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{{Infobox rhenium}}

'''Rhenium''' is a [[chemical element]]; it has [[Symbol (chemistry)|symbol]] '''Re''' and [[atomic number]] 75. It is a silvery-gray, heavy, third-row [[transition metal]] in [[group 7 element|group 7]] of the [[periodic table]]. With an estimated average concentration of 1 [[parts-per notation|part per billion]] (ppb), rhenium is one of the rarest elements in the [[Earth's crust]]. It has one of the highest melting and boiling points of any element. It resembles [[manganese]] and [[technetium]] chemically and is mainly obtained as a [[by-product]] of the extraction and refinement of [[molybdenum]] and [[copper]] ores. It shows in its compounds a wide variety of [[oxidation state]]s ranging from −1 to +7.

Rhenium was originally discovered in 1908 by [[Masataka Ogawa]], but he mistakenly assigned it as element 43 (now known as [[technetium]]) rather than element 75 and named it ''nipponium''. It was rediscovered in 1925 by [[Walter Noddack]], [[Ida Noddack|Ida Tacke]] and [[Otto Berg (scientist)|Otto Berg]],<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1925-06-01 |title=Die Ekamangane |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01558746 |journal=Naturwissenschaften |language=de |volume=13 |issue=26 |pages=567–574 |doi=10.1007/BF01558746 |bibcode=1925NW.....13..567. |s2cid=32974087 |issn=1432-1904|url-access=subscription }}</ref> who gave it its present name. It was named after the river [[Rhine]] in Europe, from which the earliest samples had been obtained and worked commercially.<ref>{{cite web|title=From Hydrogen to Darmstadtium & More|page=144|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YWkvAQAAIAAJ|publisher=American Chemical Society|date=2003}}</ref>

[[Nickel]]-based [[superalloy]]s of rhenium are used in combustion chambers, turbine blades, and exhaust nozzles of [[jet engine]]s. These alloys contain up to 6% rhenium, making jet engine construction the largest single use for the element. The second-most important use is as a [[Catalysis|catalyst]]: it is an excellent catalyst for [[hydrogenation]] and isomerization, and is used for example in [[catalytic reforming]] of naphtha for use in gasoline (rheniforming process). Because of the low availability relative to demand, rhenium is expensive, with price reaching an all-time high in 2008–09 of US$10,600 per [[kilogram]] (US$4,800 per pound). As of 2018, its price had dropped to US$2,844 per [[kilogram]] (US$1,290 per pound) due to increased recycling and a drop in demand for rhenium catalysts.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apps.catalysts.basf.com/apps/eibprices/mp/YearlyCharts.aspx|title=BASF Catalysts - Metal Prices|website=apps.catalysts.basf.com|access-date=2018-04-11|archive-date=2021-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412125504/https://apps.catalysts.basf.com/apps/eibprices/mp/YearlyCharts.aspx|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==History==
{{Redirect|Nipponium|element 113|nihonium}}
In 1908, [[Japan]]ese chemist [[Masataka Ogawa]] announced that he had discovered the 43rd element and named it ''nipponium'' (Np) after [[Japan]] (''Nippon'' in Japanese). In fact, he had found element 75 (rhenium) instead of element 43: both elements are in the same group of the periodic table.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.sab.2003.12.027|title=Discovery of a new element 'nipponiumʼ: re-evaluation of pioneering works of Masataka Ogawa and his son Eijiro Ogawa|date=2004|last=Yoshihara|first=H. K.|journal=Spectrochimica Acta Part B: Atomic Spectroscopy|volume=59|pages=1305–1310|bibcode=2004AcSpB..59.1305Y|issue=8}}</ref><ref name=nipponium2022>{{cite journal |last1=Hisamatsu |first1=Yoji |last2=Egashira |first2=Kazuhiro |first3=Yoshiteru |last3=Maeno |date=2022 |title=Ogawa's nipponium and its re-assignment to rhenium |journal=Foundations of Chemistry |volume=24 |issue= |pages=15–57 |doi=10.1007/s10698-021-09410-x |doi-access=free }}</ref> Ogawa's work was often incorrectly cited, because some of his key results were published only in Japanese; it is likely that his insistence on searching for element 43 prevented him from considering that he might have found element 75 instead. Just before Ogawa's death in 1930, [[Kenjiro Kimura]] analysed Ogawa's sample by [[X-ray spectroscopy]] at the [[Imperial University of Tokyo]], and said to a friend that "it was beautiful rhenium indeed". He did not reveal this publicly, because under the Japanese university culture before [[World War II]] it was frowned upon to point out the mistakes of one's seniors, but the evidence became known to some Japanese news media regardless. As time passed with no repetitions of the experiments or new work on nipponium, Ogawa's claim faded away.<ref name=nipponium2022/> The symbol Np was later used for the element [[neptunium]], and the name "nihonium", also [[Names of Japan#Nihon and Nippon|named after Japan]], along with symbol Nh, was later used for [[nihonium|element 113]]. Element 113 was also discovered by a team of Japanese scientists and was named in respectful homage to Ogawa's work.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Öhrström |first1=Lars |last2=Reedijk |first2=Jan |date=28 November 2016 |title=Names and symbols of the elements with atomic numbers 113, 115, 117 and 118 (IUPAC Recommendations 2016) |url=https://www.degruyter.com/downloadpdf/j/pac.2016.88.issue-12/pac-2016-0501/pac-2016-0501.pdf |journal=Pure Appl. Chem. |volume=88 |issue=12 |pages=1225–1229 |doi=10.1515/pac-2016-0501 |access-date=22 April 2017|hdl=1887/47427 |s2cid=99429711 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Today, Ogawa's claim is widely accepted as having been the discovery of element 75 in hindsight.<ref name=nipponium2022/>

