View source for Ernest Hemingway

{{Short description|American author and journalist (1899–1961)}}
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{{Infobox writer
| image            = ErnestHemingway.jpg
| caption          = Hemingway in 1939
| alt              = Dark-haired man in light colored short-sleeved shirt working on a typewriter at a table on which sits an open book
| birth_date       = {{birth date|1899|7|21}}
| birth_place      = [[Oak Park, Illinois]], U.S.
| death_date       = {{death date and age|1961|7|2|1899|7|21}}
| death_place      = [[Ketchum, Idaho]], U.S.
| spouses          = {{ubl|[[Hadley Richardson]]|[[Pauline Pfeiffer]]|[[Martha Gellhorn]]|[[Mary Welsh Hemingway|Mary Welsh]]}}
| children         = {{flatlist|
* [[Jack Hemingway|Jack]]
* [[Patrick Hemingway|Patrick]]
* [[Gloria Hemingway|Gloria]]
}}
| awards           = {{ubl|[[Pulitzer Prize for Fiction]] (1953)|[[Nobel Prize in Literature]] (1954)}}
| signature        = Ernest Hemingway Signature.svg
}}

'''Ernest Miller Hemingway''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|h|ɛ|m|ɪ|ŋ|w|eɪ}} {{respell|HEM|ing|way}}; July 21, 1899&nbsp;– July 2, 1961) was an American novelist, [[short-story writer]] and journalist. Known for an economical, understated style that influenced later 20th-century writers, he has been romanticized for his adventurous lifestyle and outspoken, blunt public image. Some of his seven novels, six short-story collections and two non-fiction works have become classics of [[American literature]], and he was awarded the [[1954 Nobel Prize in Literature]].

Hemingway was raised in [[Oak Park, Illinois]], a suburb of [[Chicago]]. After high school, he spent six months as a reporter for ''[[The Kansas City Star]]'' before enlisting in the [[American Red Cross|Red Cross]]. He served as an ambulance driver on the [[Italian Front (World War I)|Italian Front]] in [[World War I]] and was seriously wounded by shrapnel in 1918. In 1921, Hemingway moved to Paris, where he worked as a [[foreign correspondent]] for the ''[[Toronto Star]]'' and was influenced by the [[modernist]] writers and artists of the "[[Lost Generation]]" expatriate community. His debut novel, ''[[The Sun Also Rises]]'', was published in 1926. In 1928, Hemingway returned to the U.S., where he settled in [[Key West|Key West, Florida]]. His experiences during the war supplied material for his 1929 novel ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]''.

In 1937, Hemingway went to Spain to cover the [[Spanish Civil War]], which formed the basis for his 1940 novel ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]'', written in [[Havana|Havana, Cuba]]. During [[World War II]], Hemingway was present with Allied troops as a journalist at the [[Normandy landings]] and the [[liberation of Paris]]. In 1952, his novel ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]'' was published to considerable acclaim, and won the [[Pulitzer Prize for Fiction]]. On a 1954 trip to Africa, Hemingway was seriously injured in two successive plane crashes, leaving him in pain and ill health for much of the rest of his life. He committed suicide at his [[Ernest and Mary Hemingway House|house in Ketchum, Idaho]], in 1961.

==Early life==
<!-- [[File:Ernest Hemingway with Family, 1905.png|thumb|The Hemingway family in 1905 (from the left to right): Marcelline, Sunny, Clarence, Grace, Ursula, and Ernest]] -->[[File:Hemingway House Museum Oak Park.jpg|thumb|[[Birthplace of Ernest Hemingway|Ernest Hemingway Boyhood Home]], Oak Park, Illinois]]
Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in [[Oak Park, Illinois]], an affluent suburb just west of [[Chicago]].<ref>Oliver (1999), 140</ref> to Clarence Edmonds Hemingway, a physician, and [[Grace Hall Hemingway]], a musician. His parents were well-educated and well-respected in Oak Park,<ref name="Reynolds pp 17-18">Reynolds (2000), 17–18</ref> a conservative community about which resident [[Frank Lloyd Wright]] said, "So many churches for so many good people to go to."<ref>Meyers (1985), 4</ref> When Clarence and Grace Hemingway married in 1896, they [[Birthplace of Ernest Hemingway|lived with Grace's father]], Ernest Miller Hall,<ref>Oliver (1999), 134</ref> after whom they named their first son, the second of their six children.<ref name="Reynolds pp 17-18"/>

His sister Marcelline preceded him in 1898, and his younger siblings were Ursula in 1902, Madelaine in 1904, Carol in 1911, and [[Leicester Hemingway|Leicester]] in 1915.<ref name="Reynolds pp 17-18"/> Grace followed the Victorian convention of not differentiating children's clothing by gender. With only a year separating them, Ernest and Marcelline resembled one another strongly. Grace wanted them to appear as twins, so in Ernest's first three years she kept his hair long and dressed both children in similarly frilly feminine clothing.<ref>Meyers (1985), 9</ref>

[[File:ErnestHemingwayBabyPicture.jpg|thumb|upright|Hemingway was the second child and first son born to Clarence and Grace.|alt=photograph of Hemingway as an infant]]
Grace Hemingway was a well-known local musician,<ref name="Reynolds 2000 19">Reynolds (2000), 19</ref> and taught her reluctant son to play the cello. Later he said music lessons contributed to his writing style, as evidenced in the "[[contrapuntal]] structure" of ''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]''.<ref>Meyers (1985), 3</ref> As an adult Hemingway professed to hate his mother, although they shared similar enthusiastic energies.<ref name="Reynolds 2000 19"/> His father, Dr. Clarence Hemingway, taught him [[woodcraft]] during the family's summer sojourns at [[Ernest Hemingway Cottage|Windemere]] on [[Walloon Lake]], near [[Petoskey, Michigan]], where Ernest learned to hunt, fish and camp in the woods and lakes of [[Northern Michigan]]. These early experiences instilled in him a life-long passion for outdoor adventure and living in remote or isolated areas.<ref name="Beegel2000, p. 63-70">Beegel (2000), 63–71</ref>

Hemingway went to [[Oak Park and River Forest High School]] in Oak Park between 1913 and 1917, where he competed in boxing, track and field, water polo, and football. He performed in the school orchestra for two years with his sister Marcelline, and received good grades in English.<ref name="Reynolds 2000 19" /> During his last two years at high school he edited the school's newspaper and yearbook (the ''Trapeze'' and ''Tabula''); he imitated the language of popular sportswriters and contributed under the pen name Ring Lardner Jr.—a nod to [[Ring Lardner]] of the ''[[Chicago Tribune]]'' whose byline was "Line O'Type".<ref name="Meyers p19ff" /> A remembrance garden to honor Hemingway was erected in front of the high school in 1996.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ernest Hemingway Remembrance Garden Historical Marker |url=https://www.hmdb.org/m.asp?m=224824 |access-date=February 14, 2025 |website=www.hmdb.org |language=en}}</ref>

After leaving high school, he went to work for ''[[The Kansas City Star]]'' as a cub reporter.<ref name="Meyers p19ff">Meyers (1985), 19–23</ref> Although he stayed there only for six months, the ''Star''{{'}}s [[style guide]], which stated "Use short sentences. Use short first paragraphs. Use vigorous English. Be positive, not negative", became a foundation for his prose.<ref>{{cite news |title=Star style and rules for writing |url=http://www.kcstar.com/hemingway/ehstarstyle.shtml |work=[[The Kansas City Star]] |date=June 26, 1999 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408171529/http://www.kcstar.com/hemingway/ehstarstyle.shtml |archive-date=April 8, 2014 |quote=Below are excerpts from The Kansas City Star stylebook that Ernest Hemingway once credited with containing 'the best rules I ever learned for the business of writing.'}}</ref>

==World War I==
[[File:Ernest Hemingway in Milan 1918 retouched 3.jpg|thumb|upright=.85|Hemingway as a [[First lieutenant|1st Lt.]] in the A.R.C., in late 1918. In Northern Italy, he drove ambulances for two months until he was wounded|alt= photograph of a young man dressed in a military uniform]]
Hemingway wanted to go to war and tried to enlist in the [[United States Army|U.S. Army]] but was not accepted because he had poor eyesight.<ref>Meyers (1985), 26</ref> Instead he volunteered to a [[Red Cross]] recruitment effort in December 1917 and signed on to be an ambulance driver with the [[American Red Cross Motor Corps]] in Italy.<ref>Mellow (1992), 48–49</ref> In May 1918, he sailed from New York, and arrived in Paris as the city was under bombardment from German artillery.<ref name="Meyers p27ff">Meyers (1985), 27–31</ref> That June he arrived at the [[Italian Front (World War I)|Italian Front]], holding the ranks of [[second lieutenant]] ([[American Red Cross|A.R.C.]]) and ''sottotenente'' ([[Italian Army]]) simultaneously.<ref>Hutchisson (2016), 26</ref> On his first day in [[Milan]], he was sent to the scene of a [[munitions factory]] explosion to join rescuers retrieving the shredded remains of female workers. He described the incident in his 1932 non-fiction book ''[[Death in the Afternoon]]'': "I remember that after we searched quite thoroughly for the complete dead we collected fragments."<ref name="Mellow57ff">Mellow (1992), 57–60</ref> A few days later, he was stationed at [[Fossalta di Piave]].<ref name="Mellow57ff"/>

On July 8, right after bringing chocolate and cigarettes from the canteen to the men at the front line, the group came under mortar fire. Hemingway was seriously wounded.<ref name="Mellow57ff" /> Despite his wounds, he assisted Italian soldiers to safety, for which he was decorated with the [[War Merit Cross (Italy)|Italian War Merit Cross]] (''Croce al Merito di Guerra'') and with the Italian [[Silver Medal of Military Valor]] (''Medaglia d'argento al valor militare'').<ref group="note">On awarding the medal, the Italians wrote of Hemingway: "Gravely wounded by numerou s pieces of shrapnel from an enemy shell, with an admirable spirit of brotherhood, before taking care of himself, he rendered generous assistance to the Italian soldiers more seriously wounded by the same explosion and did not allow himself to be carried elsewhere until after they had been evacuated." See Mellow (1992), p. 61</ref><ref>Hutchisson (2016), 28</ref><ref>Baker (1981), 247</ref> For his deed, he was promoted to [[first lieutenant]] (A.R.C.) and ''tenente'' (Italian Army).<ref>Baker (1981), 17</ref>

