View source for Impressionism

{{Short description|19th-century art movement}}
{{About|the art movement||Impressionism (disambiguation)}}
{{use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Infobox art movement
| name          = Impressionism
| image         = Claude Monet, Impression, soleil levant.jpg
| image_upright = 1.35
| alt           = The 1872 painting "Impression, Sunrise" by Impressionist artist Claude Monet.
| caption       = ''[[Impression, Sunrise]]'', an 1872 [[Claude Monet]] oil on canvas painting now housed at [[Musée Marmottan Monet]] in Paris. This painting became the source of the movement's name after [[Louis Leroy]]'s 1874 article, "[[s:Exhibition of the Impressionists|The Exhibition of the Impressionists]]", satirically implied that the painting was, at most, a sketch.
| yearsactive   =
| country       = France
| majorfigures  =
| influences    = [[Realism (art movement)|Realism]], [[Barbizon School]]
| influenced    = {{unbulleted list|[[Post-Impressionism]]|[[Neo-Impressionism]]|[[Expressionism]]}}
|commons =yes
}}

'''Impressionism''' was a 19th-century [[art movement]] characterized by visible brush strokes, open [[Composition (visual arts)|composition]], emphasis on accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage of time), ordinary subject matter, unusual visual angles, and inclusion of movement as a crucial element of human perception and experience. Impressionism originated with a group of [[Paris]]-based artists whose independent exhibitions brought them to prominence during the 1870s and 1880s.

The Impressionists faced harsh opposition from the conventional art community in [[France]]. The name of the style derives from the title of a [[Claude Monet]] work, ''Impression, soleil levant'' (''[[Impression, Sunrise]]''), which provoked the critic [[Louis Leroy]] to coin the term in a [[Satire|satirical]] 1874 review of the [[First Impressionist Exhibition]] published in the Parisian newspaper ''[[Le Charivari]]''.<ref>The term "impression" indicates the direct impact of surface markers on spiritual perception or experiential cognition.{{Citation |last=Eisenman |first=Stephen F. |title=The Intransigent Artist or How the Impressionists Got Their Name |date=2023-12-22 |work=Critical Readings in Impressionism and Post-Impressionism |pages=149–161 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/jj.8501295.10 |access-date=2024-06-14 |publisher=University of California Press |doi=10.2307/jj.8501295.10 |isbn=978-0-520-94044-4|url-access=subscription }}</ref> The development of Impressionism in the visual arts was soon followed by analogous styles in other media that became known as [[Impressionist music]] and [[Impressionism (literature)|Impressionist literature]].

== Overview ==
[[File:The Fighting Temeraire, JMW Turner, National Gallery.jpg|thumb|left|[[J. M. W. Turner]]'s atmospheric work was influential on the birth of Impressionism, here ''[[The Fighting Temeraire]]'', 1839]]

Radicals in their time, the early Impressionists violated the rules of academic painting. They constructed their pictures from freely brushed colours that took precedence over lines and contours, following the example of painters such as [[Eugène Delacroix]] and [[J. M. W. Turner]]. They also painted realistic scenes of everyday life in natural settings, often outdoors, attempting to capture a moment as experienced.

Previously, paintings were accomplished in studio, whether [[landscape art]], [[still life]] or [[portrait]], with an emphasis on verisimilitude.{{efn|Exceptions include [[Canaletto#Outdoor painting|Canaletto]], who painted outside and may have used the [[camera obscura]].}} The Impressionists found that they could capture the momentary and transient effects of sunlight by painting outdoors or ''[[en plein air]]''. They portrayed overall visual effects instead of details, and used short "broken" brush strokes of mixed and pure unmixed colour—not blended smoothly or shaded, as was customary—to achieve an effect of intense colour vibration.<ref name="Seiberling"/>

[[File:Pierre-Auguste Renoir, Le Moulin de la Galette.jpg|thumb|right|[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], ''Dance at Le Moulin de la Galette ([[Bal du moulin de la Galette]])'', 1876, [[Musée d'Orsay]], one of Impressionism's most celebrated masterpieces.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AXdOAAAAYAAJ |editor1-first=Ingo F. |editor1-last=Walther |title=Masterpieces of Western Art: A History of Art in 900 Individual Studies from the Gothic to the Present Day, Part 1 |edition=Centralibros Hispania Edicion y Distribucion, S.A. |date=1999 |publisher=Taschen |isbn=3-8228-7031-5 }}</ref>]]Impressionism emerged in France at the same time that a number of other painters, including the Italian artists known as the [[Macchiaioli]], and [[Winslow Homer]] in the United States, were also exploring ''[[En plein air|plein-air]]'' painting. The Impressionists, however, developed new techniques specific to the style. Encompassing what its adherents argued was a different way of seeing, it is an art of immediacy and movement, of candid poses and compositions, of the play of light expressed in a bright and varied use of colour.<ref name="Seiberling" /> In 1876, the poet and critic [[Stéphane Mallarmé]] said of the new style: "The represented subject, being composed of a harmony of reflected and ever-changing lights, cannot be supposed always to look the same but palpitates with movement, light, and life".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hook |first=Philip |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h-vq5phx00AC&pg=PT5 |title=The Ultimate Trophy: How The Impressionist Painting Conquered The World |date=2012-12-17 |publisher=Prestel Verlag |isbn=978-3-641-08955-9 |language=de}}</ref>

The public, at first hostile, gradually came to believe that the Impressionists had captured a fresh and original vision, even if the art critics and art establishment disapproved of the new style. By recreating the sensation in the eye that views the subject, rather than delineating the details of the subject, and by creating a welter of techniques and forms, Impressionism is a precursor of various painting styles, including [[Post-Impressionism]], [[Fauvism]], and [[Cubism]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Voorhies |first=James |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/poim/hd_poim.htm |title=Post-Impressionism |date=October 2004 |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}</ref>

== Beginnings ==
{{French art history}}
In the middle of the 19th century—a time of rapid industrialization and unsettling social change in France, as Emperor [[Napoleon III]] [[Haussmann's renovation of Paris|rebuilt Paris]] and waged war—the {{Lang|fr|[[Académie des Beaux-Arts]]|italic=no}} dominated French art.{{sfnp|Huyghe|1973|pp=13, 16–18}} The Académie was the preserver of traditional French painting standards of content and style. Historical subjects, religious themes, and portraits were valued; landscape and still life were not. The Académie preferred carefully finished images that looked realistic when examined closely. Paintings in this style were made up of precise brush strokes carefully blended to hide the artist's hand in the work.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Nathalia |last1=Brodskaya |title=Impressionism |publisher=Parkstone International |year=2014 |pages=13–14}}</ref> Colour was restrained and often toned down further by the application of a thick golden [[varnish]].<ref name="The Met">{{Cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/imml/hd_imml.htm |last1=Samu |first1=Margaret |title=Impressionism: Art and Modernity |website=Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |location=New York |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |date=October 2004 |access-date=29 June 2014 |archive-date=4 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204131331/https://www.metmuseum.org/TOAH/HD/imml/hd_imml.htm |url-status=live |quote=Many of the independent artists chose not to apply the thick golden varnish that painters customarily used to tone down their works.}}</ref>

The Académie had an annual, juried art show, the [[Salon de Paris]], and artists whose work was displayed in the show won prizes, garnered commissions, and enhanced their prestige. The standards of the juries represented the values of the Académie, represented by the works of such artists as [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]] and [[Alexandre Cabanel]]. Using an eclectic mix of techniques and formulas established in [[Western painting]] since the [[Renaissance]]—such as [[linear perspective]] and figure types derived from [[Ancient Greek art#Classical|Classical Greek art]]—these artists produced escapist visions of a reassuringly ordered world.{{sfnp|Huyghe|1973|pp=11, 16–17}} By the 1850s, some artists, notably the [[Realism (art movement)|Realist]] painter [[Gustave Courbet]], had gained public attention and critical censure by depicting contemporary realities without the idealization demanded by the Académie.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Masanès |first1=Fabrice |year=2006 |title=Courbet |publisher=Taschen |pages=31–33 |isbn=978-3-8228-5683-3 }}.</ref>

In the early 1860s, four young painters—[[Claude Monet]], [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], [[Alfred Sisley]], and [[Frédéric Bazille]]—met while studying under the academic artist [[Marc-Charles-Gabriel Gleyre|Charles Gleyre]]. They discovered that they shared an interest in painting landscape and contemporary life rather than historical or mythological scenes. Following a practice—pioneered by artists such as the Englishman [[John Constable]]—<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tate |title=Impressionism |url=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/i/impressionism |access-date=2022-09-30 |website=Tate |language=en-GB |archive-date=30 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930190904/https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/i/impressionism |url-status=live }}</ref> that had become increasingly popular by mid-century, they often ventured into the countryside together to paint in the open air.<ref>{{cite book |last1=White |first1=Harrison C. |first2=Cynthia A. |last2=White |year=1993 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2D_ehhO_14QC&pg=PA116 |title=Canvases and Careers: Institutional Change in the French Painting World |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112131900/https://books.google.com/books?id=2D_ehhO_14QC&pg=PA116 |archive-date=12 November 2022 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |page=116 |isbn=0-226-89487-8 }}.</ref> Their purpose was not to make sketches to be developed into carefully finished works in the studio, as was the usual custom, but to complete their paintings out-of-doors.{{sfnp|Bomford|Kirby|Leighton|Roy|1990|pp=21–27}}

