View source for English orthography

{{Short description|Norms for writing the English language}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}}
{{IPA notice}}
{{English language}}
'''English orthography''' comprises the set of rules used when [[writing]] the [[English language]],{{sfn|Venezky|1967}}{{sfn|Jared|Seidenberg|1991}} allowing readers and writers to associate written [[grapheme]]s with the sounds of spoken English, as well as other features of the language.{{sfn|Van Assche|Duyck|Hartsuiker|2013}} English's orthography includes norms for [[spelling]], [[hyphen]]ation, [[capitalisation]], [[word|word breaks]], [[Emphasis (typography)|emphasis]], and [[punctuation]].

As with the [[orthographies]] of most other [[world language]]s, written English is broadly standardised. This standardisation began to develop when [[movable type]] spread to England in the late 15th century.{{sfn|Okrent|2021}} However, unlike with most languages, there are multiple ways to spell every [[phoneme]], and most [[grapheme|letters]] also represent multiple pronunciations depending on their position in a word and the context.

This is partly due to the large number of words that have been [[Loanword|loaned]] from a large number of other languages throughout the [[history of English]], without successful attempts at complete [[English-language spelling reform|spelling reforms]],{{sfn|Khansir|Tajeri|2015}} and partly due to accidents of history, such as some of the earliest mass-produced English publications being [[Typesetting|typeset]] by highly trained, multilingual printing [[Compositor (typesetting)|compositors]], who occasionally used a spelling pattern more typical for another language.{{sfn|Okrent|2021}} For example, the word ''ghost'' was spelled {{lang|enm|gost}} in [[Middle English]], until the [[Flemish dialects|Flemish]] spelling pattern was unintentionally substituted, and happened to be accepted.{{sfn|Okrent|2021}} Most of the spelling conventions in [[Modern English]] were derived from the phonemic spelling of a variety of [[Middle English]], and generally do not reflect the [[sound change]]s that have occurred since the late 15th century (such as the [[Great Vowel Shift]]).<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=English language |year=2010 |access-date=23 November 2010 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/188048/English-language}}</ref>

Despite the various [[English dialects]] spoken from country to country and within different regions of the same country, there are only slight regional variations in English orthography, the two most recognised variations being [[British and American spelling]], and its overall uniformity helps facilitate international communication. On the other hand, it also adds to the discrepancy between the way English is written and spoken in any given location.{{sfn|Khansir|Tajeri|2015}}

== Function of letters ==
=== Phonemic representation ===
{{Further|Phonemic orthography}}

[[Letter (alphabet)|Letters]] in English orthography positioned at one location
within a specific word usually represent a particular [[phoneme]]. For example, ''at'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|t}} consists of 2 letters {{vr|a}} and {{vr|t}}, which represent {{IPAslink|æ}} and {{IPAslink|t}}, respectively.

[[Multigraph (orthography)|Sequences of letters]] may perform this role as well as single letters. Thus, in ''thrash'' {{IPAc-en|θ|r|æ|ʃ}}, the [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]] {{vr|th}} (two letters) represents {{IPA|/θ/}}. In ''hatch'' {{IPAc-en|h|æ|tʃ}}, the [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraph]] {{vr|tch}} represents {{IPA|/tʃ/}}.

Less commonly, a single letter can represent multiple successive sounds. The most common example is {{vr|x}}, which normally represents the consonant cluster {{IPA|/ks/}} (for example, in ''tax'' {{IPAc-en|t|æ|k|s}}).

The same letter (or sequence of letters) may be pronounced differently when occurring in different positions within a word. For instance, {{vr|gh}} represents {{IPA|/f/}} at the end of some words (''tough'' {{IPAc-en|t|ʌ|f}}) but not in others (''plough'' {{IPAc-en|p|l|aʊ}}). At the [[syllable onset|beginning of syllables]], {{vr|gh}} is pronounced {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, as in ''ghost'' {{IPAc-en|ɡ|oʊ|s|t}}. Conversely, {{angbr|gh}} is never pronounced {{IPA|/f/}} in syllable onsets other than in [[inflection|inflected]] forms, and is almost never pronounced {{IPA|/ɡ/}} in [[syllable coda]]s (the proper name ''[[Pittsburgh]]'' is an exception).

Some words contain [[silent letter]]s, which do not represent any sound in modern English pronunciation. Examples include the {{vr|l}} in ''talk'', ''half'', ''calf'', etc., the {{vr|w}} in ''two'' and ''sword'', {{vr|gh}} as mentioned above in numerous words such as ''though'', ''daughter'', ''night'', ''brought'', and the commonly encountered [[silent e|silent {{vr|e}}]] (discussed further below).

=== Word origin ===
{{See also|Hard and soft C|Hard and soft G|Silent k|Palatalization (phonetics)}}

Another type of spelling characteristic is related to word origin. For example, when representing a vowel, {{vr|y}} represents the sound {{IPAslink|ɪ}} in some words [[Loanword|borrowed]] from [[Greek language|Greek]] (reflecting an original [[upsilon]]), whereas the letter usually representing this sound in non-Greek words is the letter {{vr|i}}. Thus, ''myth'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɪ|θ}} is of Greek origin, while ''pith'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|ɪ|θ}} is a [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] word. However, a large number of Germanic words have {{vr|y}} in word-final position.

Some other examples are {{vr|ph}} pronounced {{IPAslink|f}} (which is most commonly {{angbr|f}}), and {{vr|ch}} pronounced {{IPAslink|k}} (which is most commonly {{vr|c}} or {{vr|k}}). The use of these spellings for these sounds often marks [[English words of Greek origin|words that have been borrowed from Greek]].

Some researchers, such as Brengelman (1970), have suggested that, in addition to this marking of word origin, these spellings indicate a more formal level of [[Stylistics (linguistics)|style]] or [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]] in a given text, although Rollings (2004) finds this point to be exaggerated as there would be many exceptions where a word with one of these spellings, such as {{vr|ph}} for {{IPAslink|f}} (like ''telephone''), could occur in an informal text.

=== Homophone differentiation ===
Spelling may also be useful to distinguish in [[written language]] between [[homophone]]s (words with the same pronunciation but different meanings), and thus resolve potential [[ambiguity|ambiguities]] that would arise otherwise. However in most cases the reason for the difference is historical, and it was not introduced to resolve ambiguity.

;Examples

* ''heir'' and ''air'' are pronounced identically in most dialects, but spelt differently.

* ''pain'' and ''pane'' are both pronounced {{IPAc-en|p|eɪ|n}} but have two different spellings of the vowel {{IPA|/eɪ/}}. This arose because the two words were originally pronounced differently: ''pain'' used to be pronounced as {{IPA|/peɪn/}}, with a diphthong, and ''pane'' as {{IPA|/peːn/}}, but the diphthong {{IPA|/eɪ/}} merged with the long vowel {{IPA|/eː/}} in ''pane'', making ''pain'' and ''pane'' homophones ([[Phonological history of English diphthongs#Long mid mergers|''pane''–''pain'' merger]]). Later {{IPA|/eː/}} became a diphthong {{IPA|/eɪ/}}.

* ''break''  and ''brake'': (''She's breaking the car'' vs. ''She's braking the car'').

Nevertheless, many homophones remain that are unresolved by spelling (for example, the word ''[[wikt:bay|bay]]'' has at least five fundamentally different meanings).

=== Marking sound changes in other letters ===
{{See also|Silent e|Homogeneous digraph}}

Some letters in English provide information about the pronunciation of other letters in the word. Rollings (2004) uses the term "markers" for such letters. Letters may mark different types of information.

For instance, {{vr|e}} in ''once'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|w|ʌ|n|s}} indicates that the preceding {{vr|c}} is pronounced {{IPAslink|s}}, rather than the more common value of {{vr|c}} in word-final position as the sound {{IPAslink|k}}, such as in ''attic'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|t|ɪ|k}}.

{{vr|e}} also often marks an altered pronunciation of a preceding vowel. In the pair ''mat'' and ''mate'', the {{vr|a}} of ''mat'' has the value {{IPAslink|æ}}, whereas the {{vr|a}} of ''mate'' is marked by the {{vr|e}} as having the value {{IPA|/eɪ/}}. In this context, the {{vr|e}} is not pronounced, and is referred to as a "[[silent e]]".

A single letter may even fill multiple pronunciation-marking roles simultaneously. For example, in the word ''ace'', {{vr|e}} marks not only the change of {{vr|a}} from {{IPAslink|æ}} to {{IPA|/eɪ/}}, but also of {{vr|c}} from {{IPAslink|k}} to {{IPAslink|s}}. In the word ''vague'', {{vr|e}} marks the long {{vr|a}} sound, but {{vr|u}} keeps the {{vr|g}} hard rather than soft.

[[Digraph (orthography)#Homogeneous_digraph|Doubled consonants]] usually indicate that the preceding vowel is pronounced short. For example, the doubled {{vr|t}} in ''batted'' indicates that the {{vr|a}} is pronounced {{IPAslink|æ}}, while the single {{vr|t}} of ''bated'' gives {{IPA|/eɪ/}}. Doubled consonants only indicate any lengthening or [[gemination]] of the consonant sound itself when they come from different morphemes, as with the {{vr|nn}} in ''unnamed'' (''un''+''named'').

=== Multiple functionality ===
Any given letters may have dual functions. For example, {{vr|u}} in ''statue'' has a sound-representing function (representing the sound {{IPAslink|u}}) and a pronunciation-marking function (marking the {{vr|t}} as having the value {{IPAslink|tʃ}} opposed to the value {{IPAslink|t}}).

=== Underlying representation ===
Like many other [[alphabet]]ic orthographies, English spelling does not represent non-contrastive [[phonetics|phonetic]] sounds (that is, minor differences in pronunciation which are not used to distinguish between different words).

Although the letter {{vr|t}} is pronounced by most speakers with [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspiration]] {{IPA|[tʰ]}} at the beginning of words, this is never indicated in the spelling, and, indeed, this phonetic detail is probably not noticeable to the average native speaker not trained in phonetics.

However, unlike some orthographies, English orthography often represents a very abstract [[underlying representation]] (or [[morphophonology|morphophonemic]] form) of English words.{{sfn|Rollings|2004|pages=16–19}}{{sfn|Chomsky|Halle|1968}}{{sfn|Chomsky|1970}}

{{Blockquote| [T]he postulated underlying forms are systematically related to the conventional orthography ... and are, as is well known, related to the underlying forms of a much earlier historical stage of the language. There has, in other words, been little change in lexical representation since [[Middle English]], and, consequently, we would expect ... that [[lexicon|lexical]] representation would differ very little from dialect to dialect in [[Modern English]] ... [and] that conventional orthography is probably fairly close to optimal for all modern English dialects, as well as for the attested dialects of the past several hundred years.{{sfn|Chomsky|Halle|1968|page=54}}}}

In these cases, a given [[morpheme]] (i.e., a component of a word) has a fixed spelling even though it is pronounced differently in different words. An example is the [[past tense]] [[suffix]] -{{vr|ed}}, which may be pronounced variously as {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|/d/}}, or {{IPA|/ᵻd/}}{{efn|name=schwa|The vowel of the suffixes -{{angbr|ed}} and -{{vr|es}} may belong to the phoneme of either {{IPA|/ɪ/}} or {{IPA|/ə/}} depending on dialect, and {{angbr IPA|ᵻ}} is a shorthand for "either {{IPA|/ɪ/}} or {{IPA|/ə/}}". This usage of the symbol is borrowed from the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]''.}} (for example, ''pay'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|eɪ}}, ''payed'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|eɪ|d}}, ''hate'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|eɪ|t}}, ''hated'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|eɪ|t|ᵻ|d}}). As it happens, these different pronunciations of -{{vr|ed}} can be predicted by a few [[phonology|phonological]] rules, but that is not the reason why its spelling is fixed.

Another example involves the vowel differences (with accompanying stress pattern changes) in several related words. For instance, ''photographer'' is derived from ''photograph'' by adding the [[Morphological derivation|derivational]] suffix -{{vr|er}}. When this suffix is added, the vowel pronunciations change largely owing to the moveable stress:

{| class="wikitable"
! Spelling
! Pronunciation
|-
| ''photograph''
| {{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|oʊ|t|ə|ɡ|r|æ|f}} or {{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|oʊ|t|ə|ɡ|r|ɑː|f}}
|-
| ''photographer''
| {{IPAc-en|f|ə|ˈ|t|ɒ|ɡ|r|ə|f|ər}}
|-
| ''photographical''
| {{IPAc-en|ˌ|f|oʊ|t|ə|ˈ|ɡ|r|æ|f|ɪ|k|əl}}
|}

Other examples of this type are the -{{vr|ity}} suffix (as in ''agile'' vs. ''agility'', ''acid'' vs. ''acidity'', ''divine'' vs. ''divinity'', ''sane'' vs. ''sanity''). See also: [[Trisyllabic laxing]].

Another example includes words like ''mean'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|iː|n}} and ''meant'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|m|ɛ|n|t}}, where {{vr|ea}} is pronounced differently in the two related words. Thus, again, the orthography uses only a single spelling that corresponds to the single morphemic form rather than to the surface phonological form.

English orthography does not always provide an underlying representation; sometimes it provides an intermediate representation between the underlying form and the surface pronunciation. This is the case with the spelling of the regular [[plural]] morpheme, which is written as either -{{vr|s}} (as in ''tat, tats'' and ''hat, hats'') or -{{vr|es}} (as in ''glass, glasses''). Here, the spelling -{{vr|s}} is pronounced either {{IPAslink|s}} or {{IPAslink|z}} (depending on the environment, e.g., ''tats'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|t|æ|t|s}} and ''tails'' {{IPAc-en|ˈ|t|eɪ|l|z}}) while -{{vr|es}} is usually pronounced {{IPA|/ᵻz/}}{{efn|name=schwa}} (e.g. ''classes'' {{IPA|/ˈklæsᵻz/}}). Thus, there are two different spellings that correspond to the single underlying representation |{{IPA|z}}| of the plural suffix and the three surface forms. The spelling indicates the [[Epenthesis|insertion]] of {{IPA|/ᵻ/}} before the {{IPA|/z/}} in the spelling -{{vr|es}}, but does not indicate the [[Voice (phonetics)|devoiced]] {{IPA|/s/}} distinctly from the unaffected {{IPA|/z/}} in the spelling -{{vr|s}}.

The abstract representation of words as indicated by the orthography can be considered advantageous since it makes etymological relationships more apparent to English readers. This makes writing English more complex, but arguably makes reading English more efficient.{{sfn|Chomsky|1970|page=294}}{{sfn|Rollings|2004|page=17}} However, very abstract underlying representations, such as that of Chomsky & Halle (1968) or of [[underspecification]] theories, are sometimes considered too abstract to accurately reflect the [[communicative competence]] of native speakers. Followers of these arguments believe the less abstract surface forms are more "psychologically real" and thus more useful in terms of [[pedagogy]].{{sfn|Rollings|2004|pages=17–19}}

== Diacritics ==
{{Main|English terms with diacritical marks}}
{{See also|British and American keyboards}}

Some English words can be written with [[diacritic]]s; these are mostly [[loanword]]s, usually from French.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thegoodlifefrance.com/common-french-words-also-common-in-english/ |title=Common French words also common in English |website=The Good Life France |date=23 November 2011 |access-date=11 April 2016}}</ref> As vocabulary becomes naturalised, there is an increasing tendency to omit the accent marks, even in formal writing. For example, ''rôle'' and ''hôtel'' originally had accents when they were borrowed into English, but now the accents are almost never used. The words were originally considered foreign—and some people considered that English alternatives were preferable—but today their foreign origin is largely forgotten. Words most likely to retain the accent are those atypical of English morphology and therefore still perceived as slightly foreign. For example, ''café'' and ''pâté'' both have a pronounced final {{vr|e}}, which would otherwise be silent under the normal English pronunciation rules. Moreover, in ''pâté'', the [[acute accent]] is helpful to distinguish it from ''pate''.

Further examples of words sometimes retaining diacritics when used in English are: ''ångström''—partly because its symbol is {{angbr|Å}}—''appliqué'', ''attaché'', ''blasé'', ''bric-à-brac'', ''Brötchen'',{{efn|Included in [[Webster's Third New International Dictionary]], 1981}} ''cliché'', ''crème'', ''crêpe'', ''fiancé(e)'', ''flambé'', ''jalapeño'', ''naïve'', ''naïveté'', ''né(e)'', ''papier-mâché'', ''passé'', ''piñata'', ''protégé'', ''résumé'', ''risqué'', and ''voilà''. [[Italic type|Italics]], with appropriate accents, are generally applied to foreign terms that are uncommonly used in or have not been assimilated into English: for example, ''{{linktext|adiós}}'', ''belles-lettres'', ''[[crème brûlée]]'', ''{{linktext|pièce de résistance}}'', ''{{linktext|raison d'être}}'', and ''{{linktext|vis-à-vis}}''.

It was formerly common in American English to use a [[Diaeresis (diacritic)|diaeresis]] to indicate a [[hiatus (linguistics)|hiatus]], e.g. ''coöperate'', ''daïs'', and ''reëlect''. ''[[The New Yorker]]'' and ''[[Technology Review]]'' magazines still use it for this purpose, even as general use became much rarer. Instead, modern orthography generally prefers no mark (''cooperate'') or a hyphen (''co-operate'') for a hiatus between two morphemes in a compound word. By contrast, use of diaereses in monomorphemic loanwords such as ''naïve'' and ''Noël'' remains relatively common.

In poetry and performance arts, accent marks are occasionally used to indicate typically unstressed syllables that should be stressed when read for dramatic or prosodic effect. This is frequently seen with the ''-ed'' suffix in archaic and pseudoarchaic writing, e.g. ''cursèd'' indicates the {{vr|e}} should be fully pronounced. The grave being to indicate that an ordinarily silent or elided syllable is pronounced (''warnèd'', ''parlìament'').

== <span class="anchor" id="æ"></span><span class="anchor" id="ae"></span><span class="anchor" id="œ"></span><span class="anchor" id="oe"></span>Ligatures ==
{{See also|American and British English spelling differences#ae and oe}}

In certain older texts (typically [[British English|British]]), the use of the [[ligature (typography)|ligatures]] {{vr|æ}} and {{vr|œ}} is common in words such as ''archæology'', ''diarrhœa'', and ''encyclopædia'', all of [[Latin]] or [[Greek language|Greek]] origin. Nowadays, the ligatures have been generally replaced by the [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] {{angbr|ae}} and {{angbr|oe}} (''encyclopaedia'', ''diarrhoea'') in British English or just {{vr|e}} (''encyclopedia'', ''diarrhea'') in [[American and British English spelling differences|American English]], though both spell some words with only {{vr|e}} (''economy'', ''ecology'') and others with {{vr|ae}} and {{vr|oe}} (''paean'', ''amoeba'', ''oedipal'', ''Caesar''). In some cases, usage may vary; for instance, both ''encyclopedia'' and ''encyclopaedia'' are current in the UK.

== Phonic irregularities ==
{{See also|English spelling reform}}

Partly because English has never had any official regulating authority for spelling, such as the Spanish {{lang|es|[[Real Academia Española]]}}, the French {{lang|fr|[[Académie française]]}}, the German ''[[Council for German Orthography]]'', the Danish ''[[Dansk Sprognævn|Sprognævn]]'', and the Thai [[Royal Society of Thailand|Royal Society]], English spelling is considered irregular and complex compared to that of other languages. Although French, Danish, and Thai, among other languages, present a similar degree of difficulty when ''encoding'' (writing), English is more difficult when ''decoding'' (reading), as there are clearly many more possible pronunciations of a group of letters. For example, in French, {{IPA|/u/}} (as in "true", but short), can be spelled {{vr|ou, ous, out, oux}} (''ou'', ''nous'', ''tout'', ''choux''), but the pronunciation of each of those sequences is always the same. However, in English, while {{IPA|/uː/}} can be spelled in up to 24 different ways, including {{vr|oo, u, ui, ue, o, oe, ou, ough}} (''spook'', ''truth'', ''suit'', ''blues'', ''to'', ''shoe'', ''group'', ''through'') (see [[#Sound-to-spelling correspondences|Sound-to-spelling correspondences]] below), all of these spellings have other pronunciations as well (e.g., ''foot'', ''us'', ''build'', ''bluest'', ''so'', ''toe'', ''grout'', ''plough'', ''sew'') Thus, in unfamiliar words and [[proper nouns]], the pronunciation of some sequences, [[Ough (orthography)|{{vr|ough}}]] being the prime example, is unpredictable even for educated native speakers.

== Spelling irregularities ==
Attempts to regularise or [[English-language spelling reform|reform the spelling]] of English have usually failed. However, [[Noah Webster]] promoted more phonetic spellings in the United States, such as ''flavor'' for British ''flavour'', ''fiber'' for ''fibre'', ''defense'' for ''defence'', ''analyze'' for ''analyse'', ''catalog'' for ''catalogue'', and so forth. These spellings already existed as alternatives, but Webster's dictionaries helped standardise them in the United States.{{sfn|Algeo|2008|page=599}} (See [[American and British English spelling differences]] for details.)

Besides the quirks the English spelling system has inherited from its past, there are other irregularities in spelling that make it tricky to learn. English contains, depending on [[dialect]], 24–27 [[consonant]] [[phoneme]]s and 13–20 [[vowel]]s. However, there are only 26 letters in the modern [[English alphabet]], so there is not a one-to-one correspondence between letters and sounds. Many sounds are spelled using different letters or multiple letters, and for those words whose pronunciation is predictable from the spelling, the sounds denoted by the letters depend on the surrounding letters. For example, {{vr|th}} represents two different sounds (the [[voiced dental fricative|voiced]] and [[voiceless dental fricative]]s) (see [[Pronunciation of English th|Pronunciation of English ''th'']]), and the [[voiceless alveolar sibilant]] can be represented by {{vr|s}} or {{vr|c}}.

It is, however, not (solely) the shortage of letters which makes English spelling irregular. Its irregularities are caused mainly by the use of many different spellings for some of its sounds, such as {{IPA|/uː/, /iː/}} and {{IPA|/oʊ/}} (''t'''oo''''', ''tr'''ue''''', ''sh'''oe''''', ''fl'''ew''''', ''thr'''ough'''''; ''sl'''ee'''ve'', ''l'''ea'''ve'', '''''e'''ven'', ''s'''ei'''ze'', ''s'''ie'''ge''; ''st'''o'''l'''e''''', ''c'''oa'''l'', ''b'''ow'''l'', ''r'''ol'''l'', '''''o'''ld'', ''m'''ou'''ld''), and the use of identical sequences for spelling different sounds ('''''ove'''r'', '''''ove'''n'', ''m'''ove''''').

Furthermore, English no longer makes any attempt to [[Anglicisation (linguistics)|anglicise]] the spellings of [[loanword]]s, but preserves the foreign spellings, even when they do not follow English spelling conventions like the [[Polish language|Polish]] {{vr|cz}} in ''Czech'' (rather than ''*Check'') or the [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] {{vr|fj}} in ''fjord'' (although ''fiord'' was formerly the most common spelling). In early Middle English, until roughly 1400, most imports from French were respelled according to English rules (e.g. ''bataille''–''battle'', ''bouton''–''button'', but not ''double'', or ''trouble''). Instead of loans being respelled to conform to English spelling standards, sometimes the pronunciation changes as a result of pressure from the spelling, e.g. ''[[ski]]'', adopted from Norwegian in the mid-18th century. It used to be pronounced {{IPA|/ʃiː/}}, similar to the Norwegian pronunciation, but the increasing popularity of the sport after the mid-20th century helped the {{IPA|/skiː/}} pronunciation replace it.{{Citation needed|date=December 2008}}

There was also a period when the spelling of a small number of words was altered to make them conform to their perceived etymological origins. For example, {{vr|b}} was added to ''debt'' (originally ''dette'') to link it to the Latin {{lang|la|debitum}}, and {{vr|s}} in ''island'' to link it to Latin {{lang|la|insula}} instead of its true origin, the Old English word ''īġland''. {{vr|p}} in ''[[Rock Ptarmigan|ptarmigan]]'' has no etymological justification whatsoever, only seeking to show Greek origin despite being a [[Goidelic languages|Gaelic]] word.

The spelling of English continues to evolve. Many loanwords come from languages where the pronunciation of vowels corresponds to the way they were pronounced in Old English, which is similar to the Italian or Spanish pronunciation of the vowels, and is the value the vowel symbols {{vr|a, e, i, o, u}} have in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]]. As a result, there is a somewhat regular system of pronouncing "foreign" words in English,{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} and some borrowed words have had their spelling changed to conform to this system. For example, ''[[Hindu]]'' used to be spelled ''Hindoo'', and the name ''Maria'' used to be pronounced like the name ''Mariah'', but was changed to conform to this system. This only further complicates the spelling, however. On the one hand, words that retained anglicised spellings may be misread in a [[Hyperforeignism|hyperforeign]] way. On the other hand, words that are respelled in a 'foreign' way may be misread as if they are English words, e.g. ''Muslim'' was formerly spelled ''Mooslim'' because of its original pronunciation.