He was only 18 at the time. Hemingway later said of the incident: "When you go to war as a boy you have a great illusion of immortality. Other people get killed; not you&nbsp;... Then when you are badly wounded the first time you lose that illusion and you know it can happen to you."<ref name="Putnam">{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/spring/hemingway.html|
title=Hemingway on War and Its Aftermath|last= Putnam |first= Thomas|date=August 15, 2016|website=archives.gov|access-date=July 11, 2017|archive-date=October 18, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018094656/http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2006/spring/hemingway.html|url-status=live}}</ref> He sustained severe shrapnel wounds to both legs, underwent an immediate operation at a distribution center, and spent five days at a field hospital, before he was transferred for recuperation to the Red Cross hospital in Milan.<ref name="Desnoyers p3">Desnoyers, 3</ref> He spent six months at the hospital, where he met [[Eric Dorman-Smith|"Chink" Dorman-Smith]]. The two formed a strong friendship that lasted for decades.<ref>Meyers (1985), 34, 37–42</ref>

[[File:Ernest Hemingway recuperates from wounds in Milan, 1918.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|In Milan in 1918|alt=young man on crutches]]
While recuperating, Hemingway fell in love with [[Agnes von Kurowsky]], a Red Cross nurse seven years his senior. When Hemingway returned to the United States in January 1919, he believed Agnes would join him within months, and the two would marry. Instead, he received a letter from her in March with news that she was engaged to an Italian officer. Biographer [[Jeffrey Meyers]] writes Agnes's rejection devastated and scarred the young man. In future relationships Hemingway followed a pattern of abandoning a wife before she abandoned him.<ref name="Meyers p37ff">Meyers (1985), 37–42</ref> One of Hemingway's closest friendships from his Red Cross service was with William "Bill" Dodge Horne Jr., a fellow ambulance driver in Italy. Horne would later become a groomsman at Hemingway's first wedding and an honorary pallbearer at his funeral. Horne preserved a personal archive of their correspondence, photographs, and recollections—materials now housed at Princeton University Library.<ref name="PrincetonHorneCollection">{{cite web |title=William Dodge Horne Collection of Ernest Hemingway |url=https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_C1435 |access-date=April 25, 2025 |publisher=Princeton University Library}}</ref><ref name="PAWHemingwayRecollections">{{cite web |last=Stamler |first=Jonathan |date=July 14, 2021 |title=Friends for Life: Alums' Recollections of Hemingway |url=https://paw.princeton.edu/article/friends-life-alums-recollections-hemingway |access-date= April 25, 2025 |website=Princeton Alumni Weekly |publisher=Princeton University}}</ref><ref name="QuintessentialBarrington">{{cite web |last=Worden |first=Darla |date=July–August 2021 |title=Quintessential America: Hemingway in the Bighorns |url=https://www.quintessentialbarrington.com/ja21-quintessential-america/ |access-date=April 25, 2025 |website=Quintessential Barrington}}</ref><ref name="PrincetonFindingAid">{{cite web |title=William Dodge Horne Collection of Ernest Hemingway |url=https://findingaids.library.upenn.edu/records/PRIN_MUDD_C1435 |access-date=April 25, 2025 |website=UPenn Finding Aids |publisher=Princeton University Library, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections}}</ref>

His return home in 1919 was a difficult time of readjustment. Before the age of 20, he had gained from the war a maturity that was at odds with living at home without a job and with the need for recuperation.<ref name="Meyers45ff">Meyers (1985), 45–53</ref> As biographer [[Michael S. Reynolds]] explains, "Hemingway could not really tell his parents what he thought when he saw his bloody knee." He was not able to tell them how scared he had been "in another country with surgeons who could not tell him in English if his leg was coming off or not."<ref>Reynolds (1998), 21</ref>

That September, he went on a fishing and camping trip with high school friends to the back-country of [[Michigan]]'s [[Upper Peninsula of Michigan|Upper Peninsula]].<ref name="Putnam" /> The trip became the inspiration for his short story "[[Big Two-Hearted River]]", in which the [[Autobiographical novel|semi-autobiographical]] character [[Nick Adams (character)|Nick Adams]] takes to the country to find solitude after coming home from war.<ref>Mellow (1992), 101</ref> A family friend offered Hemingway a job in [[Toronto]], and with nothing else to do, he accepted. Late that year, he began as a freelancer and staff writer for the ''[[Star Weekly|Toronto Star Weekly]]''. He returned to Michigan the next June<ref name="Meyers45ff" /> and then moved to Chicago in September 1920 to live with friends, while still filing stories for the ''[[Toronto Star]]''.<ref name="Meyers pp56-59" /> In Chicago, he worked as an associate editor of the monthly journal ''Cooperative Commonwealth'', where he met novelist [[Sherwood Anderson]].<ref name="Meyers pp56-59">Meyers (1985), 56–58</ref>

He met [[Hadley Richardson]] through his roommate's sister. Later, he claimed, "I knew she was the girl I was going to marry."<ref name="Kert pp83-90" /> Red-haired, with a "nurturing instinct", Hadley was eight years older than Hemingway.<ref name="Kert pp83-90" /> Despite the age difference, she seemed less mature than usual for a woman her age, probably because of her overprotective mother.<ref name="Oliver p139">Oliver (1999), 139</ref> Bernice Kert, author of ''The Hemingway Women'', claims Hadley was "evocative" of Agnes, but Agnes lacked Hadley's childishness. After exchanging letters for a few months, Hemingway and Hadley decided to marry and travel to Europe.<ref name="Kert pp83-90">Kert (1983), 83–90</ref>

They wanted to visit Rome, but Sherwood Anderson convinced them to go to Paris instead, writing letters of introduction for the young couple.<ref name="Baker 1972 pp7">Baker (1972), 7</ref> They were married on September 3, 1921. Two months later, Hemingway signed on as a foreign correspondent for the ''Toronto Star'' and the couple left for Paris. Of Hemingway's marriage to Hadley, Meyers claims: "With Hadley, Hemingway achieved everything he had hoped for with Agnes: the love of a beautiful woman, a comfortable income, a life in Europe."<ref name="Meyers pp60–62">Meyers (1985), 60–62</ref>

==Paris==
[[File:Ernest Hemingway 1923 passport photo.TIF.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.85|Hemingway's 1923 passport photo; at this time, he lived in Paris with his wife Hadley and worked as a foreign correspondent for the ''[[Star Weekly|Toronto Star Weekly]]''.|alt=Passport photograph]]

Anderson suggested Paris because it was inexpensive and it was where "the most interesting people in the world" resided. There Hemingway would meet writers such as [[Gertrude Stein]], [[James Joyce]] and [[Ezra Pound]] who "could help a young writer up the rungs of a career".<ref name="Baker 1972 pp7"/> 
Hemingway was a "tall, handsome, muscular, broad-shouldered, brown-eyed, rosy-cheeked, square-jawed, soft-voiced young man."<ref name="Meyers pp70–74" /> He lived with Hadley in a small walk-up at 74 {{interlanguage link|rue du Cardinal Lemoine|fr|Rue du Cardinal-Lemoine}} <!-- please do not change the spelling of the street name; should be lower case --> in the [[Latin Quarter]], and rented a room nearby for work.<ref name="Baker 1972 pp7" /> Stein, who was the bastion of [[modernism]] in Paris,<ref>Mellow (1991), 8</ref> became Hemingway's mentor and godmother to his son Jack;<ref>Meyers (1985), 77</ref> she introduced him to the expatriate artists and writers of the [[Montparnasse Quarter]], whom she referred to as the "[[Lost Generation]]"—a term Hemingway popularized with the publication of ''[[The Sun Also Rises]]''.<ref name="Mellow p308">Mellow (1992), 308</ref> A regular at Stein's [[Salon (gathering)|salon]], Hemingway met influential painters such as [[Pablo Picasso]], [[Joan Miró]], [[Juan Gris]],<ref name="Reynolds 2000 28">Reynolds (2000), 28</ref> and Luis Quintanilla.<ref name="Spanier p 558">Spanier, 558</ref> He eventually withdrew from Stein's influence, and their relationship deteriorated into a literary quarrel that spanned decades.<ref name="Meyers pp77–81">Meyers (1985), 77–81</ref>

Pound was older than Hemingway by 14 years when they met by chance in 1922 at [[Sylvia Beach]]'s bookstore [[Shakespeare and Company (1919–1941)|Shakespeare and Company]]. They visited Italy in 1923 and lived on the same street in 1924.<ref name="Meyers pp70–74">Meyers (1985), 70–74</ref> The two forged a strong friendship; in Hemingway Pound recognized and fostered a young talent.<ref name="Reynolds 2000 28" /> Pound—who had just finished editing [[T. S. Eliot]]'s ''[[The Waste Land]]''—introduced Hemingway to the Irish writer James Joyce,<ref name="Meyers pp70–74"/> with whom Hemingway frequently embarked on "alcoholic sprees".<ref name="Meyers p82">Meyers (1985), 82</ref>

[[File:Ernest Hadley and Bumby Hemingway.jpg|thumb|upright=.85|Ernest, Hadley, and Bumby Hemingway in [[Schruns]], Austria, in 1926, months before they separated|alt=a man, wearing a striped sweater and trousers and a hat, with a woman, wearing a skirt and a cardigan, holding the hand of a boy wearing shorts, on a walking path]]