By painting in sunlight directly from nature, and making bold use of the vivid synthetic pigments that had become available since the beginning of the century, they began to develop a lighter and brighter manner of painting that extended further the [[Realism (art movement)|Realism]] of Courbet and the [[Barbizon school]]. A favourite meeting place for the artists was the [[Café Guerbois]] on Avenue de Clichy in Paris, where the discussions were often led by [[Édouard Manet]], whom the younger artists greatly admired. They were soon joined by [[Camille Pissarro]], [[Paul Cézanne]], and [[Armand Guillaumin]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Greenspan |first1=Taube G |chapter=Armand Guillaumin |title=Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online |publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref>

[[File:Edouard Manet - Luncheon on the Grass - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|left|[[Édouard Manet]], ''[[Le déjeuner sur l'herbe|The Luncheon on the Grass]]'' ({{Lang|fr|Le déjeuner sur l'herbe}}), 1863]]

During the 1860s, the Salon jury routinely rejected about half of the works submitted by Monet and his friends in favour of works by artists faithful to the approved style.<ref name="Seiberling">{{cite book |last1=Seiberling |first1=Grace |chapter=Impressionism |title=Grove Art Online. Oxford Art Online |publisher=Oxford University Press }}</ref> In 1863, the Salon jury rejected Manet's ''The Luncheon on the Grass'' ({{Lang|fr|[[Le déjeuner sur l'herbe]]}}) primarily because it depicted a nude woman with two clothed men at a picnic. While the Salon jury routinely accepted nudes in historical and allegorical paintings, they condemned Manet for placing a realistic nude in a contemporary setting.{{sfnp|Denvir|1990|p=133}} The jury's severely worded rejection of Manet's painting appalled his admirers, and the unusually large number of rejected works that year perturbed many French artists.

After Emperor Napoleon III saw the rejected works of 1863, he decreed that the public be allowed to judge the work themselves, and the [[Salon des Refusés]] (Salon of the Refused) was organized. While many viewers came only to laugh, the Salon des Refusés drew attention to the existence of a new tendency in art and attracted more visitors than the regular Salon.{{sfnp|Denvir|1990|p=194}}

[[File:Alfred Sisley 001.jpg|thumb|left|[[Alfred Sisley]], ''[[View of the Canal Saint-Martin]]'', 1870, [[Musée d'Orsay]]]]

Artists' petitions requesting a new Salon des Refusés in 1867, and again in 1872, were denied. In December 1873, [[Claude Monet|Monet]], [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir|Renoir]], [[Camille Pissarro|Pissarro]], [[Alfred Sisley|Sisley]], [[Paul Cézanne|Cézanne]], [[Berthe Morisot]], [[Edgar Degas]] and several other artists founded the {{lang|fr|[[Batignolles group#Society of Artists, Painters, Sculptors and Etchers|Société anonyme des artistes peintres, sculpteurs, graveurs, etc.]]}}{{efn|name="societe-anonyme"|English: "Anonymous Society of painters, sculptors, engravers, etc."}} to exhibit their artworks independently.{{sfnp|Bomford|Kirby|Leighton|Roy|1990|p=209}}{{sfnp|Moffett|1986|page=18}} Members of the association were expected to forswear participation in the Salon.{{sfnp|Jensen|1994|p=90}} The organizers invited a number of other progressive artists to join them in their inaugural exhibition, including the older [[Eugène Boudin]], whose example had first persuaded Monet to adopt ''plein air'' painting years before.{{sfnp|Denvir|1990|p=32}} Another painter who greatly influenced Monet and his friends, [[Johan Jongkind]], declined to participate, as did Édouard Manet. In total, thirty artists participated in their first exhibition, held in April 1874 at the studio of the photographer [[Nadar (photographer)|Nadar]].

[[File:Claude Monet - Graystaks I.JPG|thumb|right|[[Claude Monet]], ''[[Haystacks (Monet)|Haystacks, (sunset)]]'', 1890–1891, [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]]]]

The critical response was mixed. Monet and Cézanne received the harshest attacks. Critic and humorist [[Louis Leroy]] wrote a scathing review in the newspaper ''Le Charivari'' in which, making wordplay with the title of Claude Monet's ''[[Impression, Sunrise]]'' ''(Impression, soleil levant)'', he gave the artists the name by which they became known. Derisively titling his article "[[s:Exhibition of the Impressionists|The Exhibition of the Impressionists]]", Leroy declared that Monet's painting was at most, a sketch, and could hardly be termed a finished work.

He wrote, in the form of a dialogue between viewers,

{{Blockquote
|text="Impression—I was certain of it. I was just telling myself that, since I was impressed, there had to be some impression in it ... and what freedom, what ease of workmanship! Wallpaper in its embryonic state is more finished than that seascape."{{sfnp|Rewald|1973|p=323}}
}}

[[File:Claude Monet - Woman with a Parasol - Madame Monet and Her Son - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Claude Monet]], ''[[Woman with a Parasol – Madame Monet and Her Son]]'' (Camille and Jean Monet), 1875, [[National Gallery of Art]], Washington, D.C.]]

The term ''Impressionist'' quickly gained favour with the public. It was also accepted by the artists themselves, even though they were a diverse group in style and temperament, unified primarily by their spirit of independence and rebellion. They exhibited together—albeit with shifting membership—eight times between 1874 and 1886. The Impressionists' style, with its loose, spontaneous brushstrokes, would soon become synonymous with modern life.<ref name="The Met" />

Monet, Sisley, Morisot, and Pissarro may be considered the "purest" Impressionists, in their consistent pursuit of an art of spontaneity, sunlight, and colour. Degas rejected much of this, as he believed in the primacy of drawing over colour and belittled the practice of painting outdoors.{{sfnp|Gordon|Forge|1988|pp=11–12}} Renoir turned away from Impressionism for a time during the 1880s, and never entirely regained his commitment to its ideas. Édouard Manet, although regarded by the Impressionists as their leader,{{sfnp|Distel|Hoog|Moffett|1974|p=127}} never abandoned his liberal use of black as a colour (while Impressionists avoided its use and preferred to obtain darker colours by mixing), and never participated in the Impressionist exhibitions. He continued to submit his works to the Salon, where his painting ''Spanish Singer'' had won a 2nd class medal in 1861, and he urged the others to do likewise, arguing that "the Salon is the real field of battle" where a reputation could be made.{{sfnp|Richardson|1976|p=3}}

[[File:Camille Pissarro - Boulevard Montmartre - Eremitage.jpg|thumb|left|[[Camille Pissarro]], ''Boulevard Montmartre'', 1897, the [[Hermitage Museum|Hermitage]], [[Saint Petersburg]]]]

Among the artists of the core group (minus Bazille, who had died in the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in 1870), defections occurred as Cézanne, followed later by Renoir, Sisley, and Monet, abstained from the group exhibitions so they could submit their works to the Salon. Disagreements arose from issues such as Guillaumin's membership in the group, championed by Pissarro and Cézanne against opposition from Monet and Degas, who thought him unworthy.{{sfn|Denvir|1990|p=105}} Degas invited [[Mary Cassatt]] to display her work in the 1879 exhibition, but also insisted on the inclusion of [[Jean-François Raffaëlli]], [[Ludovic-Napoléon Lepic|Ludovic Lepic]], and other realists who did not represent Impressionist practices, causing Monet in 1880 to accuse the Impressionists of "opening doors to first-come daubers".{{sfnp|Rewald|1973|p=603}}

In this regard, the seventh Paris Impressionist exhibition in 1882 was the most selective of all including the works of only nine "true" impressionists, namely [[Gustave Caillebotte]], [[Paul Gauguin]], [[Armand Guillaumin]], [[Claude Monet]], [[Berthe Morisot]], [[Camille Pissarro]], [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], [[Alfred Sisley]], and [[Victor Vignon]]. The group then divided again over the invitations to [[Paul Signac]] and [[Georges Seurat]] to exhibit with them at the 8th Impressionist exhibition in 1886. Pissarro was the only artist to show at all eight Paris Impressionist exhibitions.

The individual artists achieved few financial rewards from the Impressionist exhibitions, but their art gradually won a degree of public acceptance and support. Their dealer, [[Paul Durand-Ruel|Durand-Ruel]], played a major role in this as he kept their work before the public and arranged shows for them in London and New York. Although Sisley died in poverty in 1899, Renoir had a great Salon success in 1879.{{sfnp|Distel|Hoog|Moffett|1974|p=190}} Monet became secure financially during the early 1880s and so did Pissarro by the early 1890s. By this time the methods of Impressionist painting, in a diluted form, had become commonplace in Salon art.{{sfnp|Rewald|1973|p=475–476}}

== Impressionist techniques ==
[[File:Cassatt Mary At the Theater 1879.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Mary Cassatt]], ''Lydia Leaning on Her Arms'' (in a theatre box), 1879]]

French painters who prepared the way for Impressionism include the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] colourist [[Eugène Delacroix]]; the leader of the realists, [[Gustave Courbet]]; and painters of the Barbizon school such as [[Théodore Rousseau]]. The Impressionists learned much from the work of [[Johan Barthold Jongkind]], [[Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot]] and [[Eugène Boudin]], who painted from nature in a direct and spontaneous style that prefigured Impressionism, and who befriended and advised the younger artists.