Rhenium ({{langx|la|Rhenus}} meaning: "[[Rhine]]")<ref>{{cite book|language=de|title=Forschen Suche und Sucht|first=Hans Georg|last=Tilgner|publisher=Books on Demand| date=2000|isbn=978-3-89811-272-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UWBWnMOGtMQC}}</ref> received its current name when it was rediscovered by [[Walter Noddack]], [[Ida Tacke|Ida Noddack]], and [[Otto Berg (scientist)|Otto Berg]] in [[Germany]]. In 1925 they reported that they had detected the element in platinum ore and in the mineral [[columbite]]. They also found rhenium in [[gadolinite]] and [[molybdenite]].<ref name="'Ekamangane'">{{cite journal|last=Noddack|first=W.|author2=Tacke, I. |author3=Berg, O. |title=Die Ekamangane| journal=Naturwissenschaften| date=1925|volume=13|issue=26 |pages=567–574|doi=10.1007/BF01558746 |bibcode=1925NW.....13..567.|s2cid=32974087}}</ref> In 1928 they were able to extract 1 g of the element by processing 660&nbsp;kg of molybdenite.<ref name="1g">{{cite journal|last=Noddack| first=W.|author2=Noddack, I. |title=Die Herstellung von einem Gram Rhenium |journal=Zeitschrift für Anorganische und Allgemeine Chemie|date=1929|volume=183|issue=1|pages =353–375|doi=10.1002/zaac.19291830126|language=de}}</ref><!--The following text is a 1 to one copy from the USGS site: The process was so complicated and expensive that production was discontinued until early 1950 when tungsten-rhenium and molybdenum-rhenium alloys were prepared. These alloys found important applications in industry that resulted in a great demand for the rhenium produced from the molybdenite fraction of porphyry [[copper]] ores.{{citation needed|date = May 2012}}--> It was estimated in 1968 that 75% of the rhenium metal in the [[United States]] was used for research and the development of [[refractory metal]] alloys. It took several years from that point before the superalloys became widely used.<ref>{{cite book| pages =4–5| url =https://books.google.com/books?id=oD8rAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA4| title =Trends in usage of rhenium: Report| last1 =Committee On Technical Aspects Of Critical And Strategic Material| first1 =National Research Council (U.S.)| date =1968}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=Wd9GAAAAYAAJ
 | title = Rhenium alloys
 | last1 = Savitskiĭ
 | first1 = Evgeniĭ Mikhaĭlovich
 | last2 = Tulkina
 | first2 = Mariia Aronovna
 | last3 = Povarova
 | first3 = Kira Borisovna
 |author-link3=Kira Povarova
 | date = 1970}}</ref>

The original mischaracterization by Ogawa in 1908 and final work in 1925 makes rhenium perhaps the last stable element to be understood. [[Hafnium]] was discovered in 1923<ref>"Two Danes Discover New Element, Hafnium{{snd}}Detect It by Means of Spectrum Analysis of Ore Containing Zirconium", ''The New York Times'', January 20, 1923, p. 4</ref> and all other new elements discovered since then are radioactive.<ref name="usgs">{{cite web|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rhenium/|work=Minerals Information|title=Rhenium: Statistics and Information|date=2011|access-date=2011-05-25}}</ref>

==Characteristics==
Rhenium is a silvery-white metal with one of the highest [[melting point]]s of all elements, exceeded by only [[tungsten]]. (At standard pressure [[carbon]] sublimes rather than melts, though its sublimation point is comparable to the melting points of tungsten and rhenium.) It also has one of the highest [[boiling points]] of all elements, and the highest among stable elements. It is also one of the densest, exceeded only by [[platinum]], [[iridium]] and [[osmium]]. Rhenium has a hexagonal close-packed crystal structure.

Its usual commercial form is a powder, but this element can be consolidated by pressing and [[sintering]] in a vacuum or [[hydrogen]] atmosphere. This procedure yields a compact solid having a density above 90% of the density of the metal. When [[Annealing (metallurgy)|annealed]] this metal is very ductile and can be bent, coiled, or rolled.<ref name="CRC">{{cite book| first=C. R.| last=Hammond| chapter=The Elements| title=Handbook of Chemistry and Physics| edition=81st| publisher=CRC press| isbn=978-0-8493-0485-9| date=2004| chapter-url-access=registration| chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/crchandbookofche81lide}}</ref> Rhenium-molybdenum [[alloy]]s are [[Superconductivity|superconductive]] at 10 [[Kelvin|K]]; tungsten-rhenium alloys are also superconductive<ref>{{cite journal|title=Superconductivity of Some Alloys of the Tungsten-rhenium-carbon System|journal=Soviet Physics JETP|volume=27|page=13|date=1968|bibcode=1968JETP...27...13N|last=Neshpor|first=V. S.|author2=Novikov, V. I.|author3=Noskin, V. A.|author4=Shalyt, S. S.}}</ref> around 4–8 K, depending on the alloy. Rhenium metal superconducts at {{val|1.697|0.006|u=K}}.<ref>{{cite book | editor= Haynes, William M. | date = 2011 | title = CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics | edition = 92nd|page=12.60 | publisher = [[CRC Press]] | isbn = 978-1439855119| title-link = CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD0622881 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206104641/http://oai.dtic.mil/oai/oai?verb=getRecord&metadataPrefix=html&identifier=AD0622881 |url-status=dead |archive-date=2017-02-06 |title=The Properties of Superconducting Mo-Re Alloys |author=Daunt, J. G. |author2=Lerner, E. |publisher=[[Defense Technical Information Center]] }}</ref>

In bulk form and at room temperature and atmospheric pressure, the element resists alkalis, [[sulfuric acid]], [[hydrochloric acid]], [[nitric acid]], and [[aqua regia]]. It will however, react with nitric acid upon heating.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Duk20wEVgJQ | title=Rhenium - A METAL WITHOUT WHICH THERE WOULdn't BE GASOLINE! | website=[[YouTube]] | date=July 2018 }}</ref>