During his first 20 months in Paris, Hemingway filed 88 stories for the ''Toronto Star'' newspaper.<ref>Reynolds (2000), 24</ref> He covered the [[Greco-Turkish War (1919–22)|Greco-Turkish War]], where he witnessed the [[Great fire of Smyrna|burning of Smyrna]], and wrote travel pieces such as "Tuna Fishing in Spain" and "Trout Fishing All Across Europe: Spain Has the Best, Then Germany".<ref name="Desnoyers p5">Desnoyers, 5</ref> Almost all his fiction and short stories were lost, when in December 1922 as she was traveling to join him in [[Geneva]], Hadley lost a suitcase filled with his manuscripts at the train station [[Paris-Gare de Lyon|Gare de Lyon]]. He was devastated and furious.<ref name="Meyers pp69–70">Meyers (1985), 69–70</ref> Nine months later the couple returned to Toronto, where their son [[Jack Hemingway|John Hadley Nicanor]] was born on October 10, 1923. During their absence, Hemingway's first book, ''[[Three Stories and Ten Poems]]'', was published in Paris. All that remained after the loss of the suitcase were two of the stories the volume contained; he wrote the third story early in 1923 while in Italy. A few months later, ''[[In Our Time (short story collection)|in our time]]'' (without capitals) was produced in Paris. The small volume included 18 [[Vignette (literature)|vignettes]], a dozen of which he wrote the previous summer during his first visit to Spain, where he discovered the thrill of the [[Bullfighting|corrida]]. He considered Toronto boring, missed Paris, and wanted to return to the life of a writer, rather than live the life of a journalist.<ref name="Baker 1972 15–18">Baker (1972), 15–18</ref>

Hemingway, Hadley, and their son (nicknamed Bumby) returned to Paris in January 1924 and moved into an apartment on the rue Notre-Dame des Champs.<ref name="Baker 1972 15–18" /> Hemingway helped [[Ford Madox Ford]] edit ''[[The Transatlantic Review]]'', which published works by Pound, [[John Dos Passos]], Baroness [[Elsa von Freytag-Loringhoven]], and Stein, as well as some of Hemingway's own early stories such as "[[Indian Camp]]".<ref name="Meyers p126">Meyers (1985), 126</ref> When Hemingway's first collection of stories, ''[[In Our Time (short story collection)|In Our Time]]'', was published in 1925, the dust jacket bore comments from Ford.<ref>Baker (1972), 34</ref><ref name="Meyers p127">Meyers (1985), 127</ref> "Indian Camp" received considerable praise; Ford saw it as an important early story by a young writer,<ref>Mellow (1992), 236</ref> and critics in the United States praised Hemingway for reinvigorating the short-story genre with his crisp style and use of declarative sentences.<ref>Mellow (1992), 314</ref> Six months earlier, Hemingway had met [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]], and the pair formed a friendship of "admiration and hostility".<ref name="Meyers pp159–160">Meyers (1985), 159–160</ref> Fitzgerald had published ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'' the same year: Hemingway read it, liked it, and decided his next work had to be a novel.<ref name="Baker pp 30-34">Baker (1972), 30–34</ref>

The year before, Hemingway visited the [[Festival of San Fermín]] in [[Pamplona]], Spain, for the first time, where he became fascinated by [[bullfighting]].<ref name="Meyers pp117-119">Meyers (1985), 117–119</ref> The Hemingways returned to Pamplona again in 1924 and a third time in June 1925; that year, they brought with them a group of American and British expatriates: Hemingway's Michigan boyhood friend Bill Smith, [[Donald Ogden Stewart]], [[Duff Twysden|Lady Duff Twysden]] (recently divorced), her lover Pat Guthrie, and [[Harold Loeb]].<ref name="Nagel89ff">Nagel (1996), 89</ref>

[[File:HemingwayLoeb.jpg|thumb|left|upright=.9|From left to right: Ernest Hemingway, Harold Loeb, Lady Duff Twysden, Hadley Hemingway, Donald Ogden Stewart, and Patrick Stirling Guthrie, at a café in Pamplona, Spain, July 1925.|alt=three men, dressed in light colored trousers and wearing hats, and two women, wearing light colored dresses, sitting at a sidewalk table]]

A few days after the fiesta ended, on his birthday (July 21), he began to write the draft of what would become ''[[The Sun Also Rises]]'', finishing eight weeks later.<ref name="Meyers p189">Meyers (1985), 189</ref> A few months later, in December 1925, the Hemingways left to spend the winter in [[Schruns]], Austria, where Hemingway began extensively revising the manuscript. Pauline Pfeiffer, the daughter of a wealthy [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] family in [[Arkansas]], who came to Paris to work for ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]'' magazine, joined them in January. Against Hadley's advice, Pfeiffer urged Hemingway to sign a contract with [[Charles Scribner's Sons|Scribner's]]. He left Austria for a quick trip to New York to meet with the publishers and, on his return, began an affair with Pfeiffer during a stop in Paris, before returning to Schruns to finish the revisions in March.<ref>Reynolds (1989), vi–vii</ref> The manuscript arrived in New York in April; he corrected the final proof in Paris in August 1926, and Scribner's published the novel in October.<ref name="Meyers p189" /><ref>Mellow (1992), 328</ref><ref name="Baker p44">Baker (1972), 44</ref>

''The Sun Also Rises'' epitomized the post-war expatriate generation,<ref name="Mellow p302">Mellow (1992), 302</ref> received good reviews and is "recognized as Hemingway's greatest work".<ref name="Meyers p192">Meyers (1985), 192</ref> Hemingway himself later wrote to his editor [[Max Perkins]] that the "point of the book" was not so much about a generation being lost, but that "the earth abideth forever"; he believed the characters in ''The Sun Also Rises'' may have been "battered" but were not lost.<ref name="Baker p82">Baker (1972), 82</ref>

Hemingway's marriage to Hadley deteriorated as he was working on ''The Sun Also Rises''.<ref name="Baker p44" /> In early 1926, Hadley became aware of his affair with Pfeiffer, who came to Pamplona with them that July.<ref name="Baker p43">Baker (1972), 43</ref><ref>Mellow (1992), 333</ref> On their return to Paris, Hadley asked for a separation; in November she formally requested a divorce. They split their possessions while Hadley accepted Hemingway's offer of the proceeds from ''The Sun Also Rises''.<ref>Mellow (1992), 338–340</ref> They were divorced in January 1927, and Hemingway married Pfeiffer in May.<ref name="Meyers p172">Meyers (1985), 172</ref>

[[File:Ernest and Pauline Hemingway, Paris, 1927.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|Ernest and [[Pauline Pfeiffer|Pauline]] Hemingway in Paris in 1927|alt=Photograph of Ernest Hemingway with his second wife]]
Before his marriage to Pfeiffer, Hemingway converted to Catholicism.<ref>Meyers (1985), 173, 184</ref> They honeymooned in [[Le Grau-du-Roi]], where he contracted [[anthrax]], and he planned his next collection of short stories,<ref>Mellow (1992), 348–353</ref> ''[[Men Without Women (short story collection)|Men Without Women]]'', which was published in October 1927,<ref name="Meyers p195">Meyers (1985), 195</ref> and included his [[boxing]] story "[[Fifty Grand]]". ''[[Cosmopolitan (magazine)|Cosmopolitan]]'' magazine editor-in-chief [[Ray Long]] praised "Fifty Grand", calling it, "one of the best short stories that ever came to my hands&nbsp;... the best prize-fight story I ever read&nbsp;... a remarkable piece of realism."<ref>Long (1932), 2–3</ref>

By the end of the year Pauline was pregnant and wanted to move back to America. Dos Passos recommended [[Key West, Florida|Key West]], and they left Paris in March 1928. Hemingway suffered a severe head injury in their Paris bathroom when he pulled a [[skylight]] down on his head thinking he was pulling on a toilet chain. This left him with a prominent forehead scar, which he carried for the rest of his life. When Hemingway was asked about the scar, he was reluctant to answer.<ref>Robinson (2005)</ref> After his departure from Paris, Hemingway "never again lived in a big city".<ref name="Meyers p204">Meyers (1985), 204</ref>

== Key West ==
[[File:Hemingwayhouse.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|The [[Ernest Hemingway House|Hemingway House]] in [[Key West, Florida]], where he lived between 1931 and 1939 and where he wrote ''[[To Have and Have Not]]''|alt=photograph of a house]]
Hemingway and Pauline went to [[Kansas City, Missouri]], where their son [[Patrick Hemingway|Patrick]] was born on June 28, 1928, at [[The University of Kansas Hospital|Bell Memorial Hospital]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kumc.edu/school-of-medicine/academics/departments/history-and-philosophy-of-medicine/archives/kumc-history/1920-1929.html|title=1920–1929|website=www.kumc.edu}}</ref> Pauline had a difficult delivery; Hemingway wrote a fictionalized version of the event in ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]''. After Patrick's birth, they traveled to Wyoming, Massachusetts, and New York.<ref name="Meyers p208">Meyers (1985), 208</ref> On December 6, Hemingway was in New York visiting Bumby, about to board a train to Florida, when he received the news that his father Clarence had killed himself.<ref group=note>Clarence Hemingway used his father's Civil War pistol to shoot himself. See Meyers (1985), 2</ref><ref>Mellow (1992), 367</ref> Hemingway was devastated, having earlier written to his father telling him not to worry about financial difficulties; the letter arrived minutes after the suicide. He realized how Hadley must have felt after her own father's suicide in 1903, and said, "I'll probably go the same way."<ref>qtd. in Meyers (1985), 210</ref>

Upon his return to Key West in December, Hemingway worked on the draft of ''A Farewell to Arms'' before leaving for France in January. He had finished it the previous August but delayed the revision. The serialization in ''[[Scribner's Magazine]]'' was scheduled to appear in May. In April, he was still working on the ending, which he may have rewritten as many as seventeen times. The completed novel was published on September 27, 1929.<ref name="Meyers p215">Meyers (1985), 215</ref> Biographer [[James R. Mellow|James Mellow]] believes ''A Farewell to Arms'' established Hemingway's stature as a major American writer and displayed a level of complexity not apparent in ''The Sun Also Rises''.<ref name="Mellow p378">Mellow (1992), 378</ref> In Spain in mid-1929, Hemingway researched his next work, ''[[Death in the Afternoon]]''. He wanted to write a comprehensive [[treatise]] on bullfighting, explaining the toreros and corridas complete with glossaries and appendices, because he believed bullfighting was "of great tragic interest, being literally of life and death."<ref>Baker (1972), 144–145</ref>