A number of identifiable techniques and working habits contributed to the innovative style of the Impressionists. Although these methods had been used by previous artists—and are often conspicuous in the work of artists such as [[Frans Hals]], [[Diego Velázquez]], [[Peter Paul Rubens]], [[John Constable]], and [[Joseph Mallord William Turner|J.&nbsp;M.&nbsp;W.&nbsp;Turner]]—the Impressionists were the first to use them all together, and with such consistency. These techniques include:
* Short, thick strokes of paint quickly capture the essence of the subject, rather than its details. The paint is often applied [[impasto]].
* Colours are applied side by side with as little mixing as possible, a technique that exploits the principle of [[simultaneous contrast]] to make the colour appear more vivid to the viewer.
* Greys and dark tones are produced by mixing [[complementary colour]]s. Pure impressionism avoids the use of black paint.
* [[Wet-on-wet|Wet paint is placed into wet paint]] without waiting for successive applications to dry, producing softer edges and intermingling of colour.
* Impressionist paintings do not exploit the transparency of thin paint films (glazes), which earlier artists manipulated carefully to produce effects. The impressionist painting surface is typically opaque.
* The paint is applied to a white or light-coloured [[Ground (art)|ground]]. Previously, painters often used dark grey or strongly coloured grounds.
* The play of natural light is emphasized. Close attention is paid to the reflection of colours from object to object. Painters often worked in the evening to produce ''[[effets de soir]]''—the shadowy effects of evening or twilight.
* In paintings made ''[[en plein air]]'' (outdoors), shadows are boldly painted with the blue of the sky as it is reflected onto surfaces, giving a sense of freshness previously not represented in painting. Blue shadows on snow inspired the technique.

New technology played a role in the development of the style. Impressionists took advantage of the mid-century introduction of premixed paints in tin tubes (resembling modern toothpaste tubes), which allowed artists to work more spontaneously, both outdoors and indoors.{{sfnp|Bomford|Kirby|Leighton|Roy|1990|pp=39–41}} Previously, painters made their own paints individually, by grinding and mixing dry pigment powders with linseed oil, which were then stored in animal bladders.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.phillipscollection.org/docs/education/lbp-kit_4.pdf |url-status=dead |title=Renoir and the Impressionist Process |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110105173433/http://phillipscollection.org/docs/education/lbp-kit_4.pdf |archive-date=2011-01-05 |website=[[The Phillips Collection]] |access-date=21 May 2011}}</ref>

Many vivid synthetic pigments became commercially available to artists for the first time during the 19th century. These included [[cobalt blue]], [[viridian]], [[cadmium yellow]], and synthetic [[ultramarine blue]], all of which were in use by the 1840s, before Impressionism.<ref name="Wallert_159" /> The Impressionists' manner of painting made bold use of these pigments, and of even newer colours such as [[cerulean blue]],<ref name="The Met" /> which became commercially available to artists in the 1860s.<ref name="Wallert_159">{{cite book |last1=Wallert |first1=Arie |last2=Hermens |first2=Erma |last3=Peek |first3=Marja |year=1995 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pdFOAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA159 |title=Historical painting techniques, materials, and studio practise: preprints of a symposium, University of Leiden, Netherlands, 26–29 June 1995 |location=Marina Del Rey, Calif |publisher=Getty Conservation Institute |page=159 |isbn=0-89236-322-3}}</ref>

The Impressionists' progress toward a brighter style of painting was gradual. During the 1860s, Monet and Renoir sometimes painted on canvases prepared with the traditional red-brown or grey ground.{{sfnp|Stoner|Rushfield|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1msM3h9mbaoC&pg=PA177 177]}} By the 1870s, Monet, Renoir, and Pissarro usually chose to paint on grounds of a lighter grey or beige colour, which functioned as a middle tone in the finished painting.{{sfnp|Stoner|Rushfield|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1msM3h9mbaoC&pg=PA177 177]}} By the 1880s, some of the Impressionists had come to prefer white or slightly off-white grounds, and no longer allowed the ground colour a significant role in the finished painting.{{sfnp|Stoner|Rushfield|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1msM3h9mbaoC&pg=PA178 178]}}

== Content and composition ==
[[File:Hay Harvest at Éragny, 1901, Camille Pissarro.jpg|thumb|[[Camille Pissarro]], ''[[Hay Harvest at Éragny]],'' 1901, [[National Gallery of Canada]], [[Ottawa]], Ontario]]
[[File:Berthe Morisot Reading.jpg|thumb|[[Berthe Morisot]], ''Reading,'' 1873, [[Cleveland Museum of Art]]]]
The Impressionists reacted to modernity by exploring "a wide range of non-academic subjects in art" such as middle-class leisure activities and "urban themes, including train stations, cafés, brothels, the theater, and dance."<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Poulet |editor1-first=Anne L. |last1=Murphy |first1=Alexandra R. |year=1979 |title=Corot to Braque: French Paintings from the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston |location=Boston |publisher=The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston |page=XV |isbn=0-87846-134-5}}</ref> They found inspiration in the [[Haussmann's renovation of Paris|newly widened avenues]] of Paris, bounded by new tall buildings that offered opportunities to depict bustling crowds, popular entertainments, and nocturnal lighting in artificially closed-off spaces.{{sfnp|Huyghe|1973|pp=54, 77, 121}}

A painting such as Caillebotte's ''[[Paris Street; Rainy Day]]'' (1877) strikes a modern note by emphasizing the isolation of individuals amid the outsized buildings and spaces of the urban environment.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Varnedoe |first1=Kirk |year=1987 |title=Gustave Caillebotte |publisher=Yale University Press |page=90 |isbn=9780300037227}}</ref> When painting landscapes, the Impressionists did not hesitate to include the factories that were proliferating in the countryside. Earlier painters of landscapes had conventionally avoided smokestacks and other signs of industrialization, regarding them as blights on nature's order and unworthy of art.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rubin |first1=James Henry |year=2008 |title=Impressionism and the Modern Landscape: Productivity Technology and Urbanization from Manet to Van Gogh |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |page=128 |isbn=9780520248014}}</ref>

Prior to the Impressionists, other painters, notably such [[Dutch Golden Age painting|17th-century Dutch painters]] as [[Jan Steen]], had emphasized common subjects, but their methods of [[composition (visual arts)|composition]] were traditional. They arranged their compositions so that the main subject commanded the viewer's attention. [[J. M. W. Turner]], while an artist of the [[Romanticism|Romantic era]], anticipated the style of impressionism with his artwork.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/J-M-W-Turner |website=Britannica |title=J.M.W. Turner |access-date=8 December 2018 |archive-date=30 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100130101931/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/610274/J-M-W-Turner |url-status=live }}</ref> The Impressionists relaxed the boundary between subject and background so that the effect of an Impressionist painting often resembles a snapshot, a part of a larger reality captured as if by chance.{{sfnp|Rosenblum|1989|p=228}} Photography was gaining popularity, and as cameras became more portable, photographs became more candid. Photography inspired Impressionists to represent momentary action, not only in the fleeting lights of a landscape, but in the day-to-day lives of people.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Varnedoe |first1=J. Kirk T. |title=The Artifice of Candor: Impressionism and Photography Reconsidered |journal=Art in America |volume=68 |issue=1 |date=January 1980 |pages=66–78}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Herbert |first1=Robert L. |title=Impressionism: Art, Leisure, and Parisian Society  |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1988 |pages=311, 319 |isbn=0-300-05083-6}}</ref>

The development of Impressionism can be considered partly as a reaction by artists to the challenge presented by photography, which seemed to devalue the artist's skill in reproducing reality. Both portrait and [[Landscape art|landscape]] paintings were deemed somewhat deficient and lacking in truth as photography "produced lifelike images much more efficiently and reliably".<ref name="impressionism757" />

In spite of this, photography actually inspired artists to pursue other means of creative expression, and rather than compete with photography to emulate reality, artists focused "on the one thing they could inevitably do better than the photograph—by further developing into an art form its very subjectivity in the conception of the image, the very subjectivity that photography eliminated".<ref name="impressionism757" /> The Impressionists sought to express their perceptions of nature, rather than create exact representations. This allowed artists to depict subjectively what they saw with their "tacit imperatives of taste and conscience".<ref name="impressionism758">{{cite book |last1=Sontag |first1=Susan |year=1977 |title=On Photography |publisher=Penguin |location=London}}</ref> Photography encouraged painters to exploit aspects of the painting medium, like colour, which photography then lacked: "The Impressionists were the first to consciously offer a subjective alternative to the photograph".<ref name="impressionism757">{{cite book |last1=Levinson |first1=Paul |year=1997 |title=The Soft Edge; a Natural History and Future of the Information Revolution |publisher=Routledge |location=London and New York}}</ref>

[[File:Claude Monet - Jardin à Sainte-Adresse.jpg|thumb|[[Claude Monet]], ''[[Garden at Sainte-Adresse|Jardin à Sainte-Adresse]],'' 1867, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]], New York.,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/437133 |title=Garden at Sainte-Adresse |website=Metropolitan Museum of Art |access-date=11 January 2014 |archive-date=23 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220123074936/http://www.metmuseum.org/Collections/search-the-collections/437133?rpp=20&pg=1&ao=on&ft=Claude+Monet&pos=1 |url-status=live }}</ref> a work showing the influence of Japanese prints]]