===Isotopes===
{{Main|Isotopes of rhenium}}
Rhenium has one [[Stable nuclide|stable]] isotope, rhenium-185, which nevertheless occurs in minority abundance, a situation found only in two other elements ([[indium]] and [[tellurium]]). Naturally occurring rhenium is only 37.4% <sup>185</sup>Re, and 62.6% <sup>187</sup>Re, which is [[Radionuclide|unstable]] but has a very long [[half-life]] (~10<sup>10</sup> years). A kilogram of natural rhenium emits 1.07&nbsp;[[Becquerel|MBq]] of radiation due to the presence of this isotope. This lifetime can be greatly affected by the charge state of the rhenium atom.<ref>{{cite web|work=math.ucr.edu|url=http://math.ucr.edu/home/baez/physics/ParticleAndNuclear/decay_rates.html|title=How to Change Nuclear Decay Rates|date=1993|first=Bill|last=Johnson|access-date=2009-02-21}}</ref><ref name="Bosch1996">{{cite journal|last1=Bosch|first1=F.|last2=Faestermann|first2=T.|last3=Friese|first3=J.|last4=Heine|first4=F.|last5=Kienle|first5=P.|last6=Wefers|first6=E.|last7=Zeitelhack|first7=K.|last8=Beckert|first8=K.|last9=Franzke|first9=B.|last10=Klepper|first10=O.|last11=Kozhuharov|first11=C.|last12=Menzel|first12=G.|last13=Moshammer|first13=R.|last14=Nolden|first14=F.|last15=Reich|first15=H.|last16=Schlitt|first16=B.|last17=Steck|first17=M.|last18=Stöhlker|first18=T.|last19=Winkler|first19=T.|last20=Takahashi|first20=K.|display-authors=3|title=Observation of bound-state ''β''<sup>−</sup> decay of fully ionized <sup>187</sup>Re: <sup>187</sup>Re-<sup>187</sup>Os Cosmochronometry|date=1996|journal=[[Physical Review Letters]]|volume=77|issue=26|pages=5190–5193|doi=10.1103/PhysRevLett.77.5190|bibcode=1996PhRvL..77.5190B|pmid=10062738}}</ref> The [[beta decay]] of <sup>187</sup>Re is used for [[rhenium–osmium dating]] of ores. The available energy for this beta decay (2.6&nbsp;[[keV]]) is the second lowest known among all [[radionuclide]]s, only behind the decay from <sup>115</sup>In to excited <sup>115</sup>Sn* (0.147&nbsp;keV).<ref>{{cite journal | last1=Belli | first1=P. | last2=Bernabei | first2=R. | last3=Danevich | first3=F. A. | last4=Incicchitti | first4=A. | last5=Tretyak | first5=V. I. | title=Experimental searches for rare alpha and beta decays | journal=The European Physical Journal A | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=55 | issue=8 | year=2019 | page=140 | issn=1434-6001 | doi=10.1140/epja/i2019-12823-2| arxiv=1908.11458 | bibcode=2019EPJA...55..140B }}</ref> The isotope rhenium-186m is notable as being one of the longest lived [[metastable isotope]]s with a half-life of around 200,000 years. There are 33 other unstable isotopes that have been recognized, ranging from <sup>160</sup>Re to <sup>194</sup>Re, the longest-lived of which is <sup>183</sup>Re with a half-life of 70 days.{{NUBASE2016|ref}}

===Compounds===
{{main|Rhenium compounds}}

Rhenium compounds are known for all the [[oxidation states]] between −3 and +7 except −2. The oxidation states +7, +4, and +3 are the most common.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Housecroft |first1=Catherine E. |last2=Sharpe |first2=Alan G. |title=Inorganic Chemistry |date=2018|publisher=Pearson Prentice-Hal |isbn=978-1292-13414-7 |page=829 |edition=5th}}</ref> Rhenium is most available commercially as salts of [[perrhenate]], including [[sodium perrhenate|sodium]] and [[ammonium perrhenate]]s. These are white, water-soluble compounds.<ref name="Brauer">Glemser, O. (1963) "Ammonium Perrhenate" in ''Handbook of Preparative Inorganic Chemistry'', 2nd ed., G. Brauer (ed.), Academic Press, NY., Vol. 1, pp. 1476–85.</ref> Tetrathioperrhenate anion [ReS<sub>4</sub>]<sup>−</sup>  is possible.<ref>{{cite book |last1= Goodman |first1= JT |last2= Rauchfuss |first2= TB |chapter= Useful Reagents and Ligands | title = Inorganic Syntheses | series = [[Inorganic Syntheses]] | year = 2002 | volume = 33 | pages = 107–110 | doi=10.1002/0471224502.ch2| isbn = 0471208256 }}</ref>

====Halides and oxyhalides====
The most common rhenium chlorides are ReCl<sub>6</sub>, [[Rhenium pentachloride|ReCl<sub>5</sub>]], ReCl<sub>4</sub>, and [[Rhenium trichloride|ReCl<sub>3</sub>]].<ref name="G&W">{{Greenwood&Earnshaw2nd}}</ref> The structures of these compounds often feature extensive Re-Re bonding, which is characteristic of this metal in oxidation states lower than VII. Salts of [Re<sub>2</sub>Cl<sub>8</sub>]<sup>2−</sup> feature a [[quadruple bond|quadruple]] metal-metal bond. Although the highest rhenium chloride features Re(VI), fluorine gives the d<sup>0</sup> Re(VII) derivative [[rhenium heptafluoride]]. Bromides and iodides of rhenium are also well known, including [[rhenium pentabromide]] and [[rhenium tetraiodide]].

Like tungsten and molybdenum, with which it shares chemical similarities, rhenium forms a variety of [[Oxohalide|oxyhalides]]. The oxychlorides are most common, and include ReOCl<sub>4</sub>, ReOCl<sub>3</sub>.

====Oxides and sulfides====
[[File:Perrhenic-acid-3D-balls.png|left|thumb|upright=0.5|Perrhenic acid (H<sub>4</sub>Re<sub>2</sub>O<sub>9</sub>) adopts an unconventional structure.]]

The most common oxide is the volatile yellow [[rhenium(VII) oxide|Re<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub>]]. The red [[ReO3|rhenium trioxide]] ReO<sub>3</sub> adopts a [[perovskite]]-like structure. Other oxides include Re<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>, [[Rhenium(IV) oxide|ReO<sub>2</sub>]], and Re<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>.<ref name="G&W" /> The [[sulfide]]s are [[rhenium disulfide|ReS<sub>2</sub>]] and [[Rhenium(VII) sulfide|Re<sub>2</sub>S<sub>7</sub>]]. Perrhenate salts can be converted to tetrathioperrhenate by the action of [[ammonium hydrosulfide]].<ref>{{cite book|last =Goodman|first=J. T.|author2=Rauchfuss, T. B. |chapter=Useful Reagents and Ligands |title=Inorganic Syntheses|date=2002|volume=33|pages=107–110|doi=10.1002/0471224502.ch2|isbn=9780471208259}}</ref>

