a crucial measure of autonomy, reality, and power. It makes music seem disposable, impermanent. Hence it intensifies the ebb and flow of pop fashion, the way [[List of viral music videos|musical 'memes']] rise up for a week or a month and are then forgotten. And it renders our experience of individual artists/groups shallower."
| source = —[[Robert Christgau]], 2018<ref>{{cite web|last=Christgau|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Christgau|url=http://robertchristgau.com/xgausez.php|title=Xgau Sez|date=20 November 2018|website=robertchristgau.com|access-date=21 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726005540/https://robertchristgau.com/xgausez.php|url-status=live|archive-date=26 July 2018}}</ref>|
| width = 20%
| align = right
| style = padding:8px;
}}

A media stream can be streamed either ''live'' or ''on demand''. Live streams are generally provided by a method called ''true streaming''. True streaming sends the information straight to the computer or device without saving it to a local file. On-demand streaming is provided by a method called ''[[progressive download]]''. Progressive download saves the received information to a local file and then plays it from that location. On-demand streams are often saved to files for extended period of time, while live streams are only available at one time only (e.g., during a football game).<ref>Grant and Meadows. (2009). Communication Technology Update and Fundamentals 11th Edition. pp.114</ref>

Streaming media is increasingly being coupled with the use of social media. For example, sites such as YouTube encourage social interaction in webcasts through features such as [[live chat]], [[online survey]]s, user posting of comments online, and more. Furthermore, streaming media is increasingly being used for [[social business]] and [[e-learning]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.inxpo.com/casting-calls/bid/113793/The-Future-of-Webcasting|title=The Future of Webcasting|last=Kellner|first=Scott|date=28 February 2013|publisher=INXPO|access-date=15 May 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703142337/http://web.inxpo.com/casting-calls/bid/113793/The-Future-of-Webcasting|archive-date=3 July 2013}}</ref>

The [[Horowitz Research]] State of Pay TV, OTT, and SVOD 2017 report said that 70 percent of those viewing content did so through a streaming service and that 40 percent of TV viewing was done this way, twice the number from five years earlier. [[Millennials]], the report said, streamed 60 percent of the content.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Horowitz: Streaming Is the New Normal|last=Umstead|first=R. Thomas|journal=[[Broadcasting & Cable]]|date=5 June 2017|page=4}}</ref>

=== Transition from DVD ===
One of the movie streaming industry's largest impacts was on the DVD industry, which drastically dropped in popularity and profitability with the mass popularization of online content.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Durrani |first=Ana |date=27 March 2023 |title=Top Streaming Statistics In 2024 |url=https://www.forbes.com/home-improvement/internet/streaming-stats/ |access-date=28 September 2024 |website=Forbes Home |language=en-US}}</ref> The rise of media streaming caused the downfall of many DVD rental companies, such as [[Blockbuster (retailer)|Blockbuster]]. In July 2015, ''[[The New York Times]]'' published an article about [[Netflix]]'s DVD services. It stated that Netflix was continuing their DVD services with 5.3&nbsp;million subscribers, which was a significant drop from the previous year. On the other hand, their streaming service had 65&nbsp;million members.<ref>{{cite news|author=Steel, Emily|title=Netflix Refines Its DVD Business, Even as Streaming Unit Booms|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/27/business/while-its-streaming-service-booms-netflix-streamlines-old-business.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170621135707/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/27/business/while-its-streaming-service-booms-netflix-streamlines-old-business.html |archive-date=21 June 2017 |date= 26 July 2015|work=The New York Times|access-date=4 November 2019}}</ref> The shift to streaming platforms also led to the decline of DVD rental services. In July 2024, [[NBC News]] reported that [[Redbox|RedBox]], a DVD rental service that had operated for 22 years, would shut down due to the rapid incline of streaming platforms. As the rental services has been rapidly declining since 2010, the business had to file for bankruptcy, with 99% of households now subscribing to streaming services. Further reflecting the shift away from physical media, BestBuy has ceased selling DVDs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-11 |title=Redbox set to close as DVD market withers in streaming's shadow |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/business/business-news/redbox-set-close-dvd-market-withers-streamings-shadow-rcna161407 |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=NBC News |language=en}}</ref>

=== Napster ===
[[Music streaming]] is one of the most popular ways in which consumers interact with streaming media. In the age of digitization, the [[Private good|private consumption]] of music has transformed into a [[Public good (economics)|public good]], largely due to one player in the market: Napster.

[[Napster]], a [[peer-to-peer]] (P2P) file-sharing network where users could upload and download [[MP3]] files freely, broke all music industry conventions when it launched in early 1999 in Hull, Massachusetts. The platform was developed by Shawn and John Fanning as well as [[Sean Parker]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fortune.com/2013/09/05/ashes-to-ashes-peer-to-peer-an-oral-history-of-napster/|title=Ashes to ashes, peer to peer: An oral history of Napster|website=Fortune|access-date=11 March 2019|archive-date=9 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190309220739/http://fortune.com/2013/09/05/ashes-to-ashes-peer-to-peer-an-oral-history-of-napster/|url-status=live}}</ref> In an interview from 2009, Shawn Fanning explained that Napster "was something that came to me as a result of seeing a sort of unmet need and the passion people had for being able to find all this music, particularly a lot of the obscure stuff, which wouldn't be something you go to a record store and purchase, so it felt like a problem worth solving."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://blog.sfgate.com/techchron/2009/05/31/an-interview-with-napsters-shawn-fanning/|title=An interview with Napster's Shawn Fanning|last1=Evangelista|first1=Benny|date=31 May 2009|website=The Technology Chronicles|access-date=11 March 2019|archive-date=21 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210521093345/https://blog.sfgate.com/techchron/2009/05/31/an-interview-with-napsters-shawn-fanning/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Not only did this development disrupt the music industry by making songs that previously required payment to be freely accessible to any Napster user, but it also demonstrated the power of P2P networks in turning any digital file into a public, shareable good. For the brief period of time that Napster existed, mp3 files fundamentally changed as a type of good. Songs were no longer financially excludable, barring access to a computer with internet access, and they were not rivals, meaning if one person downloaded a song, it did not diminish another user from doing the same. Napster, like most other providers of public goods, faced the [[free-rider problem]]. Every user benefits when an individual uploads an mp3 file, but there is no requirement or mechanism that forces all users to share their music. Generally, the platform encouraged sharing; users who downloaded files from others often had their own files available for upload as well. However, not everyone chose to share their files. There was no a built-in incentive specifically discouraging users from sharing their own files.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Ethics of Anonymous Computing: Napster |url=https://cs.stanford.edu/people/eroberts/cs201/projects/anonymous-computing/technology/napster.php3 |access-date=21 September 2023 |website=cs.stanford.edu}}</ref>