Commercial advertisers have also had an effect on English spelling. They introduced new or simplified spellings like ''lite'' instead of ''light'', ''thru'' instead of ''through'', and ''rucsac'' instead of ''rucksack''.{{citation needed|date=February 2023}} The spellings of personal names have also been a source of spelling innovations: diminutive versions of women's names that sound the same as men's names have been spelled differently: ''Nikki'' and ''Nicky'', ''Toni'' and ''Tony'', ''Jo'' and ''Joe''. The differentiation in between names that are spelled differently but have the same phonetic sound may come from modernisation or different countries of origin. For example, ''Isabelle'' and ''Isabel'' sound the same but are spelled differently; these versions are from France and Spain respectively.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/pamela-redmond-satran/theres-more-than-one-righ_b_780249.html |title=There's More Than One Right Way to Spell Some Names |last=Satran |first=Pamela Redmond |date=8 November 2010 |website=HuffPost |access-date=18 November 2019 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203134724/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/pamela-redmond-satran/theres-more-than-one-righ_b_780249.html |archive-date= Feb 3, 2017 }}</ref>

As an example of the irregular nature of English spelling, {{vr|ou}} can be pronounced at least nine different ways: {{IPA|/aʊ/}} in ''out'', {{IPA|/oʊ/}} in ''soul'', {{IPAslink|uː}} in ''soup'', {{IPAslink|ʌ}} in ''touch'', {{IPAslink|ʊ}} in ''could'', {{IPAslink|ɔː}} in ''four'', {{IPAslink|ɜː}} in ''journal'', {{IPAslink|ɒ}} in ''cough'', and {{IPAslink|ə}} in ''famous'' (See [[#Spelling-to-sound correspondences|Spelling-to-sound correspondences]]). In the other direction, {{IPAslink|iː}} can be spelled in at least 18~21 different ways: ''b'''e''''' (''c'''e'''d'''e'''''), ''sk'''i''''' (''mach'''i'''n'''e'''''), ''bologn'''a'''''&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, ''alg'''ae''''', ''qu'''ay''''', ''b'''ea'''ch'', ''b'''ee''''', ''dec'''ei'''t'', ''p'''eo'''ple'', ''k'''ey''''', ''k'''eye'''d'', ''f'''ie'''ld'' (''hyg'''ie'''n'''e'''''), ''am'''oe'''ba'', ''cham'''oi'''s''&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, ''deng'''ue'''''&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, ''beg'''ui'''ne'', ''g'''uy'''ot'', and '''''y'''nambu''<!-- I am aware that 'ynambu' is not a very common word and may be unfamiliar to some, but it is the best example I was able to find of the top of my head ('city,' 'busy,' etc. are good examples only for American English) --> (See [[#Sound-to-spelling correspondences|Sound-to-spelling correspondences]]). (These examples assume a more-or-less standard non-regional British English accent. Other accents will vary.)

Sometimes everyday speakers of English change counterintuitive spellings, with the new spellings usually not judged to be entirely correct. However, such forms may gain acceptance if used enough. An example is the word ''miniscule'', which still competes with its original spelling of ''minuscule'', though this might also be because of [[Analogy#Linguistics|analogy]] with the word ''mini''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/spelling/minuscule-or-miniscule|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170211160314/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/spelling/minuscule-or-miniscule|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 February 2017 |title=Minuscule or miniscule? |website=Oxford Dictionaries |access-date=11 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=minuscule |title=minuscule (n.) |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |access-date=11 April 2016}}</ref>

=== History ===
Inconsistencies and irregularities in English pronunciation and spelling have gradually increased in number throughout the [[history of the English language]]. There are a number of contributing factors. First, gradual changes in pronunciation, such as the [[Great Vowel Shift]], account for a tremendous number of irregularities. Second, more recent [[loan word]]s generally carry their original spellings, which are often not [[phonetics|phonetic]] in English; this includes [[romanized]] words from languages written using non-Latin scripts.

The regular spelling system of [[Old English language|Old English]] was swept away by the [[Norman Conquest]], and English itself was supplanted in some spheres by [[Norman French]] for three centuries, eventually emerging with its spelling much influenced by French. English had also borrowed large numbers of words from French, and kept their French spellings. The spelling of [[Middle English]] is very irregular and inconsistent, with the same word being spelled in different ways, sometimes even in the same sentence. However, these were generally much better guides to the then-pronunciation than modern English spelling is.{{opinion|date=September 2024}}

For example, {{IPAslink|ʌ}}, normally written {{vr|u}}, is spelled with an {{vr|o}} in ''one'', ''some'', ''love'', etc., due to Norman spelling conventions which prohibited writing {{vr|u}} before {{vr|m, n, v}} due to the graphical confusion that would result. ({{vr|n, u, v}} were written identically with two [[minim (palaeography)|minims]] in Norman handwriting; {{vr|w}} was written as two {{vr|u}} letters; {{vr|m}} was written with three minims, hence {{vr|mm}} looked like {{vr|vun, nvu, uvu}}, etc.). Similarly, spelling conventions also prohibited final {{vr|v}}. Hence the identical spellings of the three different vowel sounds in ''love'', ''move'', and ''cove'' are due to ambiguity in the [[Middle English]] spelling system, not sound change.

In 1417, [[Henry V of England|Henry V]] began using English, which had no standardised spelling, for official correspondence instead of Latin or French which had standardised spelling, e.g. Latin had one spelling for ''right'' (''rectus''), Old French as used in English law had six and Middle English had 77. This motivated writers to standardise English spelling, an effort which lasted about 500 years.{{sfn|Stamper|2017||pages=38–39}}

There was also a series of linguistic sound changes towards the end of this period, including the [[Great Vowel Shift]], which resulted in the {{vr|a}} in ''make'', for example, changing from a pure vowel to a diphthong. These changes for the most part did not detract from the rule-governed nature of the spelling system; but, in some cases, they introduced confusing inconsistencies, like the well-known example of the many pronunciations of {{vr|ough}} (''tough'', ''through'', ''though'', ''cough'', ''plough'', etc.). Most of these changes happened before the arrival of printing in England. However, the arrival of the modern printing press in 1476 froze the current system, rather than providing the impetus for a realignment of spelling with pronunciation.{{sfn|Okrent|2021}} Furthermore, it introduced further inconsistencies, partly because of the use of typesetters trained abroad, particularly in the [[Low Countries]]. For example, the {{angbr|h}} in ''ghost'' was influenced by [[Flemish dialects|Flemish]].{{sfn|Okrent|2021}}{{sfn|Wolman|2008}} The addition and deletion of a silent ''e'' at the ends of words was also sometimes used to make the right-hand margin line up more neatly.{{sfn|Wolman|2008}}

By the time [[dictionaries]] were introduced in the mid-17th century, the spelling system of English had started to stabilise. By the 19th century, most words had set spellings, though it took some time before they diffused throughout the English-speaking world. In ''[[The Mill on the Floss]]'' (1860), English novelist [[George Eliot]] satirised the attitude of the English rural gentry of the 1820s towards orthography:

{{blockquote|Mr. Tulliver did not willingly write a letter, and found the relation between spoken and written language, briefly known as spelling, one of the most puzzling things in this puzzling world. Nevertheless, like all fervid writing, the task was done in less time than usual, and if the spelling differed from Mrs. Glegg's,–why, she belonged, like himself, to a generation with whom spelling was a matter of private judgment.}}

The modern English spelling system, with its national variants, spread together with the expansion of public education later in the 19th century.

=== ⟨ough⟩ words ===
{{Main|Ough (tetragraph)}}

The [[tetragraph]] {{vr|ough}} can be pronounced in at least ten different ways, six of which are illustrated in the construct, ''Though the tough cough and hiccough plough him through'', which is quoted by [[Robert A. Heinlein]] in ''[[The Door into Summer]]'' to illustrate the difficulties facing automated speech transcription and reading. ''Ough'' itself is a word, an exclamation of disgust similar to ''ugh'', though rarely known or used. The following are typical pronunciations of this string of letters:

* {{IPAc-en|oʊ}} (as in ''s'''o''''') in ''though'' and ''dough''
* {{IPAc-en|ʌ|f}} (as in ''c'''uff''''') in ''tough'', ''rough'', ''enough'', and the name ''Hough''
* {{IPAc-en|ɒ|f}} (as in '''''off''''') in ''trough'', ''cough'', and ''Gough''
* {{IPAc-en|uː}} (as in ''bl'''ue''''') in ''through''
* {{IPAc-en|ɔː}} (as in ''s'''aw''''') in ''thought'', ''ought'', ''sought'', ''nought'', ''brought'', etc.
* {{IPAc-en|ə}} (as in ''comm'''a''''') in ''thorough'', ''borough'', and names ending in ''-borough''; however, American English pronounces this as {{IPAc-en|oʊ}}
* {{IPAc-en|aʊ}} (as in ''h'''ow''''') in ''bough'', ''sough'', ''drought'', ''plough'' (''plow'' in North America), ''doughty'', and the names ''Slough'' and ''Doughty''
* {{IPAc-en|ɒ|x}} (as in ''l'''och'''''; mainly in words of [[Goidelic languages|Gaelic origin]]) in the word ''lough'' (an anglicised variant of ''[[loch]]'' used in Ireland) and in Irish [[Toponymy|place names]], such as ''[[Ardclough]]'', ''[[Glendalough]]'', ''[[Loughmore|Loughmoe]]'', ''[[Loughrea]]'', etc.

The following pronunciations are found in uncommon single words:
* ''hough'': {{IPAc-en|ɒ|k}} (more commonly spelled "hock" now)
* ''hiccough'' (a now-uncommon variant of ''hiccup''): {{IPAc-en|ʌ|p}} as in '''''up'''''
* ''[[Oughter Ard|Oughterard]]'' (Irish place name): {{IPAc-en|u:|x}}
The place name [[Loughborough]] uses two different pronunciations of {{vr|ough}}: the first {{vr|ough}} has the sound as in ''c'''uff''''' and the second rhymes with ''thor'''ough'''''.

== Spelling-to-sound correspondences ==
{{more sources needed section|date=January 2025}}
{{See also|Help:IPA/English}}

'''Notes''':
* In the tables, the hyphen has two different meanings. A hyphen after the letter indicates that it ''must'' be at the beginning of a ''syllable'', e.g., {{vr|j}}- in jumper and ajar. A hyphen before the letter indicates that it ''cannot'' be at the beginning of a ''word'', e.g., -{{vr|ck}} in sick and ticket.
* More specific rules take precedence over more general ones, e.g., "{{vr|c}}- before {{vr|e, i, y}}" takes precedence over "{{vr|c}}".
* Where the letter combination is described as "word-final", [[inflection]]al suffixes may be added without changing the pronunciation, e.g., catalogue'''s'''.
* The dialects used are [[Received Pronunciation]] and [[General American]]. When pronunciations differ idiosyncratically, a pronunciation that only applies to one of the dialects is noted as being (RP) or (GA). When pronunciations differ systematically in a way that is not accounted for by the diaphonemic transcription system (i.e. the [[Trap–bath split|''trap''-''bath'']] and [[Lot-cloth split|''lot''-''cloth'']] splits), the pronunciations in both dialects are given.
* Isolated foreign borrowings are excluded.

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan=2 | Spelling || Major value<br />([[Help:IPA/English|IPA]]) || Examples of major value || Other values || Examples of other values
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''b''', '''bb'''
| morpheme final after {{vr|m}} || ∅ || clim'''b'''er, num'''b'''ing, bom'''b'''ed || {{IPAc-en|b}} || lam'''b''', nim'''b'''
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|b}} || '''b'''it, e'''bb''', lim'''b'''er, '''b'''om'''b'''e, o'''b'''tain, '''b'''lood, '''b'''ring|| ∅ || com'''b'''e, '''b'''dellium, de'''b'''tor, dou'''b'''t
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''c''' || before {{vr|e, i, y, ae, oe}} || {{IPAc-en|s}} || '''c'''ellar, '''c'''ity, '''c'''yst, <br />fa'''c'''e, prin'''c'''e, ni'''c'''er<br />'''c'''aesium, '''c'''oelacanth || {{IPAc-en|tʃ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ʃ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ʒ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|k}}<br />{{IPAc-en|t|s}} || '''c'''ello, vermi'''c'''elli<br />spe'''c'''ial, liquori'''c'''e<br />coer'''c'''ion<br />'''C'''elts, chi'''c'''er, syn'''c'''ing<br />letovi'''c'''ite
|-
| word initial before {{vr|n, t}} || ∅ || '''c'''nidarian, '''c'''tenoid || ||
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|k}} || '''c'''at, '''c'''ross, predi'''c'''t, opus'''c'''ule, pi'''c'''ture || ∅ || blan'''c'''mange, indi'''c'''t, mus'''c'''le, vi'''c'''tual
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''cc''' || before {{vr|e, i, y}} || {{IPAc-en|k|s}} || a'''cc'''ept, e'''cc'''entric, o'''cc'''idental || {{IPAc-en|k}}<br />{{IPAc-en|tʃ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|s}} || so'''cc'''er, re'''cc'''e, si'''cc'''ing<br />bo'''cc'''e, bre'''cc'''ia, cappu'''cc'''ino<br />fla'''cc'''id
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|k}} || a'''cc'''ount, a'''cc'''rue, o'''cc'''ur, yu'''cc'''a || ||
|-
| rowspan="4" |'''ch'''
| after {{vr|n}} || {{IPAc-en|(|t|)|ʃ}} || bran'''ch''', trun'''ch'''eon, fran'''ch'''ise, tren'''ch'''ant || {{IPAc-en|k}} <br /> {{IPAc-en|tʃ}} <br /> {{IPAc-en|ʃ}}|| in'''ch'''oate, syn'''ch'''ronise, elasmobran'''ch''' <br /> en'''ch'''ant, en'''ch'''ilada, chin'''ch'''illa <br /> pen'''ch'''ant
|-
| in words of Greek origin || {{IPAc-en|k}} || '''ch'''asm, '''ch'''imera, '''ch'''ord, li'''ch'''en || ∅ || dra'''ch'''m
|-
| in words of Modern French origin || {{IPAc-en|ʃ}} || '''ch'''aise, ma'''ch'''ine, ca'''ch'''ed, para'''ch'''ute || {{IPAc-en|k}}<br />{{IPAc-en|tʃ}} || '''ch'''emist, '''ch'''oir, ma'''ch'''ination<br />'''ch'''assis&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, '''ch'''eque, '''ch'''owder, ni'''ch'''e&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|tʃ}} || '''ch'''ase, '''ch'''in, atta'''ch'''ed, '''ch'''ore || {{IPAc-en|k}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ʃ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|h}}<br />{{IPAc-en|dʒ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|x}}<br />∅ || a'''ch'''ed, an'''ch'''or, lepre'''ch'''aun <br />ma'''ch'''ete, pista'''ch'''io, wel'''ch'''<br />'''ch'''utzpah (also with {{IPAc-en|x}}) <br /> sandwi'''ch''', Greenwi'''ch'''<br /> lo'''ch'''<br />ya'''ch'''t, Cri'''ch'''ton
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ck''' || {{IPAc-en|k}} || ta'''ck''', ti'''ck'''et || ||
|-
| colspan=2 | '''d''', '''dd''', '''dh'''|| {{IPAc-en|d}} || '''d'''ive, la'''dd'''er, jo'''dh'''purs || {{IPAc-en|t}}<br />{{IPAc-en|dʒ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ð}}<br />∅ || ache'''d''', crease'''d''', ice'''d''', puffe'''d''', rake'''d'''<br />gra'''d'''uate, gra'''d'''ual (both also {{IPAc-en|dj}} in RP)<br />gorse'''dd''', e'''dh'''<br />We'''d'''nesday, han'''d'''some, san'''d'''wich, ceili'''dh'''
|-
| '''dg'''
|before {{vr|e, i, y}} or a suffix|| {{IPAc-en|dʒ}} || lo'''dg'''er, pi'''dg'''in, e'''dg'''y, abri'''dg'''ment, acknowle'''dg'''ment, ju'''dg'''ment, lo'''dg'''ment, fle'''dg'''ling|| {{IPAc-en|d|ɡ}} || hea'''dg'''ear
|-
| colspan=2 | '''f''', '''ff'''|| {{IPAc-en|f}} || '''f'''ine, o'''ff''', a'''ff'''inity || {{IPAc-en|v}}
| o'''f'''
|-
| rowspan="3" | '''g''' || before {{vr|e, i, y, ae, oe}} || {{IPAc-en|ɡ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|dʒ}} || '''g'''et, ea'''g'''er, al'''g'''ae&nbsp;<small>([[Received Pronunciation|RP]])</small>, '''g'''ig <br />'''g'''el, pa'''g'''er, al'''g'''ae&nbsp;<small>([[General American|GA]])</small>, '''g'''in <br />'''g'''entle, ra'''g'''e, '''g'''igantic, re'''g'''imen|| {{IPAc-en|ʒ}} || '''g'''enre, barra'''g'''e, '''g'''igue, re'''g'''ime
|-
| before {{vr|m, n}} || ∅ || phle'''g'''my, diaphra'''g'''m<br />'''g'''nome, si'''g'''ned, poi'''g'''nant, rei'''g'''n || {{IPAc-en|ɡ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ʒ}}|| pi'''g'''my, si'''g'''net, indi'''g'''nant<br />jud'''g'''ment
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|ɡ}} || '''g'''o, '''g'''reat, le'''g''', mar'''g'''aric || {{IPAc-en|dʒ}} <br /> {{IPAc-en|x}} || mar'''g'''arine, '''g'''aol <br /> wit'''g'''at
|-
| colspan=2 | '''gg''' || {{IPAc-en|ɡ}} || da'''gg'''er, smu'''gg'''est, sta'''gg'''ering || {{IPAc-en|dʒ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ɡ|dʒ}} || a'''gg'''er, su'''gg'''est, exa'''gg'''erate<br />su'''gg'''est&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>{{efn-lr|According to the ''Longman Pronunciation Dictionary'', 77% of Americans pronounce "suggest" as {{IPAc-en|s|ə|ɡ|ˈ|dʒ|ɛ|s|t}}.{{sfn|Wells|2008}}}}
|-
| rowspan=2 | '''gh''' || word-initial || {{IPAc-en|ɡ}} || '''gh'''ost, '''gh'''astly, '''gh'''etto || ||
|-
| elsewhere || ∅ || dau'''gh'''ter, throu'''gh''', frau'''gh'''t, brou'''gh'''am<br />ei'''gh'''t, hi'''gh'''er, strai'''gh'''t, si'''gh'''ed || {{IPAc-en|ə}} {{IPAc-en|oʊ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|x}} {{IPAc-en|k}}<br />{{IPAc-en|k}}<br />{{IPAc-en|f}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ɡ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ɡ|h}}<br />{{IPAc-en|p}} || bur'''gh'''<br /> lou'''gh''', sau'''gh'''<br />hou'''gh'''<br />lau'''gh'''ter, trou'''gh''', drau'''gh'''t, rou'''gh'''<br /> bur'''gh'''er, o'''gh'''am, yo'''gh'''<br />le'''gh'''orn, pi'''gh'''eaded<br /> hiccou'''gh'''
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''h'''
| word-final or after {{vr|r, ex}} || ∅ || o'''h''', r'''h'''ubarb, r'''h'''yme, ex'''h'''ibit, ex'''h'''aust || {{IPAc-en|h}}<br />{{IPAc-en|tʃ}} || ex'''h'''ale, ex'''h'''ume (in RP)<br />[[Hyperbolic sine|sin'''h''']]
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|h}} || '''h'''oney, '''h'''eist, '''h'''ouse, man'''h'''andle<br />doo'''h'''ickey, ve'''h'''icular ||j w ∅ || post'''h'''umous (in RP) Na'''h'''uatl '''h'''onest, '''h'''eir, '''h'''ours, piran'''h'''a<br />anni'''h'''ilate, ve'''h'''icle, ding'''h'''y
|-
| colspan=2 | '''j''' || {{IPAc-en|dʒ}} || '''j'''ump, a'''j'''ar<br />'''j'''onquil, '''J'''ulian<br />'''j'''alap, ca'''j'''ole<br />bi'''j'''ugate || {{IPAc-en|j}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ʒ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|h}}<br />∅ || Hallelu'''j'''ah, f'''j'''ord<br />'''j'''ongleur, '''j'''ulienne, bi'''j'''ou<br />'''j'''alapeno, fa'''j'''ita<br />mari'''j'''uana
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''k''', '''kk''', '''kh'''
| word-initial before {{vr|n}} || ∅ || '''k'''nee, '''k'''nife, '''k'''nock || {{IPAc-en|k}} || '''k'''nish, '''K'''noebel
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|k}} || '''k'''ey, ba'''k'''e, tre'''kk'''ing, shei'''kh''', wee'''k'''night || ∅ || be'''k'''nave, cami'''k'''nickers
|-
| colspan=2 | '''l''', '''ll'''|| {{IPAc-en|l}} || va'''l'''ve, ba'''l'''cony, a'''l'''most, va'''ll'''ey, floti'''ll'''a, '''l'''ine, co'''l'''ony|| ∅<br />{{IPAc-en|j}}<br />{{IPAc-en|r}}<!-- <br />{{IPAc-en|lə}} -->|| ha'''l'''ve, ba'''l'''k, sa'''l'''mon<br />torti'''ll'''a<br />co'''l'''onel&nbsp;<small>(in rhotic accents)</small><br /><!-- '''l'''wei is is an isolated loanword to my knowledge -->
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''m''', '''mm'''
| word-initial before {{vr|n}} || ∅ || '''m'''nemonic || ||
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|m}} || '''m'''ine, ha'''mm'''er || ||
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''n''', '''nn'''
| word-final after {{vr|m}} || ∅ || hym'''n''', autum'''n''', dam'''n'''ingly || ||
|-
| before {{IPAc-en|k|,_|g}}|| {{IPAc-en|ŋ}} || i'''n'''kling, ba'''n'''gle, a'''n'''chor, mi'''n'''x || {{IPAc-en|n}} || i'''n'''cline, va'''n'''guard, ma'''n'''kind
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|n}} || '''n'''ice, fu'''nn'''y, e'''n'''zyme<br />mo'''n'''signor, dam'''n'''able, ti'''n'''||{{IPAc-en|ŋ}} <br /> ∅ || a'''n'''xiety <br /> mo'''n'''sieur
|-
| rowspan=3 | '''ng''' || word-final non-silent letter || {{IPAc-en|ŋ}} || lo'''ng''', to'''ng'''ue, ki'''ng'''ly, si'''ng'''er, cli'''ng'''y || {{IPAc-en|ŋ|ɡ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|n|dʒ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ŋ|(|k|)}} || lo'''ng'''er, stro'''ng'''est<br />sti'''ng'''y (''ungenerous'')<!--derived from "sting"--><br />stre'''ng'''th, amo'''ng'''st
|-
| medially otherwise || {{IPAc-en|ŋ|ɡ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|n|dʒ}}|| co'''ng'''ress, si'''ng'''ly, fi'''ng'''er, la'''ng'''uage<br />bi'''ng'''ing, wharfi'''ng'''er, di'''ng'''y, e'''ng'''aol ||{{IPAc-en|n|ɡ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ŋ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|n|ʒ}}||co'''ng'''rats, e'''ng'''age, va'''ng'''uard<br />ha'''ng'''ar, li'''ng'''onberry, a'''ng'''st <!-- 'Tongue' is not a good example, because the 'ng' sound is medial only orthographically --> <br />i'''ng'''enue, li'''ng'''erie
|-
| word-initial || {{IPAc-en|ə|ŋ|ɡ}}|| '''ng'''ana, '''ng'''ultrum, '''Ng'''uni ||{{IPAc-en|n}}|| '''ng'''aio, '''Ng'''ati
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''p''', '''pp'''
| word-initial before {{vr|n, s, t}} || ∅ || '''p'''neumonia, '''p'''syche, '''p'''tomaine || {{IPAc-en|p}} || '''p'''sst
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|p}} || '''p'''ill, ha'''pp'''y, sou'''p''', cor'''p'''se, scri'''p'''t || ∅ || cou'''p''', cor'''p'''s, recei'''p'''t, ras'''p'''berry
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ph''', '''pph'''|| {{IPAc-en|f}} || '''ph'''otogra'''ph''', sa'''pph'''ire || {{IPAc-en|v}}<br />{{IPAc-en|p}}<br />{{IPAc-en|p|h}}<br />∅ ||Ste'''ph'''en<br />she'''ph'''erd, <br />kni'''ph'''ofia, dro'''ph'''ead<br />apo'''ph'''thegm
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''q'''
|in words of Chinese origin || {{IPAc-en|tʃ}} || '''q'''i, '''q'''igong, gu'''q'''in || ||
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|k}}|| Ira'''q''', wa'''q'''f, ya'''q'''ona, mba'''q'''anga, '''q'''iviut || ||
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''r''', '''rr''', '''rh''', '''rrh'''
|
* before a consonant
* finally
* before final {{vr|e}}
| {{IPAc-en|r}}, ∅ in [[non-rhotic]] || ca'''r'''t, hu'''r'''t<br />fi'''r''', walke'''r''', tea'''r''', bu'''rr''', my'''rrh'''<br />ca'''r'''e|| ∅ || sa'''r'''saparilla, fo'''r'''ecastle
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|r}}|| '''r'''ay, pa'''rr'''ot, '''rh'''yme, dia'''rrh'''oea || ∅ || i'''r'''on<!-- According to Longman {{IPAc-en|aɪən}} in RP, {{IPAc-en|aɪərn}} in GA. In neither is there an {{IPAc-en|r}} between the vowels-->, c'''r'''oissant&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small><!-- {{IPAc-en|k|wæ..}}, some British dictionaries suggest American pronunciation is {{IPAc-en|k|wɑː..}} but American dictionaries include the {{IPAc-en|r}}-->, hors d'oeuv'''r'''e (some pronunciations)
|-
|colspan="6"| See [[#Combinations of vowel letters and ⟨r⟩|below]] for combinations of vowel letters and {{Vr|r}}
|-
| rowspan="4" |'''s'''
| word-final -{{vr|s}} [[morpheme]]<br />after a [[Fortis and lenis|fortis]] sound || {{IPAc-en|s}} || pet'''s''', shop'''s''' || ||
|-
| word-final -{{vr|s}} morpheme<br />after a [[lenis]] sound || {{IPAc-en|z}} || bed'''s''', magaz|ine'''s''' || ||
|-
| between vowels || {{IPAc-en|z}} || phra'''s'''es, pri'''s'''on, plea'''s'''ing || {{IPAc-en|s}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ʒ}}
| ba'''s'''es, bi'''s'''on, lea'''s'''ing<!-- is there really a rule here?--><br />vi'''s'''ion, clo'''s'''ure
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|s}} || '''s'''ong, a'''s'''k, mi'''s'''led || {{IPAc-en|z}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ʃ}}<br />∅ || i'''s''', len'''s''', ra'''s'''pberry<br />'''s'''ugar, ten'''s'''ion<br />i'''s'''land, ai'''s'''le, debri'''s''', me'''s'''ne
|-
| '''sc'''
|before {{vr|e, i, y}}|| {{IPAc-en|s}} || '''sc'''ene, '''sc'''epter, '''sc'''issors, '''sc'''ythe || {{IPAc-en|s|k}} <br />{{IPAc-en|ʃ}} <br />{{IPAc-en|z}}|| '''sc'''eptic, '''sc'''irrhus<br /> fa'''sc'''ism<br /> cre'''sc'''ent&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, di'''sc'''ern
|-
| colspan=2 | '''sch''' || {{IPAc-en|ʃ}} || '''sch'''edule&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, '''sch'''ist, e'''sch'''alot || {{IPAc-en|s|k}} <br />{{IPAc-en|s}}<br />{{IPAc-en|s|_|tʃ}} || '''sch'''ool, '''sch'''eme, <br />'''sch'''izoid,<br />i'''sch'''emia, e'''sch'''ar<br /> '''sch'''ism&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small><br />mi'''sch'''ief, e'''sch'''ew
|-
| colspan=2 | '''sh''' || {{IPAc-en|ʃ}} || '''sh'''in, fa'''sh'''ion, wi'''sh''', <br />Lewi'''sh'''am, fore'''sh'''ore, kin'''sh'''ip || {{IPAc-en|s|_|h}}<br /> {{IPAc-en|z|_|h}}<br />{{IPAc-en|s|_|ʃ}}<br /> {{IPAc-en|ʃ|_|h}}<br /> {{IPAc-en|s}} || mi'''sh'''ap, mi'''sh'''it<br />hog'''sh'''ead<br />tran'''sh'''ip<br />thre'''sh'''old<br />di'''sh'''onour
|-
| colspan=2 | '''ss''' || {{IPAc-en|s}} || bo'''ss''', a'''ss'''ign, narci'''ss'''us<br />di'''ss'''ert, po'''ss'''es, bra'''ss'''ier, <br />fine'''ss'''e, ce'''ss'''pool, mi'''ss'''out ||{{IPAc-en|ʃ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ʒ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|z}}<br />{{IPAc-en|s|_|s}} || ti'''ss'''ue, pa'''ss'''ion<br />resci'''ss'''ion, sci'''ss'''ure<br />de'''ss'''ert, po'''ss'''ess, bra'''ss'''iere, sci'''ss'''or<br />di'''ss'''eat, mi'''ss'''pell, mi'''ss'''ort
|-
| colspan=2 | '''sw''' || {{IPAc-en|s|w}} || '''sw'''ore, '''sw'''an, '''sw'''ift || {{IPAc-en|s}}<br />{{IPAc-en|z|w}}<br />∅ ||
'''sw'''ord, an'''sw'''er<br />men'''sw'''ear<br /> cox'''sw'''ain
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''t''', '''tt'''
| in -{{vr|sten, stle}} || ∅ || has'''t'''en, lis'''t'''ens, rus'''t'''ling, this'''t'''les || {{IPAc-en|t}} || tungs'''t'''en, lis'''t'''less
<!-- the unstressed -ften rule was for two words (soften, often), while a quarter of the people in the UK and the US pronounce "often" with a T. Seemed too specific-->
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|t}} || '''t'''en, bi'''tt'''er, e'''t'''iology,<br />nas'''t'''ier, a'''tt'''une, pi'''t'''eous,<br />ca'''t'''ion,<br />sof'''t'''er, walle'''t''', gris'''t'''mill,<br />has'''t'''e, dishear'''t'''en|| {{IPAc-en|ʃ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|tʃ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ʒ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|d}}<br />{{IPAc-en|θ}}<br />∅
| ra'''t'''ion, mar'''t'''ial, cau'''t'''ious<br />bas'''t'''ion, na'''t'''ure, for'''t'''une, righ'''t'''eous<br />equa'''t'''ion, transi'''t'''ion&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small><br />kindergar'''t'''en&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small><br />[[Hyperbolic tangent|'''t'''anh]]<br />sof'''t'''en, balle'''t''', Chris'''t'''mas, mor'''t'''gage
|-
| colspan=2 | '''tch''' || {{IPAc-en|tʃ}} || ba'''tch''', ki'''tch'''en || ||
|-
| colspan=2 | '''[[Pronunciation of English th|th]]''' || {{IPAc-en|θ}} <br />{{IPAc-en|ð}} || absin'''th'''e<br />bo'''th'''er, soo'''th'''e || {{IPAc-en|t}} <br />{{IPAc-en|t|θ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|t|h}}<br />{{IPAc-en|tʃ}}<br />∅<br /> || '''th'''yme<br /> eigh'''th'''<br />ou'''th'''ouse, po'''th'''erb&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small><br />pos'''th'''umous&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small><br />as'''th'''ma