====Other compounds====
[[Rhenium diboride]] (ReB<sub>2</sub>) is a hard compound having a hardness similar to that of [[tungsten carbide]], [[silicon carbide]], [[titanium diboride]] or [[zirconium diboride]].<ref>{{cite journal| first=Jiaqian|last=Qin|author2=He, Duanwei |author3=Wang, Jianghua |author4=Fang, Leiming |author5=Lei, Li |author6=Li, Yongjun |author7=Hu, Juan |author8=Kou, Zili |author9= Bi, Yan |title=Is Rhenium Diboride a Superhard Material?| journal= Advanced Materials |volume=20|date =2008| pages=4780–4783| doi=10.1002/adma.200801471| issue=24|bibcode=2008AdM....20.4780Q |s2cid=98327405 }}</ref>

====Organorhenium compounds====
{{Main|Organorhenium chemistry}}
[[Dirhenium decacarbonyl]] is the most common entry to organorhenium chemistry. Its reduction with sodium [[Amalgam (chemistry)|amalgam]] gives Na[Re(CO)<sub>5</sub>] with rhenium in the formal oxidation state −1.<ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1002/cber.19901230103|title = Nucleophile Addition von Carbonylmetallaten an kationische Alkin-Komplexe [CpL2M(η2-RC≡CR)]+ (M = Ru, Fe): μ-η1:η1-Alkin-verbrückte Komplexe|date = 1990|author = Breimair, Josef|journal = Chemische Berichte|volume = 123|page = 7|last2 = Steimann|first2 = Manfred|last3 = Wagner|first3 = Barbara|last4 = Beck|first4 = Wolfgang}}</ref> Dirhenium decacarbonyl can be oxidised with [[bromine]] to [[bromopentacarbonylrhenium(I)]]:<ref>{{cite book|title=Inorganic Syntheses|first=Steven P.|last =Schmidt|author2=Trogler, William C. |author3=Basolo, Fred |chapter=Pentacarbonylrhenium Halides | volume=28|date=1990|pages=154–159|doi=10.1002/9780470132593.ch42|isbn=978-0-470-13259-3}}</ref>
:Re<sub>2</sub>(CO)<sub>10</sub> + Br<sub>2</sub> → 2 Re(CO)<sub>5</sub>Br

Reduction of this pentacarbonyl with [[zinc]] and [[acetic acid]] gives [[pentacarbonylhydridorhenium]]:<ref name="Urb">{{cite book|author=Michael A. Urbancic|author2=John R. Shapley|chapter=Pentacarbonylhydridorhenium |title=Inorganic Syntheses|volume=28|pages=165–168|date=1990|doi =10.1002/9780470132593.ch43|isbn=978-0-470-13259-3}}</ref>
:Re(CO)<sub>5</sub>Br + Zn + HOAc → Re(CO)<sub>5</sub>H + ZnBr(OAc)

[[Methylrhenium trioxide]] ("MTO"), CH<sub>3</sub>ReO<sub>3</sub> is a volatile, colourless solid that has been used as a [[catalyst]] in some laboratory experiments. It can be prepared by many routes, a typical method is the reaction of Re<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub> and [[tetramethyltin]]:
:Re<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub> + (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>4</sub>Sn → CH<sub>3</sub>ReO<sub>3</sub> + (CH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>3</sub>SnOReO<sub>3</sub>
Analogous alkyl and aryl derivatives are known. MTO catalyses for the oxidations with [[hydrogen peroxide]]. Terminal [[alkyne]]s yield the corresponding acid or ester, internal alkynes yield diketones, and [[alkene]]s give epoxides. MTO also catalyses the conversion of [[aldehyde]]s and [[diazoalkane]]s into an alkene.<ref>Hudson, A. (2002) “Methyltrioxorhenium” in ''Encyclopedia of Reagents for Organic Synthesis''. John Wiley & Sons: New York, {{ISBN|9780470842898}}, {{doi|10.1002/047084289X}}.</ref>

====Nonahydridorhenate====
[[File:Nonahydridorhenate-3D-balls.png|right|thumb|upright=0.5|Structure of {{chem|ReH|9|2-}}.]]
A distinctive derivative of rhenium is [[Potassium nonahydridorhenate|nonahydridorhenate]], originally thought to be the ''rhenide'' anion, Re<sup>−</sup>, but actually containing the {{chem|ReH|9|2-}} anion in which the oxidation state of rhenium is +7.

===Occurrence===
[[Image:Molybdenit 1.jpg|thumb|left|Molybdenite]]
Rhenium is one of the rarest elements in [[Earth's crust]] with an average concentration of 1&nbsp;ppb;<ref name="G&W" /> other sources quote the number of 0.5&nbsp;ppb making it the 77th most abundant element in Earth's crust.<ref name="Emsley2001p358">{{cite book|title=Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements|last=Emsley|first=John|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2001|location=Oxford, England, UK|isbn=978-0-19-850340-8|chapter=Rhenium|pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/358 358–360]|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j-Xu07p3cKwC|url=https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/358}}</ref> Rhenium is probably not found free in nature (its possible natural occurrence is uncertain), but occurs in amounts up to 0.2%<ref name="G&W" /> in the mineral [[molybdenite]] (which is primarily [[molybdenum disulfide]]), the major commercial source, although single molybdenite samples with up to 1.88% have been found.<ref name="Rousch" /> [[Chile]] has the world's largest rhenium reserves, part of the copper ore deposits, and was the leading producer as of 2005.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2005/cimyb05.pdf |first=Steve T.|last=Anderson| publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|title=2005 Minerals Yearbook: Chile|access-date=2008-10-26}}</ref> It was only recently (in 1994) that the first rhenium [[mineral]] was found and described, a rhenium [[sulfide mineral]] (ReS<sub>2</sub>) condensing from a [[fumarole]] on [[Kudriavy]] volcano, [[Iturup]] island, in the [[Kuril Islands]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Korzhinsky|first=M. A.|author2=Tkachenko, S. I. |author3=Shmulovich, K. I. |author4=Taran Y. A. |author5= Steinberg, G. S. | date=2004-05-05|title=Discovery of a pure rhenium mineral at Kudriavy volcano|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=369|pages=51–52|doi=10.1038/369051a0|issue=6475|bibcode = 1994Natur.369...51K |s2cid=4344624}}</ref> Kudriavy discharges up to 20–60&nbsp;kg rhenium per year mostly in the form of rhenium disulfide.<ref>{{cite journal| last1 = Kremenetsky| first1 = A. A.| last2 = Chaplygin| first2 = I. V.| title = Concentration of rhenium and other rare metals in gases of the Kudryavy Volcano (Iturup Island, Kurile Islands)| journal = Doklady Earth Sciences| volume = 430| issue = 1| page = 114| date = 2010| doi = 10.1134/S1028334X10010253|bibcode = 2010DokES.430..114K | s2cid = 140632604}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Tessalina | first1 = S. | last2 = Yudovskaya | first2 = M. | last3 = Chaplygin | first3 = I. | last4 = Birck | first4 = J. | last5 = Capmas | first5 = F. | title = Sources of unique rhenium enrichment in fumaroles and sulphides at Kudryavy volcano | journal = Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta | volume = 72 | page = 889 | date = 2008 | doi = 10.1016/j.gca.2007.11.015 | bibcode=2008GeCoA..72..889T | issue = 3}}</ref> Named [[rheniite]], this rare mineral commands high prices among collectors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.galleries.com/minerals/sulfides/rheniite/rheniite.htm|publisher=Amethyst Galleries|title=The Mineral Rheniite}}</ref> <!--Dr. Kremenetsky from [[Russian Academy of Sciences|RAS]] Mineralogy Institute argues that this source could be commercially exploited,<ref>[http://www.nkj.ru/archive/articles/5340/ Завод на вулкане] // Наука и жизнь, № 11, 2000, in Russian.</ref> but currently there is no active attempts to extract it.-->
{{Clear}}