This structure revolutionized the consumer's perception of ownership over [[digital goods]]; it made music freely replicable. Napster quickly garnered millions of users, growing faster than any other business in history. At the peak of its existence, Napster boasted about 80&nbsp;million users globally. The site gained so much traffic that many college campuses had to block access to Napster because it created network congestion from so many students sharing music files.<ref name="expertise1">{{cite web|url=https://www.lifewire.com/history-of-napster-2438592|title=The History of Napster: Yes, It's Still Around|last1=Harris|first1=Mark|website=Lifewire|access-date=11 March 2019|archive-date=15 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190315210151/https://www.lifewire.com/history-of-napster-2438592|url-status=live}}</ref>

The advent of Napster sparked the creation of numerous other P2P sites, including [[LimeWire]] (2000), [[BitTorrent]] (2001), and [[the Pirate Bay]] (2003). The reign of P2P networks was short-lived. The first to fall was Napster in 2001. Numerous lawsuits were filed against Napster by various record labels, all of which were subsidiaries of [[Universal Music Group]], [[Sony Music]] Entertainment, [[Warner Music Group]], or [[EMI]]. In addition to this, the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA) also filed a lawsuit against Napster on the grounds of unauthorized distribution of copyrighted material, which ultimately led Napster to shut down in 2001.<ref name="expertise1"/> In an interview with the ''New York Times'', Gary Stiffelman, who represents [[Eminem]], [[Aerosmith]], and [[TLC discography|TLC]], explained, "I'm not an opponent of artists' music being included in these services, I'm just an opponent of their revenue not being shared."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/18/arts/record-labels-answer-to-napster-still-has-artists-feeling-bypassed.html|title=Record Labels' Answer to Napster Still Has Artists Feeling Bypassed|last=Strauss|first=Neil|date=18 February 2002|work=[[The New York Times]]|access-date=11 March 2019|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=23 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323004314/https://www.nytimes.com/2002/02/18/arts/record-labels-answer-to-napster-still-has-artists-feeling-bypassed.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

==== The fight for intellectual property rights: ''A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.'' ====
The lawsuit ''[[A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc.]]'' fundamentally changed the way consumers interact with music streaming. It was argued on 2 October 2000, and was decided on 12 February 2001. The [[Court of Appeals]] for the Ninth Circuit ruled that a P2P file-sharing service could be held liable for contributory and vicarious infringement of copyright, serving as a landmark decision for Intellectual property law.<ref name="wustl1">{{cite web|url=https://onlinelaw.wustl.edu/blog/case-study-am-records-inc-v-napster-inc/|title=Case Study: A&M Records, Inc. v. Napster, Inc. – Blog {{!}} @WashULaw|date=1 August 2013|website=onlinelaw.wustl.edu|access-date=11 March 2019|archive-date=31 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200531145508/https://onlinelaw.wustl.edu/blog/case-study-am-records-inc-v-napster-inc/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The first issue that the Court addressed was [[fair use]], which says that otherwise infringing activities are permissible so long as they are for purposes "such as criticism, comment, news reporting, teaching [...] scholarship, or research."<ref name="cornell2001">{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/copyright/cases/239_F3d_1004.htm|title=A&M RECORDS, INC. v. NAPSTER, INC., 239 F.3d 1004 (9th Cir. 2001)|website=law.cornell.edu|access-date=11 March 2019|archive-date=12 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412213747/https://www.law.cornell.edu/copyright/cases/239_F3d_1004.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Judge Beezer, the judge for this case, noted that Napster claimed that its services fit "three specific alleged fair uses: [[sampling (music)|sampling]], where users make temporary copies of a work before purchasing; space-shifting, where users access a sound recording through the Napster system that they already own in audio CD format; and permissive distribution of recordings by both new and established artists."<ref name="cornell2001"/> Judge Beezer found that Napster did not fit these criteria, instead enabling their users to repeatedly copy music, which would affect the market value of the copyrighted good.

The second claim by the plaintiffs was that Napster was actively contributing to [[copyright infringement]] since it had knowledge of widespread file sharing on its platform. Since Napster took no action to reduce infringement and financially benefited from repeated use, the court ruled against the P2P site. The court found that "as much as eighty-seven percent of the files available on Napster may be copyrighted and more than seventy percent may be owned or administered by plaintiffs."<ref name="cornell2001"/>

The [[injunction]] ordered against Napster ended the brief period in which music streaming was a public good – non-rival and non-excludable in nature. Other P2P networks had some success at sharing MP3s, though they all met a similar fate in court. The ruling set the precedent that copyrighted digital content cannot be freely replicated and shared unless given consent by the owner, thereby strengthening the property rights of artists and record labels alike.<ref name="wustl1"/>

=== Music streaming platforms ===
{{Main|Music streaming service}}
[[File:Music streaming platform use vs music piracy rates in U.S.png|thumb|As music streaming platforms have become more prevalent in the US, music piracy rates have fallen. Piracy rates are calculated as a function of US total population.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://dima.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/DiMA-Streaming-Forward-Report.pdf|title=Digital Media Association Annual Report|date=March 2018|access-date=11 March 2019|archive-date=10 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181210195836/https://dima.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/DiMA-Streaming-Forward-Report.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

Although music streaming is no longer a freely replicable public good, streaming platforms such as [[Spotify]], [[Deezer]], [[Apple Music]], [[SoundCloud]], [[YouTube Music]], and [[Amazon Music]] have shifted music streaming to a [[Club good|club-type good]]. While some platforms, most notably Spotify, give customers access to a [[freemium]] service that enables the use of limited features for exposure to advertisements, most companies operate under a premium subscription model.<ref>{{cite news |title=Battle of the Streaming Services: Which Is the Best Premium Video Service? |url=https://www.gadgets360.com/internet/features/best-streaming-service-app-tv-movies-india-price-netflix-amazon-prime-disney-plus-hotstar-google-apple-2223556 |access-date=11 May 2020 |work=NDTV Gadgets 360 |language=en |archive-date=17 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617065514/https://gadgets360.com/internet/features/best-streaming-service-app-tv-movies-india-price-netflix-amazon-prime-disney-plus-hotstar-google-apple-2223556 |url-status=live }}</ref> Under such circumstances, music streaming is financially excludable, requiring that customers pay a monthly fee for access to a music library, but non-rival, since one customer's use does not impair another's.