|-
| colspan=2 | '''v''', '''vv'''|| {{IPAc-en|v}} || '''v'''ine, hea'''v'''y, sa'''vv'''y, re'''v'''eled, re'''vv'''ed || ||
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''w'''
| before {{vr|r}}|| ∅{{efn-lr|{{IPAc-en|w}} in [[Scottish English]].}} || '''wr'''ong, '''wr'''ist, a'''wr'''y || ||
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|w}} || s'''w'''ard, s'''w'''erve, '''w'''ale ||∅<br />{{IPAc-en|v}} || t'''w'''o, s'''w'''ord, ans'''w'''er, gun'''w'''ale<br />'''W'''eltanschauung, '''w'''itgat
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''wh'''-
|before {{Vr|o}}|| {{IPAc-en|h}} || '''wh'''o, '''wh'''ole || {{IPAc-en|w}}{{efn-lr|name="hw"}}|| '''wh'''opping, '''wh'''orl
|-
|elsewhere|| {{IPAc-en|w}}{{efn-lr|name="hw"|Or {{IPAc-en|hw}} in Scottish English, Hiberno-English, Southern American English and, less commonly, other variations (including RP).}}|| '''wh'''eel || {{IPAc-en|f}} || '''wh'''ew&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, '''wh'''anau<!-- proper, and foreign, name:, '''Wh'''angarei -->
|-
| rowspan=4 | '''x''' || word-initial || {{IPAc-en|z}} || '''x'''ylophone, '''x'''enon, '''x'''enophobia || {{IPAc-en|ɪ|g|z}} || '''X'''avier
|-
| after {{vr|e}}-, and before a vowel || {{IPAc-en|ɡ|z}} || e'''x'''ample, e'''x'''ist, e'''x'''otic, e'''x'''ult<br /> e'''x'''istential, e'''x'''ultation, e'''x'''it{{efn-lr|About half of both British and American speakers say {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɛ|k|s|ɪ|t}}, the other half says {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɛ|ɡ|z|ɪ|t}}.{{sfn|Wells|2008}}}}|| {{IPAc-en|k|s}}<br />{{IPAc-en|z}} || e'''x'''ogenous, e'''x'''ercise
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|k|s}} || bo'''x'''es, mi'''x'''es, e'''x'''pect, ta'''x'''ation, tu'''x'''edo, pro'''x'''imity, <br />jin'''x'''ed, ne'''x'''t, si'''x''', ta'''x'''i || {{IPAc-en|ɡ|z}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ɡ|ʒ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|k|ʃ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|z}}<br />∅ || Ale'''x'''ander, au'''x'''iliary<br /> lu'''x'''ury&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>{{efn-lr|name=luxury|Nearly 80% of Americans pronounce ''luxurious'' with {{IPAc-en|ɡ|ʒ}}, while two thirds of British people use {{IPAc-en|k|ʒ}}. Half the American speakers pronounce ''luxury'' as {{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ʌ|ɡ|ʒ|ər|i}}, the rest says {{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ʌ|k|ʃ|ər|i}}.{{sfn|Wells|2008}}}} an'''x'''iety <br />an'''x'''ious, lu'''x'''ury, se'''x'''ual&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small> lu'''x'''urious{{efn-lr|name=luxury}} <br />plateau'''x''', chateau'''x'''<br />fau'''x'''-pas, rou'''x'''
|- 
| in words of Chinese or Mesoamerican origin || {{IPAc-en|ʃ}} || '''x'''iangqi, '''x'''oloitzcuintle ||
|-
| '''xc'''
|before {{vr|e, i}}|| {{IPAc-en|k|s}} || e'''xc'''ellent, e'''xc'''ept, e'''xc'''ited || ||
|-
| colspan=2 | '''xh'''|| {{IPAc-en|k|sh}} ||e'''xh'''ale, e'''xh'''ume, fo'''xh'''ole || {{IPAc-en|k|s}}<br />{{IPAc-en|g|z}}|| e'''xh'''ibition, Vau'''xh'''all<br />e'''xh'''aust, e'''xh'''ibit<br />e'''xh'''ilarating, e'''xh'''ortation
|-
| colspan=2 | '''y'''- || {{IPAc-en|j}}|| '''y'''es, '''y'''oung || {{IPAc-en|ð}} || '''y'''e&nbsp;<small>(mock archaic)</small>
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''z''', '''zz'''
| after {{vr|t}} || {{IPAc-en|s}} || walt'''z''', dit'''z'''y, pret'''z'''el, t'''z'''at'''z'''iki || {{IPAc-en|z}} || t'''z'''ar
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|z}} || ga'''z'''ump, sei'''z'''ed, cra'''z'''ier,<br /> rhi'''z'''oophagous, pi'''zz'''a'''zz''',<br />'''z'''oo, qui'''z''' || {{IPAc-en|ʒ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|t|s}}<br /> {{IPAc-en|d|z}} <br />∅ || a'''z'''ure, sei'''z'''ure, bra'''z'''ier&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small><br />schi'''z'''ophrenic, pi'''zz'''as<br /> jiao'''z'''i <br />rende'''z'''vous
|-
|}
{{notelist-lr}}

=== Vowels ===
In a [[generative linguistics|generative]] approach to English spelling, Rollings (2004) identifies twenty main orthographic vowels of [[Stress (linguistics)|stressed]] syllables that are grouped into four main categories: "Lax", "Tense", "Heavy", "Tense-R".

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
! rowspan="2" | Letter
! colspan="2" |Lax
! colspan="2" |Tense
! colspan="2" |Heavy
! colspan="2" |Tense-R
|-
!IPA
!example
!IPA
!example
!IPA
!example
!IPA
!example
|-
! a
|{{IPAc-en|æ}}
|man
|{{IPAc-en|eɪ}}
|mane
|{{IPAc-en|ɑːr}}
|mar
|{{IPAc-en|ɛər}}
|mare
|-
! e
|{{IPAc-en|ɛ}}
|met
|{{IPAc-en|iː}}
|mete
|{{IPAc-en|ɜːr}}
|her
|{{IPAc-en|ɪər}}
|here
|-
! i
|{{IPAc-en|ɪ}}
|win
|{{IPAc-en|aɪ}}
|wine
|{{IPAc-en|ɜːr}}
|fir
|{{IPAc-en|aɪər}}
|fire
|-
! o
|{{IPAc-en|ɒ}}
|mop
|{{IPAc-en|oʊ}}
|mope
|{{IPAc-en|ɔːr}}
|for{{efn-lr|name=o-heavy-tense-r|no distinction between heavy and tense-r {{vr|o}} in most varieties of English (see [[horse–hoarse merger]]).}}
|{{IPAc-en|ɔːr}}
|fore{{efn-lr|name=o-heavy-tense-r}}
|-
! rowspan="2" | u
|{{IPAc-en|ʌ}}
|hug
|{{IPAc-en|juː}}
|huge
|{{IPAc-en|ɜːr}}
|cur
|{{IPAc-en|j|ʊər}}
|cure
|-
|{{IPAc-en|ʊ}}
|push
|{{IPAc-en|uː}}
|rude
| colspan="2" |{{efn-lr|name=u-heavy|{{vr|u}} in the {{IPAc-en|ʊ|,_|uː|,_|ʊər}} pattern does not have a heavy vowel.}}
|{{IPAc-en|ʊər}}
|sure
|}
{{notelist-lr}}
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"
|-
! rowspan="2" | Digraph
! colspan="2" | Lax
! colspan="2" | Tense
! colspan="2" | Heavy
! colspan="2" | Tense-R
|-
!IPA
!example
!IPA
!example
!IPA
!example
!IPA
!example
|-
! rowspan="2" | ai, ay
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | – || rowspan="2" |{{IPAc-en|eɪ}}
|bait|| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |–|| rowspan="2" |{{IPAc-en|ɛər}}
| air
|-
|essay
|Ayr
|-
! rowspan="2" |au, aw
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | –
| rowspan="2" |{{IPAc-en|ɔː}}
|audio
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | –
| rowspan="2" |{{IPAc-en|ɔːr}}
|aura
|-
|draw
|rawr
|-
! ea
| {{IPAc-en|ɛ}}
|dreamt||{{IPAc-en|iː}}
|dream||{{IPAc-en|ɜːr}}
|learn||{{IPAc-en|ɪər}}
|hear
|-
! ee
| colspan="2" | –
|{{IPAc-en|iː}}
|see|| colspan="2" |–
|{{IPAc-en|ɪər}}
|beer
|-
! rowspan="2" |eu, ew
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | –
| rowspan="2" |{{IPAc-en|juː}}
|feudal
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | –
| rowspan="2" |{{IPAc-en|j|ʊər}}
|neurotic
|-
|few
|Newry
|-
! oa
| colspan="2" | – ||{{IPAc-en|oʊ}}
|boat
| colspan="2" | –
|{{IPAc-en|ɔːr}}
|soar
|-
! rowspan="2" | oo
|{{IPAc-en|ʊ}}
| foot||{{IPAc-en|uː}}
| goose|| colspan="2" |–
|{{IPAc-en|ʊər}}
|poor
|-
| colspan="2" |–
| colspan="2" |–
| colspan="2" |–
|{{IPAc-en|ɔːr}}
|floor
|-
! rowspan="4" |ou, ow
|{{IPAc-en|ʌ}}
|southern
| rowspan="2" |{{IPAc-en|aʊ}}
|south||{{IPAc-en|ɜːr}}
|scourge|| rowspan="2" |{{IPAc-en|aʊər}}
| hour
|-
| colspan="2" | –
|now
| colspan="2" | –
|dowry
|-
| colspan="2" | –
| rowspan="2" |{{IPAc-en|oʊ}}
|soul
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | –
|{{IPAc-en|ɔːr}}
|four
|-
|{{IPAc-en|ɒ}}
|knowledge
|know
| colspan="2" |–
|-
! rowspan="2" |oi, oy
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | –
| rowspan="2" |{{IPAc-en|ɔɪ}}
|point
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | –
| rowspan="2" |{{IPAc-en|ɔɪər}}
|coir
|-
|boy
|Moyra
|}

For instance, {{vr|a}} can represent the lax vowel {{IPAc-en|æ}}, tense {{IPAc-en|eɪ}}, heavy {{IPA|/ɑː/}}, or tense-r {{IPA|/ɛə/}}. Heavy and tense-r vowels are the respective lax and tense counterparts followed by {{vr|r}}.

Tense vowels are distinguished from lax vowels with a [[Silent e|"silent" {{vr|e}}]] that is added at the end of words. Thus, {{vr|a}} in ''hat'' is lax {{IPAc-en|æ}}, but when {{vr|e}} is added in the word ''hate'' {{vr|a}} is tense {{IPAc-en|eɪ}}. Heavy and tense-r vowels follow a similar pattern, e.g. {{vr|ar}} in ''car'' is heavy {{IPAc-en|ɑːr}}, {{vr|ar}} followed by silent {{vr|e}} in ''care'' is {{IPAc-en|ɛər}}. {{vr|u}} represents two different vowel patterns, one being {{IPAc-en|ʌ|,_|j|uː|,_|ɜː|,_|j|ʊə}}, the other {{IPAc-en|ʊ|,_|uː|,_|ʊə}}. There is no distinction between heavy and tense-r {{vr|o}}, and {{vr|u}} in the {{IPAc-en|ʊ|,_|uː|,_|ʊə}} pattern does not have a heavy vowel.

Besides silent {{vr|e}}, another strategy for indicating tense and tense-r vowels is the addition of another orthographic vowel forming a [[Digraph (orthography)|digraph]]. In this case, the first vowel is usually the main vowel while the second vowel is the "marking" vowel. For example, ''man'' has a lax {{vr|a}} ({{IPAc-en|æ}}), but the addition of {{vr|i}} (as the digraph {{vr|ai}}) in ''main'' marks the {{vr|a}} as tense ({{IPAc-en|eɪ}}). These two strategies produce words that are spelled differently but [[Homophone|pronounced identically]], which helps differentiate words that would otherwise be [[homonym]]s, as in ''mane'' (silent {{vr|e}} strategy), ''main'' (digraph strategy) and ''[[Maine]]'' (both strategies).

Besides the 20 basic vowel spellings, {{harvp|Rollings|2004}} has a [[Unstressed and reduced vowels in English|reduced vowel]] category (representing the sounds {{IPAc-en|ə|,_|ɪ}}) and a miscellaneous category (representing the sounds {{IPAc-en||ɔɪ|,_|aʊ|,_|aɪ}} and {{IPAc-en|j}}+V, {{IPAc-en|w}}+V, V+V).

=== Combinations of vowel letters excluding those followed by ⟨r⟩ ===
To reduce dialectal difficulties, the sound values given here correspond to the conventions at [[Help:IPA/English]]. This table includes {{vr|h, w, y}} when they represent vowel sounds. If no information is given, it is assumed that the vowel is in a stressed syllable.

Deriving the pronunciation of an English word from its spelling requires not only a careful knowledge of the rules given below (many of which are not explicitly known even by native speakers: speakers merely learn the spelling of a word along with its pronunciation) and their many exceptions, but also:

* a knowledge of which syllables are stressed and which are unstressed (not derivable from the spelling: compare ''hallow'' and ''allow'')
* which combinations of vowels represent monosyllables and which represent disyllables (ditto: compare ''waive'' and ''naive'', ''creature'' and ''creator'')