==Production==
[[Image:Ammonium perrhenate.jpg|thumb|right|Ammonium perrhenate]]
Approximately 80% of rhenium is extracted from [[Porphyry (geology)|porphyry]] molybdenum deposits.<ref>{{cite book|chapter=Chapter 7: By-Products of Porphyry Copper and Molybdenum Deposits|first1=D. A.|last1=John|first2=R. D.|last2=Taylor|title=Rare earth and critical elements in ore deposits|year=2016|volume=18|pages=137–164|publisher=Society of Economic Geologists |doi=10.5382/Rev.18.07 |isbn=978-1-62949-218-6 |url=https://pubs.er.usgs.gov/publication/70048652|editor=Philip L. Verplanck and Murray W. Hitzman}}</ref> Some ores contain 0.001% to 0.2% rhenium.<ref name="G&W" /> Roasting the ore volatilizes rhenium oxides.<ref name="Rousch">{{cite journal|doi = 10.1021/cr60291a002|title = Recent advances in the chemistry of rhenium|date = 1974|author = Rouschias, George|journal = Chemical Reviews|volume = 74|page = 531|issue = 5}}</ref> [[Rhenium(VII) oxide]] and [[perrhenic acid]] readily dissolve in water; they are leached from flue dusts and gasses and extracted by precipitating with [[potassium chloride|potassium]] or [[ammonium chloride]] as the [[perrhenate]] salts, and purified by [[Recrystallization (chemistry)|recrystallization]].<ref name="G&W" /> Total world production is between 40 and 50 tons/year; the main producers are in Chile, the United States, Peru, and Poland.<ref name="USGS_2012_summary">{{cite web|title=Rhenium|work=Mineral Commodity Summaries |publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|date=January 2012|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rhenium/mcs-2012-rheni.pdf|first=Michael J.|last=Magyar|access-date=2013-09-04}}</ref> Recycling of used Pt-Re catalyst and special alloys allow the recovery of another 10 tons per year. Prices for the metal rose rapidly in early 2008, from $1000–$2000 per [[kilogram|kg]] in 2003–2006 to over $10,000 in February 2008.<ref name="minormetals">{{cite web|title=MinorMetal prices|publisher=minormetals.com|url=http://www.minormetals.com/|access-date=2008-02-17|archive-date=2008-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080515180506/http://www.minormetals.com/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/oilRpt/idINL1037587920080710|first=Jan|last=Harvey|title=Analysis: Super hot metal rhenium may reach "platinum prices"|date=2008-07-10|access-date=2008-10-26|publisher=Reuters India|archive-date=2009-01-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111183605/http://in.reuters.com/article/oilRpt/idINL1037587920080710|url-status=dead}}</ref> The metal form is prepared by reducing [[ammonium perrhenate]] with [[hydrogen]] at high temperatures:<ref name="Brauer" />

:2 NH<sub>4</sub>ReO<sub>4</sub> + 7 H<sub>2</sub> → 2 Re + 8 H<sub>2</sub>O + 2 NH<sub>3</sub>

There are technologies for the associated extraction of rhenium from productive solutions of underground leaching of uranium ores.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rudenko |first1=A.A. |last2=Troshkina |first2=I.D. |last3=Danileyko |first3=V.V. |last4=Barabanov |first4=O.S. |last5=Vatsura |first5=F.Y. |title=Prospects for selective-and-advanced recovery of rhenium from pregnant solutions of in-situ leaching of uranium ores at Dobrovolnoye deposit |url=https://mst.misis.ru/jour/article/view/287 |journal=Gornye Nauki I Tekhnologii = Mining Science and Technology (Russia) |year=2021 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=158–169|doi=10.17073/2500-0632-2021-3-158-169 |s2cid=241476783 |url-access=subscription |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Applications==
[[Image:Pratt & Whitney F100 F-15 engine undergoing testing.jpg|thumb|right|[[Pratt & Whitney F100|The Pratt & Whitney F-100 engine]] uses rhenium-containing second-generation superalloys]]
Rhenium is added to high-temperature superalloys that are used to make [[jet engine]] parts,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Rhenium (Re) {{!}} AMERICAN ELEMENTS ® |url=https://www.americanelements.com/re.html |access-date=2024-05-14 |website=American Elements: The Materials Science Company |language=en}}</ref> using 70% of the worldwide rhenium production.<ref name="Naumov">{{cite journal|title=Rhythms of rhenium|journal=Russian Journal of Non-Ferrous Metals|volume=48|issue=6|date=2007|doi=10.3103/S1067821207060089|pages=418–423|first=A. V.|last=Naumov|s2cid=137550564}}</ref> Another major application is in platinum–rhenium [[catalyst]]s, which are primarily used in making [[lead]]-free, high-octane [[gasoline]].<ref name="USGS_2009_yearbook">{{cite web|title=2009 Mineral Yearbook: Rhenium|date=April 2011|url=http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/rhenium/myb1-2009-rheni.pdf| first=Michael J.|last=Magyar|publisher=United States Geological Survey}}</ref>