Another major influence was Japanese [[ukiyo-e]] art prints ([[Japonism]]). The art of these prints contributed significantly to the "snapshot" angles and unconventional compositions that became characteristic of Impressionism. An example is Monet's ''Jardin à Sainte-Adresse'', 1867, with its bold blocks of colour and composition on a strong diagonal slant showing the influence of Japanese prints.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kLEpf5a49V0C&dq=Terrasse+%C3%A0+Sainte-Adresse+japanese+prints&pg=PA433 |title=Origins of Impressionism |page=433 |isbn=9780870997174 |access-date=6 November 2015 |archive-date=12 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112131928/https://books.google.com/books?id=kLEpf5a49V0C&pg=PA433&dq=Terrasse+%C3%A0+Sainte-Adresse+japanese+prints&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dwnPUtm_GKnNsQTV-4KIDA&ved=0CEIQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Terrasse%20%C3%A0%20Sainte-Adresse%20japanese%20prints&f=false |url-status=live |last1=Tinterow |first1=Gary |last2=Loyrette |first2=Henri |year=1994 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art }}</ref>

[[Edgar Degas]] was both an avid photographer and a collector of Japanese prints.{{sfnp|Baumann|Karabelnik|1994|p=112}} His ''The Dance Class'' ''(La classe de danse)'' of 1874 shows both influences in its asymmetrical composition. The dancers are seemingly caught off guard in various awkward poses, leaving an expanse of empty floor space in the lower right quadrant. He also captured his dancers in sculpture, such as the ''[[Little Dancer of Fourteen Years]]''.

== Female Impressionists ==
[[File:Berthe Morisot The Harbor at Lorient.jpg|thumb|[[Berthe Morisot]], ''[[The Harbour at Lorient]]'', 1869, [[National Gallery of Art]], Washington, D.C.]]

Impressionists, in varying degrees, were looking for ways to depict visual experience and contemporary subjects.{{sfnp|Garb|1986|p=9}} Female Impressionists were interested in these same ideals but had many social and career limitations compared to male Impressionists.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Murray |first=Gale |date=2018-03-15 |title=Her Paris: Women Artists in the Age of Impressionism |url=http://www.19thc-artworldwide.org/spring18/murray-reviews-her-paris-women-artists-in-the-age-of-impressionism |journal=Nineteenth-Century Art Worldwide |volume=17 |issue=1 |doi=10.29411/ncaw.2018.17.1.12|doi-access=free }}</ref> They were particularly excluded from the imagery of the bourgeois social sphere of the boulevard, cafe, and dance hall.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Women, art, and society|last=Chadwick|first=Whitney|publisher=Thames & Hudson|year=2012|isbn=978-0-500-20405-4|edition=Fifth|location=London|page=232|oclc=792747353}}</ref>

As well as imagery, women were excluded from the formative discussions that resulted in meetings in those places. That was where male Impressionists were able to form and share ideas about Impressionism.<ref name=":0" /> In the academic realm, women were believed to be incapable of handling complex subjects, which led teachers to restrict what they taught female students.{{sfnp|Garb|1986|p=6}} It was also considered unladylike to excel in art, since women's true talents were then believed to center on homemaking and mothering.{{sfnp|Garb|1986|p=6}}

Yet several women were able to find success during their lifetime, even though their careers were affected by personal circumstances – Bracquemond, for example, had a husband who was resentful of her work which caused her to give up painting.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Women Artists in Paris, 1850–1900|last1=Laurence|first1=Madeline|last2=Kendall|first2=Richard|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2017|isbn=978-0-300-22393-4|location=New York, New Haven|page=41|chapter=Women Artists and Impressionism|oclc=982652244}}</ref> The four most well known, namely, [[Mary Cassatt]], [[Eva Gonzalès]], [[Marie Bracquemond]], and [[Berthe Morisot]], are, and were, often referred to as the 'Women Impressionists'. Their participation in the series of eight Impressionist exhibitions that took place in Paris from 1874 to 1886 varied: Morisot participated in seven, Cassatt in four, Bracquemond in three, and Gonzalès did not participate.<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://nmwa.org/explore/artist-profiles/berthe-morisot |title=Berthe Morisot |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200106035811/https://nmwa.org/explore/artist-profiles/berthe-morisot |archive-date=6 January 2020 |website=National Museum of Women in the Arts |access-date=18 May 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Young Girl at a Window.JPG|thumb|upright|[[Mary Cassatt]], ''Young Girl at a Window,'' 1885, oil on canvas, [[National Gallery of Art]], Washington, D.C.]]

The critics of the time lumped these four together without regard to their personal styles, techniques, or subject matter.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Berthe Morisot: Woman Impressionist|last=Kang|first=Cindy|publisher=Rizzoli Electra|year=2018|isbn=978-0-8478-6131-6|location=New York, NY|page=31|oclc=1027042476}}</ref> Critics viewing their works at the exhibitions often attempted to acknowledge the women artists' talents but circumscribed them within a limited notion of femininity.{{sfnp|Garb|1986|p=36}} Arguing for the suitability of Impressionist technique to women's manner of perception, Parisian critic S.C. de Soissons wrote:<blockquote>One can understand that women have no originality of thought, and that literature and music have no feminine character; but surely women know how to observe, and what they see is quite different from that which men see, and the art which they put in their gestures, in their toilet, in the decoration of their environment is sufficient to give is the idea of an instinctive, of a peculiar genius which resides in each one of them.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Adler |first1=Kathleen |title=Perspectives on Morisot |date=1990 |publisher=Hudson Hills Press |location=New York |isbn=1-55595-049-3 |page=60 |edition=1st |url=https://primo.lib.umn.edu/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docid=UMN_ALMA21430754870001701&context=L&vid=MORRIS&search_scope=Primocentral&tab=primocentral&lang=en_US |access-date=28 April 2019 |archive-date=25 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225171013/https://primo.lib.umn.edu/primo-explore/fulldisplay?docid=UMN_ALMA21430754870001701&context=L&vid=MORRIS&search_scope=Primocentral&tab=primocentral&lang=en_US |url-status=live }}</ref></blockquote>

While Impressionism legitimized the domestic social life as subject matter, of which women had intimate knowledge, it also tended to limit them to that subject matter. Portrayals of often-identifiable sitters in domestic settings, which could offer commissions, were dominant in the exhibitions.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Women Artists in Paris, 1850–1900|last1=Laurence|first1=Madeline|last2=Kendall|first2=Richard|publisher=Yale University Press|year=2017|isbn=978-0-300-22393-4|location=New York, New York|page=49|chapter=Women Artists and Impressionism|oclc=982652244}}</ref> The subjects of the paintings were often women interacting with their environment by either their gaze or movement. Cassatt, in particular, was aware of her placement of subjects: she kept her predominantly female figures from objectification and cliche; when they are not reading, they converse, sew, drink tea, and when they are inactive, they seem lost in thought.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mary Cassatt, Modern Woman|last=Barter|first=Judith A.|publisher=Art Institute of Chicago in association with H.N. Abrams|year=1998|isbn=0-8109-4089-2|edition=1st|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/marycassattmoder0000cass/page/63 63]|oclc=38966030|url=https://archive.org/details/marycassattmoder0000cass/page/63}}</ref>

The women Impressionists, like their male counterparts, were striving for "truth", for new ways of seeing and new painting techniques; each artist had an individual painting style.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Women Impressionists|last=Pfeiffer|first=Ingrid|publisher=Schirn Kunsthalle Frankfurt|year=2008|isbn=978-3-7757-2079-3|location=Frankfurt am Main|page=22|chapter=Impressionism Is Feminine: On the Reception of Morisot, Cassatt, Gonzalès, and Bracquemond|oclc=183262558}}</ref> Women Impressionists, particularly Morisot and Cassatt, were conscious of the balance of power between women and objects in their paintings – the bourgeois women depicted are not defined by decorative objects, but instead, interact with and dominate the things with which they live.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Mary Cassatt, Modern Woman|last=Barter|first=Judith A.|publisher=Art Institute of Chicago in association with H.N. Abrams|year=1998|isbn=0-8109-4089-2|edition=1st|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/marycassattmoder0000cass/page/65 65]|oclc=38966030|url=https://archive.org/details/marycassattmoder0000cass/page/65}}</ref> There are many similarities in their depictions of women who seem both at ease and subtly confined.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Meyers|first=Jeffery|date=September 2008|title=Longing and Constraint|journal=Apollo|volume=168|page=128|via=ProQuest LLC}}</ref> Gonzalès' ''Box at the Italian Opera'' depicts a woman staring into the distance, at ease in a social sphere but confined by the box and the man standing next to her. Cassatt's painting ''Young Girl at a Window'' is brighter in color but remains constrained by the canvas edge as she looks out the window.