During the early 1930s, Hemingway spent his winters in Key West and summers in Wyoming, where he found "the most beautiful country he had seen in the American West" and hunted deer, elk, and grizzly bear.<ref name="Meyers p222">Meyers (1985), 222</ref> He was joined there by Dos Passos. In November 1930, after taking Dos Passos to the train station in [[Billings, Montana]], Hemingway broke his arm in a car accident. He was hospitalized for seven weeks, with Pauline tending to him. The nerves in his writing hand took as long as a year to heal, during which time he suffered intense pain.<ref>Reynolds (2000), 31</ref>

[[File:Hemingway and Marlins.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|left|Ernest, Pauline, and Hemingway children pose with [[marlin]]s after a fishing trip in [[Bimini]] in 1935|alt=photograph of a man, a woman, and children]]

His third child, [[Gloria Hemingway]], was born a year later on November 12, 1931, in Kansas City as "Gregory Hancock Hemingway".<ref group="note">She would undergo [[sex reassignment surgery]] between 1988 and 1994. See  Meyers (2020), 413</ref><ref name="Oliver144">Oliver (1999), 144</ref> Pauline's uncle bought the couple a [[Ernest Hemingway House|house]] in Key West with a carriage house, the second floor of which was converted into a writing studio.<ref name="Meyers pp222-227">Meyers (1985), 222–227</ref> He invited friends—including [[Waldo Peirce]], Dos Passos, and [[Max Perkins]]<ref>Mellow (1992), 376–377</ref>—to join him on fishing trips and on an all-male expedition to the [[Dry Tortugas]]. He continued to travel to Europe and to Cuba, and—although in 1933 he wrote of Key West, "We have a fine house here, and kids are all well"—Mellow believes he "was plainly restless".<ref name="Mellow p424">Mellow (1992), 424</ref>

In 1933, Hemingway and Pauline went on safari to Kenya. The 10-week trip provided material for ''[[Green Hills of Africa]]'', as well as for the short stories "[[The Snows of Kilimanjaro (short story)|The Snows of Kilimanjaro]]" and "[[The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber]]".<ref name="Desnoyers p9">Desnoyers, 9</ref> The couple visited [[Mombasa]], [[Nairobi]], and [[Machakos]] in Kenya; then moved on to [[Tanganyika Territory]], where they hunted in the [[Serengeti]], around [[Lake Manyara]], and west and southeast of present-day [[Tarangire National Park]]. Their guide was the noted "white hunter" [[Philip Percival]] who had guided [[Theodore Roosevelt]] on his 1909 safari. During these travels, Hemingway contracted [[amoebic dysentery]] that caused a prolapsed intestine, and he was evacuated by plane to Nairobi, an experience reflected in "The Snows of Kilimanjaro". On Hemingway's return to Key West in early 1934, he began work on ''Green Hills of Africa'', which he published in 1935 to mixed reviews.<ref>Mellow (1992), 337–340</ref>

He purchased a boat in 1934, naming it the ''[[Pilar (Ernest Hemingway's boat)|Pilar]]'', and began to sail the [[Caribbean]].<ref name="Meyers p280">Meyers (1985), 280</ref> He arrived at [[Bimini]] in 1935, where he spent a considerable amount of time.<ref name="Desnoyers p9" /> During this period he worked on ''[[To Have and Have Not]]'', published in 1937 while he was in Spain, which became the only novel he wrote during the 1930s.<ref name="Meyers p292">Meyers (1985), 292</ref>

== Spanish Civil War ==

Hemingway had been following developments in Spain since early in his career<ref name="Baker 1972 p224">Baker (1972), 224</ref> and from 1931 it became clear that there would be another European war. Hemingway predicted war would happen in the late 1930s. Baker writes that Hemingway did not expect Spain to "become a sort of international testing-ground for Germany, Italy, and Russia before the Spanish Civil War was over".<ref name="Baker 1972 p227">Baker (1972), 227</ref> Despite Pauline's reluctance, he signed with [[North American Newspaper Alliance]] to cover the [[Spanish Civil War]],<ref name="Mellow p488">Mellow (1992), 488</ref> and sailed from New York on February 27, 1937.<ref name="Muller 2019 p. 47">Muller (2019), 47.</ref> Journalist and writer [[Martha Gellhorn]] accompanied Hemingway. He had met her in Key West a year earlier. Like Hadley, Martha was a St. Louis native and, like Pauline, had worked for ''Vogue'' in Paris. According to Kert, Martha "never catered to him the way other women did".<ref name="Kert pp287">Kert (1983), 287–295</ref>

[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-84600-0001, Ivens und Hemingway bei Ludwig Renn, Chef der XI. Internationalen Brigaden.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Hemingway (center) with Dutch filmmaker [[Joris Ivens]] and German writer [[Ludwig Renn]], serving as an International Brigades officer during the [[Spanish Civil War]] in Spain in 1937|alt=photograph of three men]]

He arrived in Spain in March with Dutch filmmaker [[Joris Ivens]].<ref name="Koch p87">Koch (2005), 87</ref> Ivens, who was filming ''[[The Spanish Earth]]'', intended to replace John Dos Passos with Hemingway as screenwriter. Dos Passos had left the project when his friend and Spanish translator [[José Robles]] was arrested and later executed.<ref name="Meyers p311">Meyers (1985), 311</ref> The incident changed Dos Passos's opinion of the [[Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)|leftist republicans]], and caused a rift with Hemingway.<ref name="Koch p164">Koch (2005), 164</ref> Back in the U.S. that summer, Hemingway prepared the soundtrack for the film. It was screened at the [[White House]] in July.<ref name="Baker 1972 p233">Baker (1972), 233</ref>

In late August he returned to France and flew from Paris to [[Barcelona]] and then to [[Valencia]].<ref name="Muller 2019 109">Muller (2019), 109</ref> In September he visited the front in [[Battle of Belchite (1937)|Belchite]] and then on to [[Battle of Teruel|Teruel]].<ref name="Muller 2019 135ff">Muller (2019), 135–138</ref> On his return to Madrid Hemingway wrote his only play, ''[[The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories|The Fifth Column]]'', as [[Siege of Madrid|the city was being bombarded]] by the [[Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)|Francoist army]].<ref name="Koch p134">Koch (2005), 134</ref> He went back to Key West for a few months in January 1938. It was a frustrating time: he found it hard to write, fretted over poor reviews for ''To Have and Have Not'', bickered with Pauline, followed the news from Spain avidly and planned the next trip.<ref name="Muller 2019 155ff">Muller (2019), 155–161</ref> He took two trips to Spain in 1938. In November he visited the location of the [[Battle of the Ebro]], the last republican stand, along with other British and American journalists.<ref name="Meyers p321">Meyers (1985), 321</ref> They arrived to find the last bridge destroyed and had to retreat across the turbulent [[Ebro]] in a rowboat, Hemingway at the oars, "pulling for dear life".<ref name="Muller 2019 203">Muller (2019), 203</ref><ref name="Thomas p833">Thomas (2001), 833</ref>
<!-- [[File:Hemingwayboyscats cuba.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1|Ernest Hemingway and children with cats at ''Finca Vigía''.|alt=a dark-haired man wearing a light shirt with two dark-haired children wearing shorts, sitting on a stone patio playing with three kittens]] -->

In early 1939, Hemingway crossed to Cuba in his boat to live in the [[Hotel Ambos Mundos]] in Havana. This was the separation phase of a slow and painful split from Pauline, which began when Hemingway met Martha Gellhorn.<ref name="Meyers p326">Meyers (1985), 326</ref> Martha soon joined him in Cuba, and they rented ''[[Finca Vigía]]'' ("Lookout Farm"), a {{convert|15|acre|m2|adj=on}} property {{convert|15|mi|km}} from Havana. That summer while visiting with Pauline and the children in Wyoming, she took the children and left him. When his divorce from Pauline was finalized, he and Martha were married on November 20, 1940, in [[Cheyenne, Wyoming]].<ref>Lynn (1987), 479</ref>

Hemingway followed the pattern established after his divorce from Hadley and moved again. He split his time between Cuba and the newly established resort [[Sun Valley, Idaho|Sun Valley]].<ref name="Meyers p334">Meyers (1985), 334</ref> He was at work on ''For Whom the Bell Tolls'', which he began in March&nbsp;1939 and finished in July&nbsp;1940.<ref name="Meyers p334"/> His pattern was to move around while working on a manuscript, and he wrote ''For Whom the Bell Tolls'' in Cuba, Wyoming, and Sun Valley.<ref name="Meyers p326" /> Published that October,<ref name="Meyers p334"/> it became a book-of-the-month choice, sold half a million copies within months, was nominated for a [[Pulitzer Prize]], and as Meyers describes, "triumphantly re-established Hemingway's literary reputation".<ref name="Meyers pp334–339">Meyers (1985), 334–338</ref>
<!-- [[File:Gellhorn Hemingway 1941.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Gellhorn and Ernest Hemingway with [[Yu Hanmou|General Yu Hanmou]], Chongqing, China, 1941]]
 -->

In January 1941, Martha was sent to China on assignment for ''[[Collier's]]'' magazine.<ref name="Meyers pp=356–361" /> Hemingway went with her, sending in dispatches for the newspaper ''[[PM (newspaper)|PM]]''. Meyers writes that Hemingway had little enthusiasm for the trip or for China,<ref name="Meyers pp=356–361">Meyers (1985), 356–361</ref> Although his dispatches for ''PM'' provided incisive insights of the [[Second Sino-Japanese War|Sino-Japanese War]] according to Reynolds, with analysis of Japanese incursions into the [[Philippines]] sparking an "American war in the Pacific".<ref name="Reynolds p320">Reynolds (2012), 320</ref> In August, Hemingway returned to ''Finca Vigía''. In September, he left for Sun Valley.<ref name="Reynolds p324ff">Reynolds (2012), 324–328</ref>