An article written by the [[New York Times]] in 2021 states that "streaming saved music." This is because it provided monthly revenue. Especially Spotify offers its free platform, but you can pay for their premium to get music ad-free.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2021-03-22 |title=Streaming Saved Music. Artists Hate It. (Published 2021) |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/22/technology/streaming-music-economics.html |access-date=2024-12-09 |language=en |last1=Ovide |first1=Shira }}</ref> This allows access for people to stream music anywhere from their devices not having to rely on CDs anymore.

There is competition between services similar but lesser to the streaming wars for video media. {{as of|2019}}, Spotify has over 207&nbsp;million users in 78 countries,<ref>{{Cite web |date=7 February 2024 |title=Decoding Artist Compensation: Streaming 2024 |url=https://mariahpedia.com/decoding-artist-compensation-streaming-2024/}}</ref> {{as of|2018}}, Apple Music has about 60&nbsp;million, and SoundCloud has 175&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/hughmcintyre/2018/05/25/the-top-10-streaming-music-services-by-number-of-users/|title=The Top 10 Streaming Music Services By Number Of Users|last=McIntyre|first=Hugh|website=Forbes|access-date=11 March 2019|archive-date=8 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108105345/https://www.forbes.com/sites/hughmcintyre/2018/05/25/the-top-10-streaming-music-services-by-number-of-users/|url-status=live}}</ref> All platforms provide varying degrees of accessibility. Apple Music and Prime Music only offer their services for paid subscribers, whereas Spotify and SoundCloud offer freemium and premium services. Napster, owned by Rhapsody since 2011, has resurfaced as a music streaming platform offering subscription-based services to over 4.5&nbsp;million users {{as of|January 2017|lc=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.digitalmusicnews.com/2018/08/21/realnetworks-napster-profitable/|title=Napster Proves That Streaming Music Can Be Profitable|date=22 August 2018|website=Digital Music News|access-date=11 March 2019|archive-date=1 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301050307/https://www.digitalmusicnews.com/2018/08/21/realnetworks-napster-profitable/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the evolving music streaming landscape, competition among platforms is shaped by various factors, including royalty rates, exclusive content, and market expansion strategies. A notable development occurred in January 2025, when Universal Music Group (UMG) and Spotify announced a new multi-year agreement. This partnership aims to enhance opportunities for artists and consumers through innovative subscription tiers and an enriched audio-visual catalog.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Oganesyan |first=Natalie |date=2025-01-26 |title=Spotify, Universal Music Group Strike Multi-Year Deal |url=https://deadline.com/2025/01/spotify-universal-music-group-deal-1236268625/ |access-date=2025-01-27 |website=Deadline |language=en-US}}</ref>

The music industry's response to music streaming was initially negative. Along with music piracy, streaming services disrupted the market and contributed to the fall in US revenue from $14.6&nbsp;billion in 1999 to $6.3&nbsp;billion in 2009. CDs and single-track downloads were not selling because content was freely available on the Internet. By 2018, however, music streaming revenue exceeded that of traditional revenue streams (e.g. record sales, album sales, downloads).<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.ifpi.org/downloads/GMR2018.pdf|title=Global Music Report 2018: Annual State of the Industry|year=2017|work=GMR|access-date=12 March 2019|archive-date=9 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200709091121/https://www.ifpi.org/downloads/GMR2018.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> Streaming revenue is now one of the largest driving forces behind the growth in the music industry.

=== COVID-19 pandemic ===
By August 2020, the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] had streaming services busier than ever. The pandemic contributed to a surge in subscriptions, in the UK alone, 12 million people joined a new streaming service that they had not previously had.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Rajan|first=Amol|date=5 August 2020|title=TV watching and online streaming surge during lockdown|language=en-GB|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-53637305|access-date=24 November 2021|archive-date=24 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124103617/https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-53637305|url-status=live}}</ref> Global subscriptions skyrocketed passing 1 billion.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Faughnder |first=Ryan |date=2021-03-18 |title=Streaming milestone: Global subscriptions passed 1 billion last year |url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/business/story/2021-03-18/streaming-milestone-global-subscriptions-passed-1-billion-last-year-mpa-theme-report |access-date=2024-12-09 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref> Within the first 3 months, back in 2020, nearly 15.7 million people signed up for Netflix.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=Edmund |date=April 21, 2020 |title=Everyone You Know Just Signed Up for Netflix |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/21/business/media/netflix-q1-2020-earnings-nflx.html?login=email. |website=New York Times}}</ref> With people stuck at home and facing lock-downs Netflix and other streaming services provided a much needed distraction.

An impact analysis of 2020 data by the [[International Confederation of Societies of Authors and Composers]] (CISAC) indicated that remuneration from digital streaming of music increased with a strong rise in digital royalty collection (up 16.6% to EUR 2.4&nbsp;billion), but it would not compensate the overall loss of income of authors from concerts, public performance and broadcast.<ref>{{Cite web|last=CISAC|title=CISAC Global Collections Report 2021 (for 2020 Data)|url=https://www.cisac.org/Newsroom/news-releases/cisac-global-collections-report-shows-creators-royalties-down-eu-1-billion|url-status=live|access-date=30 December 2021|website=CISAC|date=27 October 2021|archive-date=30 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211230051614/https://www.cisac.org/Newsroom/news-releases/cisac-global-collections-report-shows-creators-royalties-down-eu-1-billion}}</ref>  The [[International Federation of the Phonographic Industry]] (IFPI) recompiled the music industry initiatives around the world related to the COVID-19. In its State of the Industry report, it recorded that the global recorded music market grew by 7.4% in 2022, the 6th consecutive year of growth. This growth was driven by streaming, mostly from paid subscription streaming revenues which increased by 18.5%, fueled by 443 million users of subscription accounts by the end of 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|title=IFPI issues Global Music Report 2021: Global recorded music revenues grow 7.4%|url=https://www.ifpi.org/ifpi-issues-annual-global-music-report-2021/|url-status=live|access-date=30 December 2021|website=IFPI.org|date=23 March 2021|archive-date=25 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210325201021/https://www.ifpi.org/ifpi-issues-annual-global-music-report-2021/}}</ref>