The pronunciation of vowel letters when followed by {{angbr|r}} is covered in a separate table [[#Combinations of vowel letters and ⟨r⟩|below]].
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="3" | Spelling || Major value<br />([[Help:IPA/English|IPA]]) || Examples of major value || Minor<br /> values || Examples of minor value || Exceptions
|-
| rowspan="12" | '''a'''
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |in closed syllables
* before multiple consonants
* final vowel in word
| rowspan="2" | {{IPAc-en|æ}}
| rowspan="2" | h'''a'''tchet, b'''a'''nner, t'''a'''lly<br />acrob'''a'''t, c'''a'''t
| {{IPAc-en|eɪ}}
| '''a'''ncient, ch'''a'''mber, p'''a'''stry,<br />b'''a'''ss
| rowspan="2" | {{plainlist|
* {{IPAc-en|ɒ}} y'''a'''cht, restaur'''a'''nt
* {{IPAc-en|ɛ}} c'''a'''tch {{small|(GA)}}
* {{IPAc-en|ʌ}} '''a'''psaras
* ∅ forec'''a'''stle
}}
|-
| {{IPAc-en|ɑː}} {{small|(RP)}}, {{IPAc-en|æ}} {{small|(GA)}}
| '''a'''ft, '''a'''sk, d'''a'''nce, p'''a'''st
|-
| colspan="2" |
*followed by 2+ unstressed syllables
* next syllable contains {{nowrap|{{IPAc-en|ɪ|,_|ə}}}}
|{{IPAc-en|æ}}
|n'''a'''tional, c'''a'''mera, re'''a'''lity<br />'''a'''cid, gr'''a'''nite, p'''a'''lace
|{{IPAc-en|eɪ}}
|n'''a'''tionhood, sc'''a'''thingly<br />b'''a'''sis, aph'''a'''sic
|∅ sars'''a'''parilla
|-
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |in open syllables or before cons. + {{vr|e}}
* before single consonant
* before heterosyllabic vowel
| rowspan="2" | {{IPAc-en|eɪ}}
| rowspan="2" | '''a'''che, g'''a'''ve,<br />op'''a'''que, s'''a'''vor, st'''a'''tus<br />t'''a'''ble, h'''a'''tred, '''A'''pril<br />ch'''a'''os, '''a'''orta, mos'''a'''ic
| {{IPAc-en|æ}}|| h'''a'''ve, pl'''a'''que, m'''a'''nor, st'''a'''tue<br />m'''a'''cle, s'''a'''crifice, the'''a'''trical
| rowspan="2" | {{IPAc-en|ɛ}} m'''a'''ny, '''a'''ny, '''a'''te&nbsp;{{small|(RP)}} <br />{{IPAc-en|aɪ}} n'''a'''ive (also with {{IPAc-en|ɑː}}) <br />{{IPAc-en|ʌ}} s'''a'''ti
|-
| {{IPAc-en|ɑː}}|| deb'''a'''cle<br />g'''a'''la, l'''a'''va, sl'''a'''lom, son'''a'''ta
|-
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |before final -{{vr|nge, ste}}
| rowspan="2" |{{IPAc-en|eɪ}}
| rowspan="2" |r'''a'''nge, exch'''a'''nge, h'''a'''ste
|{{IPAc-en|æ}}
|fl'''a'''nge, c'''a'''ste&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}}
| rowspan="2" |
|-
|{{IPAc-en|ɑː}}
|mel'''a'''nge
|-
| colspan="2" |after {{IPAc-en|w}} except before {{IPAc-en|k|,_|g|,_|ŋ}}
* closed syllables
| {{nowrap|{{IPAc-en|ɒ}}}}|| w'''a'''nt, w'''a'''tch, <br /> sw'''a'''mp, sw'''a'''stika, w'''a'''llet || {{nowrap|{{IPAc-en|ɒ}} {{small|(RP)}}, {{IPAc-en|ɔː}} {{small|(GA)}}}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ɔː}}<br />{{IPAc-en|eɪ}} || squ'''a'''sh, w'''a'''sp, w'''a'''sh<br />w'''a'''ll, w'''a'''lnut, w'''a'''lrus<br />w'''a'''stage || rowspan="2" | {{IPAc-en|ɑː}} qu'''a'''lm (also {{IPAc-en|ɔː}}), su'''a'''ve, sw'''a'''mi<br />{{IPAc-en|æ}} sw'''a'''m, aqu'''a'''tic&nbsp;{{small|(RP)}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ʌ}} w'''a'''s&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}}, wh'''a'''t&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}}
|-
| colspan="2" |after {{IPAc-en|w}} except before {{IPAc-en|k|,_|g|,_|ŋ}}
* open syllables
|{{IPAc-en|eɪ}}
|persu'''a'''de, sw'''a'''the
| {{nowrap |{{IPAc-en|ɒ}}}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ɔː}}
|qu'''a'''lity<br />w'''a'''ter
|-
| colspan="2" |word-final || {{IPAc-en|ɑː}}|| br'''a''', cha-ch'''a''', schw'''a''', sp'''a'''|| || ||
|-
| rowspan="2" |unstressed
| in -{{vr|ace, age, ase, ate}}<br />(except verbs) || {{IPAc-en|ɪ|,_|ə}} || pal'''a'''ce, dam'''a'''ge, for'''a'''ge, garb'''a'''ge, pir'''a'''te, priv'''a'''te || {{IPAc-en|ɑː}} <br /> {{IPAc-en|ɪ}}
| <small>RP:</small> gar'''a'''ge, barr'''a'''ge <br />chocol'''a'''te, purch'''a'''se, sol'''a'''ce
| {{IPAc-en|eɪ}} ramp'''a'''ge, prim'''a'''te
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|ə}} || '''a'''bout, '''a'''n, sal'''a'''ry, wom'''a'''n, <br />bl'''a'''ncmange, oper'''a''', vi'''a'''|| {{IPAc-en|ə}} to ∅<br />{{IPAc-en|eɪ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|æ}}<br /> {{IPAc-en|ɑː}} {{small|(RP)}}, {{IPAc-en|æ}} {{small|(GA)}} ||artistic'''a'''lly, ordin'''a'''ry, necess'''a'''ry <br />prob'''a'''te, fol'''a'''te, kin'''a'''se<br/>anor'''a'''k, rect'''a'''ngle, '''a'''bscond<br/>contr'''a'''st {{small|(n)}}, flabberg'''a'''st, reprim'''a'''nd || {{IPAc-en|i}} kar'''a'''oke, bologn'''a'''&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}}<br />{{IPAc-en|æ}} '''A'''ssam<br />{{IPAc-en|ʌ}} ch'''a'''prassi
|-
| colspan="3" | '''aa''', '''ah'''|| {{IPAc-en|ɑː}} || b'''aa''', n'''aa'''n, bl'''ah''' ||{{IPAc-en|ə}}|| Is'''aa'''c, bar mitzv'''ah'''|| {{IPAc-en|eɪ}} Qu'''aa'''lude
|-
| colspan="3" | '''ae'''|| {{IPAc-en|iː}} || encyclop'''ae'''dia, p'''ae'''diatrician, C'''ae'''sar || {{IPAc-en|ɛ}} || '''ae'''sthetic || {{IPAc-en|eɪ}} regg'''ae''', sund'''ae''', G'''ae'''l<br />{{IPAc-en|ə}} Mich'''ae'''l, polk'''ae'''d<br />{{IPAc-en|aɪ}} m'''ae'''stro<br />{{IPAc-en|aɪ|.|ɛ}} p'''ae'''lla<br />{{IPAc-en|æ}} Scottish G'''ae'''lic<!-- According to 'The Chambers Dictionary,' this pronunciation is the usual when referring to the language of Scotland -->
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''ai'''
| colspan="2" |stressed|| {{IPAc-en|eɪ}} || d'''ai'''sy, l'''ai'''d, p'''ai'''sley, reg'''ai'''n, w'''ai'''f
|| {{IPAc-en|aɪ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ɛ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|eɪ|.|ɪ}}|| '''ai'''sle, bons'''ai''', d'''ai'''mon, kr'''ai'''t<br />s'''ai'''d, ag'''ai'''n, ag'''ai'''nst<br />d'''ai'''s, l'''ai'''c, mos'''ai'''c, pap'''ai'''n
|| {{IPAc-en|æ}} pl'''ai'''d, pl'''ai'''ted, d'''ai'''quiri<br />{{IPAc-en|aɪ|ˈ|iː}} n'''ai'''f, c'''ai'''que<br />{{IPAc-en|i|.|ɪ}} arch'''ai'''sm&nbsp;{{small|(RP)}}
|-
| colspan="2" |unstressed|| {{IPAc-en|ɪ|,_|ə}} || barg'''ai'''n, mount'''ai'''n, portr'''ai'''t || {{IPAc-en|ə}} || cert'''ai'''n, coxsw'''ai'''n, sprits'''ai'''l ||
|-
<!-- all pronunciations are really exceptions -->| colspan="3" |'''ao''' || {{IPAc-en|aʊ}} || mano'''ao''', mi'''ao'''w, M'''ao'''ism, cac'''ao'''&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}}
|| {{IPAc-en|eɪ}} <br />{{IPAc-en|eɪ|.|ɒ}} <br />{{IPAc-en|eɪ|ˈ|oʊ}} <br />{{IPAc-en|eɪ|.|ə}} <br />{{IPAc-en|i|ˈ|oʊ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ɑː|oʊ}}|| g'''ao'''l<br />k'''ao'''n, ch'''ao'''s<br />N'''ao'''mi&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}}<br />k'''ao'''lin<br />kar'''ao'''ke<br />b'''ao'''bab
|
|-
| colspan="3" | '''au''' || {{IPAc-en|ɔː}} || c'''au'''se, fr'''au'''d, h'''au'''l, s'''au'''ce, sl'''au'''ghter
|| {{IPAc-en|ɒ}}<br />{{nowrap|{{IPAc-en|ɑː}} {{small|(RP)}}, {{IPAc-en|æ}} {{small|(GA)}}}}<br />{{IPAc-en|aʊ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ}}|| bec'''au'''se&nbsp;{{small|(RP)}}, s'''au'''sage&nbsp;{{small|(RP)}}, leprech'''au'''n&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}}<br />'''au'''nt, dr'''au'''ght, l'''au'''ghter <br />deg'''au'''ss, gr'''au'''pel, tr'''au'''ma&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}}<br />ch'''au'''ffeur, g'''au'''che, m'''au'''ve
||{{IPAc-en|eɪ}} g'''au'''ge<br />{{IPAc-en|ʌ}} bec'''au'''se&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ə}} meersch'''au'''m<br />∅ rest'''au'''rant
|-
| colspan="3" | '''aw''' || {{IPAc-en|ɔː}} || '''aw'''ed, fl'''aw''', h'''aw'''k, t'''aw'''ny || || || {{IPAc-en|aʊ}} M'''aw'''lid
|-
| colspan="3" | '''ay''' || {{IPAc-en|eɪ}} || b'''ay'''onet, ess'''ay'''s, gr'''ay'''er, h'''ay'''ride
|| {{IPAc-en|aɪ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ɛ}} || '''ay'''e, b'''ay'''ou, k'''ay'''ak, pap'''ay'''a <br />m'''ay'''or, pr'''ay'''er, s'''ay'''s
|| {{IPAc-en|iː}} c'''ay''', qu'''ay''', parl'''ay''' <br />{{IPAc-en|ə|j}} g'''ay'''al
|-
| rowspan="7" |'''e'''
| colspan="2" |in closed syllables
* before multiple consonants
* final vowel in word
|{{IPAc-en|ɛ}}
|p'''e'''tty, l'''e'''thargy, tr'''e'''bleg'''e'''t, watersh'''e'''d
|{{IPAc-en|iː}}
|ax'''e'''s (plural of ''axis'')
| rowspan="2" |{{IPAc-en|ɪ}} pr'''e'''tty, '''E'''nglish<br />{{IPAc-en|ɒ}} '''e'''nnui, '''e'''ntourage, g'''e'''nre<br />{{IPAc-en|eɪ}} '''e'''h<br />{{IPAc-en|ʌ}} f'''e'''ng shui
|-
| colspan="2" |
*bef. 2+ unstressed syllables
* next syllable contains {{IPAc-en|ɪ}}
|{{IPAc-en|ɛ}}
|l'''e'''gacy, '''e'''legant, d'''e'''licate, m'''e'''tric, cr'''e'''vice, '''e'''pic
|{{IPAc-en|iː}}
|l'''e'''thal, r'''e'''flex, St'''e'''phen, fec'''e'''s, l'''e'''gally,<br /> d'''e'''vious, pr'''e'''mium, '''e'''vil, sc'''e'''nic, strat'''e'''gic
|-
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | in open syllables
* before single consonant
* before cons. + {{vr|r}} + vowel<!-- besides Keble, a proper name, there are no common words to follow the "rule" that ending with e+cons.+le should be pronounced /iː/ "Treble" is common, but an "exception". -->
* final, only vowel in word
<!-- * final, Greek loans (form of an unstressed {{vr|e}}, moved to below-->
* before heterosyllabic vowel
| rowspan="2" | {{IPAc-en|iː}} || rowspan="2" | '''e'''ven, d'''e'''mon, f'''e'''tal, r'''e'''combine <br />m'''e'''tre, s'''e'''cret, '''e'''gret, secr'''e'''tion<br />b'''e''', sh'''e'''<br />mus'''e'''um, n'''e'''on, th'''e'''ater&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}} || {{IPAc-en|ɛ}} || '''e'''ver, l'''e'''mon, p'''e'''tal, r'''e'''collect <br />p'''e'''trol, d'''e'''bris&nbsp;{{small|(RP)}}, discr'''e'''tion || {{IPAc-en|eɪ}} cr'''e'''pe, su'''e'''de, ukul'''e'''le
|-
| {{IPAc-en|eɪ}} || abb'''e''', caf'''e'''&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}}, saut'''e''', s'''e'''ance, rod'''e'''o, d'''e'''ity &nbsp;{{small|(RP)}} || {{IPAc-en|ɛ}} y'''e'''ah&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}}
|-
| rowspan="3" |unstressed
| word-final || ∅ || {{Not a typo|disciplin}}'''e''', recit'''e'''s, smil'''e''', limitroph'''e'''|| {{IPAc-en|iː}} || recip'''e'''s, simil'''e''', apostroph'''e''', del'''e'''d || {{IPAc-en|eɪ}} latt'''e''', mor'''e'''s, proteg'''e'''<br /> {{IPAc-en|ɛ}} zanz'''e'''
|-
| before heterosyllabic vowel || {{IPAc-en|i}} || cr'''e'''ate, ar'''e'''a, ath'''e'''ism, vid'''e'''o || {{IPAc-en|eɪ}} || fid'''e'''ism, r'''e'''alpolitik ||
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|ɪ|,_|ə}} || mark'''e'''t, tick'''e'''t, hon'''e'''st, coll'''e'''ge,<br />box'''e'''s, perf'''e'''ct, '''e'''xpress, b'''e'''lieve || {{IPAc-en|ə}} || tak'''e'''n, dec'''e'''ncy, mom'''e'''nt || {{IPAc-en|ɛ}} cont'''e'''st, alphab'''e'''t, princ'''e'''ss
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''ea'''
| colspan="2" |in closed syllables
*before multiple consonants
|{{IPAc-en|ɛ}}
|dr'''ea'''mt, cl'''ea'''nse, w'''ea'''lth
|{{IPAc-en|iː}}<br/>{{IPAc-en|i|ə}}
|f'''ea'''st, y'''ea'''st<br />r'''ea'''lty, f'''ea'''lty
|{{IPAc-en|ɔː}} '''ea'''lderman<br />{{IPAc-en|æ}} pol'''ea'''x<br />{{IPAc-en|eɪ|.|ɑː}} s'''ea'''nce
|-
| colspan="2" |in open syllables
* before single consonant
* before cons. + {{vr|r}} + vowel<!--besides Keble, a proper name, there are no common words to follow the "rule" that ending with {{vr|e}} + cons. + le should be pronounced /iː/ "Treble" is common, but an "exception".-->
* final, only vowel in word
* before heterosyllabic vowel
|{{IPAc-en|iː}}
|r'''ea'''d (infinitive), l'''ea'''f, z'''ea'''l, dr'''ea'''ms, cl'''ea'''ns
|{{IPAc-en|ɛ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|eɪ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ə}}<br />{{IPAc-en|iː|ə|,_|ɪə}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ɪə}}<br />{{IPAc-en|iː|ə}}<br />{{IPAc-en|iː|.|eɪ}}
|r'''ea'''d (past simple), d'''ea'''f, z'''ea'''lot<br />br'''ea'''k, gr'''ea'''t, '''ea'''gre, y'''ea'''<br />hydrang'''ea''', lik'''ea'''ble, oc'''ea'''n<br />id'''ea'''l, r'''ea'''l, cer'''ea'''l<br />id'''ea'''<br />ur'''ea''', laur'''ea'''te<br />cr'''ea'''ting, prot'''ea'''se, r'''ea'''gent
|{{IPAc-en|ɑː}} org'''ea'''t <br />{{IPA|/ɛə/}} y'''ea'''h {{small|(RP)}}<br />{{IPAc-en|æ}} wher'''ea'''s <br />{{IPAc-en|iː|æ}} cav'''ea'''t <br />{{IPAc-en|ɪ}} mil'''ea'''ge <br />{{IPAc-en|iː|.|ɪ}} lin'''ea'''ge <br />{{IPAc-en|iː|æ}} b'''ea'''tify, r'''ea'''lity<br />{{IPAc-en|eɪ|ˈ|ɑː}} r'''ea'''l
|-
| colspan="3" | '''eau''' || {{IPAc-en|oʊ}} || bur'''eau''', plat'''eau''', tabl'''eau''' || {{IPAc-en|juː}} || b'''eau'''ty || {{IPAc-en|ɒ}} bur'''eau'''cracy<br />{{IPAc-en|ə}} bur'''eau'''crat
|-
| colspan="3" | '''ee''' || {{IPAc-en|iː}} || b'''ee''', br'''ee'''ch, f'''ee'''d, train'''ee''' || {{IPAc-en|ɪ}} || br'''ee'''ches, b'''ee'''n&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}}|| {{IPAc-en|eɪ}} matin'''ee''', fianc'''ee'''s, n'''ee'''<br />{{IPAc-en|i}} bung'''ee''', coff'''ee'''<br />{{IPAc-en|iː|.|ə}} fr'''ee'''st, w'''ee'''st<br />{{IPAc-en|iː|.|ɛ}} r'''ee'''cho, {{IPAc-en|iː|.|ɪ}} r'''ee'''lect<br />{{IPAc-en|ɛ}} thr'''ee'''pence (also {{IPAc-en|ɪ}} or {{IPAc-en|ʌ}})<!-- Longman has /ɛ/ as main pronunciation-->
|-
| colspan="3" |'''eh'''
|{{IPAc-en|eɪ}}
|'''eh''', pr'''eh'''nite, temp'''eh'''
|{{IPAc-en|ɛə}}
|y'''eh'''
|{{IPAc-en|ɛ}} f'''eh''' {{IPAc-en|ə}}, keffiy'''eh'''
|-
| rowspan="4" | '''ei''', '''ey'''
| colspan="2" |usually|| {{IPAc-en|eɪ}} || v'''ei'''l, w'''ei'''ght, h'''ei'''nous, ob'''ey''' || {{IPAc-en|iː}}<br />{{IPAc-en|aɪ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|iː|.|ɪ}}|| caff'''ein'''e, s'''ei'''ze, k'''ey''', g'''ey'''ser<br />'''ei'''ther, h'''ei'''ght, h'''ei'''st, h'''ei'''nie, '''ey'''e<br />alb'''ei'''t, b'''ei'''ng, cyst'''ei'''ne, d'''ei'''st || {{IPAc-en|ɛ}} h'''ei'''fer, l'''ei'''sure, s'''ei'''gneur<br />{{IPAc-en|æ}} rev'''ei'''lle<!-- /r|əˈvæ|li/ !-->, ser'''ei'''n<br />{{IPAc-en|eɪ|.|ɪ}} fid'''ei'''st, {{IPAc-en|i|ˈ|aɪ}} d'''ei'''ce
|-
| colspan="2" |after {{vr|c}} || {{IPAc-en|iː}} || dec'''ei'''ve, c'''ei'''ling, conc'''ei'''t || || || {{IPAc-en|æ}} c'''ei'''nture, enc'''ei'''nte<br />{{IPAc-en|eɪ|.|ɪ}} glac'''ei'''ng, {{IPAc-en|iː|.|ɪ}} haecc'''ei'''ty
|-
| rowspan="2" |unstressed
| word-final || {{IPAc-en|i}}<br />{{IPAc-en|iː}} || monk'''ey''', voll'''ey''', curts'''ey''', jers'''ey''' || || || {{IPAc-en|eɪ}} surv'''ey''' (n)
|-
| elsewhere|| {{IPAc-en|ɪ|,_|ə}} || for'''ei'''gn, counterf'''ei'''t, forf'''ei'''t || {{IPAc-en|ə}}<br />|| mull'''ei'''n, vill'''ei'''n<br />|| {{IPAc-en|ɪ}} ag'''ei'''st, her'''ei'''n, ogr'''ei'''sh
|-
| '''eo'''
| colspan="2" |usually bisyllabic|| {{IPAc-en|iː|.|ɒ}} <br />{{IPAc-en|iː|.|oʊ}} <br />{{IPAc-en|iː|ə}} || '''eo'''n, g'''eo'''logy, r'''eo'''ffer, tel'''eo'''st<br />cr'''eo'''le, g'''eo'''de, l'''eo'''nine, vid'''eo'''<br />gall'''eo'''n, l'''eo'''tard, p'''eo'''n, th'''eo'''ry || {{IPAc-en|ɛ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|iː}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ə}} || f'''eo'''ffee, j'''eo'''pardy, l'''eo'''pard<br />f'''eo'''ff, p'''eo'''ple <br />lunch'''eo'''n, pig'''eo'''n, embrac'''eo'''r ||{{IPAc-en|oʊ}} y'''eo'''man, {{IPAc-en|ɛə}} c'''eo'''rl <br />{{IPAc-en|juː}} f'''eo'''dary, {{IPAc-en|uː|i}} g'''eo'''duck<br />{{IPAc-en|eɪ|oʊ}} rod'''eo''', t'''eo'''sinte<br />{{IPAc-en|ɒ}} ther'''eo'''n<br />{{IPAc-en|ʌ}} wher'''eo'''f<br />{{IPAc-en|w|ʌ}} som'''eo'''ne
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''eu,''' '''ew''' '''(ieu,''' '''iew)'''
| colspan="2" |usually|| {{IPAc-en|juː}} || d'''eu'''ce, f'''eu'''dal, qu'''eu'''e, <br />d'''ew''', '''ewe''', vi'''ew'''|| {{IPAc-en|ɜː}}<br />{{IPAc-en|iː|ə}} || berc'''eu'''se, dans'''eu'''se<br />mus'''eu'''m || {{IPAc-en|oʊ}} s'''ew'''<br />∅ faut'''eu'''il
|-
| colspan="2" |after {{IPAc-en|r|,_|ʃ|,_|ʒ|,_|dʒ|,|l}}|| {{IPAc-en|uː}} || rh'''eu'''matism, sl'''eu'''th, j'''ew'''el, bl'''ew''', l'''eu'''kemia, l'''ew'''d, li'''eu'''|| {{IPAc-en|iː|ə}} || nucl'''eu'''s, pil'''eu'''s ||
{{IPAc-en|oʊ}} sh'''ew'''<br />{{IPAc-en|ɛ|f}} li'''eu'''tenant {{small|(RP)}}{{IPAc-en|j|ɜː}} mili'''eu''' {{small|(RP)}}<br />{{IPAc-en|iː|ˈ|j|uː}} r'''eu'''se<br />{{IPAc-en|iː|.|ʌ}} r'''eu'''tters<br />{{IPAc-en|ʌ}} pil'''eu'''p<br />
{{IPAc-en|ə}} wher'''eu'''pon<br />{{IPAc-en|ɔɪ}} Fr'''eu'''dian
|-
| rowspan="7" |'''i'''
| colspan="2" |in closed syllables
* before multiple consonants
* final vowel in worded
|| {{IPAc-en|ɪ}} || d'''i'''ssent, m'''i'''slaid, sl'''i'''ther <br />k'''i'''ss, s'''i'''c, b'''i'''t, infl'''i'''ct, h'''i'''nt, pl'''i'''nth || {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} || d'''i'''ssect, '''i'''sland, <br />ind'''i'''ct, p'''i'''nt, n'''i'''nth || {{IPAc-en|æ}} mer'''i'''ngue, t'''i'''mbre, abs'''i'''nthe (also {{IPAc-en|ɪ}})<br />{{IPAc-en|iː}} art'''i'''ste, chen'''i'''lle, sk'''i'''s, ch'''i'''c, ambergr'''i'''s
|-
| colspan="2" |
*bef. 2+ unstressed syllables
* next syllable contains {{IPAc-en|ɪ}}
* before cons. + {{vr|e, i}} + vowel
|{{IPAc-en|ɪ}}
|l'''i'''tany, l'''i'''beral, ch'''i'''valry, m'''i'''sery<br />f'''i'''nish,<br />l'''i'''mit, m'''i'''nute (n)<br />h'''i'''deous, pos'''i'''tion, S'''i'''rius
|{{IPAc-en|aɪ}}
|bl'''i'''thely, '''i'''rony, l'''i'''belous, r'''i'''valry, m'''i'''serly,<br />wh'''i'''tish, wr'''i'''ting, sh'''i'''nier, t'''i'''died
|
|-
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" |in open syllables
* before single consonant
* before cons. + -{{vr|le}} or {{vr|r}} + vowel
* before -{{vr|gh, gn}}
* word final
* before heterosyllabic vowel
| rowspan="2" |{{IPAc-en|aɪ}}
| rowspan="2" |c'''i'''ted, d'''i'''ve, m'''i'''ca, r'''i'''se, pol'''i'''te, sh'''i'''ne <br />'''i'''dle, tr'''i'''fle, n'''i'''trous, m'''i'''tres <br />s'''i'''ghed, s'''i'''gnage<br />alumn'''i''', alib'''i''', radi'''i''' <br />v'''i'''al, qu'''i'''et, pr'''i'''or, p'''i'''ous
|{{IPAc-en|ɪ}}
|c'''i'''ty, g'''i'''ve, v'''i'''car, r'''i'''sen <br />tr'''i'''ple, c'''i'''trus, g'''i'''blets <br />p'''i'''ghead, s'''i'''gnal
| rowspan="2" |
|-
|{{IPAc-en|iː}}
|sk'''i''', pol'''i'''ce, el'''i'''te, mach'''i'''ne, l'''i'''tres,<br />in v'''i'''tro, ch'''i'''gnon, Mons'''i'''gnor<br />cl'''i'''entele, f'''i'''at, l'''i'''en, sk'''i'''ing
|-
| colspan="2" |before -{{vr|nd, l|d}}
|{{IPAc-en|aɪ}}
|w'''i'''lder, rem'''i'''nd
|{{IPAc-en|ɪ}}
|bew'''i'''lder, resc'''i'''nd
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |unstressed
| before heterosyllabic vowel || {{IPAc-en|j}} ||on'''i'''on, min'''i'''on || {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} || b'''i'''ology, d'''i'''ameter ||∅ parl'''i'''ament, l'''i'''eu, nostalg'''i'''a<br />{{IPAc-en|i}} l'''i'''aison, al'''i'''en, rad'''i'''i, id'''i'''ot
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|ɪ|,_|ə}} || d'''i'''vide, perm'''i'''t (n), liv'''i'''d, typ'''i'''cal || {{IPAc-en|ə}} || g'''i'''raffe, penc'''i'''l, cous'''i'''n, Chesh'''i'''re || ∅ bus'''i'''ness<br />{{IPAc-en|aɪ}} d'''i'''rector, m'''i'''nute (adj)<br />{{IPAc-en|aɪə}} sapph'''i'''re
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''{{not a typo|ie}}'''
| colspan="2" |word-finally|| {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} || bel'''ie''', d'''ie''', unt'''ie''', v'''ie''' || {{IPAc-en|i}} || goal'''ie''', old'''ie''', aunt'''ie''', mov'''ie''' || {{IPAc-en|eɪ}} linger'''ie'''&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}}, {{IPAc-en|i|eɪ}} kyr'''ie'''
|-
| colspan="2" |elsewhere|| {{IPAc-en|iː}} || f'''ie'''ld, s'''ie'''ge, rab'''ie'''s, sk'''ie'''d|| {{IPAc-en|aɪ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|aɪə}} <br />{{IPAc-en|i|ə}} to {{IPAc-en|j|ə}}<br />{{IPAc-en|i|ˈ|ɛ}} || all'''ie'''d, p'''ie'''d, sk'''ie'''s <br />cl'''ie'''nt, d'''ie'''t, sc'''ie'''nce, sl'''ie'''st<br />amb'''ie'''nt, al'''ie'''n, or'''ie'''l, ugl'''ie'''st<br />or'''ie'''nt (v), acqu'''ie'''sce
|| {{IPAc-en|ɪ}} s'''ie'''ve, misch'''ie'''f, kerch'''ie'''f<br />{{IPAc-en|ɛ}} fr'''ie'''nd, hyg'''ie'''nic&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}} <br />{{IPAc-en|aɪ|ˈ|ɛ}} b'''ie'''nnial <br />{{IPAc-en|aɪ|iː}} d'''ie'''ne<br />{{IPAc-en|iː|.|ɒ}} cl'''ie'''ntele<br />{{IPAc-en|i|ˈ|iː}} med'''ie'''val<br /> {{IPAc-en|iː|ə}} l'''ie'''n
|-
| rowspan="4" | '''o'''
| colspan="2" |in closed syllables
* before multiple consonants
* final vowel in word
|| {{IPAc-en|ɒ}} || d'''o'''ctor, b'''o'''ther, d'''o'''nkey<br />d'''o'''t, b'''o'''mb, w'''o'''nk, f'''o'''nt || {{IPAc-en|ʌ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ}}|| w'''o'''n, m'''o'''nkey, fr'''o'''nt<br />gr'''o'''ss, c'''o'''mb, w'''o'''nted, b'''o'''th ||{{IPAc-en|uː}} t'''o'''mb, w'''o'''mb<br />{{IPAc-en|ʊ}} w'''o'''lf<br />{{IPAc-en|w|ʌ}} '''o'''nce<br />{{IPAc-en|ɔː}}&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}} l'''o'''ng, br'''o'''th
|-
| colspan="2" |
*bef. 2+ unstressed syllables
* next syllable contains {{IPAc-en|ɪ}}
|{{IPAc-en|ɒ}}
|'''o'''pera, c'''o'''lonise, b'''o'''tany<br />t'''o'''pic, s'''o'''lid, pr'''o'''mise
|{{IPAc-en|oʊ}}
|br'''o'''kenly, pr'''o'''bity, dipl'''o'''macy<br />mei'''o'''sis, aer'''o'''bic
|
|-
| colspan="2" |in open syllables
* before single consonant
* before cons. + -{{vr|le}} or {{vr|r}} + vowel
* word-final
* before heterosyllabic vowel<br />(inc. unstressed)
|| {{IPAc-en|oʊ}} || '''o'''men, gr'''o'''ve, t'''o'''tal<br />n'''o'''ble, c'''o'''bra<br />banj'''o''', g'''o'''<br />b'''o'''a, p'''o'''et, st'''o'''ic<br />c'''o'''operate, pr'''o'''active || {{IPAc-en|ɒ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|uː}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ʌ}} || pr'''o'''per, g'''o'''ne, sh'''o'''ne&nbsp;{{small|(RP)}}<br />t'''o''', wh'''o''', m'''o'''ve, d'''o'''able<br />c'''o'''me, l'''o'''ve, d'''o'''ne, c'''o'''lander || {{IPAc-en|ʊ}} w'''o'''man, b'''o'''som <br />{{IPAc-en|ɪ}} w'''o'''men<br />{{IPAc-en|w|ʌ}} '''o'''ne<br />∅ col'''o'''nel, choc'''o'''late
|-
| colspan="2" |unstressed|| {{IPAc-en|ə}} || el'''o'''quent, want'''o'''n, purp'''o'''se, Eur'''o'''pe || || || {{IPAc-en|ɒ}} neur'''o'''n, prot'''o'''n<br />{{IPAc-en|ɪ|,_|ə}} hydr'''o'''gen
|-
| colspan="3" | '''oa''' || {{IPAc-en|oʊ}} || b'''oa'''t, c'''oa'''l, l'''oa'''d, c'''oa'''xing ||{{IPAc-en|oʊ|.|ə}}<br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ|æ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ|ˈ|eɪ}}||b'''oa''', inch'''oa'''te<br />c'''oa'''xial, ogd'''oa'''d<br />'''oa'''sis, cl'''oa'''ca|| {{IPAc-en|ɔː}} br'''oa'''d<br />{{IPAc-en|uː|ə}} d'''oa'''ble<br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ|ˈ|ɑː}} k'''oa'''la<br />{{IPAc-en|w|ɑː}} quin'''oa'''
|-
| rowspan="3" | '''oe'''
| colspan="2" |usually
|| {{IPAc-en|iː}} || am'''oe'''ba, c'''oe'''lacanth, f'''oe'''tal, ph'''oe'''nix
|| {{IPAc-en|oʊ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|uː}} <br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ|ˈ|ɛ}} || d'''oe'''skin, w'''oe'''ful <br />sh'''oe'''lace, can'''oe'''ing<br />p'''oe'''tic, s'''oe'''ver, orth'''oe'''pic<br />
|| {{IPAc-en|ɛ}} f'''oe'''tid, r'''oe'''ntgen <!-- acc. to Oxford dictionary; acc. to Cambridge and Longman uniquely /r|ɒ|ntgən/ --><br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ|ˈ|iː}} c'''oe'''val, n'''oe'''sis<br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ|ˈ|ɜː}} c'''oe'''rce<br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ|.|ə}} p'''oe'''try, orth'''oe'''py
|-
| colspan="2" |last vowel in word
|| {{IPAc-en|oʊ}} ||f'''oe''', g'''oe'''s, t'''oe'''d, w'''oe'''
|| {{IPAc-en|uː}}<br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ|ɛ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ|.|ə}}<br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ|.|ɪ|,_|oʊ|.|ə}}|| sh'''oe'''s, can'''oe''' <br />c'''oe'''d, n'''oe'''l, phl'''oe'''m<br />g'''oe'''r <br />l'''oe'''ss, p'''oe'''m
|| {{IPAc-en|ʌ}} d'''oe'''s<br />{{IPAc-en|uː|ə}} d'''oe'''th, d'''oe'''r<br />{{IPAc-en|ɜː}} f'''oe'''hn <br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ|iː}} dipl'''oe''', kalanch'''oe'''
|-
| colspan="2" |unstressed|| {{IPAc-en|ɪ}} || '''oe'''dema, '''oe'''sophagus || {{IPAc-en|oʊ}} || al'''oe''', ech'''oe'''d, ob'''oe'''s, sol'''oe'''d|| {{IPAc-en|uː}} hoop'''oe'''
|-
| colspan="3" | '''oeu''' || {{IPAc-en|uː}} || man'''oeu'''vre || || || {{IPAc-en|ɜː|r}} hors d''''oeu'''vre
|-
|'''oh'''
| colspan="2" |final or before a consonant|| {{IPAc-en|oʊ}} || '''oh''', k'''oh'''lrabi, '''oh'''m, phara'''oh''' || {{IPAc-en|ɒ}} || J'''oh'''n, j'''oh'''nny || {{IPAc-en|ɔː}} b'''oh'''rium<br />{{IPAc-en|ə}} matz'''oh'''
|-
| colspan="3" | '''oi'''|| {{IPAc-en|ɔɪ}} || b'''oi'''ng, m'''oi'''st, c'''oi'''n, env'''oi'''
|| {{IPAc-en|oʊ|ɪ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|w|ɑː}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ə}} || g'''oi'''ng, eg'''oi'''st, her'''oi'''n, st'''oi'''c<br />bourge'''oi'''s, c'''oi'''ffeur, pat'''oi'''s<br />conn'''oi'''sseur, porp'''oi'''se, tort'''oi'''se
|| {{IPAc-en|uː|ɪ}} d'''oi'''ng<br />{{IPAc-en|w|æ}} cr'''oi'''ssant&nbsp;{{small|(RP)}}<br />{{IPAc-en|i}} cham'''oi'''s<br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ|aɪ}} ghett'''oi'''se, or'''oi'''de
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''oo'''
| colspan="2" |usually|| {{IPAc-en|uː}} || c'''oo'''l, s'''oo'''th, b'''oo'''t, g'''oo'''sebumps || {{IPAc-en|ʊ}} || w'''oo'''l, s'''oo'''t, f'''oo'''t, g'''oo'''seberry || {{IPAc-en|oʊ}} br'''oo'''ch<br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ|.|ɒ}} c'''oo'''pt, z'''oo'''logy
|-
| colspan="2" |before {{vr|k, d}} || {{IPAc-en|ʊ}} || c'''oo'''k, sh'''oo'''k, w'''oo'''d, st'''oo'''d || {{IPAc-en|uː}} || k'''oo'''k, sp'''oo'''k, f'''oo'''d, br'''oo'''d || {{IPAc-en|ʌ}} fl'''oo'''d, bl'''oo'''d
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''ou'''
| colspan="2" |
*before single consonant
* before cons. + -{{vr|le}} or {{vr|r}} + vowel
* before -{{vr|nd, ld, gh, gn}}
* word final
* before heterosyllabic vowel
|{{IPAc-en|aʊ}}
|'''ou'''t, al'''ou'''d, b'''ou'''gh
|{{IPAc-en|uː}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ʌ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ}}
|s'''ou'''p, y'''ou''', thr'''ou'''gh<br />t'''ou'''ch<br />s'''ou'''l, d'''ou'''gh
|{{IPAc-en|juː}} {{small|(GA)}}: amp'''ou'''le, c'''ou'''pon
|-
| colspan="2" |
*before multiple consonants
* final vowel in word
* bef. 2+ unstressed syllables
* next syllable contains {{IPAc-en|ɪ}}
* before cons. + {{vr|e, i}} + vowel
|{{IPAc-en|ʊ}}
|c'''ou'''ld, sh'''ou'''ld
|{{IPAc-en|ʌ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ}}
|tr'''ou'''ble, c'''ou'''ntry<br />b'''ou'''lder
|{{IPAc-en|ɒ}} c'''ou'''gh, f'''ou'''nt (printing)
|-
| colspan="2" |unstressed|| {{IPAc-en|ə}} || cam'''ou'''flage, lab'''ou'''r, nerv'''ou'''s || {{IPAc-en|ʊ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ʊə}}|| biv'''ou'''ac, bed'''ou'''in, potp'''ou'''rri <br />det'''ou'''r, f'''our'''chette || {{IPAc-en|ʌ}} hicc'''ou'''gh<br />{{IPAc-en|w}} ratat'''ou'''ille, '''ou'''abaine
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''ow'''
| colspan="2" |stressed|| {{IPAc-en|aʊ}} || '''ow'''l, b'''ow''', r'''ow''', s'''ow''', all'''ow''' || {{IPAc-en|oʊ}} || '''ow'''n, b'''ow''', r'''ow''', s'''ow''', al'''ow''' || {{IPAc-en|ɒ}} ackn'''ow'''ledge<br />{{IPAc-en|ɒ}} or {{IPAc-en|ʌ}} r'''ow'''lock
|-
| colspan="2" |unstressed|| {{IPAc-en|oʊ}} || yell'''ow''', teab'''ow'''l, land'''ow'''ner || {{IPAc-en|aʊ}} || peaf'''ow'''l, sund'''ow'''ner || {{IPAc-en|ə|w}} cass'''ow'''ary, t'''ow'''ard&nbsp;{{small|(RP)}}
|-
| colspan="3" | '''oy''' || {{IPAc-en|ɔɪ}} || b'''oy''', d'''oy'''enne, f'''oy'''er, v'''oy'''age || {{IPAc-en|w|aɪ}} || v'''oy'''eur, n'''oy'''ade || {{IPAc-en|oʊ|j}} '''oy'''ez<br />{{IPAc-en|aɪ}} c'''oy'''ote&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}}<br />{{IPAc-en|i}} bu'''oy'''&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}}
|-
| rowspan="7" | '''u'''
| colspan="2" |in closed syllables
* before multiple consonants
* final vowel in word
|| {{IPAc-en|ʌ}}
|| b'''u'''dding, c'''u'''ckold, m'''u'''llet<br />b'''u'''t, g'''u'''ll, f'''u'''ss || {{IPAc-en|ʊ}} || p'''u'''dding, c'''u'''ckoo, b'''u'''llet, p'''u'''t, f'''u'''ll, p'''u'''ss || {{IPAc-en|uː}} r'''u'''thless, br'''u'''t<br />{{IPAc-en|juː}} b'''u'''tte, deb'''u'''t, f'''u'''chsia, t'''u'''lle
|-
| colspan="2" |in open syllables
* before single consonant
* before cons. + -{{vr|le}} or {{vr|r}} + vowel
* before heterosyllabic vowel
* word-final
|| {{IPAc-en|juː}}|| m'''u'''te, st'''u'''dent, p'''u'''ny, '''u'''nion, f'''u'''ses<br />b'''u'''gle, h'''u'''bris, n'''u'''trient&nbsp;{{small|(RP)}}<br />d'''u'''o, n'''u'''ance, purs'''u'''ant, ens'''u'''ing<br />men'''u''', em'''u''', imprompt'''u'''&nbsp;{{small|(RP)}} || {{IPAc-en|ʌ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|uː}} || st'''u'''dy, p'''u'''nish, b'''u'''nion, b'''u'''ses<br />b'''u'''tler, c'''u'''tlery, s'''u'''brogate<br />s'''u'''per, l'''u'''nar, absol'''u'''te, revol'''u'''tion <br />s'''u'''et, l'''u'''crative, lug'''u'''brious<br />hind'''u''', t'''u'''t'''u''', tof'''u''', tr'''u'''th || {{IPAc-en|ɪ}} b'''u'''sy, b'''u'''siness
|-
| colspan="2" |in open syllables after {{IPAc-en|r|,_|ʃ|,_|ʒ|,_|j}}, or cons. + {{IPAc-en|l}}
*before single consonant
* before cons. + -{{vr|le}} or {{vr|r}} + vowel
* before heterosyllabic vowel
* word-final
| {{IPAc-en|uː}} || r'''u'''le, ch'''u'''te, J'''u'''ne, recl'''u'''ses <br />scr'''u'''ples, r'''u'''bric <br />tr'''u'''ant, fl'''u'''ent, cr'''u'''elty <br />fl'''u''', gur'''u''' || {{IPAc-en|juː}} || over'''u'''se, under'''u'''sed || {{IPAc-en|ʌ}} r'''u'''naway, tr'''u'''culent, cl'''u'''broom<br />{{IPAc-en|ʊ}} s'''u'''gar
|-
| rowspan="2" |after {{vr|g}}
| before {{vr|e, i, y}} || ∅ || g'''u'''est, g'''u'''ide, vag'''u'''er || {{IPAc-en|w}} || seg'''u'''e, disting'''u'''ish || {{IPAc-en|juː}} ambig'''u'''ity
|-
|before {{vr|a, o}}
|{{IPAc-en|w}}
|lang'''u'''age
|∅
|g'''u'''ard, lang'''u'''or
|{{IPAc-en|juː}} jag'''u'''ar&nbsp;{{small|(RP)}}
|-
| colspan="2" |after {{vr|q}} || {{IPAc-en|w}} || q'''u'''ail, conq'''u'''est, banq'''u'''et, q'''u'''ite || ∅ || q'''u'''ay, conq'''u'''er, bouq'''u'''et, mosq'''u'''ito ||
|-
| colspan="2" |unstressed
| {{IPAc-en|ə}}
| s'''u'''pport, ind'''u'''stry, usef'''u'''l, medi'''u'''m
| {{IPAc-en|juː}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ʌ}} || deb'''u'''t<br />g'''u'''ffaw, '''u'''nruly, '''u'''pend, v'''u'''lgarity || {{IPAc-en|ɪ|,_|ə}} min'''u'''te, lett'''u'''ce<!--<br />∅ nat'''u'''ral Acc. to Longman "u" is an optional "ə" (though it makes a syllable), but the same counts for may words, like all ending with "-ful". A true silent "u" would result in the unnatural /nætr|əl/.-->
|-
| rowspan="4" | '''ue'''
| rowspan="2" |after {{vr|g}}||word final
| ∅ || leag'''ue''', tong'''ue''' || {{IPAc-en|juː}} || ag'''ue''' || {{IPAc-en|eɪ}} mereng'''ue''', {{IPAc-en|i}} deng'''ue'''
|-
|word medial
|{{IPAc-en|ɛ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ə}}
|g'''ue'''st, g'''ue'''ssed, bag'''ue'''tte <br />g'''ue'''rrilla, beleag'''ue'''red
|∅
{{IPAc-en|juː}}
|vag'''ue'''ly, intrig'''ue'''d
arg'''ue'''d
|{{IPAc-en|w|eɪ}} seg'''ue'''d, {{IPAc-en|w|ɛ}} g'''ue'''non <br />{{IPAc-en|w|ə}} ung'''ue'''nt, {{IPAc-en|w|iː}} ung'''ue'''s <br />{{IPAc-en|juː|ə}} arg'''ue'''r<br />{{IPAc-en|iː}} Portug'''ue'''se
|-
| colspan="2" |after {{vr|r}}, or cons. + {{vr|l}}
|| {{IPAc-en|uː}} || tr'''ue''', cl'''ue''', gr'''ue'''some, bl'''ue'''s || {{IPAc-en|uː|ə}} || infl'''ue'''nce, cr'''ue'''l, fl'''ue'''nt, bl'''ue'''st || {{IPAc-en|uː|.|ɪ}} cr'''ue'''t, {{IPAc-en|uː|ɛ}} infl'''ue'''ntial
|-
| colspan="2" |elsewhere (except after {{vr|q}}) || {{IPAc-en|juː}} || virt'''ue''', c'''ue''', val'''ue'''d, h'''ue''', m'''ue'''sli || {{IPAc-en|juː|ə}} <br />{{IPAc-en|juː|ɛ}} <br />{{IPAc-en|uː}}<br />{{IPAc-en|uː|ə}} || f'''ue'''l, constit'''ue'''nt, resc'''ue'''r <br />inn'''ue'''ndo, stat'''ue'''sque, min'''ue'''t <br />S'''ue''', snaf'''ue'''d (<small>GA:</small> d'''ue''', reven'''ue''')<br /><small>GA:</small> d'''ue'''l, purs'''ue'''r || {{IPAc-en|uː|.|ɪ}} s'''ue'''t, {{IPAc-en|uː|ɛ}} m'''ue'''zz|in <br />{{IPAc-en|juː|iː}} ten'''ue'''s, {{IPAc-en|j|uː|eɪ}} habit'''ue''' <br />{{IPAc-en|j|ʊə}} p'''ue'''rile, {{IPAc-en|ʊ}} m'''ue'''nster <!--an American cheese --><br />{{IPAc-en|w|eɪ}} s'''ue'''de, Venez'''ue'''lan<br />{{IPAc-en|w|ɛ}} p'''ue'''blo, {{IPAc-en|w|ɪ}} des'''ue'''tude
|-
| rowspan="3" | '''ui'''
| colspan="2" |after {{vr|g}}|| {{IPAc-en|ɪ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|aɪ}} || g'''ui'''ld, g'''ui'''tar, intrig'''ui'''ng, rog'''ui'''sh
g'''ui'''de, g'''ui'''se, beg'''ui'''le
| {{IPAc-en|w|ɪ}}|| ang'''ui'''sh, peng'''ui'''n, ling'''ui'''st, sang'''ui'''ne
| {{IPAc-en|iː}} beg'''ui'''ne, {{IPAc-en|w|iː}} ling'''ui'''ne <br />{{IPAc-en|juː|ɪ}} arg'''ui'''ng, ag'''ui'''sh, contig'''ui'''ty
|-
| colspan="2" |after {{vr|j, r}} or cons. + {{vr|l}} || {{IPAc-en|uː}} || j'''ui'''ce, cr'''ui'''se, sl'''ui'''ce, fr'''ui'''ting || {{IPAc-en|uː|ɪ}}|| fr'''ui'''tion, fl'''ui'''d, r'''ui'''n, dr'''ui'''d, tr'''ui'''sm, incongr'''ui'''ty || {{IPAc-en|uː|.|j}} allel'''ui'''a <br />{{IPAc-en|ʊ}} Cr'''ui'''ckshank
|-
| colspan="2" |elsewhere (except after {{vr|q}}) || {{IPAc-en|juː|ɪ}} <br />{{IPAc-en|ɪ}} || cond'''ui'''t, c'''ui'''ng, gen'''ui'''ne, <br />B'''ui'''ck, circ'''ui'''tous, Jes'''ui'''t<br />b'''ui'''ld, circ'''ui'''t, bisc'''ui'''t, purs'''ui'''vant || {{IPAc-en|uː}} <br />{{IPAc-en|juː|ə}} <br />{{IPAc-en|juː}} <br />{{IPAc-en|uː|ɪ}} || s'''ui'''t, s'''ui'''table, n'''ui'''sance&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}} <br />int'''ui'''tive&nbsp;{{small|(RP)}}, promisc'''ui'''ty <br />n'''ui'''sance&nbsp;{{small|(RP)}}, p'''ui'''sne <br />s'''ui'''cide, t'''ui''', In'''ui'''t, Hind'''ui'''sm || {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} d'''ui'''ker, {{IPAc-en|ə}} circ'''ui'''try <br />{{IPAc-en|w|ɪ}} c'''ui'''sine, s'''ui'''nt <br />{{IPAc-en|w|iː}} s'''ui'''te, enn'''ui''', t'''ui'''lle <br />{{IPAc-en|uː|aɪ}} s'''ui''' generis<br />{{IPAc-en|w|eɪ}} feng sh'''ui'''
|-
| colspan="3" | '''uu''' || {{IPAc-en|j|u|.|ə}} || contin'''uu'''m, resid'''uu'''m || {{IPAc-en|u|.|ə}} || menstr'''uu'''m || {{IPAc-en|(|j|)|uː|ʌ}} d'''uu'''mvir<br />{{IPAc-en|juː}} vac'''uu'''m<br />{{IPAc-en|uː}} m'''uu'''m'''uu'''
|-
| colspan="3" | '''uy''' || {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} || b'''uy''', b'''uy'''out, g'''uy'''ed || {{IPAc-en|iː}}<br />{{IPAc-en|w|i}} || g'''uy'''ot, cliq'''uy''', plag'''uy'''<br />obseq'''uy''', soliloq'''uy''' || {{IPAc-en|j|ʊ|ɪ}} tol'''uy'''l<br />{{IPAc-en|uː|j}} th'''uy'''a, gr'''uy'''ere<br />{{IPAc-en|w|iː}} p'''uy'''<br />{{IPAc-en|w|iː|j}} t'''uy'''ere
|-
| colspan="3" | '''w''' || || || {{IPAc-en|uː}}|| c'''w'''m||
|-
| rowspan="4" |'''y'''
| colspan="2" |
* before multiple consonants
* bef. 2+ unstressed syllables
* next syllable contains {{IPAc-en|ɪ}}
|| {{IPAc-en|ɪ}} || m'''y'''th, cr'''y'''ptic, s'''y'''stem, s'''y'''mbol<br />c'''y'''linder, t'''y'''pical, p'''y'''ramid, d'''y'''nasty <br />c'''y'''nic, l'''y'''ric, l'''y'''tic, s'''y'''ringe || {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} || c'''y'''clone, h'''y'''phen, ps'''y'''che, p'''y'''thon<br />h'''y'''drogen, d'''y'''nasty&nbsp;{{small|(GA)}}<br />c'''y'''clist, h'''y'''brid, ps'''y'''chic, t'''y'''pist||
|-
| colspan="2" |
* before single consonant
* before cons. + -{{vr|le}} or {{vr|r}} + vowel
* word-final
|| {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} || t'''y'''ping, st'''y'''le, paral'''y'''ze, n'''y'''lon<br />c'''y'''cle, c'''y'''press, h'''y'''drate, l'''y'''cra<br />awr'''y''', b'''y''', den'''y''', sk'''y''', suppl'''y''' || {{IPAc-en|ɪ}} || b'''y'''zantine, s'''y'''nod, s'''y'''nagogue, <br />C'''y'''priote, s'''y'''cophantic||
|-
| rowspan="2" |unstressed
| word-final || {{IPAc-en|i}} || an'''y''', cit'''y''', happ'''y''', onl'''y''', suppl'''y'''&nbsp;<small>(adv)</small> || || || {{IPAc-en|aɪ}} all'''y'''&nbsp;<small>(n)</small>
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|ɪ}} || bic'''y'''cle, ox'''y'''gen, pol'''y'''mer,<br />d'''y'''slexia, ph'''y'''sique, s'''y'''nonymous || {{IPAc-en|ə}} <br />{{IPAc-en|aɪ}}<br />{{IPAc-en|i}} || sib'''y'''l, p'''y'''jamas <br />d'''y'''namics, h'''y'''pothesis, t'''y'''phoon <br />an'''y'''way, ever'''y'''thing||
|}
{{notelist-lr}}