== World War II ==
The United States [[United States declaration of war on Japan|entered the war]] after the [[Attack on Pearl Harbor]] in December 1941.<ref name="Reynolds p332ff">Reynolds (2012), 332–333</ref> Back in Cuba, Hemingway refitted the ''Pilar'' as a [[Q-boat]] and went on patrol for German [[U-boat]]s.<ref group="note">Germany targeted ships leaving the [[Lago Oil and Transport Company|Lago refinery]] in [[Aruba]] to transport oil products to England; in 1942, more than 250 ships were destroyed. See Reynolds (2012), 336</ref><ref name="Putnam" /> He also created a counterintelligence unit headquartered in his guesthouse to surveil [[Falangism|Falangist]]s,<ref name="Mellow p526ff">Mellow (1992), 526–527</ref> and Nazi sympathizers.<ref name="Meyers p337">Meyers (1985), 337</ref> Martha and his friends thought his activities "little more than a diverting racket", but the FBI began watching him and compiled a 124-page file.<ref group="note">He would remain under surveillance until his death. See Meyers (1985), 384</ref><ref name="Meyers p367">Meyers (1985), 367</ref> Martha wanted Hemingway in Europe as a journalist and failed to understand his reticence to take part in another European war. They fought frequently and bitterly, and he drank too much,<ref name="Reynolds p364ff">Reynolds (2012), 364–365</ref> until she left for Europe to report for ''[[Collier's]]'' in September 1943.<ref name="Reynolds p368ff">Reynolds (2012), 368</ref> On a visit to Cuba in March 1944, Hemingway was bullying and abusive with Martha. Reynolds writes that "looking backward from 1960–61 [anyone] might say that his behavior was a manifestation of the depression that eventually destroyed him".<ref name="Reynolds p368ff"/> A few weeks later, he contacted ''Collier's'' who made him their [[War correspondent|front-line correspondent]].<ref name="Reynolds p373ff">Reynolds (2012), 373–374</ref> He was in Europe from May 1944 to March 1945.<ref name="Meyers pp398-405"/>

[[File:Hemlatham-1.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Hemingway with [[Charles T. Lanham|Col. Charles "Buck" Lanham]] in Germany during the fighting in Hürtgenwald in 1944, after which he became ill with [[pneumonia]]|alt=photograph of two men]]

When he arrived in London, he met ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine correspondent [[Mary Welsh Hemingway|Mary Welsh]], with whom he became infatuated. Martha had been forced to cross the Atlantic in a ship filled with explosives because Hemingway refused to help her get a press pass on a plane, and she arrived in London to find him hospitalized with a concussion from a car accident. She was unsympathetic to his plight; she accused him of being a bully and told him that she was "through, absolutely finished".<ref name="Kert pp393-398">Kert (1983), 393–398</ref> The last time that Hemingway saw Martha was in March 1945 as he prepared to return to Cuba;<ref name="Meyers p416">Meyers (1985), 416</ref> their divorce was finalized later that year.<ref name="Kert pp393-398" /> Meanwhile, he had asked Mary Welsh to marry him on their third meeting.<ref name="Kert pp393-398" />

Hemingway sustained a severe head-wound that required 57 stitches.<ref>Farah (2017), 32</ref> Still suffering symptoms of the concussion,<ref name="Reynolds p377ff">Reynolds (2012), 377</ref> he accompanied troops to the [[Normandy landings]] wearing a large head bandage. The military treated him as "precious cargo" and he was not allowed ashore.<ref name="Meyers pp400">Meyers (1985), 400</ref> The [[LCVP (United States)|landing craft]] he was on came within sight of [[Omaha Beach]] before coming under enemy fire when it turned back. Hemingway later wrote in ''Collier's'' that he could see "the first, second, third, fourth and fifth waves of [landing troops] lay where they had fallen, looking like so many heavily laden bundles on the flat pebbly stretch between the sea and first cover".<ref>Reynolds (1999), 96–98</ref> Mellow explains that, on that first day, none of the correspondents were allowed to land and Hemingway was returned to the ''[[USS Dorothea L. Dix (AP-67)|Dorothea Dix]]''.<ref>Mellow (1992), 533</ref> Late in July, he attached himself to "the [[22nd Infantry Regiment (United States)|22nd Infantry Regiment]] commanded by Col. [[Charles T. Lanham|Charles 'Buck' Lanham]], as it drove toward Paris", and Hemingway became de facto leader to a small band of village militia in [[Rambouillet]] outside of Paris.<ref name="Meyers pp398-405">Meyers (1985), 398–405</ref> [[Paul Fussell]] remarks: "Hemingway got into considerable trouble playing infantry captain to a group of Resistance people that he gathered because a correspondent is not supposed to lead troops, even if he does it well."<ref name="Putnam" /> This was, in fact, in contravention of the [[Geneva Conventions|Geneva Convention]], and Hemingway was brought up on formal charges; he said that he "beat the rap" by claiming that he only offered advice.<ref name="Lynn 1987 518–519">Lynn (1987), 518–519</ref>

He was present at the [[liberation of Paris]] on August 25; however contrary to legend, he was not the first into the city nor did he liberate the [[Hôtel Ritz Paris|Ritz]].<ref name="Meyers p408ff">Meyers (1985) 408–411</ref> While there, he visited Sylvia Beach and met Picasso with Mary Welsh, and in a spirit of happiness, forgave Gertrude Stein.<ref name="Mellow p535ff">Mellow (1992), 535–540</ref> Later that year, he observed heavy fighting at the [[Battle of Hürtgen Forest]].<ref name="Meyers p408ff" /> On December 17, 1944, he traveled to Luxembourg, in spite of illness, to report on [[The Battle of the Bulge]]. As soon as he arrived, however, Lanham referred him to the doctors, who hospitalized him with pneumonia; he recovered a week later, but most of the fighting was over.<ref name="Lynn 1987 518–519" /> He was awarded a [[Bronze Star]] for bravery in 1947, in recognition for having been "under fire in combat areas in order to obtain an accurate picture of conditions".<ref name="Putnam" />

== Cuba and the Nobel Prize ==
[[File:Ernest Hemingway 1950.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|Hemingway in the cabin of his boat ''Pilar'', off the coast of [[Cuba]], {{Circa|1950}}|alt=photograph of a man]]
Hemingway said he "was out of business as a writer" from 1942 to 1945.<ref name="Mellow p552">qtd. in Mellow (1992), 552</ref> In 1946 he married Mary, who had an [[ectopic pregnancy]] five months later. The Hemingway family suffered a series of accidents and health problems in the years following the war: in a 1945 car accident, he injured his knee and sustained another head wound. A few years later Mary broke first her right ankle and then her left in successive skiing accidents. A 1947 car accident left Patrick with a head wound, severely ill and delirious. The doctor in Cuba diagnosed [[schizophrenia]], and sent him for 18 sessions of [[electroconvulsive therapy]].<ref name="Meyers pp420–421">Meyers (1985), 420–421</ref>

Hemingway sank into depression as his literary friends began to die: in 1939 [[William Butler Yeats]] and [[Ford Madox Ford]]; in 1940 [[F. Scott Fitzgerald]]; in 1941 [[Sherwood Anderson]] and [[James Joyce]]; in 1946 [[Gertrude Stein]]; and the following year in 1947, Max Perkins, Hemingway's long-time Scribner's editor, and friend.<ref name="Mellow pp548–550">Mellow (1992) 548–550</ref> During this period, he suffered from severe headaches, high blood pressure, weight problems, and eventually diabetes—much of which was the result of previous accidents and many years of heavy drinking.<ref name="Desnoyers p12">Desnoyers, 12</ref>

In January 1946, he began work on ''[[The Garden of Eden (novel)|The Garden of Eden]]'', finishing 800 pages by June.<ref group=note>''The Garden of Eden'' was published posthumously in 1986. See Meyers (1985), 436</ref><ref>Meyers (1985), 436</ref> During the post-war years, he also began work on a trilogy tentatively titled "The Land", "The Sea" and "The Air", which he wanted to combine in one novel titled ''The Sea Book''. Both projects stalled. Mellow writes that Hemingway's inability to write was "a symptom of his troubles" during these years.<ref group=note>The manuscript for ''The Sea Book'' was published posthumously as ''[[Islands in the Stream (novel)|Islands in the Stream]]'' in 1970. See Mellow (1992), 552</ref><ref>Mellow (1992), 552</ref>

In 1948, Hemingway and Mary traveled to Europe, staying in [[Venice]] for several months. While there, Hemingway fell in love with the then 19-year-old [[Adriana Ivancich]]. The platonic love affair inspired the novel ''[[Across the River and into the Trees]]'', written in Cuba during a time of strife with Mary, and published in 1950 to negative reviews.<ref>Meyers (1985), 440–452</ref> The following year, furious at the critical reception of ''Across the River and Into the Trees'', Hemingway wrote the draft of ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]'' in eight weeks, saying that it was "the best I can write ever for all of my life".<ref name="Desnoyers p12" /> Published in September 1952,<ref name="Reynolds p656">Reynolds (2012), 656</ref> ''The Old Man and the Sea'' became a book-of-the-month selection, made Hemingway an international celebrity, and won the [[Pulitzer Prize]] in May 1953. In June, he departed Cuba for his second trip to Africa.<ref name="Desnoyers p13">Desnoyers, 13</ref><ref name="Meyers p489">Meyers (1985), 489</ref>

[[File:Ernest and Mary Hemingway on safari, 1953-54.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|Hemingway and Mary in Africa before the two plane accidents|alt=photograph of a man and woman on safari in Africa]]
In January 1954 while in Africa, Hemingway was almost fatally injured in successive plane crashes. He had chartered a sightseeing flight over the [[Belgian Congo]] as a Christmas present to Mary. On their way to photograph [[Murchison Falls]] from the air, the plane struck an abandoned utility pole and was forced into a crash landing. Hemingway sustained injuries to his back and shoulder. Mary sustained broken ribs and went into shock. After a night in the brush, they chartered a boat on the river and arrived in [[Butiaba]], where they were met by a pilot who had been searching for them. He assured them he could fly out, but the landing strip was too rough and the plane exploded in flames. Mary and the pilot escaped through a broken window. Hemingway had to smash his way out by battering the door open with his head.<ref name= "Reynolds2012 550ff">Reynolds (2012), 550</ref>