The COVID-19 pandemic has also driven an increase in misinformation and disinformation, particularly on streaming platforms like YouTube and [[podcast]]s.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=Hsu|first1=Tiffany|last2=Tracy|first2=Marc|date=12 November 2021|title=On Podcasts and Radio, Misleading Covid-19 Talk Goes Unchecked|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/12/business/media/coronavirus-misinformation-radio-podcasts.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20211228/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/11/12/business/media/coronavirus-misinformation-radio-podcasts.html |archive-date=28 December 2021 |url-access=limited|access-date=24 November 2021|issn=0362-4331}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

=== Local/home streaming ===
[[File:Streaming Media on Jellyfin.png|thumb|A TV set streaming an audio file from a local [[home server]]]]
Streaming also refers to the offline streaming of multimedia at home. This is made possible by technologies such as [[DLNA]], which allow devices on the same local network to connect to each other and share media.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Enabling and configuring DLNA media server |url=https://docs.qnap.com/operating-system/quts-hero/5.1.x/en-us/enabling-and-configuring-dlna-media-server-86443D8B.html |access-date=27 October 2023 |website=docs.qnap.com |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Connected Digital Home |url=https://www.manifest-tech.com/ce_products/digital_home.htm |access-date=27 October 2023 |website=manifest-tech.com}}</ref> Such capabilities are heightened using [[network-attached storage]] (NAS) devices at home, or using specialized software like [[Plex Inc.|Plex Media Server]], [[Jellyfin]] or [[TwonkyMedia server|TwonkyMedia]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Brookes |first=Tim |date=30 March 2023 |title=No Plex App, No Problem: Using Plex as a DLNA/UPnP Server |url=https://www.howtogeek.com/880945/no-plex-app-no-problem-using-plex-as-a-dlna-upnp-server/ |access-date=5 May 2024 |website=How-To Geek |language=en}}</ref>

==Technologies==
=== Bandwidth ===
A broadband speed of 2&nbsp;Mbit/s or more is recommended for streaming [[standard-definition video]],<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.broadbandchoices.co.uk/guides/internet/watching-tv-online | title=How to watch live TV online: The complete guide | work=broadbandchoices | date=20 May 2016 | access-date=1 October 2016 | author=Staples, Kim | archive-date=16 May 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160516142628/http://www.broadbandchoices.co.uk/guides/internet/watching-tv-online | url-status=live }}</ref> for example to a [[Roku]], [[Apple&nbsp;TV]], [[Google TV (operating system)|Google&nbsp;TV]] or a Sony&nbsp;TV Blu-ray Disc Player. 5&nbsp;Mbit/s is recommended for high-definition content and 25&nbsp;Mbit/s for [[Ultra-high-definition television|ultra-high-definition content]].<ref>{{cite web |last1=Anthony |first1=Spadafora |title=How Much Internet Speed Should You Really Pay For? |url=https://www.tomsguide.com/us/internet-speed-what-you-need,news-24289.html |website=Tom's Guide |language=en |date=18 October 2022}}</ref> Streaming media storage size is calculated from the streaming bandwidth and length of the media using the following formula (for a single user and file): storage size in [[megabyte]]s is equal to length (in seconds) × [[bit rate]] (in bit/s) / (8 × 1024 × 1024). For example, one hour of digital video encoded at 300&nbsp;kbit/s (this was a typical broadband video in 2005 and it was usually encoded in {{resx|320 × 240}} resolution) will be: (3,600&nbsp;s&nbsp;× 300,000&nbsp;bit/s)&nbsp;/ (8&nbsp;× 1024&nbsp;× 1024) requires around 128&nbsp;[[Megabyte|MB]] of storage.

If the file is stored on a server for on-demand streaming and this stream is viewed by 1,000 people at the same time using a [[Unicast]] protocol, the requirement is 300&nbsp;kbit/s&nbsp;× 1,000&nbsp;= 300,000&nbsp;kbit/s&nbsp;= 300&nbsp;Mbit/s of bandwidth. This is equivalent to around 135&nbsp;[[gigabyte|GB]] per hour. Using a [[multicast]] protocol the server sends out only a single stream that is common to all users. Therefore, such a stream would only use 300&nbsp;kbit/s of server bandwidth.

In 2018 video was more than 60% of data traffic worldwide and accounted for 80% of growth in data usage.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The myth of the green cloud|url=https://www.eib.org/en/stories/digital-footprint |first1=Shirley |last1=Rizk |date=21 June 2019 |access-date=17 September 2020|website=European Investment Bank|language=en|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414035732/https://www.eib.org/en/stories/digital-footprint|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title= Cisco Annual Internet Report (2018–2023) White Paper|url=https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/solutions/collateral/executive-perspectives/annual-internet-report/white-paper-c11-741490.html|access-date=17 September 2020|website=Cisco|language=en|archive-date=7 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140207074720/http://www.cisco.com/en/US/solutions/collateral/ns341/ns525/ns537/ns705/ns827/white_paper_c11-520862.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Protocols ===
[[File:Unicast streaming.svg|thumb|Unicast connections require multiple connections from the same streaming server even when it streams the same content.]]

Video and audio streams are compressed to make the file size smaller. [[Audio coding format]]s include [[MP3]], [[Vorbis]], [[Advanced Audio Coding|AAC]] and [[Opus (audio format)|Opus]]. [[Video coding format]]s include [[H.264]], [[HEVC]], [[VP8]] and [[VP9]]. Encoded audio and video streams are assembled in a container [[bitstream]] such as [[MPEG-4|MP4]], [[FLV]], [[WebM]], [[Advanced Systems Format|ASF]] or [[Internet Streaming Media Alliance|ISMA]]. The bitstream is delivered from a streaming server to a streaming client (e.g., the computer user with their Internet-connected laptop) using a transport protocol, such as Adobe's [[Real-Time Messaging Protocol|RTMP]] or [[Real-time Transport Protocol|RTP]].