=== Combinations of vowel letters and ⟨r⟩ ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="3" | Spelling || Major value<br />([[Help:IPA/English|IPA]]) || Examples of major value || Minor values<br />([[Help:IPA/English|IPA]]) || Examples of minor value || Exceptions
|-
| rowspan="6" |'''ar'''
| rowspan="3" |before a vowel
|next syllable contains {{nowrap|{{IPAc-en|ɪ|,_|ə}} within the same morpheme}} || {{IPAc-en|ær}} || app'''ar'''ent, '''ar'''id, gu'''ar'''antee, m'''ar'''iners, p'''ar'''ish || {{IPAc-en|ɛər}} || p'''ar'''ent, g'''ar'''ish ||
|-
| followed by a morpheme boundary || {{IPAc-en|ɛər}} || c'''ar'''er, sc'''ar'''y, sh'''ar'''ing, r'''ar'''ity || {{IPAc-en|ær}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ɑːr}} || comp'''ar'''able, comp'''ar'''ative<br />f'''ar'''away, ts'''ar'''ist ||
|-
|otherwise
|| {{IPAc-en|ɛər}} || '''ar'''ea, c'''ar'''e, ph'''ar'''oah, v'''ar'''y, w'''ar'''iness || {{IPAc-en|ɑːr}} || '''ar'''ia, '''ar'''e, saf'''ar'''is  || {{IPAc-en|ɒr}} qu'''ar'''antine, w'''ar'''atah
|-
| rowspan="3" |elsewhere ||stressed || {{IPAc-en|ɑːr}} || '''ar'''gyle, c'''ar''', f'''ar'''ce || || || {{IPAc-en|ɛər}} sc'''ar'''ce<br />{{IPAc-en|ær}} s'''ar'''saparilla&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small><br />{{IPAc-en|ɜːr}} dh'''ar'''na
|-
|after {{IPAc-en|w}}
|{{IPAc-en|ɔːr}}
|w'''ar''', aw'''ar'''d, dw'''ar'''f, w'''ar'''ning, qu'''ar'''ter
|
|
|
|-
| unstressed || {{IPAc-en|ər}} || circul'''ar''', pill'''ar''' || || ||
|-
| colspan="3" | '''aer'''|| {{IPAc-en|ɛər}} || '''aer'''ial, '''aer'''oplane || {{IPAc-en|ɪər}} || chim'''aer'''a || {{IPAc-en|ər}} an'''aer'''obe
|-
| colspan="3" | '''air'''|| {{IPAc-en|ɛər}} || c'''air'''n, million'''air'''e, d'''air'''y || || || {{IPAc-en|aɪər}} het'''air'''a<br />{{IPAc-en|aɪ|'|ɪər}} z'''air'''e
|-
| colspan="3" | '''aor'''|| {{IPAc-en|eɪ|'|ɔːr}}|| '''aor'''ta|| {{IPAc-en|aʊ|.|r}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ɔːr}}|| M'''aor'''i<br />extr'''aor'''dinary ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''arr'''
| colspan="2" |before a spoken vowel || {{IPAc-en|ær}} || m'''arr'''y, b'''arr'''el, '''arr'''ow, b'''arr'''en, c'''arr'''ot || {{IPAc-en|ɑːr}} || st'''arr'''y, b'''arr'''ing ||
|-
| colspan="2" |elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|ɑːr}} ||sc'''arr'''ed, P'''arr''' || || ||
|-
| colspan="3" | '''aur'''|| {{IPAc-en|ɔːr}}|| dinos'''aur''', '''aur'''al, '''aur'''a, L'''aur'''a || {{IPAc-en|ɒr}}|| l'''aur'''el, L'''aur'''ence ||
|-
| colspan="3" | '''awer'''|| {{IPAc-en|ɔː|.|ər}}|| gn'''awer''', r'''awer''', th'''awer'''|| || || {{IPAc-en|ɔːr}} dr'''awer'''
|-
| colspan="3" | '''ayer''', '''ayor'''|| {{IPAc-en|eɪ|.|ər}} || l'''ayer''', m'''ayor''', sooths'''ayer'''|| || ||
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''er'''
| colspan="2" |before a vowel|| {{IPAc-en|ɪər}} || h'''er'''e, s'''er'''ies, qu'''er'''y, m'''er'''ely || {{IPAc-en|ɛər}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ɛr}}<br />{{IPAc-en|iː|'|r}}|| comp'''er'''e, th'''er'''e, w'''er'''ewolf<br />d'''er'''elict, h'''er'''esy, p'''er'''ish, v'''er'''y<br />d'''er'''ail, r'''er'''emind || {{IPAc-en|ɜːr}} w'''er'''e, w'''er'''egild
|-
| rowspan="2" |elsewhere
|stressed|| {{IPAc-en|ɜːr}} || h'''er''', j'''er'''k, co'''er'''ced, m'''er'''chant || {{IPAc-en|ɛər}} || b'''er'''ceuse || {{IPAc-en|ɑːr}} cl'''er'''k, s'''er'''geant<br />
|-
|unstressed
|{{IPAc-en|ər}}
|start'''er''', few'''er''', Berb'''er''', argu'''er''', show'''er'''
|{{IPAc-en|eɪ}} (or {{IPAc-en|ər}})
|dossi'''er''', foy'''er'''
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''ear'''
| rowspan="2" | before a consonant || before a morpheme boundary || {{IPAc-en|ɪər}} || d'''ear'''ly, f'''ear'''less, t'''ear'''ful, y'''ear'''ling || {{IPAc-en|ɛər}} || b'''ear'''skin, sw'''ear'''word || {{IPAc-en|ɜːr}} h'''ear'''d
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|ɜːr}} || p'''ear'''ly, h'''ear'''se, y'''ear'''ning, '''ear'''th || {{IPAc-en|ɑːr}} || h'''ear'''ken, h'''ear'''ty, h'''ear'''th || {{IPAc-en|ɪər}} b'''ear'''d, p'''ear'''t <br />{{IPAc-en|eɪ|.|ər}} b'''ear'''naise<br />{{IPAc-en|i|'|ɑːr}} r'''ear'''m
|-
| colspan="2" |elsewhere|| {{IPAc-en|ɪər}} || f'''ear''',  y'''ear''', app'''ear''', h'''ear'''ing, || {{IPAc-en|ɛər}} <br />{{IPAc-en|iː|.|ər}}|| p'''ear''', b'''ear'''ish, w'''ear'''ing <br />lin'''ear''', nucl'''ear''', st'''ear'''in||  <!--derived term--><br />{{IPAc-en|iː|'|r}} t'''ear'''oom
|-
| colspan="3" | '''eer'''|| {{IPAc-en|ɪər}} || ch'''eer'''ing, b'''eer''', '''eer'''{{not a typo|ie}} || {{IPAc-en|iː|ər}} || fr'''eer''', s'''eer'''s ||
|-
| colspan="3" | '''eir'''|| {{IPAc-en|ɛər}} || h'''eir''', mad'''eir'''a, th'''eir''' || {{IPAc-en|ɪər}} || w'''eir'''d, w'''eir''', '''eyr'''ie || {{IPAc-en|aɪər}} on'''eir'''ic, '''eir'''enic
|-
| colspan="3" | '''eor'''|| {{IPAc-en|i|ɔːr}}|| d'''eor'''bit, r'''eor'''ganise || {{IPAc-en|ɪər}}|| th'''eor'''y
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''err'''
| colspan="2" |before a spoken vowel || {{IPAc-en|ɛr}} || '''err'''or, m'''err'''y, t'''err'''ible, h'''err'''ing, f'''err'''et || {{IPAc-en|ɜːr}} || ref'''err'''ing ||
|-
| colspan="2" |elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|ɜːr}} ||'''err''', pref'''err'''ed || || ||
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''eur'''
| colspan="2" |after {{IPAc-en|r|,_|ʃ|,_|ʒ|,_|j}}, cons. + {{IPAc-en|l}}
|{{IPAc-en|ʊər}}
|pl'''eur'''isy
|
|
|
|-
| colspan="2" |elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|j|ʊər}} || '''eur'''o, liqu'''eur''', n'''eur'''al|| {{IPAc-en|ɜːr}} || mass'''eur''', voy'''eur''' || {{IPAc-en|iː|.|ɜːr}} th'''eur'''gy
|-
| rowspan="5" |'''ir'''
| rowspan="2" |before a spoken vowel
| usually || {{IPAc-en|aɪr}} || p'''ir'''ate, v'''ir'''us, '''ir'''is, sp'''ir'''al || {{IPAc-en|ɪr}} || m'''ir'''age, v'''ir'''ile, '''ir'''idescent, sp'''ir'''it ||
|-
| derived from a word with silent {{angbr|e}} following || {{IPAc-en|aɪər}} || w'''ir'''able, asp'''ir'''ing || ||  ||
|-
| colspan="2" |before silent {{angbr|e}}|| {{IPAc-en|aɪər}} || h'''ir'''e, f'''ir'''es, m'''ir'''ed  || ||  ||
|-
| rowspan="2" |elsewhere
|stressed|| {{IPAc-en|ɜːr}} || b'''ir'''d, f'''ir''' || || || {{IPAc-en|ɪər}} menh'''ir'''
|-
|unstressed
|{{IPAc-en|ər}}
|elix'''ir''', kef'''ir''', triumv'''ir'''
|
|
|
|-
| colspan="3" | '''ier'''|| {{IPAc-en|ɪər}} || cash'''ier''', f'''ier'''ce, front'''ier''', p'''ier'''|| {{IPAc-en|aɪər}} <br />{{IPAc-en|i|ər}}|| sh'''ier''', f'''ier'''y, h'''ier'''archy, pl'''ier'''<br />bus'''ier''', rap'''ier''', glac'''ier''', hos'''ier'''y
|| {{IPAc-en|i|.|ɛər}} conc'''ier'''ge, prem'''ier'''e<br />{{IPAc-en|i|eɪ}} atel'''ier''', bust'''ier''', doss'''ier'''<br />{{IPAc-en|iː|ər}} sk'''ier'''
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''irr'''
| colspan="2" |before a spoken vowel || {{IPAc-en|ɪr}} || m'''irr'''or, squ'''irr'''el, c'''irr'''us, t'''irr'''et || {{IPAc-en|ɜːr}}|| st'''irr'''er ||
|-
| colspan="2" |elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|ɜːr}} || wh'''irr'''ed || || ||
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''or'''
| colspan="2" |after {{Vr|w}}|| {{IPAc-en|ɜːr}} || w'''or'''d, w'''or'''k, w'''or'''st || {{IPAc-en|ɔːr}} ||w'''or'''n, sw'''or'''d, sw'''or'''e ||
|-
| rowspan="2" |elsewhere
|stressed|| {{IPAc-en|ɔːr}} || f'''or'''d, b'''or'''ing, m'''or'''e || {{IPAc-en|ɒr}} || f'''or'''est, m'''or'''al<!-- not distinct in GA-->|| {{IPAc-en|ɜːr}} wh'''or'''l<br />{{IPAc-en|ʌr}} b'''or'''ough<br />∅ comf'''or'''table
|-
|unstressed
|{{IPAc-en|ər}}
|gladiat'''or''', maj'''or''', equat'''or'''
|
|
|
|-
| colspan="3" | '''oar'''|| {{IPAc-en|ɔːr}} || b'''oar''', c'''oar'''se, keyb'''oar'''d, s'''oar'''ing || || || {{IPAc-en|ər}} cupb'''oar'''d, starb'''oar'''d<br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ|ˈ|ɑːr}} c'''oar'''ctate
|-
| colspan="3" | '''oer'''|| {{IPAc-en|oʊ|.|ər}}|| partyg'''oer''', forg'''oer''' || {{IPAc-en|uː|.|ər}}|| und'''oer''', can'''oer''' ||{{IPAc-en|ɜːr}} '''oer'''sted
|-
| colspan="3" | '''oir'''|| {{IPAc-en|w|ɑːr}} || reserv'''oir''', mem'''oir''', m'''oir'''e, s'''oir'''ee || {{IPAc-en|ɔɪər}} || c'''oir''', l'''oir''', M'''oir'''a || {{IPAc-en|w|aɪər}} ch'''oir'''<br />{{IPAc-en|ər}} av'''oir'''dupois
|-
| colspan="3" | '''oor'''|| {{IPAc-en|ʊər}}|| p'''oor''', m'''oor''', b'''oor'''ish, r'''oor'''back || {{IPAc-en|ɔːr}}|| d'''oor''', fl'''oor'''ing || {{IPAc-en|ər}} whipp'''oor'''will<br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ|'|ɔːr}} c'''oor'''dinate
|-
| rowspan="3" |'''orr'''
| rowspan="2" | stressed || after {{Vr|w}}|| {{IPAc-en|ʌr}} || w'''orr'''y || || ||
|-
| elsewhere|| {{IPAc-en|ɒr}} ||h'''orr'''id, p'''orr'''idge, t'''orr'''ent, c'''orr'''elate|| {{IPAc-en|ɒr}} {{small|(RP)}}, {{IPAc-en|ɑːr}} {{small|(GA)}} || b'''orr'''ow, s'''orr'''y || {{IPAc-en|ɔːr}} And'''orr'''a
|-
| colspan="2" | unstressed || {{IPAc-en|ər}} || c'''orr'''ect, c'''orr'''upt, haem'''orr'''hage, h'''orr'''ific || || ||
|-
|rowspan=2| '''our'''
| colspan="2" |stressed||{{IPAc-en|ɔːr}} || f'''our''', c'''our'''tesan, disc'''our'''se || {{IPAc-en|aʊər}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ɜːr}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ʊər}}|| h'''our''', fl'''our''', sc'''our'''s<br />j'''our'''ney, c'''our'''tesy, sc'''our'''ge<br />t'''our''', c'''our'''ier, g'''our'''d, vel'''our'''|| {{IPAc-en|ʌr}} c'''our'''age, fl'''our'''ish
|-
| colspan="2" |unstressed|| {{IPAc-en|ər}} || lab'''our''', col'''our'''ful || {{IPAc-en|ʊr}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ʊər}}|| ent'''our'''age, potp'''our'''ri <br />det'''our''', f'''our'''chette
|-
| rowspan="4" |'''ur'''
| rowspan="2" |before a vowel
|elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|j|ʊər}}|| l'''ur'''e, p'''ur'''ity, c'''ur'''ing || {{IPAc-en|ʊər}}|| all'''ur'''e, g'''ur'''u, Sil'''ur'''ian || {{IPAc-en|ɛr}} b'''ur'''y, b'''ur'''ial
|-
|after {{IPAc-en|r|,_|ʃ|,_|ʒ|,_|j}}, cons. + {{IPAc-en|l}} || {{IPAc-en|ʊər}}|| r'''ur'''al, j'''ur'''y, pl'''ur'''al, s'''ur'''e, ass'''ur'''ance, all'''ur'''e || || ||
|-
| rowspan="2" |elsewhere
|stressed|| {{IPAc-en|ɜːr}} || t'''ur'''n, occ'''ur''', c'''ur'''dle || {{IPAc-en|ʌr}} || || {{IPAc-en|ʊər}} lang'''ur'''
|-
|unstressed
|{{IPAc-en|ər}}
|sulph'''ur''', jodhp'''ur''', bulg'''ur''', murm'''ur'''
|
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''urr'''
| colspan="2" |before a spoken vowel || {{IPAc-en|ʌr}} || c'''urr'''ent, h'''urr'''y, fl'''urr'''y, b'''urr'''ow, t'''urr'''et || {{IPAc-en|ɜːr}} || f'''urr'''y, bl'''urr'''ing ||
|-
| colspan="2" |elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|ɜːr}} || b'''urr''', bl'''urr'''ed || || ||
|-
| rowspan="6" |'''yr'''