Hemingway suffered burns and another serious head injury, that caused [[cerebrospinal fluid|cerebral fluid]] to leak from the injury.<ref>Mellow (1992), 586</ref> They eventually arrived in [[Entebbe]] to find reporters covering the story of Hemingway's death. He briefed the reporters and spent the next few weeks recuperating in [[Nairobi]].<ref>Mellow (1992), 587</ref> Despite his injuries, Hemingway accompanied Patrick and his wife on a planned fishing expedition in February, but pain caused him to be irascible and difficult to get along with.<ref name="Mellow 1992 588">Mellow (1992), 588</ref> When a [[wildfire|bushfire]] broke out, he was again injured, sustaining second-degree burns on his legs, front torso, lips, left hand and right forearm.<ref name="Meyers pp505-507">Meyers (1985), 505–507</ref>

Months later in [[Venice]], Mary reported to friends the full extent of Hemingway's injuries: two cracked [[Intervertebral disc|discs]], a kidney and liver rupture, a [[dislocated shoulder]] and a broken skull.<ref name="Mellow 1992 588" /> The accidents may have precipitated the physical deterioration that was to follow. After the plane crashes, Hemingway, who had been "a thinly controlled alcoholic throughout much of his life, drank more heavily than usual to combat the pain of his injuries."<ref>Beegel (1996), 273</ref>

[[File:Telegram Nobel Prize for Literature 1954.jpg|thumb|upright|Hemingway's Nobel-Prize telegram in 1954|alt=telegram from with text]]

In October 1954, Hemingway received the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]]. He modestly told the press that [[Carl Sandburg]], [[Isak Dinesen]] and [[Bernard Berenson]] deserved the prize,<ref>Lynn (1987), 574</ref> but he gladly accepted the prize money.<ref name="Baker p338">Baker (1972), 38</ref> Mellow says Hemingway "had coveted the Nobel Prize", but when he won it, months after his plane accidents and their worldwide press coverage, "there must have been a lingering suspicion in Hemingway's mind that his obituary notices had played a part in the academy's decision."<ref name="Mellow pp588–589">Mellow (1992), 588–589</ref> He was still recuperating and decided against traveling to Stockholm.<ref name="Meyers p509">Meyers (1985), 509</ref> Instead he sent a speech to be read in which he defined the writer's life:

{{blockquote|Writing, at its best, is a lonely life. Organizations for writers palliate the writer's loneliness but I doubt if they improve his writing. He grows in public stature as he sheds his loneliness and often his work deteriorates. For he does his work alone and if he is a good enough writer he must face eternity, or the lack of it, each day.<ref>{{cite web |url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1954/hemingway-speech.html |title = Ernest Hemingway The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954 Banquet Speech |publisher = The Nobel Foundation |access-date = December 10, 2009 |archive-date = August 2, 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180802223736/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1954/hemingway-speech.html |url-status = live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1954/hemingway/speech/|access-date=January 4, 2023|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US}}</ref>}}

Since his return from Africa, Hemingway had been slowly writing his "African Journal".<ref group="note">Published in 1999 as ''[[True at First Light]]''. See Oliver (1999), 333</ref><ref name="Meyers p511"/> Late in 1955 and early into 1956 he was bedridden with a variety of illnesses.<ref name="Meyers p511">Meyers (1985), 511</ref> He was ordered to stop drinking so as to mitigate liver damage, advice he initially followed but eventually disregarded.<ref>Reynolds (2000), 291–293</ref> In October 1956, he returned to Europe and visited ailing [[Basque people|Basque]] writer [[Pio Baroja]], who died a few weeks later. During the trip, Hemingway again became sick and was treated for a variety of ailments including liver disease and high blood pressure.<ref name="Meyers p512">Meyers (1985), 512</ref>

{{Listen|filename=HemingwayNobelSpeechIntro.ogg|title= 1954 Nobel Acceptance Speech | pos = right| description=Opening statement of Nobel Prize acceptance speech, 1954 (recorded privately by Hemingway after the fact).|format=[[Ogg]]}}
In November 1956, while staying in Paris, he was reminded of trunks he had stored in the Ritz Hotel in 1928 and never retrieved. Upon re-claiming and opening the trunks, Hemingway discovered they were filled with notebooks and writing from his Paris years. Excited about the discovery, when he returned to Cuba in early 1957, he began to shape the recovered work into his memoir ''[[A Moveable Feast]]''.<ref name="Meyers p533">Meyers (1985), 533</ref> In 1959, he ended a period of intense activity: he finished ''A Moveable Feast'' (scheduled to be released the following year); brought ''[[True at First Light]]'' to 200,000 words; added chapters to ''The Garden of Eden''; and worked on ''[[Islands in the Stream (novel)|Islands in the Stream]]''. The last three were stored in a safe deposit box in Havana as he focused on the finishing touches for ''A Moveable Feast''. Reynolds claims it was during this period that Hemingway slid into depression, from which he was unable to recover.<ref>Reynolds (1999), 321</ref>

''Finca Vigía'' became crowded with guests and tourists, as Hemingway considered a permanent move to Idaho. In 1959, he bought a home overlooking the [[Big Wood River]], outside Ketchum and left Cuba—although he apparently remained on easy terms with the [[Fidel Castro|Castro]] government, telling ''The New York Times'' he was "delighted" with Castro's overthrow of [[Fulgencio Batista|Batista]].<ref>Mellow (1992), 494–495</ref><ref name="Meyers pp516–519">Meyers (1985), 516–519</ref> He was in Cuba in November 1959, between returning from Pamplona and traveling west to Idaho, and in 1960, for his 61st birthday.<ref name="Reynolds 2000, 332, 344">Reynolds (2000), 332, 344</ref>

In 1960, he and Mary decided to leave, after hearing the news that Castro wanted to nationalize property owned by Americans and other foreign nationals.<ref name="Reynolds 2000, 332, 344"/> On July 25, 1960, the Hemingways left Cuba for the last time, leaving art and manuscripts in a bank vault in Havana. After the 1961 [[Bay of Pigs Invasion]], ''Finca Vigía'' was [[expropriated]] by the Cuban government, complete with Hemingway's collection of about 5,000 books.<ref name="Mellow p599">Mellow (1992), 599</ref>

== Idaho and suicide ==
[[File:Hemingway SunValley.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Hemingway bird-hunting at [[Silver Creek (Idaho)|Silver Creek]], near [[Picabo, Idaho]], in January 1959. With him are [[Gary Cooper]] and Bobbie Powell|alt=photograph of two men and woman]]
After leaving Cuba, in Sun Valley, Hemingway continued to rework the material that was published as ''A Moveable Feast'' through the 1950s.<ref name="Meyers p533" /> In mid-1959, he visited Spain to research a series of bullfighting articles commissioned by ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine.<ref name="Meyers p520">Meyers (1985), 520</ref> ''Life'' wanted only 10,000&nbsp;words, but the manuscript grew out of control.<ref>Baker (1969), 553</ref> For the first time in his life he could not organize his writing, so he asked [[A. E. Hotchner]] to travel to Cuba to help him. Hotchner helped trim the ''Life'' piece down to 40,000 words, and Scribner's agreed to a full-length book version (''[[The Dangerous Summer]]'') of almost 130,000 words.<ref name="R544ff">Reynolds (1999), 544–547</ref>

Hotchner found Hemingway to be "unusually hesitant, disorganized, and confused",<ref name="Mellow pp598–600">qtd. in Mellow (1992), 598–600</ref> and suffering badly from failing eyesight.<ref name="Meyers p542-544">Meyers (1985), 542–544</ref> He left Cuba for the last time on July 25, 1960. Mary went with him to New York where he set up a small office and attempted unsuccessfully to work. Soon after, he left New York, traveling without Mary to Spain to be photographed for the front cover of ''Life'' magazine. A few days later the news reported that he was seriously ill and on the verge of dying, which panicked Mary until she received a cable from him telling her, "Reports false. Enroute Madrid. Love Papa."<ref>qtd. in Reynolds (1999), 546</ref>

He was, in fact, seriously ill, and believed himself to be on the verge of a breakdown.<ref name="R544ff" /> Feeling lonely, he took to his bed for days, retreating into silence, despite having the first installments of ''The Dangerous Summer'' published in ''Life'' that September to good reviews.<ref name="Mellow pp598-601">Mellow (1992), 598–601</ref> In October, he went back to New York, where he refused to leave Mary's apartment, presuming that he was being watched. She quickly took him to Idaho, where they were met at the train station in Ketchum by local physician George Saviers.<ref name="R544ff" />

He was concerned about finances, missed Cuba, his books, and his life there, and fretted that he would never return to retrieve the manuscripts that he had left in a bank vault.<ref name="R348">Reynolds (1999), 348</ref> He believed the manuscripts that would be published as ''Islands in the Stream'' and ''True at First Light'' were lost.<ref name="R354">Reynolds (1999), 354</ref> He became paranoid, believing that the FBI was actively monitoring his movements in Ketchum.<ref group="note">The FBI had opened a file on him during World War II, when he used the ''Pilar'' to patrol the waters off Cuba, and [[J. Edgar Hoover]] had an agent in Havana watch him during the 1950s, see Mellow (1992), 597–598; and appeared to be monitoring his movements at that time, as an agent documented in a letter written a few months later, in January 1961, about Hemingway's stay at the Mayo clinic. see Meyers (1985), 543–544</ref><ref name="Meyers p542-544" /> Mary was unable to care for her husband and it was anathema for a man of Hemingway's generation to accept he suffered from mental illness. At the end of November, Saviers flew him to the [[Mayo Clinic]] in Minnesota on the pretext that he was to be treated for [[hypertension]].<ref name="R348" />  He was checked in under Saviers's name to maintain anonymity.<ref name="Mellow pp598-601" />

Meyers writes that "an aura of secrecy surrounds Hemingway's treatment at the Mayo" but confirms that he was treated with electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) as many as 15 times in December 1960.<ref>Meyers (1985), 547–550</ref> Reynolds gained access to Hemingway's records at the Mayo, which document 10 ECT sessions. The doctors in Rochester told Hemingway the depressive state for which he was being treated may have been caused by his long-term use of [[Reserpine]] and [[Ritalin]].<ref>Reynolds (2000), 350</ref> Of the ECT therapy, Hemingway told Hotchner, "What is the sense of ruining my head and erasing my memory, which is my capital, and putting me out of business? It was a brilliant cure, but we lost the patient."<ref name=Hotchner280>Hotchner (1983), 280</ref> In late January 1961 he was sent home, as Meyers writes, "in ruins". Asked to provide a tribute to President [[John F. Kennedy]] in February he could only produce a few sentences after a week's effort.