[[File:Eva Gonzalès (1849-1883) Een loge in het Théâtre des Italiens (1874) Musée d'Orsay 22-8-2017 17-29-43.JPG|thumb|[[Eva Gonzalès]], ''Une Loge aux Italiens,'' or, ''Box at the Italian Opera,'' {{Circa|1874}}, oil on canvas, [[Musée d'Orsay]], Paris]]

Despite their success in their ability to have a career and Impressionism's demise attributed to its allegedly feminine characteristics—its sensuality, dependence on sensation, physicality, and fluidity—the four women artists, and other, lesser-known women Impressionists, were largely omitted from art historical textbooks covering Impressionist artists until Tamar Garb's ''Women Impressionists'' published in 1986.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Perspectives on Morisot|last=Adler|first=Kathleen|publisher=Hudson Hills Press|others=Edelstein, T. J., Mount Holyoke College. Art Museum.|year=1990|isbn=1-55595-049-3|edition=1st|location=New York|page=57|oclc=21764484}}</ref> For example, ''Impressionism'' by Jean Leymarie, published in 1955 included no information on any women Impressionists.

Painter [[Androniqi Zengo Antoniu]] is co-credited with the introduction of impressionism to [[Albania]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Keefe |first1=Eugene K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CXmB6nDu4_AC&dq=Androniqi+Zengo+Antoniu&pg=PA142 |title=Area Handbook for Albania |author2=American University (Washington, D. C.) Foreign Area Studies |date=1971 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |language=en}}</ref>

== Prominent Impressionists ==
The central figures in the development of Impressionism in France,<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k733402z/f3.item.zoom |title=Exposition du boulevard des Capucines |lang=French |date=29 April 1874 |access-date=18 October 2018 |archive-date=9 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109181659/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k733402z/f3.item.zoom |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.larousse.fr/encyclopedie/divers/les_expositions_impressionnistes/187080#10938875 |title=''Les expositions impressionnistes'', Larousse |lang=French |access-date=18 October 2018 |archive-date=2 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170602205003/http://larousse.fr/encyclopedie/divers/les_expositions_impressionnistes/187080#10938875 |url-status=live }}</ref> listed alphabetically, were:
* [[Frédéric Bazille]] (1841–1870), who only posthumously participated in the Impressionist exhibitions
* [[Gustave Caillebotte]] (1848–1894), who, younger than the others, joined forces with them in the mid-1870s
* [[Mary Cassatt]] (1844–1926), American-born, she lived in Paris and participated in four Impressionist exhibitions
* [[Paul Cézanne]] (1839–1906), although he later broke away from the Impressionists
* [[Edgar Degas]] (1834–1917), who despised the term ''Impressionist''
* [[Armand Guillaumin]] (1841–1927)
* [[Édouard Manet]] (1832–1883), who did not participate in any of the Impressionist exhibitions<ref>{{cite book |last1=Cole |first1=Bruce |year=1991 |title=Art of the Western World: From Ancient Greece to Post Modernism |publisher=Simon and Schuster |page=242 |isbn=0-671-74728-2}}</ref>
* [[Claude Monet]] (1840–1926), the most prolific of the Impressionists and the one who embodies their aesthetic most obviously{{sfnp|Denvir|1990|p=140}}
* [[Berthe Morisot]] (1841–1895) who participated in all Impressionist exhibitions except in 1879
* [[Camille Pissarro]] (1830–1903), who was the only artist to participate in all eight Impressionist exhibitions.{{sfnp|Rewald|1973|p=591}}
* [[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]] (1841–1919), who participated in Impressionist exhibitions in 1874, 1876, 1877 and 1882
* [[Alfred Sisley]] (1839–1899)

== Timeline: lives of the Impressionists ==
{{Left|
{{center|
<small>'''The Impressionists'''</small>
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  id:Bazille  value:powderblue
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  id:Renoir  value:lavender
  id:Sisley  value:lavender
  id:Pissarro  value:powderblue
  id:Cézanne  value:powderblue
  id:Cassatt  value:lavender
  id:Morisot  value:powderblue
  id:Degas  value:powderblue
  id:Caillebotte value:powderblue

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  from: 1830 till: 1903
  bar:Manet color:Manet
  from: 1832 till: 1883
  bar:Degas color:Degas
  from: 1834 till: 1917
  bar:Sisley color:Sisley
  from: 1839 till: 1899
  bar:Cézanne color:Cézanne
  from: 1839 till: 1906
  bar:Monet color:Monet
  from: 1840 till: 1926
  bar:Bazille color:Bazille
  from: 1841 till: 1870
  bar:Renoir color:Renoir
  from: 1841 till: 1919
  bar:Morisot color:Morisot
  from: 1841 till: 1895
  bar:Cassatt color:Cassatt
  from: 1844 till: 1926
  bar:Caillebotte color:Caillebotte
  from: 1848 till: 1894

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{{clear}}

== Gallery ==
<gallery widths="210" heights="210" perrow="6">
File:Frederic Bazille Paysage au bord du Lez.jpg|[[Frédéric Bazille]], ''Paysage au bord du Lez'', 1870, [[Minneapolis Institute of Art]]
File:Sisley-Bridge at Villeneuve-la-Garenne.jpg|[[Alfred Sisley]], ''Bridge at Villeneuve-la-Garenne'', 1872, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
File:Berthe Morisot, Le berceau (The Cradle), 1872.jpg|[[Berthe Morisot]], ''[[The Cradle (Morisot)|The Cradle]]'', 1872, [[Musée d'Orsay]]
File:Guillaumin SoleilCouchantAIvry.jpg|[[Armand Guillaumin]], ''Sunset at Ivry (Soleil couchant à Ivry)'', 1873, [[Musée d'Orsay]]
File:Edouard Manet Boating.jpg|[[Édouard Manet]], ''Boating'', 1874, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
File:Première Exposition 1874, 35 Boulevard des Capucines Catalogue.jpg|Catalogue cover from the [[First Impressionist Exhibition]], 1874
File:Sisley la seine au point du jour 1877.jpg|[[Alfred Sisley]], ''La Seine au Point du jour'', 1877, [[Museum of modern art André Malraux - MuMa]], [[Le Havre]]
File:Edouard Manet 039.jpg|[[Édouard Manet]], ''[[The Plum]]'', 1878, [[National Gallery of Art]], Washington, D.C.
File:La Falaise à Fécamp - Claude Monet - ABDAG003046.jpg|alt=Landscape painting depicting the cliffs of Normandy by Claude Monet|[[Claude Monet]], ''La Falaise à Fécamp'', 1881, [[Aberdeen Art Gallery]]
File:"Un Bar aux Folies-Bergère" by Édouard Manet (1882).jpg|[[Édouard Manet]], ''[[A Bar at the Folies-Bergère]] (Un Bar aux Folies-Bergère)'', 1882, [[Courtauld Institute of Art]]
File:Edgar Degas - After the bath, woman drying herself - Google Art Project.jpg|[[Edgar Degas]], ''After the Bath, Woman Drying Herself'', c. 1884–1886 (reworked between 1890 and 1900), [[Museum of modern art André Malraux - MuMa|MuMa]], [[Le Havre]]
File:Edgar Degas - In a Café - Google Art Project 2.jpg|[[Edgar Degas]], ''[[L'Absinthe]]'', 1876, [[Musée d'Orsay]], Paris
File:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 069.jpg|[[Edgar Degas]], ''Dancer Taking a Bow (The Prima Ballerina)'', 1878, [[Getty Center]], Los Angeles
File:Edgar Germain Hilaire Degas 032.jpg|[[Edgar Degas]], ''Woman in the Bath'', 1886, [[Hill–Stead Museum]], [[Farmington, Connecticut]]
File:Edgar Degas - Dancers at the Barre - Google Art Project.jpg|[[Edgar Degas]], ''Dancers at The Bar'', 1888, [[The Phillips Collection]], Washington, D.C.
File:Gustave Caillebotte - Paris Street; Rainy Day - Google Art Project.jpg|[[Gustave Caillebotte]], ''[[Paris Street; Rainy Day]]'', 1877, [[Art Institute of Chicago]]
File:Pierre-Auguste Renoir 089.jpg|[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], ''[[La Parisienne (Renoir painting)|La Parisienne]]'', 1874, [[National Museum Cardiff]]
File:Pierre-Auguste Renoir, 1880, Portrait of Mademoiselle Irène Cahen d'Anvers, Sammlung E.G. Bührle.jpg|[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], ''[[Portrait of Irène Cahen d'Anvers]]'' (''La Petite Irène''), 1880, [[Foundation E.G. Bührle]], Zürich
File:Two Sisters (On the Terrace).jpg|[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], ''[[Two Sisters (On the Terrace)]]'', 1881, [[Art Institute of Chicago]]
File:Girl with a Hoop.JPG|[[Pierre-Auguste Renoir]], ''Girl with a Hoop'', 1885, [[National Gallery of Art|National Gallery of Art, Washington]], D.C.
File:Camille Pissarro Washerwoman, Study The Metropolitan Museum of Art.jpg|[[Camille Pissarro]], ''Washerwoman, Study'', 1880. [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
File:Camille Pissarro - Conversation - Google Art Project.jpg|[[Camille Pissarro]], ''Conversation'', c. 1881. [[National Museum of Western Art]]
File:Claude Monet The Cliffs at Etretat.jpg|[[Claude Monet]], ''The Cliff at Étretat after the Storm'', 1885, [[Clark Art Institute]], [[Williamstown, Massachusetts]]
File:The Child's Bath by Mary Cassatt 1893.jpg|[[Mary Cassatt]], ''[[The Child's Bath]] (The Bath)'', 1893, oil on canvas, [[Art Institute of Chicago]]
File:Brooklyn Museum - Portrait of Mme Boursier and Her Daughter (Portrait de Mme Boursier et de sa fille) - Berthe Morisot.jpg|[[Berthe Morisot]], ''Portrait of Mme Boursier and Her Daughter'', c. 1873, [[Brooklyn Museum]]
File:Claude Monet, Le Grand Canal.jpg|[[Claude Monet]], ''[[Le Grand Canal]]'', 1908, [[Museum of Fine Arts, Boston]]
</gallery>