In the 2010s, technologies such as Apple's [[HTTP Live Streaming|HLS]], Microsoft's Smooth Streaming, Adobe's HDS and non-proprietary formats such as [[MPEG-DASH]] emerged to enable [[adaptive bitrate streaming]] over [[HTTP]] as an alternative to using proprietary transport protocols. Often, a streaming transport protocol is used to send video from an event venue to a [[Cloud computing|cloud]] transcoding service and [[content delivery network]], which then uses HTTP-based transport protocols to distribute the video to individual homes and users.<ref>{{cite web|title = Streaming the London Olympic Games with the 'Go Live Package' from iStreamPlanet and Haivision |url = http://www.istreamplanet.com/casestudy/the-london-olympic-games-go-live-package/|website = iStreamPlanet |access-date = 11 November 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160101140531/http://www.istreamplanet.com/casestudy/the-london-olympic-games-go-live-package/|archive-date = 1 January 2016|url-status = dead}}</ref> The streaming client (the end user) may interact with the streaming server using a control protocol, such as [[Microsoft Media Server|MMS]] or [[RTSP]].

The quality of the interaction between servers and users is based on the workload of the streaming service; as more users attempt to access a service the quality may be affected by resource constraints in the service.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Sripanidkulchai|first1=Kunwadee|last2=Maggs|first2=Bruce|last3=Zhang|first3=Hui|title=Proceedings of the 4th ACM SIGCOMM conference on Internet measurement |chapter=An analysis of live streaming workloads on the internet |year=2004|series=IMC '04|location=New York, NY, US|publisher=ACM|pages=41–54|doi=10.1145/1028788.1028795|isbn=9781581138214|s2cid=1742312}}</ref> Deploying clusters of streaming servers is one such method where there are regional servers spread across the network, managed by a singular, central server containing copies of all the media files as well as the [[IP address]]es of the regional servers. This central server then uses [[Load balancing (computing)|load balancing]] and [[Scheduling (computing)|scheduling]] algorithms to redirect users to nearby regional servers capable of accommodating them. This approach also allows the central server to provide streaming data to both users as well as regional servers using [[FFmpeg]] libraries if required, thus demanding the central server to have powerful data processing and immense storage capabilities. In return, workloads on the streaming backbone network are balanced and alleviated, allowing for optimal streaming quality.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zhao |first1=Hong |last2=Chun-long |first2=Zhou |last3=Bao-zhao |first3=Jin |title=Design and Implementation of Streaming Media Server Cluster Based on FFMpeg |journal=The Scientific World Journal |date=3 February 2015 |volume=2015 |pages=963083 |doi=10.1155/2015/963083 |pmid=25734187 |pmc=4334929 |doi-access=free }}</ref>{{update inline|reason=2017 academic source. This is now normally accomplished automatically in CDNs.|date=April 2023}}

Designing a network protocol to support streaming media raises many problems. [[Datagram]] protocols, such as the [[User Datagram Protocol]] (UDP), send the media stream as a series of small packets. This is simple and efficient; however, there is no mechanism within the protocol to guarantee delivery. It is up to the receiving application to detect loss or corruption and recover data using [[error correction]] techniques. If data is lost, the stream may suffer a [[Dropout (communications)|dropout]]. The [[Real-Time Streaming Protocol]] (RTSP), [[Real-time Transport Protocol]] (RTP) and the [[Real-time Transport Control Protocol]] (RTCP) were specifically designed to stream media over networks. RTSP runs over a variety of transport protocols,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-07-08 |title=RTSP: The Real-Time Streaming Protocol. What is RTSP and How Does It Work? |url=https://antmedia.io/rtsp-explained-what-is-rtsp-how-it-works/ |access-date=2025-01-06 |website=antmedia.io |language=en-US}}</ref> while the latter two are built on top of UDP.

HTTP adaptive bitrate streaming is based on HTTP progressive download, but contrary to the previous approach, here the files are very small, so that they can be compared to the streaming of packets, much like the case of using RTSP and RTP.<ref>Ch. Z. Patrikakis, N. Papaoulakis, Ch. Stefanoudaki, M. S. Nunes, "Streaming content wars: Download and play strikes back" presented at the Personalization in Media Delivery Platforms Workshop, [218 – 226], Venice, Italy, 2009.</ref> Reliable protocols, such as the [[Transmission Control Protocol]] (TCP), guarantee correct delivery of each bit in the media stream. It means, however, that when there is data loss on the network, the media stream stalls while the protocol handlers detect the loss and retransmit the missing data. Clients can minimize this effect by buffering data for display. While delay due to buffering is acceptable in video-on-demand scenarios, users of interactive applications such as video conferencing will experience a loss of fidelity if the delay caused by buffering exceeds 200&nbsp;ms.<ref>Krasic, C. and Li, K. and Walpole, J., ''The case for streaming multimedia with TCP'', Lecture Notes in Computer Science, pages 213–218, Springer, 2001</ref>

[[File:Multicast stream.svg|thumb|Multicasting broadcasts the same copy of the multimedia over the entire network to a group of clients.]]

[[Unicast]] protocols send a separate copy of the media stream from the server to each recipient. Unicast is the norm for most Internet connections but does not scale well when many users want to view the same television program concurrently. [[Multicast]] protocols were developed to reduce server and network loads resulting from duplicate data streams that occur when many recipients receive unicast content streams independently. These protocols send a single stream from the source to a group of recipients. Depending on the network infrastructure and type, multicast transmission may or may not be feasible. One potential disadvantage of multicasting is the loss of [[video on demand]] functionality. Continuous streaming of radio or television material usually precludes the recipient's ability to control playback. However, this problem can be mitigated by elements such as caching servers, digital [[set-top box]]es, and buffered [[Media player (application software)|media players]].

[[IP multicast]] provides a means to send a single media stream to a group of recipients on a [[computer network]]. A connection management protocol, usually [[Internet Group Management Protocol]], is used to manage the delivery of multicast streams to the groups of recipients on a LAN. One of the challenges in deploying IP multicast is that routers and firewalls between LANs must allow the passage of packets destined to multicast groups. If the organization that is serving the content has control over the network between server and recipients (i.e.,&nbsp;educational, government, and corporate [[intranet]]s), then routing protocols such as [[Protocol Independent Multicast]] can be used to deliver stream content to multiple [[local area network]] segments.

[[Peer-to-peer]] (P2P) protocols arrange for prerecorded streams to be sent between computers. This prevents the server and its network connections from becoming a bottleneck. However, it raises technical, performance, security, quality, and business issues.