===Alloys===
The nickel-based [[superalloy]]s have improved [[Creep (deformation)|creep strength]] with the addition of rhenium. The alloys normally contain 3% or 6% of rhenium.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nickel Based Superalloys|first=H. K. D. H.|last=Bhadeshia|url=http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2003/Superalloys/superalloys.html|publisher=University of Cambridge|access-date=2008-10-17|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060825053006/http://www.msm.cam.ac.uk/phase-trans/2003/Superalloys/superalloys.html|archive-date=2006-08-25}}</ref> Second-generation alloys contain 3%; these alloys were used in the engines for the [[Pratt & Whitney F100|F-15 and F-16]], whereas the newer single-crystal third-generation alloys contain 6% of rhenium; they are used in the [[Pratt & Whitney F119|F-22]] and [[Pratt & Whitney F135|F-35]] engines.<ref name="USGS_2009_yearbook" /><ref>{{cite book |title=Aerospace Materials: An Oxford-Kobe Materials Text|first=B.|last=Cantor|author2=Grant, Patrick Assender Hazel |publisher=CRC Press| date=2001|isbn=978-0-7503-0742-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n09-HajhRHYC |pages=82–83}}</ref> Rhenium is also used in the superalloys, such as CMSX-4 (2nd gen) and CMSX-10 (3rd gen) that are used in industrial [[gas turbine]] engines like the GE 7FA. Rhenium can cause [[superalloy]]s to become microstructurally unstable, forming undesirable topologically close packed (TCP) [[phase (matter)|phases]]. In 4th- and 5th-generation [[superalloy]]s, [[ruthenium]] is used to avoid this effect. Among others the new [[superalloy]]s are EPM-102 (with 3% Ru) and TMS-162 (with 6% Ru),<ref>{{cite journal|doi = 10.1007/s11041-006-0099-6|title = Effect of high-gradient directed crystallization on the structure and properties of rhenium-bearing single-crystal alloy|date = 2006|author = Bondarenko, Yu. A.|journal = Metal Science and Heat Treatment|volume = 48|page = 360|last2 = Kablov|first2 = E. N.|last3 = Surova|first3 = V. A.|last4 = Echin|first4 = A. B.|issue = 7–8|bibcode = 2006MSHT...48..360B|s2cid = 136907279}}</ref> as well as TMS-138<ref>{{cite news| title=Fourth generation nickel base single crystal superalloy|url=http://sakimori.nims.go.jp/catalog/TMS-138-A.pdf}}</ref> and TMS-174.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Koizumi, Yutaka|display-authors=etal|title= Development of a Next-Generation Ni-base Single Crystal Superalloy|url=http://nippon.zaidan.info/seikabutsu/2003/00916/pdf/igtc2003tokyo_ts119.pdf|journal=Proceedings of the International Gas Turbine Congress, Tokyo November 2–7, 2003}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| title=Joint Development of a Fourth Generation Single Crystal Superalloy|author=Walston, S.|author2=Cetel, A.|author3=MacKay, R.|author4=O'Hara, K.|author5=Duhl, D.|author6=Dreshfield, R.|url=http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/reports/2004/TM-2004-213062.pdf| url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061015113650/http://gltrs.grc.nasa.gov/reports/2004/TM-2004-213062.pdf |archive-date=2006-10-15}}</ref>

[[File:CFM56 P1220759.jpg|thumb|left|CFM International CFM56 jet engine with blades made with 3% rhenium]]

For 2006, the consumption is given as 28% for [[General Electric]], 28% [[Rolls-Royce plc]] and 12% [[Pratt & Whitney]], all for superalloys, whereas the use for catalysts only accounts for 14% and the remaining applications use 18%.<ref name="Naumov" /> In 2006, 77% of rhenium consumption in the United States was in alloys.<ref name="USGS_2009_yearbook" /> The rising demand for military jet engines and the constant supply made it necessary to develop superalloys with a lower rhenium content. For example, the newer [[CFM International CFM56]] high-pressure turbine (HPT) blades will use Rene N515 with a rhenium content of 1.5% instead of Rene N5 with 3%.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Fink | first1 = Paul J. | last2 = Miller | first2 = Joshua L. | last3 = Konitzer | first3 = Douglas G. | title = Rhenium reduction—alloy design using an economically strategic element | journal = JOM | volume = 62 | issue = 1 | page = 55 | date = 2010 | doi = 10.1007/s11837-010-0012-z|bibcode = 2010JOM....62a..55F | s2cid = 137007996 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| first =Douglas G. | last =Konitzer | url = http://memagazine.asme.org/Articles/2010/September/Design_Era_Constrained.cfm | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110725021809/http://memagazine.asme.org/Articles/2010/September/Design_Era_Constrained.cfm | archive-date = 2011-07-25 | title = Design in an Era of Constrained Resources | access-date = 2010-10-12| date = September 2010}}</ref>

Rhenium improves the properties of [[tungsten]]. Tungsten-rhenium alloys are more ductile at low temperature, allowing them to be more easily machined. The high-temperature stability is also improved. The effect increases with the rhenium concentration, and therefore tungsten alloys are produced with up to 27% of Re, which is the solubility limit.<ref>{{cite book|title=Tungsten: properties, chemistry, technology of the element, alloys, and chemical compounds|first=Erik|last=Lassner|author2=Schubert, Wolf-Dieter | publisher=Springer|date=1999|isbn=978-0-306-45053-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=foLRISkt9gcC&pg=PA256|page=256}}</ref> Tungsten-rhenium wire was originally created in efforts to develop a wire that was more ductile after recrystallization. This allows the wire to meet specific performance objectives, including superior vibration resistance, improved ductility, and higher resistivity.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://ucfilament.com/materials/tungsten-rhenium/|title=Tungsten-Rhenium - Union City Filament|work=Union City Filament|access-date=2017-04-05|language=en-US}}</ref> One application for the tungsten-rhenium alloys is [[X-ray]] sources. The high melting point of both elements, together with their high atomic mass, makes them stable against the prolonged electron impact.<ref>{{cite book|title =Practical radiotherapy physics and equipment|first=Pam|last=Cherry|author2=Duxbury, Angela |publisher=Cambridge University Press|date=1998|isbn=978-1-900151-06-1|url =https://books.google.com/books?id=5WIBbmmDm-gC&pg=PA55|page=55}}</ref> Rhenium tungsten alloys are also applied as [[thermocouple]]s to measure temperatures up to 2200 °[[Celsius|C]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=Tungsten-Rhenium Thermocouples for Use at High Temperatures|journal=Review of Scientific Instruments|volume=39|page=1233|date=1968|doi=10.1063/1.1683642|first= R.|last=Asamoto|author2=Novak, P. E. |issue=8|bibcode = 1968RScI...39.1233A }}</ref>