== Associates and influenced artists ==
[[File:Vangoghmuseum-s0277V1962-800.jpg|thumb|left|[[Victor Vignon|Victor Alfred Paul Vignon]], ''Woman in a Vineyard'', c. 1880, [[Van Gogh Museum]]]]

[[File:James Abbot McNeill Whistler 012.jpg|thumb|upright|[[James Abbott McNeill Whistler]], ''[[Nocturne in Black and Gold: The Falling Rocket]]'', 1874, [[Detroit Institute of Arts]]]]

Among the close associates of the Impressionists, [[Victor Vignon]] is the only artist outside the group of prominent names who participated to the most exclusive Seventh Paris Impressionist Exhibition in 1882, which was indeed a rejection to the previous less restricted exhibitions chiefly organized by Degas. Originally from the school of [[Corot]], Vignon was a friend of [[Camille Pissarro]], whose influence is evident in his impressionist style after the late 1870s, and a friend of post-impressionist [[Vincent van Gogh]].

There were several other close associates of the Impressionists who adopted their methods to some degree. These include [[Jean-Louis Forain]], who participated in Impressionist exhibitions in 1879, 1880, 1881 and 1886,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.culture.gouv.fr/documentation/joconde/fr/decouvrir/expositions/impressionnisme/theme_imprart.htm|title=Joconde : catalogue collectif des collections des musées de France|website=www.culture.gouv.fr|access-date=2017-12-28|archive-date=28 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228172700/http://www.culture.gouv.fr/documentation/joconde/fr/decouvrir/expositions/impressionnisme/theme_imprart.htm|url-status=dead|lang=French}}</ref> and [[Giuseppe De Nittis]], an Italian artist living in Paris who participated in the first Impressionist exhibit at the invitation of Degas, although the other Impressionists disparaged his work.{{sfnp|Denvir|1990|p=152}} [[Federico Zandomeneghi]] was another Italian friend of Degas who showed with the Impressionists. [[Eva Gonzalès]] was a follower of Manet who did not exhibit with the group.

[[James Abbott McNeill Whistler]] was an American-born painter who played a part in Impressionism although he did not join the group and preferred grayed colours. [[Walter Sickert]], an English artist, was initially a follower of Whistler, and later an important disciple of Degas. He did not exhibit with the Impressionists. In 1904, the artist and writer [[Wynford Dewhurst]] wrote the first important study of the French painters published in English, ''Impressionist Painting: its genesis and development'', which did much to popularize Impressionism in Great Britain.

By the early 1880s, Impressionist methods were affecting, at least superficially, the art of the Salon. Fashionable painters such as [[Jean Béraud]] and [[Henri Gervex]] found critical and financial success by brightening their palettes while retaining the smooth finish expected of Salon art.{{sfnp|Rewald|1973|pp=476–477}} Works by these artists are sometimes casually referred to as Impressionism, despite their remoteness from Impressionist practice.

The influence of the French Impressionists lasted long after most of them had died. Artists like [[Jesekiel David Kirszenbaum|J.D. Kirszenbaum]] were borrowing Impressionist techniques throughout the twentieth century.

== Beyond France ==
[[File:Serov devochka s persikami.jpg|thumb|''[[Girl with Peaches|The Girl with Peaches]]'' (1887, [[Tretyakov Gallery]]) by [[Valentin Serov]]]]
[[File:Arthur Streeton - Golden summer, Eaglemont - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|[[Arthur Streeton]]'s 1889 landscape ''[[Golden Summer, Eaglemont]]'', held at the [[National Gallery of Australia]], is an example of [[Heidelberg School|Australian impressionism]].]]
[[File:Hip, Hip, Hurrah! Artists’ Party, Skagen (Peder Severin Krøyer) - Gothenburg Museum of Art - F 62.tif|thumb|[[Peder Severin Krøyer]]'s 1888 work ''[[Hip, Hip, Hurrah!]]'', held at the [[Gothenburg Museum of Art]], shows members of the [[Skagen Painters]].]]
As the influence of Impressionism spread beyond France, artists, too numerous to list, became identified as practitioners of the new style. Some of the more important examples are:
* The [[American Impressionism|American Impressionists]], including [[Mary Cassatt]], [[William Merritt Chase]], [[Frederick Carl Frieseke]], [[Childe Hassam]], [[Willard Metcalf]], [[Lilla Cabot Perry]], [[Theodore Robinson]], [[Edmund C. Tarbell|Edmund Charles Tarbell]], [[John Henry Twachtman]], [[Catherine Wiley]] and [[J. Alden Weir]].
* The [[Australian Impressionism|Australian Impressionists]], including [[Tom Roberts]], [[Arthur Streeton]], [[Walter Withers]], [[Charles Conder]], [[Frederick McCubbin]] and [[E. Phillips Fox]] (who were prominent members of the [[Heidelberg School]]), and [[John Russell (Australian artist)|John Russell]], a friend of Van Gogh, Rodin, Monet and Matisse.
* The [[Amsterdam Impressionism|Amsterdam Impressionists]] in the [[Netherlands]], including [[George Hendrik Breitner]], [[Isaac Israëls]], [[Willem Bastiaan Tholen]], [[Willem de Zwart]], [[Willem Witsen]], [[Marie Henry Mackenzie]] and [[Jan Toorop]].
* The [[California Impressionism|California Impressionists]], including [[William Wendt]], [[Guy Rose]], [[Alson Clark]], [[Donna N. Schuster]], and [[Sam Hyde Harris]].
* [[Anna Boch]], [[Vincent van Gogh]]'s friend [[Eugène Boch]], [[Georges Lemmen]] and [[Théo van Rysselberghe]], Impressionist painters from [[Belgium]].
* The [[Slovenian Impressionism|Slovenian Impressionists]], [[Ivan Grohar]], [[Rihard Jakopič]], [[Matija Jama]], and [[Matej Sternen]]. Their beginning was in the school of [[Anton Ažbe]] in Munich and they were influenced by [[Jurij Šubic]] and [[Ivana Kobilca]], Slovenian painters working in Paris.
* [[Wynford Dewhurst]], [[Walter Richard Sickert]], and [[Philip Wilson Steer]] were well known Impressionist painters from the United Kingdom. [[Pierre Adolphe Valette]], who was born in France but who worked in Manchester, was the tutor of [[L. S. Lowry]].
* The [[German Impressionists]], including [[Max Liebermann]], [[Lovis Corinth]], [[Ernst Oppler]], [[Max Slevogt]] and [[August von Brandis]].
* [[László Mednyánszky]] and [[Pál Szinyei Merse|Pál Szinyei-Merse]] in Hungary
* [[Theodor von Ehrmanns]] and [[Hugo Charlemont]] who were rare Impressionists among the more dominant [[Vienna Secessionist]] painters in Austria.
* [[William John Leech]], [[Roderic O'Conor]], and [[Walter Osborne]] in Ireland
* [[Konstantin Korovin]] and [[Valentin Serov]] in Russia
* [[Francisco Oller|Francisco Oller y Cestero]], a native of [[Puerto Rico]] and a friend of Pissarro and Cézanne
* [[James Nairn]] in New Zealand
* [[William McTaggart]] in Scotland
* [[Maurice Cullen (artist)|Maurice Cullen]], [[Laura Muntz Lyall]] and [[Helen McNicoll]], Canadian artists
* [[Władysław Podkowiński]], a Polish Impressionist and [[Symbolism (arts)|symbolist]]
* [[Nicolae Grigorescu]] in Romania
* [[Nazmi Ziya Güran]], who brought Impressionism to [[Turkey]]
* [[Chafik Charobim]] in Egypt
* [[Eliseu Visconti]] in Brazil
* [[Joaquín Sorolla]] and [[Fermín Arango]] in Spain
* Faustino Brughetti, [[Fernando Fader]], [[Candido Lopez]], [[Martín Malharro]], Walter de Navazio, [[Ramón Silva (painter)|Ramón Silva]] in Argentina
* [[Skagen Painters]] a group of Scandinavian artists who painted in a small Danish fishing village
* [[Nadežda Petrović]], [[Milo Milunović]], [[Kosta Miličević]], [[Milan Milovanović (painter)|Milan Milovanovi]] and [[Mališa Glišić]] in Serbia<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.politika.rs/scc/clanak/292020/Srpski-impresionisti-su-se-umetnoscu-borili |title=Српски импресионисти су се уметношћу борили |lang=Serbian |trans-title=Serbian Impressionists fought with art |first=Biljana |last=Lijeskić |date=5 May 2014 |website=politika.rs |access-date=27 May 2022 |archive-date=27 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220527140833/https://www.politika.rs/scc/clanak/292020/Srpski-impresionisti-su-se-umetnoscu-borili |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.zeptermuseum.rs/odnosi-francuskog-i-srpskog-impresionizma |title=Odnosi Francuskog I Srpskog Impresionizma &#124; Zepter Muzej |publisher=Zeptermuseum.rs |date=2016-02-22 |accessdate=2022-05-31 |archive-date=18 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318152911/http://zeptermuseum.rs/odnosi-francuskog-i-srpskog-impresionizma |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://msub.org.rs/selection/zbirka-slikarstva-od-1900-do-1945-godine/ |title=Zbirka slikarstva od 1900. do 1945. godine – Muzej savremene umetnosti u Beogradu |publisher=Msub.org.rs |date= |accessdate=2022-05-31 |archive-date=24 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524152048/https://msub.org.rs/selection/zbirka-slikarstva-od-1900-do-1945-godine/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* [[Ásgrímur Jónsson]] in Iceland
* [[Fujishima Takeji]] in Japan
* [[Frits Thaulow]] in Norway and later France

== Impressionism in other media ==

=== Sculpture ===

[[File:Bailarina Degas Washington.jpg|upright=0.5|thumb|right|Edgar Degas's ''Little Dancer of Fourteen Years'' at the [[National Gallery of Art]], Washington, D.C.]]