[[Content delivery network]]s (CDNs) use intermediate servers to distribute the load. Internet-compatible unicast delivery is used between CDN nodes and streaming destinations.

=== Recording ===
Media that is livestreamed can be recorded through certain media players, such as [[VLC player]], or through the use of a [[screen recorder]]. Live-streaming platforms such as [[Twitch (service)|Twitch]] may also incorporate a [[video on demand]] system that allows automatic recording of live broadcasts so that they can be watched later.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://help.twitch.tv/customer/portal/articles/1575302-videos-on-demand|title=Videos On Demand|access-date=8 May 2017|archive-date=15 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181215225249/https://help.twitch.tv/customer/portal/articles/1575302-videos-on-demand|url-status=dead}}</ref> YouTube also has recordings of live broadcasts, including television shows aired on major networks. These streams have the potential to be recorded by anyone who has access to them, whether legally or otherwise.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Burroughs|first1=Benjamin|last2=Rugg|first2=Adam|date=3 July 2014|title=Extending the Broadcast: Streaming Culture and the Problems of Digital Geographies|journal=Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media|volume=58|issue=3|pages=365–380|doi=10.1080/08838151.2014.935854|s2cid=144577408|issn=0883-8151}}</ref>

Recordings can happen through any device that allows people to watch movies they do not have access to or be at a music festival they could not get tickets to. These live streaming platforms have revolutionized entertainment, creating new ways for people to interact with content. Many celebrities started live streaming during COVID-19 through platforms like [[Instagram]], [[YouTube]], and [[TikTok]] offering an alternate form of entertainment when concerts were postponed. Live streaming and recording allow for fans to communicate with these artists through chats and likes.

=== View recommendation ===
Most streaming services feature a [[recommender system]] for viewing based on each user's view history in conjunction with all viewers' aggregated view histories. Rather than focusing on subjective categorization of content by content curators, there is an assumption that, with the immensity of data collected on viewing habits, the choices of those who are first to view content can be algorithmically extrapolated to the totality of the user base, with increasing probabilistic accuracy as to the likelihood of their choosing and enjoying the recommended content as more data is collected.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Buijsman |first=Stefan |title=Pluses and Minuses: How Math Solves Our Problems |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TYzzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-14-313458-9 |edition=English |location=Amsterdam |pages=12–16 |language=Dutch}}</ref>

== Applications and marketing ==
Useful and typical applications of streaming are, for example, long [[video lesson|video lectures]] performed online.<ref>A typical one-hour [[video lesson|video lecture]] is the following live stream from an international conference on [[financial crises]]: {{cite web |url-status=live |url=http://videolectures.net/eccs08_stanley_aosptucs/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528191529/http://videolectures.net/eccs08_stanley_aosptucs/ |archive-date=28 May 2019 |title=Applications of Statistical Physics to Understanding Complex Systems |date=2008 |first1=Eugene |last1=Stanley |website=Videolectures }}</ref> An advantage of this presentation is that these lectures can be very long, although they can always be interrupted or repeated at arbitrary places. Streaming enables new content marketing concepts. For example, the [[Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra]] sells Internet live streams of whole concerts instead of several CDs or similar fixed media in their [[Digital Concert Hall]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitalconcerthall.com/|title=The Berliner Philharmoniker's Digital Concert Hall|website=digitalconcerthall.com |access-date=3 May 2012|archive-date=3 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120503212518/http://digitalconcerthall.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> using YouTube for [[trailer (promotion)|trailers]]. These online concerts are also spread over a lot of different places, including cinemas at various places on the globe. A similar concept is used by the [[Metropolitan Opera]] in New York. There is also [[High Definition Earth Viewing cameras|a livestream]] from the [[International Space Station]].<ref>{{cite web|title=ISS High Definition Live Streaming Video of the Earth (HDEV) |website=Earth Science & Remote Sensing Unit |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/ESRS/HDEV/|publisher=NASA|access-date=26 December 2016|archive-date=8 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161208002437/https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/ESRS/HDEV/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=ISS HD Earth Viewing Experiment|url=http://www.ustream.tv/channel/iss-hdev-payload |website=IBM Video Streaming |access-date=26 December 2016|archive-date=29 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161229042858/http://www.ustream.tv/channel/iss-hdev-payload|url-status=live}}</ref> In video entertainment, video streaming platforms like [[Netflix]], [[Hulu]], and [[Disney+]] are mainstream elements of the media industry.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Forrester|title=Q1 2020 Proves Streaming Is Essential To Consumers And To The Future Of Media Companies|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/forrester/2020/04/27/q1-2020-proves-streaming-is-essential-to-consumers-and-to-the-future-of-media-companies/ |date=Apr 27, 2020 |access-date=2 October 2020|website=Forbes|language=en|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101052439/https://www.forbes.com/sites/forrester/2020/04/27/q1-2020-proves-streaming-is-essential-to-consumers-and-to-the-future-of-media-companies/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Marketers have found many opportunities offered by streaming media and the platforms that offer them, especially in light of the significant increase in the use of streaming media during [[COVID lockdowns]] from 2020 onwards. While revenue and placement of [[Advertising|traditional advertising]] continued to decrease, [[digital marketing]] increased by 15% in 2021,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Deloitte study: digital marketing spending is expected to increase by almost 15% until the end of 2021, while traditional advertising will slightly decrease|url=https://www2.deloitte.com/ro/en/pages/about-deloitte/articles/studiu-deloitte-bugetele-pentru-activitatile-de-marketing-digital-vor-creste-cu-aproape-15-pana-la-sfarsitul-anului-2021-iar-publicitatea-traditionala-va-scadea-usor.html |date=29 October 2021 |access-date=4 February 2022|website=Deloitte Romania|language=en|archive-date=4 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204090152/https://www2.deloitte.com/ro/en/pages/about-deloitte/articles/studiu-deloitte-bugetele-pentru-activitatile-de-marketing-digital-vor-creste-cu-aproape-15-pana-la-sfarsitul-anului-2021-iar-publicitatea-traditionala-va-scadea-usor.html|url-status=live}}</ref> with [[digital media]] and [[Search engine|search]] representing 65% of the expenditures.