The high temperature stability, low vapor pressure, good [[Wear|wear resistance]] and ability to withstand arc corrosion of rhenium are useful in self-cleaning [[Switch#Contacts|electrical contacts]]. In particular, the discharge that occurs during electrical switching oxidizes the contacts. However, rhenium oxide Re<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub> is volatile (sublimes at ~360&nbsp;°C) and therefore is removed during the discharge.<ref name="Naumov" />

Rhenium has a high melting point and a low vapor pressure similar to [[tantalum]] and tungsten. Therefore, rhenium filaments exhibit a higher stability if the filament is operated not in vacuum, but in oxygen-containing atmosphere.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1021/j100873a513|date=1966|last=Blackburn|first=Paul E.|journal=The Journal of Physical Chemistry|volume=70|pages=311–312|title=The Vapor Pressure of Rhenium}}</ref> Those filaments are widely used in [[mass spectrometer]]s, [[ion gauge]]s<ref>{{cite journal|title=Tungsten-Rhenium Filament Lifetime Variability in Low Pressure Oxygen Environments|last= Earle|first=G. D.|author2=Medikonduri, R. |author3=Rajagopal, N. |author4=Narayanan, V. |author5= Roddy, P. A. |journal= IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science|volume=33|issue=5|pages=1736–1737|doi =10.1109/TPS.2005.856413|date=2005|bibcode = 2005ITPS...33.1736E |s2cid= 26162679}}</ref> and [[photoflash]] lamps in [[photography]].<ref>{{cite book|title=The chemical element: a historical perspective|first=Andrew|last=Ede| publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|date=2006|isbn=978-0-313-33304-0}}</ref>

===Catalysts===
Rhenium in the form of rhenium-platinum alloy is used as catalyst for [[catalytic reforming]], which is a chemical process to convert petroleum refinery [[Petroleum naphtha|naphthas]] with low [[octane rating]]s into high-octane liquid products. Worldwide, 30% of catalysts used for this process contain rhenium.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Rhenium-containing catalysts in reactions of organic compounds|date=1998|journal=Russian Chemical Reviews|volume=67|pages=157–177|doi=10.1070/RC1998v067n02ABEH000390|first=Margarita A.|last= Ryashentseva|issue=2|bibcode = 1998RuCRv..67..157R |s2cid=250866233 }}</ref> The [[olefin metathesis]] is the other reaction for which rhenium is used as catalyst. Normally Re<sub>2</sub>O<sub>7</sub> on [[alumina]] is used for this process.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Catalysis Today |volume=51| issue=2|date=1999|pages=289–299|title=Olefin metathesis over supported rhenium oxide catalysts|first=Johannes C.|last=Mol|doi=10.1016/S0920-5861(99)00051-6}}</ref> Rhenium catalysts are very resistant to [[catalyst poisoning|chemical poisoning]] from nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus, and so are used in certain kinds of hydrogenation reactions.<ref name="CRC" /><ref>{{cite journal|journal=Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.|volume=38|issue=5|pages=1830–1836|date=1999|title=Selective Rhenium Recovery from Spent Reforming Catalysts|doi= 10.1021/ie9806242|first=T. N. |last=Angelidis|author2=Rosopoulou, D. Tzitzios V. }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=The Oxidation State of Rhenium and Its Role in Platinum-Rhenium|url=http://www.platinummetalsreview.com/pdf/pmr-v22-i2-057-060.pdf | first=Robert|last=Burch|journal=Platinum Metals Review|date=1978|volume=22|issue=2|pages =57–60|doi=10.1595/003214078X2225760 }}</ref>

===Other uses===
The isotopes <sup>186</sup>Re and <sup>188</sup>Re are radioactive and are used for treatment of [[liver cancer]]. They both have similar [[penetration depth]] in tissue (5&nbsp;mm for <sup>186</sup>Re and 11&nbsp;mm for <sup>188</sup>Re), but <sup>186</sup>Re has the advantage of a longer half life (90 hours vs. 17 hours).<ref name="Dilw">{{cite journal| first=Jonathan R.|last=Dilworth|author2=Parrott, Suzanne J. |title=The biomedical chemistry of technetium and rhenium| journal=Chemical Society Reviews|date= 1998|volume=27|pages=43–55|doi=10.1039/a827043z}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]]|title=The Tungsten-188 and Rhenium-188 Generator Information|date=2005|url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nuclear_science_technology/nu_med/188info.htm|access-date=2008-02-03 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080109170105/http://www.ornl.gov/sci/nuclear_science_technology/nu_med/188info.htm <!-- Bot retrieved archive --> |archive-date = 2008-01-09}}</ref>