While Edgar Degas was primarily known as a painter in his lifetime, he began to pursue the medium of sculpture later in his artistic career in the 1880s. He created as many as 150 sculptures during his lifetime. Degas preferred the medium of wax for his sculptures because it allowed him to make changes, start over, and further explore the modelling process.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Locheed |first1=Jessica |title=Beyond the form: the ineffable essence of Degas' sculpture |journal=Sculpture Journal |date=June 2009 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=86–99 |doi=10.3828/sj.18.1.7 |url=https://www.liverpooluniversitypress.co.uk/doi/10.3828/sj.18.1.7 |access-date=18 March 2024 |language=en |issn=1366-2724|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Only one of Degas's sculptures, ''[[Little Dancer of Fourteen Years]]'', was exhibited in his lifetime, which was exhibited at the Sixth Impressionist Exhibition in 1881. ''Little Dancer'' proved to be controversial with critics. Some considered Degas to have overthrown sculptural traditions in the same way that Impressionism had overthrown the traditions of painting. Others found it to be ugly.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Barbour |first1=Daphne |title=Degas's Little Dancer: Not Just a Study in the Nude |journal=Art Journal |date=1995 |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=28–32 |doi=10.2307/777459 |jstor=777459 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/777459 |access-date=18 March 2024 |issn=0004-3249 |archive-date=18 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318144700/https://www.jstor.org/stable/777459 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> Following the Degas's death in 1917, his heirs authorized bronze castings from 73 of the artist's sculptures.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kendall |first1=Richard |title=Degas's sculpture in the twenty-first century |journal=The Burlington Magazine |date=2012 |volume=154 |issue=1309 |pages=268–271 |jstor=23232564 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23232564 |access-date=18 March 2024 |issn=0007-6287 |archive-date=18 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240318144700/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23232564 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The sculptor [[Auguste Rodin]] is sometimes called an Impressionist for the way he used roughly modeled surfaces to suggest transient light effects.<ref>Kleiner, Fred S., and Helen Gardner (2014). ''Gardner's art through the ages: a concise Western history''. Boston, MA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning. p. 382. {{ISBN|978-1-133-95479-8}}.</ref> The sculptor [[Medardo Rosso]] has also been called an Impressionist.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Caramel |first1=Luciano |title=Medardo Rosso: Impressions in Wax & Bronze: 1882-1906 |date=1988 |publisher=Kent Fine Arts |location=New York |isbn=978-1-878607-02-7 |pages=10–15 |edition=First |url=https://archive.org/details/medardorossoimpr0000luci/ |access-date=18 March 2024}}</ref>

Some Russian artists created Impressionistic sculptures of animals in order to break away from old world concepts. Their works have been described as endowing birds and beasts with new spiritual characteristics.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Portnova |first=Irina |date=2019-12-10 |title=On the meaning and novelty of impressionistic thinking on the example of Russian animalistic sculpture of the late XIX – early XX centuries |journal=Scientific and Analytical Journal Burganov House. The Space of Culture |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=82–107 |doi=10.36340/2071-6818-2019-15-4-82-107 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |issn=2618-7965|doi-access=free }}</ref>

=== Photography and film ===

While his photographs are less known than his paintings or his sculptures, Edgar Degas also pursued photography later in his life. His photographs were never exhibited during his lifetime, and not much attention was given to them following his death. It was not until the late 20th century that scholars started to take interest in Degas's photographs.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Daniel |first1=Malcolm |title=Edgar Degas, Photographer |date=1998 |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art, distributed by H.N. Abrams |location=New York |isbn=0-87099-883-8 |pages=6, 11–13 |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/edgar_degas_photographer |access-date=21 March 2024 |archive-date=21 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240321030851/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/edgar_degas_photographer |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Pictorialism|Pictorialist]] photographers, whose work is characterized by soft focus and atmospheric effects, have also been called Impressionists. These Impressionist photographers used various techniques such as photographing subjects [[out of focus]], using [[Soft focus|soft focus lenses]] or [[pinhole lens]]es, and manipulating the [[Gum printing|gum bichromate process]] to create images that resembled Impressionist paintings.<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Warren |editor1-first=Lynne |title=Encyclopedia of Twentieth Century Photography |volume=1, A-F Index |chapter=Impressionism |date=2006 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York, NY |isbn=978-1-57958-393-4 |pages=778–781 |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopedia-of-twentieth-century-photography/ |access-date=21 March 2024}}</ref>

[[French Impressionist Cinema]] is a term applied to a loosely defined group of films and filmmakers in France from 1919 to 1929, although these years are debatable. French Impressionist filmmakers include [[Abel Gance]], [[Jean Epstein]], [[Germaine Dulac]], Marcel L'Herbier, [[Louis Delluc]], and Dmitry Kirsanoff.

=== Music ===
{{Main|Impressionist music}}
{{Listen
| type         = music
| filename     = Debussy , Reflets dans l'eau.ogg
| title        = ''Reflets dans l'eau'' (5:33)
| description  = Composed by Debussy in 1905, performed by [[Giorgi Latso]] in 2017.
}}

[[File:クロード・モネ（Claude Monet）《睡蓮（Water Lilies）》1916（大正5）年、国立西洋美術館（松方コレクション）、東京.jpg|thumb|[[Claude Monet]], ''[[Water Lilies (Monet series)|Water Lilies]],'' 1916, [[National Museum of Western Art]], Tokyo]]

Musical Impressionism is the name given to a movement in [[European classical music]] that arose in the late 19th century and continued into the middle of the 20th century. Originating in France, musical Impressionism is characterized by suggestion and atmosphere, and eschews the emotional excesses of the Romantic era. Impressionist composers favoured short forms such as the [[nocturne]], [[Arabesque (classical music)|arabesque]], and [[Prelude (music)|prelude]], and often explored uncommon scales such as the [[whole tone scale]]. Perhaps the most notable innovations of Impressionist composers were the introduction of major 7th chords and the extension of chord structures in 3rds to five- and six-part harmonies.

The influence of visual Impressionism on its musical counterpart is debatable. [[Claude Debussy]] and [[Maurice Ravel]] are generally considered the greatest Impressionist composers, but Debussy disavowed the term, calling it the invention of critics. [[Erik Satie]] was also considered in this category, though his approach was regarded as less serious, more musical novelty in nature.

[[Paul Dukas]] is another French composer sometimes considered an Impressionist, but his style is perhaps more closely aligned to the late Romanticists, [[Lili Boulanger]], however, has clear Debussian sounds and has been considered as an Impressionist also. Musical Impressionism beyond France includes the work of such composers as [[Ottorino Respighi]] (Italy), [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]], [[Cyril Scott]], and [[John Ireland (composer)|John Ireland]] (England), [[Alexander Scriabin]] (Russia), [[Manuel De Falla]] and [[Isaac Albeniz]] (Spain), and [[Charles Griffes]] (America).