|-
| rowspan="2" |before a spoken vowel  ||
*bef. 2+ unstressed syllables
* next syllable contains {{IPAc-en|ɪ}}
|{{IPAc-en|ɪr}}
|s'''yr'''up, P'''yr'''enees, l'''yr'''ic, p'''yr'''amid, S'''yr'''ia, m'''y'''riad, s'''yr'''inge, t'''yr'''anny, p'''yr'''rhic || || ||
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|aɪr}} || t'''yr'''ant, g'''yr'''ate, p'''yr'''otechnic, th'''yr'''oid || || ||
|-
| colspan="2" |before silent {{angbr|e}} || {{IPAc-en|aɪər}} || l'''yr'''e, p'''yr'''e, t'''yr'''es, g'''yr'''ed || || ||
|-
| rowspan="2" |elsewhere
|stressed|| {{IPAc-en|ɜːr}} || m'''yr'''tle, m'''yr'''rh || || ||
|-
|unstressed
|{{IPAc-en|ər}}
|mart'''yr'''
|
|
|
|}

=== Combinations of other consonant and vowel letters ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="2" | Spelling || Major value<br />([[Help:IPA/English|IPA]]) || Examples of major value || Minor values<br />([[Help:IPA/English|IPA]]) || Examples of minor value || Exceptions
|-
|'''al'''
|Excluding before {{Vr|f, k, l, m, t}}<br/>{{small|(see below)}}
|{{IPAc-en|æ|l}}
|p'''al''', t'''al'''cum, '''al'''gae, '''al'''p
|{{IPAc-en|ɔː|l}}
|b'''al'''d, Nep'''al''', '''al'''ways, w'''al'''rus
|{{IPAc-en|ɔː}} f'''al'''con (also with {{IPAc-en|ɔː|l}}, {{IPAc-en|ɒ|l}} or {{IPAc-en|æ|l}})<br/>{{IPAc-en|ɒ|l}} f'''al'''se (RP; also {{IPAc-en|ɔː|l}})
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''alf'''
|before a vowel
|{{IPAc-en|æ|l|f}}
|'''alfalf'''a, m'''alf'''easance
|
|
|
|-
|elsewhere|| {{IPAc-en|ɑː|f}}&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small><br />{{IPAc-en|æ|f}}&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>|| c'''alf''', h'''alf'''|| || || {{IPAc-en|ɔː|l|f}} p'''alf'''rey
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''alk'''
|before a vowel
|{{IPAc-en|æ|l|k}}
|'''alk'''aline, grim'''alk'''in
|{{IPAc-en|ɔː|l|k}}
|b'''alk'''anise
|
|-
|elsewhere|| {{IPAc-en|ɔː|k}} || w'''alk''' || || ||
|-
| colspan="2" | '''all'''|| {{IPAc-en|ɔː|l}}<br />{{IPAc-en|æ|l}} || c'''all''', f'''all'''out, sm'''all'''er<br />sh'''all''', c'''all'''us, f'''all'''ow || {{IPAc-en|ɒ|l}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ə|l}} || w'''all'''et, sw'''all'''ow<br />'''all'''ow, di'''all'''ed || {{IPAc-en|ɛ|l}} marshm'''all'''ow&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, p'''all'''-m'''all'''&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>
|-
| rowspan="2" |'''alm'''
|before a vowel
|/æ|lm/
|p'''alm'''ate, s'''alm'''onella, t'''alm'''ud
|/ɔː|lm/
|'''alm'''anac, '''alm'''ost , inst'''alm'''ent
|{{IPAc-en|æ|m}} s'''alm'''on<br />{{IPAc-en|ɑː|l|m}} '''alm'''ond&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>{{efn-lr|According to the ''Longman Pronunciation Dictionary'', 75% of Americans pronounce ''almond'' as {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑː|l|m|ə|n|d}}.{{sfn|Wells|2008}}}}<br />{{IPAc-en|əl|m}} sign'''alm'''ent<br />{{IPAc-en|ɑː|m}} '''alm'''ond&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, b'''alm'''y, p'''alm'''istry.
|-
|elsewhere|| {{IPAc-en|ɑː|(|l|)|m}} || '''alm'''s, c'''alm''' || <br /> || || {{IPAc-en|ɔː|m}} h'''alm'''
|-
| colspan="2" | '''alt'''|| {{IPAc-en|ɔː|l|t|,_|ɒ|l|t}}{{efn-lr|{{IPAc-en|ɒ|l|t}} or {{IPAc-en|ɔː|l|t}} in RP; always {{IPAc-en|ɔː|l|t}} in in GA}} || '''alt'''er, m'''alt''', s'''alt'''y, bas'''alt''' || {{IPAc-en|æ|l|t}} || '''alt'''o, sh'''alt''', s'''alt'''ation, asph'''alt'''&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>|| {{IPAc-en|ɑː|l|t}} gest'''alt'''&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small><br />{{IPAc-en|ə|l|t}} roy'''alt'''y, pen'''alt'''y
|-
| '''ange'''
|word final|| {{IPAc-en|eɪ|n|dʒ}} || arr'''ange''', ch'''ange''', m'''ange''', str'''ange''' || {{IPAc-en|æ|n|dʒ}} || fl'''ange''', phal'''ange''' || {{IPAc-en|ɑː|n|ʒ}} mel'''ange'''<br />{{IPAc-en|ɒ|n|dʒ}} blancm'''ange'''<br />{{IPAc-en|ɪ|n|dʒ}} or'''ange'''
|-
| '''aste'''
|word final|| {{IPAc-en|eɪ|s|t}} || ch'''aste''', lamb'''aste''', p'''aste''', t'''aste''' || {{IPAc-en|æ|s|t}} || cine'''aste''', c'''aste''' (GA), pleon'''aste''' || {{IPAc-en|ɑː|s|t}} (out)c'''aste'''&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small><br />{{IPAc-en|ə|s|t|eɪ}} nam'''aste'''
|-
| -'''ci'''
|unstressed before vowel|| {{IPAc-en|ʃ}} || spe'''ci'''al, gra'''ci'''ous || {{IPAc-en|s|i}} (also {{IPAc-en|ʃ}}) || spe'''ci'''es ||
|-
| colspan="2" | -'''cqu'''|| {{IPAc-en|k|w}} || a'''cqu'''aint, a'''cqu'''ire || {{IPAc-en|k}} || la'''cqu'''er, ra'''cqu'''et ||
|-
| rowspan="3" | '''ed'''
|word final after {{IPAc-en|t}} or {{IPAc-en|d}}|| {{IPAc-en|ɪ|d|,_|ə|d}} || load'''ed''', wait'''ed''' || || ||
|-
|word final after a [[voiceless]] sound|| {{IPAc-en|t}} || pip'''ed''', enserf'''ed''', snak'''ed''' || {{IPAc-en|ɛ|d}} || bip'''ed''', underf'''ed''' || {{IPAc-en|ɪ|d|,_|ə|d}} nak'''ed'''
|-
|word final after a [[Fortis and lenis|lenis]] sound|| {{IPAc-en|d}} || limb'''ed''', enisl'''ed''', unfear'''ed''' || {{IPAc-en|ɛ|d}} || imb'''ed''', misl'''ed''', infrar'''ed''' || {{IPAc-en|ɪ|d|,_|ə|d}} belov'''ed'''
|-
| '''es'''
|word final after a [[fricative]] || {{IPAc-en|ɪ|z|,_|ə|z}} || maz'''es''', wash'''es''', ax'''es''', bas'''es''', piec'''es''' || {{IPAc-en|iː|z}}|| ax'''es''', bas'''es''', fec'''es''', oas'''es''' ||
|-
| '''ex'''-
|unstressed before {{Vr|h}} or a vowel|| {{IPAc-en|ɪ|ɡ|z|,_|ə|ɡ|z}} || '''ex'''ist, '''ex'''amine, '''ex'''haust || {{IPAc-en|ɛ|k|s}} || '''ex'''hale ||
|-
| '''gu'''-
|before {{Vr|a}}|| {{IPAc-en|ɡ|w}} || bilin'''gu'''al, '''gu'''ano, lan'''gu'''age || {{IPAc-en|ɡ}} || '''gu'''ard, '''gu'''arantee ||
|-
| ('''a''')'''isle'''
|word final|| {{IPAc-en|aɪ|l}} || '''aisle''', '''isle''', en'''isle''', l'''isle''' || || ||
|-
| '''le'''
|word final after non {{Vr|r}} cons.|| {{IPAc-en|əl}} || litt'''le''', tab'''le''' || {{IPAc-en|l}} || or'''le''', is'''le''' || {{IPAc-en|l|eɪ}} bouc'''le'''
|-
| '''ngue'''
|word final|| {{IPAc-en|ŋ}} || to'''ngue''', hara'''ngue''', meri'''ngue''' || {{IPAc-en|ŋ|ɡ|eɪ}} || mere'''ngue''', {{not a typo|distin}}'''gué''' || {{IPAc-en|ŋ|ɡ|i}} de'''ngue'''
|-
| colspan="2" | '''old'''|| {{IPAc-en|oʊ|l|d}} || blindf'''old''', '''old'''er, b'''old''' || {{IPAc-en|əl|d}} || scaff'''old''', kob'''old''' (also {{IPAc-en|ɒ|l|d}}) ||
|-
| colspan="2" | '''olk'''|| {{IPAc-en|oʊ|k}} || y'''olk''', f'''olk'''lore || {{IPAc-en|ɒ|l|k}} || p'''olk'''a&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, k'''olk'''hoz || {{IPAc-en|oʊ|l|k}} p'''olk'''a&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>
|-
| colspan="2" | '''oll'''|| {{IPAc-en|ɒ|l}} || d'''oll'''house, p'''oll'''en, tr'''oll'''ey, h'''oll'''y || {{IPAc-en|oʊ|l}} || t'''oll'''house, sw'''oll'''en, tr'''oll'''er, wh'''oll'''y || {{IPAc-en|ɔː}} at'''oll'''&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small><br />{{IPAc-en|ɔɪ}} ch'''oll'''a<br />{{IPAc-en|əl}} car'''oll'''er, c'''oll'''ide
|-
| colspan="2" | '''olm'''|| {{IPAc-en|ɒ|l|m}} || '''olm''', d'''olm'''en || {{IPAc-en|oʊ|l|m}} || enr'''olm'''ent, h'''olm'''ium || {{IPAc-en|oʊ|m}} h'''olm''' (oak)
|-
| rowspan="2" | '''ong'''|| morpheme-final || {{IPAc-en|ɒ|ŋ}}&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small><br />{{IPAc-en|ɔː|ŋ}}&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small> || s'''ong'''stress, al'''ong''', str'''ong''', wr'''ong'''er || {{IPAc-en|ɒ|ŋ}} || t'''ong'''er, b'''ong''', dug'''ong''', t'''ong'''s || {{IPAc-en|ʌ|ŋ}} am'''ong'''
|-
| elsewhere || {{IPAc-en|ɒ|ŋ|g}} || c'''ong'''ress, j'''ong'''leur, b'''ong'''o, c'''ong'''er, '''ong'''oing, n'''ong'''raded
|| {{IPAc-en|ɒ|n|dʒ}} <br />{{IPAc-en|ʌ|ŋ|ɡ}} <br />{{IPAc-en|ʌ|n|dʒ}} <br /> || c'''ong'''eries, l'''ong'''evity, p'''ong'''ee<br />m'''ong'''er, hum'''ong'''ous, m'''ong'''rel<br />sp'''ong'''er, l'''ong'''e, sp'''ong'''y
|| {{IPAc-en|ʌ|ŋ}} t'''ong'''ue <br />{{IPAc-en|ə|n|ɡ}} c'''ong'''ratulate, lem'''ong'''rass<br />{{IPAc-en|ən|dʒ}} c'''ong'''eal, c'''ong'''estion<br />{{IPAc-en|ɒ|n|ʒ}} all'''ong'''e<br />{{IPAc-en|oʊ|n|ʒ}} c'''ong'''é&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>
|-
| colspan="2" |'''ought'''
|{{IPAc-en|ɔː|t}}
|b'''ought''', br'''ought''', f'''ought''', n'''ought''', '''ought''', s'''ought''', th'''ought''', wr'''ought'''
|{{IPAc-en|aʊ|t}}
|d'''ough'''ty, dr'''ough'''t
|
|-
| colspan="2" | '''qu'''- || {{IPAc-en|k|w}} || '''qu'''een, '''qu'''ick || {{IPAc-en|k}} || li'''qu'''or, mos'''qu'''ito ||
|-
| '''que'''
|word final|| {{IPAc-en|k}} || mos'''que''', bis'''que''' || {{IPAc-en|k|eɪ}} || man'''que''', ris'''qué''' || {{IPAc-en|k|j|uː}} barbe'''que'''<br />{{IPAc-en|k|i}} pul'''que'''
|-
| '''re'''
|word final after non {{Vr|r}} cons. || {{IPAc-en|ər}} || timb'''re''', ac'''re''', og'''re''', cent'''re''' || {{IPAc-en|r|eɪ}}, {{IPAc-en|r|i}}<br />{{IPAc-en|r|ə}} || cad'''re''' (GA), compad'''re''', emig'''re'''<br />gen'''re''', oeuv'''re''', fiac'''re''' ||
|-
| '''ron'''
|word final after vowel|| {{IPAc-en|r|ɒ|n}} || neu'''ron''', mo'''ron''', interfe'''ron''', aile'''ron''' || {{IPAc-en|r|ən}} || ba'''ron''', he'''ron''', envi'''ron''' || {{IPAc-en|ər|n}} i'''ron'''<br />{{IPAc-en|r|oʊ|n}} chape'''ron'''
|-
| '''sci'''-
|unstressed before a vowel|| {{IPAc-en|ʃ}} || con'''sci'''ence, lu'''sci'''ous, pro'''sci'''utto || {{IPAc-en|s|aɪ}} || '''sci'''atica, '''sci'''amachy, '''sci'''ential || {{IPAc-en|ʃ|i}} con'''sci'''entious, fa'''sci'''ated <br />{{IPAc-en|s|ɪ}}&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small> omni'''sci'''ent, pre'''sci'''ence
|- <!-- Probably better to delete this: "rule" only applies to muscle, arbuscle, corpuscle and crepuscle -->
| '''scle'''|| word final || {{IPAc-en|s|əl}} || corpu'''scle''', mu'''scle''' || {{IPAc-en|s|k|əl}} || ma'''scle''' ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | -'''se'''
|word final after vowel (noun)|| {{IPAc-en|s}} || hou'''se''', excu'''se''', moo'''se''', ani'''se''', gee'''se''' || {{IPAc-en|z}}|| pro'''se''', no'''se''', tea'''se''', gui'''se''', compromi'''se''' || {{IPAc-en|z|eɪ}} marche'''se''' <!-- not after a vowel {{IPAc-en|s|i}} pos'''se''' -->
|-
|word final after vowel (verb)|| {{IPAc-en|z}} || hou'''se''', excu'''se''', choo'''se''', ari'''se''', plea'''se''' || {{IPAc-en|s}} || grou'''se''', do'''se''', lea'''se''', cha'''se''', promi'''se''' ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | -'''si'''
|unstressed after a vowel|| {{IPAc-en|ʒ}} || vi'''si'''on, occa'''si'''on, explo'''si'''on, illu'''si'''on || {{IPAc-en|z|i}} || ea'''si'''er, enthu'''si'''asm, phy'''si'''ological ||
|-
|unstressed after a cons.
|/ʃ/
|pen'''si'''on, controver'''si'''al, compul'''si'''on
|
|
|/si/ tar'''s'''ier, Cel'''s'''ius
|-
| -'''ssi'''
|unstressed before a vowel|| {{IPAc-en|ʃ}} || mi'''ssi'''on, pa'''ssi'''on, Ru'''ssi'''a, se'''ssi'''on || {{IPAc-en|s|i}} || pota'''ssi'''um, do'''ssi'''er, me'''ssi'''er ||
|-
| -'''sti'''
|unstressed before a vowel|| {{IPAc-en|s|tʃ}} || que'''sti'''on, Chri'''sti'''an, sugge'''sti'''on || || ||
|-
| rowspan="2" | -'''sure'''
|unstressed after a vowel|| {{IPAc-en|ʒ|ər}} || lei'''sure''', trea'''sure''' || || ||
|-
|unstressed after a cons.
|{{IPAc-en|ʃ|ər}}
|ton'''sure''', cen'''sure'''
|
|
|
|-
| -'''the'''
|unstressed|| {{IPAc-en|ð}} || sca'''the''', spa'''the''' || || ||
|-
| -'''ti'''
|unstressed before a vowel|| {{IPAc-en|ʃ}} || cau'''ti'''ous, pa'''ti'''ent, iner'''ti'''a, ini'''ti'''al, ra'''ti'''on || {{IPAc-en|t|i}}<br />{{IPAc-en|ʃ|i}} || pa'''ti'''os, consor'''ti'''a, fif'''ti'''eth, cour'''ti'''er<br />ra'''ti'''os, minu'''ti'''a, ini'''ti'''ate, nego'''ti'''ate || {{IPAc-en|t|aɪ}} ca'''ti'''on, ca'''ti'''onic<br />{{IPAc-en|ʒ}} equa'''ti'''on<br />{{IPAc-en|tj}} ren'''ti'''er (GA)
|-
| -'''ture'''
|unstressed|| {{IPAc-en|tʃ|ər}} || na'''ture''', pic'''ture''' || || ||
|-
| -'''zure'''
|unstressed|| {{IPAc-en|ʒ|ər}} || sei'''zure''', a'''zure''' || || ||
|}
{{notelist-lr}}