A case study commissioned by the WIPO<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Pozza |first1=Leticia Ange |last2=Sifuentes |first2=Ana Paola |title=Case Study VI: Data in the Audiovisual business: Trends and Opportunities |url=https://dacatalogue.wipo.int/projectfiles/DA_1_3_4_10_11_16_25_35_01/Case_Study_VI/EN/LATAM%20AV%20case%20study%206%20EN.pdf |access-date=15 May 2025 |website=dacatalogue.wipo.int}}</ref> indicates that streaming services attract advertising budgets with the opportunities provided by interactivity and the use of data from users, resulting in personalization on a mass scale with [[content marketing]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Revised Proposal for a Pilot Project on Copyright and the Distribution of Content in the Digital Environment Submitted by Brazil|url=https://www.wipo.int/meetings/en/doc_details.jsp?doc_id=421771 |date=November 23, 2018 |access-date=4 February 2022|website=WIPO |language=en|archive-date=4 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204090156/https://www.wipo.int/meetings/en/doc_details.jsp?doc_id=421771|url-status=live}}</ref> Targeted marketing is expanding with the use of [[artificial intelligence]], in particular programmatic advertisement, a tool that helps advertisers decide their campaign parameters and whether they are interested in buying advertising space online or not. One example of advertising space acquisition is Real-Time Bidding (RTB).<ref>{{Cite web|title=What is programmatic video advertising? (And why it's smart to use it)|url=https://biteable.com/blog/what-is-programmatic-video-advertising/|url-status=live|access-date=4 February 2022|website=Biteable|date=17 May 2018|archive-date=4 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220204090153/https://biteable.com/blog/what-is-programmatic-video-advertising/}}</ref>

==Challenges==

=== Copyright issues ===
{{See also|Copyright aspects of downloading and streaming}}

For [[over-the-top media service]] (OTT) platforms, the original content captures additional subscribers.<ref>Katz, Raul (October 2021). [https://www.wipo.int/ip-development/en/agenda/work_undertaken.html#pilot_project_cdcde Study on the copyright legal framework and licensing practices of audiovisual content in the digital environment, Part 1: Audiovisual OTT business models in Latin America: Recent trends and future evolution.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221105090545/https://www.wipo.int/ip-development/en/agenda/work_undertaken.html#pilot_project_cdcde|date=5 November 2022}} World Intellectual Property Organization</ref> This presents copyright issues and the potential for international exploitation through streaming,<ref>Moullier, B; Galvis, Alexandra (October 2021). [https://www.wipo.int/ip-development/en/agenda/work_undertaken.html#pilot_project_cdcde Study on the copyright legal framework and licensing practices of audiovisual content in the digital environment, Part 4: contractual practices in the Latin American audiovisual sector in the digital environment.] World Intellectual Property Organization </ref> widespread use of standards, and metadata in digital files.<ref>Schotz, Gustavo (October 2021). Study on the copyright legal framework and licensing practices of audiovisual content in the digital environment, Part 5: The Identification and Use of Metadata in Audiovisual Works https://www.wipo.int/ip-development/en/agenda/work_undertaken.html#pilot_project_cdcde. World Intellectual Property Organization</ref> The WIPO has indicated several basic copyright issues arising for those pursuing work in the film<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bertrand |first=Moullier |title=Rights, Camera, Action! Intellectual property rights and the filmmaking process |url=https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4611&plang=EN |access-date=2025-05-15 |website=www.wipo.int |date=2022 |doi=10.34667/tind.46316 |language=en}}</ref> and music industries<ref>{{Cite web |last=David |first=Stopps |title=How to Make a Living from Music |url=https://www.wipo.int/publications/en/details.jsp?id=4673&plang=EN |access-date=2025-05-15 |website=www.wipo.int |doi=10.34667/tind.45019 |language=en}}</ref> in the era of streaming.

Streaming copyrighted content can involve making infringing copies of the works in question. The recording and distribution of streamed content is also an issue for many companies that rely on revenue based on views or attendance.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Maeda|first=Mari|title=Optical Fiber Communication Conference and International Conference on Quantum Information |chapter=OFC'01 Invited Talk the Internet of the Future |date=17 March 2001|chapter-url=https://www.osapublishing.org/abstract.cfm?uri=OFC-2001-TuK1|publisher=Optical Society of America|pages=TuK1|doi=10.1364/OFC.2001.TuK1|isbn=1-55752-654-0|doi-access=free|access-date=28 July 2019|archive-date=18 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218115929/https://www.osapublishing.org/abstract.cfm?uri=OFC-2001-TuK1|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Greenhouse gas emissions ===
{{main|Greenhouse gas emissions#Digital services}}
The net [[greenhouse gas emissions]] from streaming music were estimated at between 0.2 and 0.35&nbsp;million metric tons [[Co2eq|CO2eq]] (between {{Convert|0.2 and 0.35|e6t|disp=out}}) per year in the [[Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States|United States]], by a 2019 study.<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-features/environmental-impact-streaming-music-835220/|title=Is Streaming Music Dangerous to the Environment? One Researcher Is Sounding the Alarm|last=Blistein|first=Jon|date=23 May 2019|magazine=[[Rolling Stone]]|access-date=3 August 2019}}</ref> This was an increase from emissions in the pre-digital music period, which were estimated at "{{Convert|0.14|e6t|sp=us}} in 1977, 0.136 million ({{Convert|0.136|e6t|disp=out}}) in 1988, and 0.157&nbsp;million ({{Convert|0.157|e6t|disp=out}}) in 2000."<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gla.ac.uk/news/headline_643297_en.html|title=Music consumption has unintended economic and environmental costs|date=8 April 2019|publisher=The University of Glasgow|access-date=3 August 2019|archive-date=3 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190803131017/https://www.gla.ac.uk/news/headline_643297_en.html|url-status=live}}</ref> However, this is far less than other everyday activities such as eating. For example [[Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States|greenhouse gas emissions in the United States]] from beef cattle ([[Burping|burping of ruminants]] only - not including their [[manure]]) were {{Convert|129|e6t|e6LT e6ST|abbr=none|sp=us}} in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Greenhouse Gas Inventory Data Explorer {{!}} US EPA |url=https://cfpub.epa.gov/ghgdata/inventoryexplorer/#iagriculture/entericfermentation/allgas/animal/all |access-date=2022-03-09 |website=cfpub.epa.gov |language=en |archive-date=9 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309221056/https://cfpub.epa.gov/ghgdata/inventoryexplorer/#iagriculture/entericfermentation/allgas/animal/all |url-status=live }}</ref>