American Impressionist music differs from European Impressionist music, and these differences are mainly reflected in Charles Griffith's poetry of flute and orchestral music. He is also the most prolific Impressionist composer in the United States.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Haefliger |first1=Kathleen |last2=Griffes |first2=Charles Tomlinson |date=1986 |title=Piano Music of Charles Tomlinson Griffes |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/3052237 |journal=American Music |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=481 |doi=10.2307/3052237 |jstor=3052237 |issn=0734-4392|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Impressionism (literature)}}

The term Impressionism has also been used to describe works of literature in which a few select details suffice to convey the sensory impressions of an incident or scene. Impressionist literature is closely related to [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]], with its major exemplars being [[Charles Baudelaire|Baudelaire]], [[Stéphane Mallarmé|Mallarmé]], [[Arthur Rimbaud|Rimbaud]], and [[Paul Verlaine|Verlaine]]. Authors such as [[Virginia Woolf]], [[D.H. Lawrence]], [[Henry James]], and [[Joseph Conrad]] have written works that are Impressionistic in the way that they describe, rather than interpret, the impressions, sensations and emotions that constitute a character's mental life. Some literary scholars, such as John G. Peters, believe literary Impressionism is better defined by its philosophical stance than by any supposed relationship with Impressionist painting.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Berrong |first=Richard M. |date=2006-06-01 |title=Modes of Literary Impressionism |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1215/00166928-39-2-203 |journal=Genre |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=203–228 |doi=10.1215/00166928-39-2-203 |issn=0016-6928|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

[[File:Camille Pissarro 019.jpg|thumb|[[Camille Pissarro]], ''Children on a Farm'', 1887]]

== Post-Impressionism ==
{{Main|Post-Impressionism}}
During the 1880s several artists began to develop different precepts for the use of colour, pattern, form, and line, derived from the Impressionist example: [[Vincent van Gogh]], [[Paul Gauguin]], [[Georges Seurat]], and [[Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec]]. These artists were slightly younger than the Impressionists, and their work is known as post-Impressionism. Post-Impressionist artists reacted against the Impressionists' concern with realistically reproducing the optical sensations of light and colour; they turned instead toward symbolic content and the expression of emotion.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boyle-Turner |first=Caroline |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t068996 |title=Post-Impressionism |date=2017-12-12 |publisher=Oxford University Press |series=Oxford Art Online|doi=10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.t068996 }}</ref>

Post-Impressionism prefigured the characteristics of [[Futurism]] and [[Cubism]], reflecting the change of attitude towards art in European society.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/mono/10.4324/9781032699707/post-impressionists-england-barrie-bullen |title=Post-Impressionists in England: The Critical Reception |date=2024-03-08 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-032-69970-7 |editor-last=Bullen |editor-first=Barrie |location=London |doi=10.4324/9781032699707}}</ref> Some of the original Impressionist artists also ventured into this new territory; [[Camille Pissarro]] briefly painted in a [[Pointillism|pointillist]] manner, and even Monet abandoned strict ''plein air'' painting. [[Paul Cézanne]], who participated in the first and third Impressionist exhibitions, developed a highly individual vision emphasising pictorial structure, and he is more often called a post-Impressionist. Although these cases illustrate the difficulty of assigning labels, the work of the original Impressionist painters may, by definition, be categorised as Impressionism.

<gallery widths="160px" heights="160px" perrow="4">
File:A Sunday on La Grande Jatte, Georges Seurat, 1884.png|[[Georges Seurat]], ''[[A Sunday Afternoon on the Island of La Grande Jatte]]'', 1884–1886, [[The Art Institute of Chicago]]
File:Vincent Van Gogh 0016.jpg|[[Vincent van Gogh]], ''Cypresses'', 1889, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
File:Paul Gauguin 044.jpg|[[Paul Gauguin]], ''The Midday Nap'', 1894, [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]]
File:Card Players-Paul Cezanne.jpg|[[Paul Cézanne]], ''[[The Card Players]]'', 1894–1895, [[Musée d'Orsay]], Paris
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Cantonese school of painting]], influenced by Impressionism
* [[History of painting]]
* [[Les XX]]
* [[Luminism (Impressionism)]]
* [[Periods in Western art history]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== Citations ==
{{reflist|24em}}

=== Works cited ===
{{Refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Baumann |editor1-first=Felix |editor2-last=Karabelnik |date=1994 |title=Degas Portraits |location=London |publisher=Merrell Holberton |isbn=1-85894-014-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/degasportraits0000unse/ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Bomford |first1=David |first2=Jo |last2=Kirby |first3=John |last3=Leighton |first4=Ashok |last4=Roy |date=1990 |title=Art in the Making: Impressionism |location=London |publisher=The National Gallery of London |isbn=0-300-05035-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/impressionism0000unse_z3w3/ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Denvir |first1=Bernard |date=1990 |title=The Thames and Hudson Encyclopaedia of Impressionism |location=London |publisher=Thames and Hudson |isbn=0-500-20239-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/thameshudsonency0000denv/ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Distel |first1=Anne |author1-link=Anne Distel |first2=Michel |last2=Hoog |first3=Charles S. |last3=Moffett |url=http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/78705/rec/222 |title=Impressionism; A Centenary Exhibition |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |location=New York |date=1974 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181108221731/http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/78705/rec/222 |archive-date=8 November 2018 |isbn=0-87099-097-7 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Eisenman |first1=Stephen F. |date=2010 |title=From Corot to Monet: The Ecology of Impressionism |location=Milan |publisher=Skira |isbn=978-88-572-0706-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/fromcorottomonet0000unse/ }}
* {{Cite book |last=Garb |first=Tamar |title=Women Impressionists |publisher=Rizzoli International Publications |year=1986 |isbn=0-8478-0757-6 |location=New York |oclc=14368525}}
* {{cite book |last1=Gordon |first1=Robert |last2=Forge |first2=Andrew |date=1988 |title=Degas |location=New York |publisher=Harry N. Abrams, Inc. |isbn=0-8109-1142-6 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Gowing |first1=Lawrence |last2=Adriani |first2=Götz |author2-link=Götz Adriani |last3=Krumrine |first3=Mary Louise |last4=Lewis |first4=Mary Tompkins |last5=Patin |first5=Sylvie |author5-link=Sylvie Patin |last6=Rewald |first6=John |editor1-last=Stevens |editor1-first=Mary Anne |date=1988 |title=Cézanne: The Early Years 1859–1872 |location=New York |publisher=Harry N. Abrams, Inc. |url=https://archive.org/details/cezanneearlyyear0000unse_a9n0/page/n3/mode/2up }}
* {{cite book |last1=Huyghe |first1=René |date=1973 |title=Impressionism |location=New York |publisher=Chartwell Books |oclc=49692648}}
* {{cite book |last1=Jensen |first1=Robert |date=1994 |title=Marketing modernism in fin-de-siècle Europe |location=Princeton, NJ |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=0-691-03333-1 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Moffett |first1=Charles S |date=1986 |title=The New Painting, Impressionism 1874–1886 |location=Geneva |publisher=Richard Burton SA }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rewald |first1=John |author1-link=John Rewald |date=1973 |title=The History of Impressionism |edition=4th Revised |location=New York |publisher=The Museum of Modern Art |isbn=0-87070-360-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofimpress0000unse_x5j4/ }}
* {{cite book |last1=Richardson |first1=John |date=1976 |title=Manet |edition=3rd |location=Oxford |publisher=Phaidon Press Ltd. |isbn=0-7148-1743-0 }}
* {{cite book |last1=Rosenblum |first1=Robert |date=1989 |title=Paintings in the Musée d'Orsay |location=New York |publisher=Stewart, Tabori & Chang |isbn=1-55670-099-7 }}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Moskowitz |editor1-first=Ira |last1=Sérullaz |first1=Maurice |date=1962 |title=French Impressionists: A Selection of Drawings of the French 19th Century |location=Boston and Toronto |publisher=Little, Brown and Company |isbn=0-316-58560-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Stoner |first1=Joyce Hill |last2=Rushfield |first2=Rebecca Anne |year=2012 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1msM3h9mbaoC&pg=PA177 |title=The Conservation of Easel Paintings |location=London |publisher=Routledge |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112131927/https://books.google.com/books?id=1msM3h9mbaoC&pg=PA177&dq= |archive-date=12 November 2022 |isbn=978-1-136-00041-6}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Impressionism}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wiktionary|impressionism}}
* [https://www.rehahnphotographer.com/impressionism-photography-rehahn Contemporary Impressionism in Photography]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080614210111/http://mushecht.haifa.ac.il/hecht/art/frenchart_eng.aspx Hecht Museum]
* {{Gutenberg|no=14056|name=The French Impressionists (1860–1900)}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070312105907/http://www.museen-sh.de/ml/digicult.php?digiID=601.9&s=2 Museumsportal Schleswig-Holstein]
* [http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/78705 ''Impressionism : A Centenary Exhibition, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, December 12, 1974 – February 10, 1975'']
* [http://arts.guardian.co.uk/art/visualart/story/0,,2020144,00.html Suburban Pastoral] ''The Guardian'', 24 February 2007
* [http://www.tate.org.uk/learn/online-resources/glossary/i/impressionism Definition of impressionism on the Tate Art Glossary]
* ''Impressionism: Paintings collected by European Museums'' (1999) was an art exhibition co-organized by the High Museum of Art, Atlanta, the Seattle Art Museum, and the Denver Art Museum, touring from May through December 1999. [http://www.impressionism.org/ Online guided tour]
* [http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/85352 ''Monet's Years at Giverny: Beyond Impressionism''], 1978 exhibition catalogue from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which discusses Monet's role in this movement
* [http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/60673/rec/6 ''Degas: The Artist's Mind''], 1976 exhibition catalogue from The Metropolitan Museum of Art, which discusses Degas's role in this movement
* [https://www.musee-orsay.fr/en/whats-on/exhibitions/paris-1874-inventing-impressionism Paris 1874 Inventing impressionism] Exhibition at the [[Musée d'Orsay]], from March 26th to July 14th, 2024.
* [https://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/2024/paris-1874-impressionist-moment.html Paris 1874: The Impressionist Moment] Exhibition at the [[National Gallery of Art]] from September 8, 2024 to January 19, 2025.

{{Impressionists}}
{{Post-Impressionism}}
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