== Sound-to-spelling correspondences ==
The following table shows for each sound the various spelling patterns used to denote it, starting with the prototypical pattern(s) followed by others in alphabetical order. Some of these patterns are very rare or unique (such as {{vr|gh}} for {{IPA|/p/}}, {{vr|ph}} for {{IPA|/v/}}, {{vr|i}} for {{IPA|/ɑː/}}). An [[ellipsis]] ({{vr|…}}) stands for an intervening consonant.

=== Consonants ===
Arranged in the order of the [[International Phonetic Alphabet#Consonants|IPA consonant tables]].
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="3" | Consonants
|-
! [[Help:IPA/English|IPA]] || Spelling || Examples
<!--nasals-->
|-
| {{IPA|/m/}} || m, mm, chm, gm, lm, mb, mbe, me, mh, mme, mn, mp, sme || '''m'''ine, ha'''mm'''er, dra'''chm''', phle'''gm''', sa'''lm'''on, cli'''mb''', co'''mbe''', for'''me''', '''mh'''o, fe'''mme''', autu'''mn''', assu'''mp'''tion, di'''sme'''
|-Longm
| {{IPA|/n/}} || n, nn, cn, dn, gn, gne, kn, mn, mp, nd, ne, ng, nh, nne, nt, pn, sn, sne || '''n'''ice, i'''nn''', '''cn'''idarian, We'''dn'''esday, '''gn'''ome, coi'''gne''', '''kn'''ee, '''mn'''emonic, co'''mp'''troller, ha'''nd'''some, bor'''ne''', '''ng'''aio<!-- studdi'''ng'''sail only has /n/ in the nautical pronunciation -->, pira'''nh'''a, to'''nne''', topgalla'''nt'''-sail, '''pn'''eumonia, pui'''sn'''e, me'''sne'''
|-
| {{IPA|/ŋ/}} || ng, n, nc, nd, ngh, ngue, nh || si'''ng''', li'''n'''k, charaba'''nc''', ha'''nd'''kerchief, sa'''ngh''', to'''ngue''', [[hyperbolic sine|si'''nh''']]
<!--stops-->
|-
| {{IPA|/p/}} || p, pp, gh, pe, (ph), ppe || '''p'''ill, a'''pp'''s, hiccou'''gh''', thor'''pe''', di'''ph'''thong&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>,{{efn-lr|In 2008, 61% of British people pronounced ''diphthong'' as {{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɪ|p|θ|ɒ|ŋ}}, though phoneticians prefer {{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|ɪ|f|θ|ɒ|ŋ}}.{{sfn|Wells|2008|page=232}}}} ste'''ppe'''
|-
| {{IPA|/b/}} || b, bb, be, bh, pb, gb || '''b'''it, e'''bb''', bar'''be''', '''bh'''ang, cu'''pb'''oard, I'''gb'''o
|-
| {{IPA|/t/}} || t, tt, bt, cht, ct, d, dt, ed, ght, kt, pt, phth, st, te, th, tte || '''t'''en, se'''tt''', dou'''bt''', ya'''cht''', vi'''ct'''ual, ice'''d''', vel'''dt''', dress'''ed''', li'''ght'''er, '''kt'''ypeite, '''pt'''armigan, '''phth'''isical, ce'''st'''ui, for'''te''', '''th'''yme, cigare'''tte'''
|-
| {{IPA|/d/}} || d, dd, ddh, bd, de, dh, ed, ld || '''d'''ive, o'''dd''', Bu'''ddh'''ism, '''bd'''ellium, hor'''de''', '''dh'''arma, abandon'''ed''', so'''ld'''er,
|-
| {{IPA|/k/}} || c, k, cc, cch, ch, ck, cq, cqu, cque, cu, ke, kh, kk, lk, q, qh, qu, que, x, (g) ||'''c'''at, '''k'''ey, a'''cc'''ount, zu'''cch'''ini, '''ch'''ord, ta'''ck'''<!--, sa'''ckc'''loth pronounced /ˈsækˌklɔːθ/-->, a'''cq'''uire, la'''cqu'''er, sa'''cque''', bis'''cu'''it, bur'''ke''', '''kh'''aki, tre'''kk'''er, po'''lk'''a-dotted, '''q'''uorum, fi'''qh''', li'''qu'''or, mos'''que''', e'''x'''cite, (stren'''g'''th)
|-
| {{IPA|/ɡ/}} || g, gg, ckg, gge, gh, gu, gue || '''g'''i'''g''', e'''gg''', bla'''ckg'''uard, po'''gge''', '''gh'''ost, '''gu'''ard, catalo'''gue'''
<!--fricatives to approximants-->
|-
| {{IPA|/f/}} || f, ff, fe, ffe, ft, gh, lf, ph, phe, pph, (u) || '''f'''ine, cha'''ff''', cara'''fe''', ga'''ffe''', so'''ft'''en, lau'''gh''', ha'''lf''', '''ph'''ysical, ou'''phe''', sa'''pph'''ire, lie'''u'''tenant&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>
|-
| {{IPA|/v/}} || v, vv, f, lve, ph, u, ve, w, zv, b, bh || '''v'''ine, sa'''vv'''y, o'''f''', ha'''lve''', Ste'''ph'''en, q'''u'''etsch, ha'''ve''', '''w'''eltanschauung, rende'''zv'''ous, Ha'''b'''dalah, kethi'''bh'''
|-
| {{IPA|/θ/}} || th, the, chth, phth, tth, h, t || '''th'''in, absin'''the''', '''chth'''onic, apo'''phth'''egm, eight'''h''', [[Hyperbolic tangent|'''t'''anh]]
|-
| {{IPA|/ð/}} || th, the, dd, dh, y || '''th'''em, brea'''the''', gorse'''dd''', e'''dh''', '''y'''e&nbsp;<small>(mock archaic)</small>
|-
| {{IPA|/s/}} || s, ss, c, cc, ce, ps, sc, sce, sch, se, sh, sse, sses, st, (sth), sw, t, th, ti, (ts), tsw, tzs, tz, (z) || '''s'''ong, me'''ss''', '''c'''ity, fla'''cc'''id, oun'''ce''', '''ps'''alm, '''sc'''ene, coale'''sce''', '''sch'''ism&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, hor'''se''', di'''sh'''onest, fine'''sse''', chau'''sses''', li'''st'''en, a'''sth'''ma&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, '''sw'''ord, tzitzi'''t''', zizi'''th''', Kiriba'''ti''', '''ts'''unami&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, boa'''tsw'''ain, brit'''zs'''ka, wal'''tz'''&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, quart'''z'''
|-
| {{IPA|/z/}} || z, zz, cz, s, (sc), se, sh, sp, ss, (sth), ts, tz, x, ze, zh, zs&nbsp;<small>(one pronunciation)</small>, c&nbsp;<small>(some dialects)</small> || '''z'''oo, fu'''zz''', '''cz'''ar, ha'''s''', cre'''sc'''ent&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>,{{efn-lr|The majority of British people, and the great majority of younger ones, pronounce ''crescent'' as {{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|r|ɛ|z|ən|t}}.{{sfn|Wells|2008|page=196}}}} tea'''se''', dé'''sh'''abillé, ra'''sp'''berry, di'''ss'''olve, a'''sth'''ma&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, '''ts'''arina, '''tz'''ar, '''x'''ylophone, bree'''ze''', '''zh'''o, (vi'''zs'''la), (electri'''c'''ity)
|-
| {{IPA|/ʃ/}} || sh, c, ce, ch, che, chi, chsi, ci, s, sc, sch, sche, schsch, sci, sesh, she, shh, shi, si, sj, ss, ssi, ti, psh, zh, x ||'''sh'''in, spe'''c'''iality, o'''ce'''an, ma'''ch'''ine, qui'''che''', mar'''chi'''oness, fu'''chsi'''a, spe'''ci'''al, '''s'''ugar, cre'''sc'''endo, '''sch'''mooze, schotti'''sche''', e'''schsch'''oltzia, con'''sci'''ence, tortoi'''sesh'''ell, galo'''she''', '''shh''', cu'''shi'''on, expan'''si'''on, '''sj'''ambok, ti'''ss'''ue, mi'''ssi'''on, na'''ti'''on, '''psh'''aw, piro'''zh'''ki, pa'''x'''iuba
|-
| {{IPA|/ʒ/}} || (ci), g, ge, j, s, si, ssi, ti, z, zh, zhe, (zi), zs&nbsp;<small>(one pronunciation)</small> || coer'''ci'''on&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, '''g'''enre, bei'''ge''', bi'''j'''ou, lei'''s'''ure, divi'''si'''on, absci'''ssi'''on, equa'''ti'''on, sei'''z'''ure, mu'''zh'''ik, u'''zhe'''<!-- Should such non-standard vulgarisms be included here? -->,{{efn-lr|The primarily spoken-only abbreviation of ''usual'' has no standardised spelling, but is often spelled [[wikt:uzhe|''uzhe'']].}} bra'''zi'''er&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, (vi'''zs'''la)
|-
| {{IPA|/x/}} || ch&nbsp;<small>(in Scottish English),</small> gh&nbsp;<small>(in Irish English)</small> || lo'''ch''', lou'''gh''' <!-- when pronounced as in original language also '''ch'''utzpah, fa'''j'''ita, etc.-->
|-
| {{IPA|/h/}} || h, wh, j, ch || '''h'''e, '''wh'''o, fa'''j'''ita, '''ch'''utzpah
<!-- flaps, trills, laterals-->
|-
| {{IPA|/r/}} || r, rh, wr || '''r'''un, '''rh'''yme, '''wr'''ong
|-
| {{IPA|/l/}} || l, ll, le, lh, lle, gl, sle, <!-- lll,--> ln&nbsp;<small>(some dialects)</small>||'''l'''ine, sha'''ll''', ta'''le''', pe'''lh'''am, gaze'''lle''', imbro'''gl'''io, ai'''sle''',<!-- wa'''lll'''ess In all dictionaries spelled "wall-less"--> (ki'''ln''')
<!--continuants-->
|-
| {{IPA|/j/}} || y, h, i, j, l, ll, z, r&nbsp;<small>(one pronunciation)</small> || '''y'''es, vin'''h'''o verde, on'''i'''on, hallelu'''j'''ah, l'''l'''ano, torti'''ll'''a, capercail'''z'''ie, Feb'''r'''uary{{efn-lr|In 2008, 64% of Americans and 39% of British people pronounce ''February'' as {{IPAc-en|ˈ|f|ɛ|b|j|u|ɛr|i}}.{{sfn|Wells|2008|page=301}}}}
|-
| {{IPAslink|ʍ|hw}} || wh&nbsp;<small>(in [[voiceless labio-velar approximant#Occurrence|some]] dialects)</small>|| '''wh'''ich
|-
| {{IPA|/w/}} || w, u, h, ou, ju, wh&nbsp;<small>(in most dialects)</small>||'''w'''e, pers'''u'''ade, c'''h'''oir, '''ou'''ija, mari'''ju'''ana, '''wh'''at
|-
|{{IPA|/ts/}}
|ts, tz, zz
|nu'''ts''', quar'''tz''', pi'''zz'''a
|-
|{{IPA|/dz/}}
|ds, dz, z
|pa'''ds''', po'''dz'''ol, jiao'''z'''i 
|-
| {{IPA|/tʃ/}} || ch, tch, c, cc, cch, (che), chi, cs, cz, q, t, tche, te, (th), (ti), ts, tsch, tz, tzs, tzsch, h || '''ch'''op, ba'''tch''', '''c'''ello, bo'''cc'''e, ka'''cch'''a, ni'''che'''&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, fal'''chi'''on, '''cs'''ardas, '''Cz'''ech, '''q'''i, na'''t'''ure, escu'''tche'''on, righ'''te'''ous, pos'''th'''umous&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, bas'''ti'''on&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, bri'''ts'''ka&nbsp;<small>(US)</small>, pu'''tsch''', bri'''tz(s)'''ka&nbsp;<small>(US),</small> Nie'''tzsch'''ean, [[Hyperbolic sine|sin'''h''']]
|-
| {{IPA|/dʒ/}} || g, j, (ch), d, dg, dge, di, dj, dzh, ge, gg, gi, jj, t, zh|| ma'''g'''ic, '''j'''ump, sandwi'''ch'''&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, gra'''d'''uate, ju'''dg'''ment, bri'''dge''', sol'''di'''er, a'''dj'''ust, Ta'''dzh'''ik, bar'''ge''', ve'''gg'''ies, Bel'''gi'''an, ha'''jj''', congra'''t'''ulate&nbsp;<small>(US)</small>{{efn-lr|The majority of Americans, and the great majority of younger ones, pronounce ''congratulate'' as {{IPAc-en|k|ə|n|ˈ|g|r|æ|dʒ|ə|l|eɪ|t}}.{{sfn|Wells|2008|page=176}}}}, gu'''zh'''eng
|-
| {{IPA|/ks/}} || x, xx, cast, cc, chs, cks, cques, cs, cz, kes, ks, lks, ques, xc, xe, xs, xsc, xsw || sa'''x''', do'''xx'''ing, fore'''cast'''le, a'''cc'''ent, ta'''chs''', ba'''cks''', sa'''cques''', sa'''cs''', e'''cz'''ema, bur'''kes''', ya'''ks''', cau'''lks''', to'''ques''', e'''xc'''el, a'''xe''', e'''xs'''ert, e'''xsc'''ind, co'''xsw'''ain
|-
|{{IPA|/gz/}}
|x, ggs, gs
|e'''x'''am, e'''ggs''', ba'''gs'''
|}
{{notelist-lr}}

=== Vowels ===
[[Nasal vowel]]s used by some speakers in words of French origin such as ''enceinte'' ({{IPAc-en|Q~|"|s|{~|t}}), are not included.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="3" | Vowels
|-
! [[Help:IPA/English|IPA]] || Spelling || width=62% | Examples
|-
| {{IPA|/æ/}} || a, a...e, (ag), ai, al, (ar), (au), ea, ei, i, o&nbsp;<small>(one pronunciation)</small> || h'''a'''nd, h'''a'''v'''e''', ser'''ag'''lio&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, pl'''ai'''d, s'''al'''mon, s'''ar'''saparilla&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, l'''au'''gh&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, pol'''ea'''x enc'''ei'''nte, mer'''i'''ngue, (ch'''o'''metz)<!-- 'The Chambers Dictionary' gives /hæˈmɛts/ and /ˈxæmɛts/ as two possible pronunciations of this word -->
|-
| {{IPA|/ɑː/}} || a, a...e, aa, aae, aah, aahe, (ag), ah, (au), (i), o&nbsp;<small>(one pronunciation)</small>, ar&nbsp;<small>(one pronunciation)</small> || f'''a'''ther, gar'''a'''g'''e''', sal'''aa'''m, b'''aae'''d, '''aah''', '''aahe'''d, ser'''ag'''lio&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, bl'''ah''', '''au'''nt&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, l'''i'''ngerie&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, (ch'''o'''metz), <!-- Lexico gives /hɑːˈmɛts/ and /ˈxɑːmɛts/ as two possible pronunciations of this word -->(schoolm'''ar'''m)<!-- The 'r' may be omitted even in rhotic varieties of English, according to Lexico and Merriam-Webster. -->
|-
| {{IPA|/aɪ/}}
|| i...e, ae, ai, aie, (aille), ais, ay, aye, ei, eigh, eu, ey, eye, i, ia, ic, {{not a typo|ie}}, ig, igh, ighe, is, oi, (oy), ui, uy, uye, y, y...e, ye
|| f'''i'''n'''e''', m'''ae'''stro, kr'''ai'''t, shangh'''aie'''d, can'''aille'''&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, '''ais'''le, k'''ay'''ak, '''aye''', h'''ei'''st, h'''eigh'''t, d'''eu'''ddarn, h'''ey'''duck, '''eye''', m'''i'''c, d'''ia'''per, ind'''ic'''t, t'''ie''', s'''ig'''n, h'''igh''', s'''ighe'''d, '''is'''le, ch'''oi'''r, c'''oy'''ote&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, g'''ui'''de, b'''uy''', g'''uye'''d, wh'''y''', t'''y'''p'''e''', b'''ye'''
|-
| {{IPA|/aʊ/}} || ou, ow, ao, aou, aow, aowe, au, odh, ough, oughe, owe, iao, iau || '''ou'''t, n'''ow''', mano'''ao''', c'''aou'''tchouc, mi'''aow''', mi'''aowe'''d, g'''au'''ss, b'''odh'''rán, b'''ough''', pl'''oughe'''d, v'''owe'''d, j'''iao''', ch'''iau'''s
|-
| {{IPA|/ɛ/}} || e, a, ae, ai, ay, e...e, ea, eh, ei, eo, {{not a typo|ie}}, oe, ue, ee&nbsp;<small>(one pronunciation)</small> || m'''e'''t, m'''a'''ny, '''ae'''sthetic, s'''ai'''d, s'''ay'''s, th'''e'''r'''e''', d'''ea'''f, f'''eh''', h'''ei'''fer, j'''eo'''pardy, fr'''ie'''nd, f'''oe'''tid, g'''ue'''ss, (thr'''ee'''pence)
|-
| {{IPA|/eɪ/}} || a, a...e, aa, ae, ai, ai...e, aig, aigh, ais,, alf, ao, au, ay, aye, e (é), e...e, ea, {{not a typo|eg}}, ee (ée), eh, ei, ei...e, eig, eigh, eighe, er, ere, es, et, ete, ey, eye, ez, ({{not a typo|ie}}), (oeh), ue, uet || b'''a'''ss, r'''a'''t'''e''', qu'''aa'''lude, regg'''ae''', r'''ai'''n, coc'''ai'''n'''e''', arr'''aig'''n, str'''aigh'''t, pal'''ais''', h'''alf'''penny, g'''ao'''l, g'''au'''ge, h'''ay''', pl'''aye'''d, ukul'''e'''le (caf'''é'''), cr'''e'''p'''e''', st'''ea'''k, matin'''ee''' (soir'''ée'''), th'''{{not a typo|eg}}'''n, '''eh''', v'''ei'''l, b'''ei'''g'''e''', r'''eig'''n, '''eigh'''t, w'''eighe'''d, dossi'''er''', espali'''ere'''d, dem'''es'''ne, ball'''et''', croch'''ete'''d, th'''ey''', ob'''eye'''d, ch'''ez''', linger'''ie'''&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, b'''oeh'''mite&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, mereng'''ue''', bouq'''uet'''
|-
| {{IPA|/ə/}} || a, e, i, o, u, y, a...e, ae, ah, ai, anc, ath, au, ea, eau, eh, ei, eig, eo, eou, (eu), gh, ia, ie, io, o...e, oa, oe, oh, oi, oo, op, ou, (ough), (u...e), ua, ue, (ui), uo, wa...e || tun'''a''', ov'''e'''n, penc'''i'''l, pil'''o'''t, op'''u'''s, ber'''y'''l, carc'''a'''s'''e''', Messi'''ah''', mount'''ai'''n, bl'''anc'''mange, tu'''ath''', serg'''ea'''nt, bur'''eau'''crat, keffiy'''eh''', mull'''ei'''n, for'''eig'''n, trunch'''eo'''n, tim'''eou'''s, amat'''eu'''r&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, bur'''gh''', spat'''ia'''l, defic'''ie'''nt, leg'''io'''n, awes'''o'''m'''e''', starb'''oa'''rd, bioc'''oe'''nosis, matz'''oh''', porp'''oi'''se, whip'''oo'''rwill, t'''op'''gallant, call'''ou'''s, bor'''ough'''&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, min'''u'''t'''e'''&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, piq'''ua'''nt, g'''ue'''rilla, circ'''ui'''t&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, lang'''uo'''r, gun'''wa'''l'''e'''<!--, (halfpenny'''wor'''th) Longman has /ˈheɪpəθ/ as one (not the main) pronunciation for the whole word. There is just a lot skipped there; it's not an argument that /ə/ can be spelled "ennywor"-->
|-
| {{IPA|/ɪ/}} || i, y, a, a...e, ai, e, ea, ee, ei, i...e, ia, {{not a typo|ie}}, ii, o, oe, u, u...e, ui || b'''i'''t, m'''y'''th, or'''a'''nge, chocol'''a'''t'''e''', barg'''ai'''n, pr'''e'''tty, mil'''ea'''ge, br'''ee'''ches, counterf'''ei'''t, medic'''i'''n'''e''', carr'''ia'''ge, s'''ie'''ve, sh'''ii'''take, w'''o'''men, '''oe'''dema, b'''u'''sy, min'''u'''t'''e''', b'''ui'''ld
|-
| {{IPA|/iː/}} || e, e...e, i, i...e, a, ae, aoi, ay, ea, ee, e'e, ei, eo, ey, eye, {{not a typo|ie}}, ie...e, is, ix, oe, oi, ue, ui, uy, y || b'''e''', c'''e'''d'''e''', sk'''i''', mach'''i'''n'''e''', bologn'''a''', alg'''ae''', T'''aoi'''seach, qu'''ay''', b'''ea'''ch, b'''ee''', '''e'e'''n, dec'''ei'''t, p'''eo'''ple, k'''ey''', k'''eye'''d, f'''ie'''ld, hyg'''ie'''n'''e''', debr'''is''', pr'''ix''', am'''oe'''ba, cham'''oi'''s, deng'''ue''', beg'''ui'''ne, g'''uy'''ot, '''y'''nambu
|-
| {{IPA|/ɒ/}} || a, o, ach, au, eau, oh, (ou), ow, e, (eo) || w'''a'''tch, l'''o'''ck, y'''ach'''t, s'''au'''sage, bur'''eau'''cracy, c'''ou'''gh&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, ackn'''ow'''ledge, '''e'''ntrée, ch'''eo'''ngsam&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>
|-
| {{IPA|/ɔː/}} || a, al, au, au...e, augh, aughe, aw, awe, ea, (o), oa, oss, (ou), ough || b'''a'''ld, t'''al'''k, <!-- Arkans'''as''', too many exceptions in proper names--> '''au'''thor, c'''au'''s'''e''', c'''augh'''t, oversl'''aughe'''d, j'''aw''', '''awe''', '''ea'''ldorman, br'''oa'''d, cr'''oss'''jack, c'''ou'''gh, b'''ough'''t
|-
| {{IPA|/ɔɪ/}} || oi, oy, eu, oll, ooi, oye, ui, (uoy), uoye, (awy) || av'''oi'''d, t'''oy''', l'''awy'''er, Fr'''eu'''dian, ch'''oll'''a, r'''ooi'''bos, enj'''oye'''d, sch'''ui'''t, b'''uoy'''ant, b'''uoye'''d&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, (lawyer)
|-
| {{IPA|/oʊ/}}|| o, o...e, aoh, au, aux, eau, eaue, eo, ew, oa, oe, oh, oo, ore, ot, ou, ough, oughe, ow, owe, w || s'''o''', b'''o'''n'''e''', phar'''aoh''', m'''au'''ve, f'''aux''', b'''eau''', plat'''eaue'''d, y'''eo'''man, s'''ew''', b'''oa'''t, f'''oe''', '''oh''', br'''oo'''ch, f'''ore'''castle, dep'''ot''', s'''ou'''l, th'''ough''', furl'''oughe'''d, kn'''ow''', '''owe''', p'''w'''n
|-
| {{IPA|/ʌ/}} || u, o, o...e, oe, oo, ou, uddi, wo, a, au&nbsp;<small>(some dialects)</small>, ee&nbsp;<small>(one pronunciation)</small> || s'''u'''n, s'''o'''n, c'''o'''m'''e''', d'''oe'''s, fl'''oo'''d, t'''ou'''ch, st'''uddi'''ngsail, t'''wo'''pence, s'''a'''ti, (bec'''au'''se), (thr'''ee'''pence)
|-
| {{IPA|/ʊ/}} || oo, u, o, o...e, (or), oul, w || f'''oo'''t, f'''u'''ll, w'''o'''lf, pembr'''o'''k'''e''', w'''or'''sted&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, sh'''oul'''d, c'''w'''tch
|-
| {{IPA|/uː/}} || u, u...e, oo, oo...e, eew, eu, ew, ieu, ioux, o, o...e, oe, oeu, ooe, ou, ough, ougha, oup, ue, uh, ui, (uo), w, wo || t'''u'''t'''u''', fl'''u'''t'''e''', t'''oo''', gr'''oo'''v'''e''', l'''eew'''ard, sl'''eu'''th, y'''ew''', l'''ieu''', S'''ioux''', t'''o''', l'''o'''s'''e''', sh'''oe''', man'''oeu'''vre, c'''ooe'''d, s'''ou'''p, thr'''ough''', br'''ougha'''m, c'''oup''', tr'''ue''', b'''uh'''l, fr'''ui'''t, b'''uo'''y&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, c'''w'''m, t'''wo'''
|-
| {{IPA|/juː/}} || u, u...e, ew, eau, eo, eu, ewe, ieu, iew, (ou), ue, ueue, ui, ut, uu, you || m'''u'''sic, '''u'''s'''e''', f'''ew''', b'''eau'''ty, f'''eo'''dary, f'''eu'''d, '''ewe''', ad'''ieu''', v'''iew''', amp'''ou'''le&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, c'''ue''', q'''ueue''', n'''ui'''sance, deb'''ut''', vac'''uu'''m, '''you'''
|}
{{notelist-lr}}