<sup>188</sup>Re is also being used experimentally in a novel treatment of pancreatic cancer where it is delivered by means of the bacterium ''Listeria monocytogenes''.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Baker|first=Monya|title=Radioactive bacteria attack cancer|url=http://www.nature.com/news/radioactive-bacteria-attack-cancer-1.12841|journal=Nature|date=22 April 2013|doi=10.1038/nature.2013.12841|doi-access=free}}</ref> The <sup>188</sup>Re isotope is also used for the rhenium-SCT ([[skin cancer]] therapy). The treatment uses the isotope's properties as a [[Beta decay|beta emitter]] for [[brachytherapy]] in the treatment of [[Basal-cell carcinoma|basal cell carcinoma]] and [[Squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck|squamous cell carcinoma]] of the skin.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cipriani|first1=Cesidio|last2=Desantis|first2=Maria|last3=Dahlhoff|first3=Gerhard|last4=Brown|first4=Shannon D.|last5=Wendler|first5=Thomas|last6=Olmeda|first6=Mar|last7=Pietsch|first7=Gunilla|last8=Eberlein|first8=Bernadette|date=2020-07-22|title=Personalized irradiation therapy for NMSC by rhenium-188 skin cancer therapy: a long-term retrospective study|journal=Journal of Dermatological Treatment|volume=33 |issue=2 |language=en|pages=969–975|doi=10.1080/09546634.2020.1793890|pmid=32648530|issn=0954-6634|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Related by [[periodic trends]], rhenium has a similar chemistry to that of [[technetium]]; work done to label rhenium onto target compounds can often be translated to technetium. This is useful for radiopharmacy, where it is difficult to work with technetium – especially the [[technetium-99m]] isotope used in medicine – due to its expense and short half-life.<ref name="Dilw" /><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1039/QR9621600299|title=An outline of technetium chemistry|date=1962|author=Colton, R.|author2=Peacock R. D. |journal=Quarterly Reviews, Chemical Society|volume=16|pages=299–315|issue=4}}</ref>

Rhenium is used in manufacturing high precision equipment like [[gyroscopes]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.samaterials.com/content/six-strategic-metals-widely-used-in-the-military-industry.html |title=Six Strategic Metals Widely Used in the Military Industry |last=Trento |first=Chin |website=Stanford Standard Materials |date=Apr 12, 2024 |access-date=June 24, 2024}}</ref> Its high [[density]], mechanical stability and [[corrosion]] resistance characteristics<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/rhenium |title=Rhenium |date=Mar 1, 2024 |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=June 24, 2024}}</ref> ensure the equipment's [[durability]] and precise performance in demanding conditions. Rhenium cathodes are also used for their stability and precision in spectral analysis.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Azarov |first1=V. |last2=Gayasov |first2=R. |date=2017 |title= Revised analysis of the fifth spectrum of rhenium (Re V) |url=https://www.nist.gov/publications/revised-analysis-fifth-spectrum-rhenium-re-v |journal=Atomic Data and Nuclear Data Tables |volume=119 |pages=175–192 |doi=10.1016/j.adt.2017.01.003 |access-date=June 24, 2024|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Rhenium is used in aerospace, nuclear, and electronic industries, and it shows potential for application in medical instrumentation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://spinoff.nasa.gov/spinoff2001/ip11.html |title=Rhenium Redefined |year=2001 |website=NASA |access-date=Oct 28, 2024}}</ref> In the rocket industry, it is used in engine components for booster rockets.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.refractorymetal.org/rhenium/ |title=Applications of Rhenium |website=Advance Refractory Metals |access-date=Oct 28, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite report |last=Harding |first=John |year=1988 |title=Iridium-Coated Rhenium Thrusters by CVD |publisher=NASA |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19880020490/downloads/19880020490.pdf |access-date=Oct 27, 2024 |page=2}}</ref> Additionally, rhenium was employed in the [[SP-100]] program due to its low-temperature ductility.<ref>{{cite report |last1=Hagel |first1=W.C. |last2=Shields |first2=J.A. |year=1984 |title=Processing and Production of Molybdenum and Tungsten Alloys |page=98 |publisher=US Department of Energy |url=https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/16/003/16003241.pdf |access-date=Oct 28, 2024}}</ref>

Rhenium's stiffness and high melting point makes it a common gasket material for [[high pressure experiments]] in [[Diamond anvil cell|diamond anvil cells]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Diamond Anvil Cell |url=https://serc.carleton.edu/NAGTWorkshops/mineralogy/mineral_physics/diamond_anvil.html |access-date=2024-10-01 |website=Mineral Physics |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cheng |first1=Nanfei |last2=Chou |first2=I-Ming |last3=Wan |first3=Ye |last4=Wang |first4=Ruoheng |last5=Zhang |first5=Haiyan |last6=Chen |first6=Ying |date=2023-08-20 |title=The intrinsic effects of using rhenium gaskets in hydrothermal diamond anvil cell experiments on background fluorescence, contamination, and redox control |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0009254123002358 |journal=Chemical Geology |volume=632 |pages=121535 |doi=10.1016/j.chemgeo.2023.121535 |issn=0009-2541|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

==Precautions==
Very little is known about the toxicity of rhenium and its compounds because they are used in very small amounts. Soluble salts, such as the rhenium halides or perrhenates, could be hazardous due to elements other than rhenium or due to rhenium itself.<ref name="Emsley">{{cite book|title=Nature's Building Blocks: An A-Z Guide to the Elements|last=Emsley|first=J.|publisher=Oxford University Press|date=2003|location=Oxford, England, UK|isbn=978-0-19-850340-8|chapter=Rhenium|pages=[https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/358 358–361]|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/naturesbuildingb0000emsl/page/358}}</ref> Only a few compounds of rhenium have been tested for their acute toxicity; two examples are potassium perrhenate and rhenium trichloride, which were injected as a solution into rats. The perrhenate had an [[Median lethal dose|LD<sub>50</sub>]] value of 2800&nbsp;mg/kg after seven days (this is very low toxicity, similar to that of table salt) and the rhenium trichloride showed LD<sub>50</sub> of 280&nbsp;mg/kg.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Pharmacology and toxicology of potassium perrhenate and rhenium trichloride|pages=321–323|first =Thomas J.|last=Haley|author2=Cartwright, Frank D. |doi=10.1002/jps.2600570218|journal=Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences|volume=57|issue=2|date=1968|pmid=5641681}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |title=A Tale of Seven Elements|first1= Eric|last1= Scerri|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195391312 }}

==External links==
{{Commons|Rhenium}}
{{Wiktionary|rhenium}}
* [http://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/075.htm Rhenium] at ''[[The Periodic Table of Videos]]'' (University of Nottingham)

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[[Category:Rhenium| ]]
[[Category:Chemical elements]]
[[Category:Transition metals]]
[[Category:Noble metals]]
[[Category:Refractory metals]]
[[Category:Chemical elements predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev]]
[[Category:Chemical elements with hexagonal close-packed structure]]
[[Category:Native element minerals]]