A 2021 study claimed that, based on the amount of data transmitted, one hour of streaming or videoconferencing "emits {{Convert|150-1,000|g|4=0|sp=us}} of carbon dioxide ... requires {{Convert|2-12|L|4=1|sp=us}} of water and demands a land area adding up to about the size of an [[iPad Mini]]." The study suggests that turning the camera off during video calls can reduce the greenhouse gas and water use footprints by 96%, and that an 86% reduction is possible by using standard definition rather than high definition when streaming content with apps such as [[Netflix]] or [[Hulu]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Turn off that camera during virtual meetings, environmental study says: Simple tips to go green with your internet use during a pandemic|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/01/210114134033.htm|access-date=2021-01-16|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|archive-date=17 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117025114/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/01/210114134033.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Obringer |first1=Renee |last2=Rachunok |first2=Benjamin |last3=Maia-Silva |first3=Debora |last4=Arbabzadeh |first4=Maryam |last5=Nateghi |first5=Roshanak |last6=Madani |first6=Kaveh |title=The overlooked environmental footprint of increasing Internet use |journal=Resources, Conservation and Recycling |date=April 2021 |volume=167 |pages=105389 |doi=10.1016/j.resconrec.2020.105389|bibcode=2021RCR...16705389O |s2cid=233072553 }}</ref> However, another study estimated a relatively low amount of {{Convert|36|g/hour|oz/hour|abbr=off}}, and concluded that watching a Netflix video for half an hour emitted only the same amount as driving a gasoline-fuelled car for about {{Convert|100|m|sp=us}}, so not a significant amount.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The carbon footprint of streaming video: fact-checking the headlines – Analysis |url=https://www.iea.org/commentaries/the-carbon-footprint-of-streaming-video-fact-checking-the-headlines |access-date=2022-03-09 |website=IEA |date=11 December 2020 |language=en-GB |archive-date=21 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220321235339/https://www.iea.org/commentaries/the-carbon-footprint-of-streaming-video-fact-checking-the-headlines |url-status=live }}</ref>

One way to decrease greenhouse gas emissions associated with streaming music is to make [[data center]]s [[Carbon neutrality|carbon neutral]] by converting to electricity produced from [[Renewable energy|renewable sources]]. On an individual level, the purchase of a physical CD may be more environmentally friendly if it is to be played more than 27 times.<ref name=EnvironmentalImpact>{{Cite web|url=http://theconversation.com/the-environmental-impact-of-music-digital-records-cds-analysed-108942|title=The environmental impact of music: digital, records, CDs analysed|last1=McKay|first1=Deirdre|last2=George|first2=Sharon|date=10 January 2019|website=The Conversation|access-date=3 August 2019|archive-date=3 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190803131015/http://theconversation.com/the-environmental-impact-of-music-digital-records-cds-analysed-108942|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Dubious|date=March 2022|reason=generally manufacturing physical stuff emits more ghg than virtual so seems unlikely}} Another option for reducing energy use is downloading the music for offline listening to reduce the need for streaming over distance.<ref name=EnvironmentalImpact /> The Spotify service has a built-in local cache to reduce the necessity of repeating song streams.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gigaom.com/2012/09/12/streaming-media-could-have-larger-carbon-footprint-than-plastic-discs/|title=Streaming media could have larger carbon footprint than plastic discs|last=Andrews|first=Robert|date=12 September 2012|website=gigaom.com|access-date=3 August 2019|archive-date=3 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190803132527/https://gigaom.com/2012/09/12/streaming-media-could-have-larger-carbon-footprint-than-plastic-discs/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== See also ==
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]] -->
{{portal|Record production}}
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Comparison of music streaming services]]
* [[Comparison of streaming media software]]
* [[Comparison of video hosting services]]
* [[Content delivery platform]]
* [[Digital television]]
* [[Directive on Copyright in the Digital Single Market]]
* [[Internet Protocol television]]
* [[Geo-blocking]]
* [[List of streaming media services]]
* [[List of streaming media systems]]
* [[M3U]] playlists
* [[National Streaming Day]]
* [[Over-the-top media service]]
* [[P2PTV]]
* [[Protection of Broadcasts and Broadcasting Organizations Treaty]]
* [[Smart TV]]
* [[Stream ripping]]
* [[Video over cellular]]
{{div col end}}
<!-- Please keep entries in alphabetical order & add a short description [[WP:SEEALSO]] -->

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* Hagen, Anja Nylund (2020). Music in Streams: Communicating Music in the Streaming Paradigm, In Michael Filimowicz & Veronika Tzankova (ed.), ''Reimagining Communication: Mediation (1st Edition)''.&nbsp;Routledge. 
* {{cite news|author=Preston, J. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/12/12/business/media/occupy-movement-shows-potential-of-live-online-video.html?_r=1&ref=technology|title= Occupy Video Showcases Live Streaming|work=The New York Times|date= 11 December 2011}}
* {{cite news|publisher=CNBC|author=Sherman, Alex|title=AT&T, Disney and Comcast have very different plans for the streaming wars – here's what they're doing and why|date= 27 October 2019|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/10/27/how-att-disney-and-comcast-are-handling-the-move-to-streaming.html}}

== External links ==
* {{cite web|title=The Early History of the Streaming Media Industry and The Battle Between Microsoft & Real|url=http://blog.streamingmedia.com/2016/03/history-of-the-streaming-media-industry.html|access-date=25 March 2016|website=streamingmedia.com|date=March 2016|archive-date=21 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160321172010/http://blog.streamingmedia.com/2016/03/history-of-the-streaming-media-industry.html|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite web|title=What is Streaming? A high-level view of streaming media technology, history |url=http://www.streamingmedia.com/Articles/ReadArticle.aspx?ArticleID=74052|website=streamingmedia.com|access-date=25 March 2016}}

{{Broadcasting}}
{{Web syndication}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Streaming media systems]]
[[Category:Applications of distributed computing]]
[[Category:Bundled products or services]]
[[Category:Cloud storage]]
[[Category:Digital media]]
[[Category:File sharing networks]]
[[Category:Film and video technology]]
[[Category:Peer-to-peer computing]]
[[Category:Peercasting]]
[[Category:Promotion and marketing communications]]
[[Category:Television terminology]]