A few months later, on April 21, Mary found Hemingway with a shotgun in the kitchen. She called Saviers, who admitted Hemingway to the Sun Valley Hospital under sedation. Once the weather cleared, Saviers flew again to Rochester with his patient.<ref name="Meyers p551">Meyers (1985), 551</ref> Hemingway underwent three electroshock treatments during that visit.<ref>Reynolds (2000), 355</ref> He was released at the end of June and was home in Ketchum on June 30.

Two days later Hemingway "quite deliberately" shot himself with his favorite shotgun in the early morning hours of July 2, 1961.<ref>Reynolds (2000), 16</ref> Meyers writes that he unlocked the basement storeroom where his guns were kept, went upstairs to the front entrance foyer, "pushed two shells into the twelve-gauge [[Boss & Co.|Boss]] shotgun&nbsp;... put the end of the barrel into his mouth, pulled the trigger and blew out his brains."<ref>Meyers (1985), 560</ref> In 2010, however, it was argued that Hemingway never owned a Boss and that the suicide gun was actually made by W. & C. Scott & Son, his favorite one that was used at shooting competitions in Cuba, duck hunts in Italy or at a safari in East Africa.<ref>{{cite web | url =https://gardenandgun.com/articles/hemingways-suicide-gun/|title=Hemingway's Suicide Gun|work=[[Garden & Gun]]| date=October 20, 2010| accessdate =July 21, 2024}}</ref>

[[File:Hemingway Memorial Sun Valley.jpg|thumb|upright|The Hemingway Memorial in [[Sun Valley, Idaho]]|alt=photograph of a stone memorial in the snow]]
When the authorities arrived, Mary was sedated and taken to the hospital. Returning to the house the next day, she cleaned the house and saw to the funeral and travel arrangements. Bernice Kert writes that it "did not seem to her a conscious lie" when she told the press that his death had been accidental.<ref name="Kertp504">Kert (1983), 504</ref> In a press interview five years later, Mary confirmed that he had shot himself.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1966/08/23/archives/widow-believes-hemingway-committed-suicide-she-tells-of-his.html|title=Widow Believes Hemingway Committed Suicide; She Tells of His Depression and His 'Breakdown' Assails Hotchner Book|first=Harry|last=Gilroy|date=August 23, 1966|access-date=July 11, 2017|newspaper=The New York Times|archive-date=February 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226161943/https://www.nytimes.com/1966/08/23/archives/widow-believes-hemingway-committed-suicide-she-tells-of-his.html|url-status=live}}</ref><!-- check this --> Family and friends flew to Ketchum for the funeral, officiated by the local Catholic priest, who believed that the death had been accidental.<ref name="Kertp504" /> An altar boy fainted at the head of the casket during the funeral, and Hemingway's brother Leicester wrote: "It seemed to me Ernest would have approved of it all."<ref>Hemingway (1996), 14–18</ref>

Hemingway's behavior during his final years had been similar to that of his father before he killed himself;<ref name="Burwell p234">Burwell (1996), 234</ref> his father may have had [[hereditary hemochromatosis]], whereby the excessive accumulation of iron in tissues culminates in mental and physical deterioration.<ref name="Burwell p14">Burwell (1996), 14</ref> Medical records made available in 1991 confirmed that Hemingway had been diagnosed with hemochromatosis in early 1961.<ref name="Burwell p189">Burwell (1996), 189</ref> His sister Ursula and his brother [[Leicester Hemingway|Leicester]] also killed themselves.<ref>Oliver (1999), 139–149</ref>

Hemingway's health was further complicated by heavy drinking throughout most of his life, which exacerbated his erratic behavior, and his head injuries increased the effects of the alcohol.<ref name="Desnoyers p12" /><ref name="Farah p43">Farah,  (2017), 43</ref> The neuropsychiatrist Andrew Farah's 2017 book ''Hemingway's Brain'', offers a forensic examination of Hemingway's mental illness. In her review of Farah's book, Beegel writes that Farah postulates Hemingway suffered from the combination of depression, the side-effects of nine serious concussions, then, she writes, "Add alcohol and stir".<ref name="Beegel p122ff">Beegel,  (2017), 122–124</ref> Farah writes that Hemingway's concussions resulted in [[chronic traumatic encephalopathy]], which eventually led to a form of dementia,<ref name="Farah p39ff">Farah,  (2017), 39–40</ref> most likely [[dementia with Lewy bodies]]. He bases his hypothesis on Hemingway's symptoms consistent with DLB, such as the various [[comorbidities]], and most particularly the delusions, which surfaced as early as the late 1940s and were almost overwhelming during the final Ketchum years.<ref name="Farah p56">Farah,  (2017), 56</ref> Beegel writes that Farah's study is convincing and "should put an end to future speculation".<ref name="Beegel p122ff" />

== Writing style ==
Following the tradition established by [[Mark Twain]], [[Stephen Crane]], [[Theodore Dreiser]], and [[Sinclair Lewis]], Hemingway was a journalist before becoming a novelist.<ref name="Meyers p19ff"/> ''The New York Times'' wrote in 1926 of Hemingway's first novel, "No amount of analysis can convey the quality of ''The Sun Also Rises''. It is a truly gripping story, told in a lean, hard, athletic narrative prose that puts more literary English to shame."<ref name="NYT">{{Cite news|title=Marital Tragedy|url=https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/99/07/04/specials/hemingway-rises.html|access-date=January 4, 2023|work=[[The New York Times]] |date=October 31, 1926 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210126070149/https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/99/07/04/specials/hemingway-rises.html |archive-date=January 26, 2021}}</ref> ''The Sun Also Rises'' is written in the spare, tight prose that made Hemingway famous, and, according to James Nagel, "changed the nature of American writing".<ref name="Nagel 1996 87">Nagel (1996), 87</ref>

In 1954, when Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, it was for "his mastery of the art of narrative, most recently demonstrated in ''The Old Man and the Sea'', and for the influence that he has exerted on contemporary style."<ref>{{cite web |url = http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/1954/index.html |title = The Nobel Prize in Literature 1954 |publisher = The Nobel Foundation |access-date = March 7, 2010 |archive-date = December 26, 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181226101906/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1954/summary/ |url-status = live }}</ref> [[Henry Louis Gates]] believes Hemingway's style was fundamentally shaped "in reaction to [his] experience of world war". After World War&nbsp;I, he and other modernists "lost faith in the central institutions of Western civilization" by reacting against the elaborate style of 19th-century writers and by creating a style "in which meaning is established through dialogue, through action, and silences—a fiction in which nothing crucial—or at least very little—is stated explicitly."<ref name="Putnam" />

Hemingway's fiction often used grammatical and stylistic structures from languages other than English.<ref name="Josephs 1996, 221-235">Josephs (1996), 221–235</ref> Critics Allen Josephs, Mimi Gladstein, and Jeffrey Herlihy-Mera have studied how Spanish influenced Hemingway's prose,<ref name="Ernest Hemingway in Spain: He was a Sort of Joke, in Fact">{{Cite journal | author=Herlihy-Mera, Jeffrey | title=Ernest Hemingway in Spain: He was a sort of Joke, in Fact | journal=The Hemingway Review | volume=31 | year=2012 | pages=84–100 https://www.academia.edu/1258702/Ernest_Hemingway_in_Spain_He_was_a_Sort_of_Joke_in_Fact| doi=10.1353/hem.2012.0004 }}</ref><ref name="Josephs 1996, 221-235"/> which sometimes appears directly in the other language (in italics, as occurs in ''The Old Man and the Sea'') or in English as literal translations. He also often used bilingual puns and crosslingual wordplay as stylistic devices.<ref name="Bilingual Wordplay: Variations on a Theme by Hemingway and Steinbeck">{{Cite journal | author=Gladstein, Mimi | title=Bilingual Wordplay: Variations on a Theme by Hemingway and Steinbeck | journal=The Hemingway Review | volume=26 | year=2006 | pages=81–95 https://muse.jhu.edu/article/205022/summary| doi=10.1353/hem.2006.0047 }}</ref><ref name="Cuba in Hemingway">{{Cite journal | author=Herlihy-Mera, Jeffrey | title=Cuba in Hemingway | journal=The Hemingway Review | volume=36 | year=2017 | issue=2 | pages=8–41 https://www.academia.edu/33255402/Cuba_in_Hemingway | doi=10.1353/hem.2017.0001 }}</ref><ref name="Santiago’s Expatriation from Spain">{{Cite journal | author=Herlihy, Jeffrey | title=Santiago's Expatriation from Spain | journal=The Hemingway Review | volume=28 | year=2009 | pages=25–44 https://www.academia.edu/1548905/Santiagos_Expatriation_from_Spain_and_Cultural_Otherness_in_Hemingways_the_Old_Man_and_the_Sea| doi=10.1353/hem.0.0030 }}</ref>

{{quote box | width = 22em
| quote = If a writer of prose knows enough of what he is writing about he may omit things that he knows and the reader, if the writer is writing truly enough, will have a feeling of those things as strongly as though the writer had stated them. The dignity of movement of an ice-berg is due to only one-eighth of it being above water. A writer who omits things because he does not know them only makes hollow places in his writing.
| source = —Ernest Hemingway in ''[[Death in the Afternoon]]''<ref>qtd. in Oliver (1999), 322</ref>
| style = padding:1.5em
| fontsize=85%
}}

Because he began as a writer of short stories, Baker believes Hemingway learned to "get the most from the least, how to prune language, how to multiply intensities and how to tell nothing but the truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth."<ref name="Baker p117">Baker (1972),  117</ref> Hemingway called his style the [[iceberg theory]]: the facts float above water; the supporting structure and symbolism operate out of sight.<ref name="Baker p117" /> The concept of the iceberg theory is sometimes referred to as the "theory of omission". Hemingway believed the writer could describe one thing (such as Nick Adams fishing in "Big Two-Hearted River") though an entirely different thing occurs below the surface (Nick Adams concentrating on fishing to the extent that he does not have to think about anything else).<ref>Oliver (1999), 321–322</ref>