=== Vowels followed by {{angbr|r}} ===
[[Nasal vowel]]s used by some speakers in words of French origin such as ''enceinte'' ({{IPAc-en|Q~|"|s|{~|t}}), are not included.
{| class="wikitable"
! colspan="3" | Vowels
|-
! [[Help:IPA/English|IPA]] || Spelling || width=62% | Examples
|-
| {{IPA|/ær/}} || ar, arr, ahr, uar || '''ar'''id, m'''arr'''y, F'''ahr'''enheit, g'''uar'''antee
|-
| {{IPA|/ɑːr/}}|| ar, aar, ahr, alla, are, arr, arre, arrh, ear, er, uar, our&nbsp;<small>(some dialects)</small> || c'''ar''', baz'''aar''', t'''ahr''', topg'''alla'''nt-sail, '''are''', p'''arr''', biz'''arre''', cat'''arrh''', h'''ear'''t, s'''er'''geant, g'''uar'''d, ('''our''')
|-
| {{IPA|/aɪər/}}
|| ire, ier, igher, yer, yre, oir, uyer
|| f'''ire''', cr'''ier''', h'''igher''', fl'''yer''', p'''yre''', ch'''oir''', b'''uyer'''
|-
| {{IPA|/aʊər/}} || our, ower  || s'''our''', t'''ower'''
|-
| {{IPA|/ɛr/}} || er, err, ur || v'''er'''y, m'''err'''y, b'''ur'''y
|-
| {{IPA|/ɛər/}}|| are, aer, air, aire, ar, ayer, ayor, ayre, e'er, eah, ear, eir, eor, er, ere, err, erre, ert, ey're, eyr || b'''are''', '''aer'''ial, t'''ahr''', h'''air''', million'''aire''', sc'''ar'''ce, pr'''ayer''', m'''ayor''', f'''ayre''', n'''e'er''', y'''eah''', b'''ear''', h'''eir''', c'''eor'''l, mod'''er'''ne, wh'''ere''', '''err'''&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, part'''erre''', couv'''ert''', th'''ey're''', '''eyr'''a
|-
| {{IPA|/ər/}} || ar, er, ir, or, aur, aer || hang'''ar''', lett'''er''', elix'''ir''', auth'''or''', '''aur'''ora, an'''aer'''obe
|-
| {{IPA|/ɜːr/}}|| er, ir, ur, ar, ear, ere, err, erre, eur, eure, irr, irre, oeu, olo, or, our, ueur, uhr, urr, urre, yr, yrrh || def'''er''', f'''ir''', f'''ur''', dh'''ar'''na, '''ear'''l, w'''ere''', '''err''', int'''erre'''d, voy'''eur''', chauff'''eure'''d&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, b'''irr''', st'''irre'''d, hors d''''oeu'''vre, c'''olo'''nel, w'''or'''st, adj'''our'''n, liq'''ueur''', b'''uhr'''stone, p'''urr''', m'''urre''', m'''yr'''tle, m'''yrrh'''
|-
| {{IPA|/ɪr/}} || ir, irr, yr, yrrh, er || sp'''ir'''it, m'''irr'''or, t'''yr'''anny, p'''yrrh'''ic, '''er'''ase
|-
| {{IPA|/ɪər/}}|| ere, aer, e're, ear, eare, eer, eere, ehr, eir, eor, er, ers, eyr, ier, iere, ir, oea, yer || h'''ere''', chim'''aer'''a, w'''e're''', '''ear''', f'''eare'''d, b'''eer''', p'''eere'''d, l'''ehr''', w'''eir'''d, th'''eor'''y&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, s'''er'''ies, rev'''ers''', '''eyr'''ie, p'''ier''', prem'''iere''', souven'''ir''', diarrh'''oea'''&nbsp;<small>(RP)</small>, tw'''yer'''<!-- /twɪə/ is given first in 'The Chambers Dictionary' -->
|-
| {{IPA|/ɒr/}} || or, orr, ar, arr, aur || '''or'''ange, s'''orr'''y, qu'''ar'''antine, qu'''arr'''y, l'''aur'''el
|-
| {{IPA|/ɔːr/}} || or, ore, aor, ar, aur, aure, hors, oar, oare, oor, oore, our, oure, owar, ohr, uor || '''or''', f'''ore''', extr'''aor'''dinary, w'''ar''', dinos'''aur''', roquel'''aure''', '''hors''' d'oeuvre, '''oar''', s'''oare'''d, d'''oor''', fl'''oore'''d, f'''our''', p'''oure'''d, t'''owar'''d&nbsp;<small>(GA)</small>, b'''ohr'''ium, fl'''uor'''idate
|-
| {{IPA|/ɔɪər/}} || oir, awyer || c'''oir''', l'''awyer'''
|-
| {{IPA|/ʌr/}} || urr, ur, orr, or, our || h'''urr'''y, b'''ur'''gh, w'''orr'''y, th'''or'''ough, c'''our'''age
|-
| {{IPA|/ʊr/}} || our || c'''our'''ier
|-
| {{IPA|/ʊər/}} || oor, our, ure, ur || p'''oor''', t'''our''', s'''ure''', r'''ur'''al
|-
| {{IPA|/jʊər/}} || ure, ur, eur || c'''ure''', p'''ur'''ity, n'''eur'''al
|}
{{notelist-lr}}

== See also ==
* [[False etymology]]
* [[Spelling bee]]
* [[List of English homographs]]
* [[The Chaos]] – a poem by [[Gerard Nolst Trenité]] demonstrating the irregularities of English spelling
----

{{Columns-start|num=2}}

; Conventions
* [[English plural]]
* [[I before E except after C]]
* [[Three letter rule]]

; Variant spelling
* [[American and British English spelling differences]]
* [[Misspelling]]
** [[Satiric misspelling]]
** [[Sensational spelling]]
* [[Spelling of disc]]

; Graphemes
* [[Apostrophe]]
* [[Eth]]
* [[Long s]]
* [[Thorn (letter)]]
* [[Yogh]]

; Phonetic orthographic systems
* [[English spelling reform]]
* [[Interspel]]
* [[Pronouncing Orthography]]

{{column}}

; English scripts
* [[English alphabet]] (Latin script)
* [[American manual alphabet]]
* [[Two-handed manual alphabets]]
* [[English braille]]
* [[American braille]]
* [[New York Point]]
* [[Shavian alphabet]]

; Words in English
* [[Lists of English words]]
* [[Classical compound]]
* [[Ghoti]]

; [[English phonology]]
* [[Regional accents of English]]
** [[IPA chart for English dialects]]
* [[Stress and vowel reduction in English]]
* [[Initial-stress-derived noun]]
* [[Traditional English pronunciation of Latin]]

{{Columns-end|num=2}}

=== Orthographies of English-related languages ===
{{Columns-start|num=2}}

; [[Germanic languages]]
* [[Danish orthography|Danish]]
* [[Dutch orthography|Dutch]]
* [[German orthography|German]]
* [[Icelandic orthography|Icelandic]]
* [[Scots orthography|Scots]]

; [[Romance languages]]
* [[French orthography|French]]
* [[Italian orthography|Italian]]
* [[Classical Milanese orthography|Milanese]]
* [[Portuguese orthography|Portuguese]]
* [[Spanish orthography|Spanish]]

{{column}}
;[[Celtic languages]]
* [[Irish orthography|Irish]]
* [[Scottish Gaelic orthography|Scottish Gaelic]]
* [[Welsh orthography|Welsh]]

;[[Historical language]]s
* [[Latin orthography|Latin]]
* [[Old Norse orthography|Old Norse]]
* [[Old English#Orthography|Old English]]

;[[Constructed languages]]
* [[Esperanto orthography|Esperanto]]

{{Columns-end|num=2}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
* {{cite book |last=Albrow |first=Kenneth H. |date=1972 |title=The English Writing System: Notes Towards a Description |series=Schools Council Programme in Linguistics and English Teaching |location=London |publisher=[[Longman]] |isbn=978-0-582-31475-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Algeo |first=John |chapter=The Effects of the Revolution on Language |title=A Companion to the American Revolution |editor-last1=Greene |editor-first1=Jack P. |editor-last2=Pole |editor-first2=Jack R. |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|John Wiley & Sons]] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-470-75644-7}}
* {{cite journal |last=Aronoff |first=Mark |author-link=Mark Aronoff |date=Spring 1978 |title=An English Spelling Convention |url=https://linguistics.stonybrook.edu/faculty/mark.aronoff/files/An%20English%20spelling%20convention.pdf |journal=Linguistic Inquiry |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=299–303 |jstor=4178059 |publisher=[[MIT Press]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Bell |first=Masha |year=2004 |title=Understanding English Spelling |location=Cambridge |publisher=Pegasus |url={{GBurl|Zq7PAAAACAAJ}} |isbn=978-1-903490-12-9}}
* {{cite book |last=Bell |first=Masha |year=2007 |title=Learning to Read |location=Cambridge |publisher=Pegasus |url={{GBurl|mpWK_aHzte4C}} |isbn=978-1-903490-23-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Bell |first=Masha |year=2009 |title=Rules and Exceptions of English Spelling |location=Cambridge |publisher=Pegasus |url={{GBurl|ZM_OSAAACAAJ}} |isbn=978-1-903490-39-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Brengelman |first=Fred H. |year=1970 |chapter=Sounds and Letters in American English |chapter-url={{GBurl|jZWxAAAAIAAJ|page=77}} |title=The English Language: An Introduction for Teachers |pages=77–98 |location=Englewood Cliffs, NJ |publisher=[[Prentice Hall]] |isbn=978-0-13-282855-0}}
* {{cite journal |last=Brengelman |first=Fred H. |date=November 1970 |title=Generative Phonology and the Teaching of Spelling |journal=[[English Journal]] |publisher=[[National Council of Teachers of English]] |volume=59 |issue=8 |pages=1113–1118 |doi=10.2307/813523 |jstor=813523}}
* {{cite journal |last=Brengelman |first=Fred H. |date=1971 |title=English Spelling as a Marker of Register and Style |journal=[[English Studies (journal)|English Studies]] |publisher=[[Routledge]] |volume=52 |issue=1–6 |pages=201–209 |doi=10.1080/00138387108597420}}
* {{cite journal |last=Brengelman |first=Fred H. |date=July 1980 |title=Orthoepists, Printers, and the Rationalization of English Spelling |journal=[[Journal of English and Germanic Philology]] |volume=79 |issue=3 |pages=332–354 |jstor=27708682 |publisher=[[University of Illinois Press]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Brooks |first=Greg |date=2015 |title=Dictionary of the British English Spelling System |url={{GBurl|sgh2CAAAQBAJ}} |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Open Book Publishers]] |isbn=978-1-78374-107-6}}
* {{cite book |last=Carney |first=Edward |year=1994 |title=A Survey of English Spelling |location=London |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-09270-8}}
* {{cite journal |last=Chomsky |first=Carol |authorlink=Carol Chomsky |year=1970 |title=Reading, Writing, and Phonology |journal=[[Harvard Educational Review]] |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=287–309 |doi=10.17763/haer.40.2.y7u0242x76w05624}}
* {{cite book |last1=Chomsky |first1=Noam |author-link1=Noam Chomsky |last2=Halle |first2=Morris |author-link2=Morris Halle |year=1968 |title=[[The Sound Pattern of English]] |location=New York |publisher=[[Harper (publisher)|Harper & Row]] |pages=46, 48–49, 69, 80n, 131n, 148, 174n, 221 |isbn=978-0-06-041276-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Condorelli |first=Marco |year=2022 |title=Standardising English Spelling: The Role of Printing on Sixteenth and Seventeenth-Century Graphemic Developments |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |doi=10.1017/9781009099912|isbn=978-1-00-909991-2 |s2cid=247900493 }}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Cook |editor-first1=Vivian |editor-link1=Vivian Cook (linguist) |editor-last2=Ryan |editor-first2=Des |year=2016 |title=The Routledge Handbook of the English Writing System |location=Abingdon, Oxon |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-415-71597-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Cummings |first=Don W. |year=1988 |title=American English spelling: An informal description |location=Baltimore |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |isbn=978-0-8018-7956-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Crystal |first=David |year=2012 |title=Spell It Out: The Curious, Enthralling and Extraordinary Story of English Spelling |url={{GBurl|XBZKMSX8MggC}} |publisher=Profile Books |isbn=978-1-84765-822-7}}
* {{cite book |last1=Derwing |first1=Bruce L. |last2=Priestly |first2=Tom M. S. |last3=Rochet |first3=Bernard L. |date=1987 |chapter=The description of spelling-to-sound relationships in English, French and Russian: Progress, problems and prospects |pages=31–52 |chapter-url={{GBurl|cnKlujmo638C|page=31}} |editor-last=Luelsdorff |editor-first=Philip A. |title=Orthography and Phonology |location=Amsterdam |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-90-272-2039-4}}
* {{cite book |last=Dixon |first=Robert |year=1977 |title=Morphographic spelling program |location=Eugene, OR |publisher=Engelman-Becker Press}}
* {{cite journal |last=Emerson |first=Ralph H. |year=1997 |title=English Spelling and Its Relation to Sound |journal=[[American Speech]] |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=260–288 |publisher=[[Duke University Press]] |jstor=455654}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hanna |first1=Paul R. |last2=Hanna |first2=Jean S. |last3=Hodges |first3=Richard E. |last4=Rudorf |first4=Edwin H. |year=1966 |title=Phoneme-Grapheme Correspondences as Cues to Spelling Improvement |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED128835.pdf |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=[[United States Department of Health and Human Services|US Department of Health, Education and Welfare]]}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Jared |first1=Debra |last2=Seidenberg |first2=Mark S. |title=Does Word Identification Proceed from Spelling to Sound to Meaning? |journal=[[Journal of Experimental Psychology: General]] |publisher=[[American Psychological Association]] |volume=120 |issue=4 |date=December 1991 |pages=358–394 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.120.4.358}}
* {{cite book |last=Jespersen |first=Otto |author-link=Otto Jespersen |year=1909 |title=[[A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles]] |volume=1: Sounds and Spellings |location=Heidelberg |publisher=C. Winter}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Khansir |first1=Ali Akbar |last2=Tajeri |first2=Mojtaba |title=Relationship between Spelling and Pronunciation in English Language |journal=Language in India |date=December 2015 |volume=15 |issue=12 |page=66 |url=http://www.languageinindia.com/dec2015/khansirspellingpronunciation1.pdf |issn=1930-2940}}
* {{cite book |last=Luelsdorff |first=Philip A. |year=1994 |chapter=Developmental Morphographemics II
 |editor-last=Watt |editor-first=William C. |title=Writing Systems and Cognition |series=Neuropsychology and Cognition |volume=6 |pages=141–182 |location=Dordrecht |publisher=Kluwer |doi=10.1007/978-94-015-8285-8_9 |isbn=978-90-481-4344-3}}
* {{cite book |last=McCawley |first=James D. |year=1994 |chapter=Some Graphotactic Constraints |editor-last=Watt |editor-first=William C. |title=Writing Systems and Cognition |series=Neuropsychology and Cognition |volume=6 |pages=115–127 |location=Dordrecht |publisher=Kluwer |doi=10.1007/978-94-015-8285-8_7 |isbn=978-90-481-4344-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Mencken |first=Henry L. |authorlink=H. L. Mencken |year=1936 |title=[[The American Language]]: An Inquiry into the Development of English in the United States |edition=4th |location=New York |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]]}}
* {{cite web |last=Okrent |first=Arika |date=26 July 2021 |title=Why is the English spelling system so weird and inconsistent?|url=https://aeon.co/essays/why-is-the-english-spelling-system-so-weird-and-inconsistent |editor-last=Davies |editor-first=Sally |access-date=19 August 2021 |website=[[Aeon (magazine)|Aeon]]}}
* {{cite journal |last=Rollings |first=Andrew G. |year=1998 |title=Marking devices in the spelling of English |journal=Atlantis |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=129–143 |jstor=41055496}}
* {{cite book |last=Rollings |first=Andrew G. |year=1999 |chapter=Markers in English and other orthographies |editor-last1=Iglesias Rábade |editor-last2=Nuñez Pertejo |editor-first1=L. |editor-first2=P. |title=Estudios de lingüística contrastive |pages=441–449 |publisher=[[University of Santiago de Compostela]] |url=https://dspace.usc.es/bitstream/10347/8762/1/118%20I%20congreso%20de%20ling%C3%BCistica.pdf |isbn=978-84-8121-769-8}}
* {{cite journal |last=Rollings |first=Andrew G. |date=November 2003 |title=System and chaos in English spelling: The case of the voiceless palato-alveolar fricative |journal=[[English Language and Linguistics]] |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=211–233 |doi=10.1017/S1360674303001084|s2cid=123656286 }}
* {{cite book |last=Rollings |first=Andrew G. |year=2004 |title=The Spelling Patterns of English |series=LINCOM Studies in English Linguistics |volume=4 |location=Muenchen |publisher=LINCOM Europa |isbn=978-3-89586-758-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Sampson |first=Geoffrey |year=1985 |title=Writing Systems: A Linguistic Introduction |location=London |publisher=[[Hutchinson (publisher)|Hutchinson]]}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Seymour |first1=Philip H. K. |last2=Aro |first2=Mikko |last3=Erskine |first3=Jane M. |year=2003 |title=Foundation literacy acquisition in European orthographies |journal=[[British Journal of Psychology]] |volume=94 |issue=2 |pages=143–174 |publisher=Wiley |pmid=12803812 |doi=10.1348/000712603321661859|s2cid=9716179 |doi-access=free }}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Simpson |editor-first1=John A. |editor-link1=John Simpson (lexicographer) |editor-last2=Weiner |editor-first2=Edmund S. C. |editor-link2=Edmund Weiner |date=1989 |title=[[Oxford English Dictionary]] |location=Oxford |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Clarendon Press]]}}
* {{cite book |last=Stamper |first=Kory |year=2017 |title=Word by Word: The Secret Life of Dictionaries |url={{GBurl|3komDgAAQBAJ}} |publisher=Knopf Doubleday |isbn=978-1-101-87094-5}}
* {{cite journal |last=Steinberg |first=Danny |year=1973 |title=Phonology, reading and Chomsky and Halle's optimal orthography |journal=Journal of Psycholinguistic Research |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=239–258|doi=10.1007/BF01067104 |pmid=24197867 |s2cid=27319198 }}
* {{cite book |last=Stubbs |first=Michael |year=1980 |title=Language and literacy: The sociolinguistics of reading and writing |location=London |publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul |isbn=978-0-7100-0426-0}}
* {{cite book |last1=Upward |first1=Christopher |last2=Davidson |first2=George |year=2011 |title=The History of English Spelling |publisher=Wiley |series=The Language Library |isbn=978-1-4051-9024-4}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Van Assche |first1=Eva |last2=Duyck |first2=Wouter |last3=Hartsuiker |first3=Robert J. |title=Phonological Recoding in Error Detection: A Cross-sectional Study in Beginning Readers of Dutch |journal=PLOS ONE |year=2013 |volume=8 |issue=12 |page=e85111 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0085111 |pmc=3875550 |pmid=24386453 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...885111V |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal |last=Venezky |first=Richard L. |year=1967 |title=English orthography: Its graphical structure and its relation to sound |journal=[[Reading Research Quarterly]] |volume=2 |issue=3 |publisher=[[International Literacy Association]] |pages=75–105 |jstor=747031 |s2cid=144231215 |doi=10.2307/747031}}
* {{cite book |last=Venezky |first=Richard L. |year=1970 |title=The Structure of English Orthography |location=The Hague |publisher=[[Mouton Publishers|Mouton]] |series=Janua Linguarum. Series Minor |doi=10.1515/9783110804478|isbn=978-90-279-0707-3 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Venezky |first=Richard L. |year=1976 |title=Notes on the history of English spelling |journal=[[Visible Language]] |volume=10 |issue=4 |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/f13ff8efa2d79ef9cfa0c4dc872edce3/ |pages=351–365}}
* {{cite book |last=Venezky |first=Richard L. |year=1999 |title=The American Way of Spelling: The Structure and Origins of American English Orthography |url={{GBurl|jO-_5aZHK-AC}} |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=978-1-57230-469-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Weir |first=Ruth H. |year=1967 |chapter=Some Thoughts on Spelling |editor-last=Austin |editor-first=William M. |title=Papers in linguistics in honor of Léon Dostert |pages=169–177 |series=Janua Linguarum, Series Major |issue=25 |location=The Hague |publisher=[[Mouton Publishers|Mouton]] |doi=10.1515/9783111675886-019|isbn=978-3-11-167588-6 }}
* {{cite book |last=Wells |first=John C. |author-link=John C. Wells |title=Longman Pronunciation Dictionary |edition=3rd |publisher=Pearson Education |location=Harlow |year=2008 |url={{GBurl|WKIV967F1n4C}} |isbn=978-1-4058-8118-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Wijk |first=Axel |year=1966 |title=	Rules of Pronunciation for the English Language: An Account of the Relationship Between English Spelling and Pronunciation |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |series=Language and Language Learning}}
* {{cite book |last=Wolman |first=David |year=2008 |title=Righting the Mother Tongue: From Olde English to Email, the Twisted Story of English Spelling |publisher=Collins |isbn=978-0-06-136925-4}}
{{Refend}}

{{Description of English}}
{{Language orthographies}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:English orthography| ]]
[[Category:English language|Spelling, English]]
[[Category:Indo-European Latin-script orthographies]]
[[Category:Linguistic history]]