Paul Smith writes that Hemingway's first stories, collected as ''[[In Our Time (short story collection)|In Our Time]]'', showed he was still experimenting with his writing style,<ref>Smith (1996), 45</ref> and when he wrote about Spain or other countries he incorporated foreign words into the text, which sometimes appears directly in the other language, in italics, as occurs in ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]'', or in English as literal translations.<ref>Gladstein (2006), 82–84</ref> In general, he avoided complicated syntax. About 70 percent of the sentences are [[simple sentence]]s without [[subordinate clause|subordination]]—a simple childlike grammar structure.<ref>Wells (1975), 130–133</ref>

Jackson Benson believes Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices about life in general—not only about his life. For example, Benson postulates that Hemingway used his experiences and drew them out with "what if" scenarios: "what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night? What if I were wounded and made crazy, what would happen if I were sent back to the front?"<ref>Benson (1989), 351</ref> Writing in "The Art of the Short Story", Hemingway explains: "A few things I have found to be true. If you leave out important things or events that you know about, the story is strengthened. If you leave or skip something because you do not know it, the story will be worthless. The test of any story is how very good the stuff that you, not your editors, omit."<ref>Hemingway (1975), 3</ref>

{{quote box | width = 22em
|quote = In the late summer that year we lived in a house in a village that looked across the river and the plain to the mountains. In the bed of the river there were pebbles and boulders, dry and white in the sun, and the water was clear and swiftly moving and blue in the channels. Troops went by the house and down the road and the dust they raised powdered the trees.
| source = —Opening passage of ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]'' showing Hemingway's use of the word ''and''<ref>qtd. in Mellow (1992), 379</ref>
| style = padding:1.5em
| fontsize=85%
}}

The simplicity of the prose is deceptive. Zoe Trodd believes Hemingway crafted skeletal sentences in response to [[Henry James]]'s observation that World War&nbsp;I had "used up words". Hemingway offers a "multi-focal" photographic reality. His iceberg theory of omission is the foundation on which he builds. The syntax, which lacks [[grammatical conjunction|subordinating conjunctions]], creates static sentences. The photographic "[[Snapshot (photography)|snapshot]]" style creates a [[collage]] of images. Many types of internal punctuation (colons, semicolons, dashes, parentheses) are omitted in favor of short declarative sentences.<ref name="Trodd 2007, 8">Trodd (2007), 8</ref>

The sentences build on each other, as events build to create a sense of the whole. Multiple strands exist in one story; an "embedded text" bridges to a different angle. He also uses other cinematic techniques of "cutting" quickly from one scene to the next; or of "splicing" a scene into another. Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap, as though responding to instructions from the author, and create three-dimensional prose.<ref name="Trodd 2007, 8"/> Conjunctions such as "and" are habitually used in place of commas; a use [[polysyndeton]] that conveys immediacy. Hemingway's polysyndetonic sentence—or in later works his use of subordinate clauses—uses conjunctions to juxtapose startling visions and images. Benson compares them to [[haiku]]s.<ref name="McCormick p49">McCormick, 49</ref><ref>Benson (1989), 309</ref>

Many of Hemingway's followers misinterpreted his style and frowned upon expression of emotion; [[Saul Bellow]] satirized this style as "Do you have emotions? Strangle them."<ref>qtd. in Hoberek (2005), 309</ref> Hemingway's intent was not to eliminate emotion, but to portray it realistically. As he explains in ''Death in the Afternoon'': "In writing for a newspaper you told what happened&nbsp;... but the real thing, the sequence of motion and fact which made the emotion and which would be as valid in a year or in ten years or, with luck and if you stated it purely enough, always, was beyond me". He tried to achieve conveying emotion with collages of images.<ref>Hemingway, (1932), 11–12</ref> This use of an image as an [[objective correlative]] is characteristic of Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, James Joyce, and [[Marcel Proust]].<ref>McCormick, 47</ref> Hemingway's letters refer to Proust's ''[[In Search of Lost Time|Remembrance of Things Past]]'' several times over the years, and indicate he read the book at least twice.<ref name="Burwell p187">Burwell (1996), 187</ref>

== Themes ==
Hemingway's writing includes themes of love, war, travel, expatriation, wilderness, and loss.<ref>Svoboda (2000), 155</ref> Critic [[Leslie Fiedler]] sees the theme he defines as "The Sacred Land"—the [[American Old West|American West]]—extended in Hemingway's work to include mountains in Spain, Switzerland and Africa, and to the streams of Michigan. The American West is given a symbolic nod with the naming of the "Hotel Montana" in ''The Sun Also Rises'' and ''For Whom the Bell Tolls''.<ref name="Fiedler" /> In ''Hemingway's Expatriate Nationalism'', Jeffrey Herlihy describes "Hemingway's Transnational Archetype" as one that involves characters who are "multilingual and bicultural, and have integrated new cultural norms from the host community into their daily lives by the time plots begin."<ref name = "herlihy2011 p.49">Herlihy (2011), 49</ref> In this way, "foreign scenarios, far from being mere exotic backdrops or cosmopolitan milieus, are motivating factors in-character action".<ref name = "herlihy2011 p.3">Herlihy (2011), 3</ref>

In Hemingway's fiction, nature is a place for rebirth and rest; it is where the hunter or fisherman might experience a moment of transcendence at the moment they kill their prey.<ref name="Stoltzfus" /> Nature is where men exist without women: men fish; men hunt; men find redemption in nature.<ref name="Fiedler" /> Although Hemingway does write about sports, such as fishing, Carlos Baker notes the emphasis is more on the athlete than the sport.<ref name="Baker1972 120–121">Baker (1972), 120–121</ref> At its core, much of Hemingway's work can be viewed in the light of American [[Naturalism (literature)|naturalism]], evident in detailed descriptions such as those in "Big Two-Hearted River".<ref name="Beegel2000, p. 63-70" />

Fiedler believes Hemingway inverts the American literary theme of the evil "Dark Woman" versus the good "Light Woman". The dark woman—Brett Ashley of ''[[The Sun Also Rises]]''—is a goddess; the light woman—Margot Macomber of "[[The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber]]"—is a murderess.<ref name="Fiedler">Fiedler (1975), 345–365</ref> [[Robert Scholes]] says early Hemingway stories, such as "[[A Very Short Story]]", present "a male character favorably and a female unfavorably".<ref>Scholes (1990),  42</ref> According to Rena Sanderson, early Hemingway critics lauded his male-centric world of masculine pursuits, and the fiction divided women into "castrators or love-slaves". Feminist critics attacked Hemingway as "public enemy number one", although more recent re-evaluations of his work "have given new visibility to Hemingway's female characters (and their strengths) and have revealed his own sensitivity to gender issues, thus casting doubts on the old assumption that his writings were one-sidedly masculine."<ref>Sanderson (1996), 171</ref> [[Nina Baym]] believes that Brett Ashley and Margot Macomber "are the two outstanding examples of Hemingway's 'bitch women.{{'"}}<ref>Baym (1990), 112</ref>

{{quote box | width = 22em
|quote =The world breaks everyone and afterward many are strong in the broken places. But those that will not break it kills. It kills the very good and the very gentle and the very brave impartially. If you are none of these you can be sure it will kill you too but there will be no special hurry.
| source =—Ernest Hemingway in ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]''<ref>Hemingway, Ernest. (1929) ''A Farewell to Arms''. New York: Scribner's</ref>
| style = padding:1.5em
| fontsize=85%
}}

Death permeates much of Hemingway's work. Young believes the emphasis on death in "Indian Camp" was not so much on the father who kills himself, but on Nick Adams, who witnesses these events and becomes a "badly scarred and nervous young man". Young believes the archetype in "Indian Camp" holds the "master key" to "what its author was up to for some thirty-five years of his writing career".<ref>Young (1964), 6</ref> Stoltzfus considers Hemingway's work to be more complex with a representation of the truth inherent in [[existentialism]]: if "nothingness" is embraced, then redemption is achieved at the moment of death. Those who face death with dignity and courage live an authentic life. Francis Macomber dies happy because the last hours of his life are authentic; the [[bullfighter]] in the [[Bullfighting|corrida]] represents the pinnacle of a life lived with authenticity.<ref name="Stoltzfus">Stoltzfus (2005), 215–218</ref> In his paper ''The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field'', Timo Müller writes that Hemingway's fiction is successful because the characters live an "authentic life", and the "soldiers, fishers, boxers and backwoodsmen are among the archetypes of authenticity in modern literature".<ref>Müller (2010), 31</ref>

Emasculation is prevalent in Hemingway's work, notably in ''God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen'' and ''The Sun Also Rises''. Emasculation, according to Fiedler, is a result of a generation of wounded soldiers; and of a generation in which women such as Brett gained [[Women's suffrage|emancipation]]. This also applies to the minor character, Frances Clyne, Cohn's girlfriend in the beginning of ''The Sun Also Rises''. Her character supports the theme not only because the idea was presented early on in the novel but also the impact she had on Cohn in the start of the book while only appearing a small number of times.<ref name="Fiedler" />

In ''God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen'', the emasculation is literal, and related to religious guilt. Baker believes Hemingway's work emphasizes the "natural" versus the "unnatural". In "[[An Alpine Idyll]]" the "unnaturalness" of skiing in the high country late spring snow is juxtaposed against the "unnaturalness" of the peasant who allowed his wife's dead body to linger too long in the shed during the winter. The skiers and peasant retreat to the valley to the "natural" spring for redemption.<ref name="Baker1972 120–121" />

In recent decades, critics have characterized Hemingway's work as [[misogynistic]] and [[homophobic]]. Susan Beegel analyzed four decades of Hemingway criticism and found that "critics interested in multiculturalism" simply ignored Hemingway. Typical is this analysis of ''The Sun Also Rises'': "Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew, not an unattractive character who happens to be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a Jew." During the same decade, according to Beegel, criticism was published that investigated the "horror of homosexuality" and racism in Hemingway's fiction.<ref name="Beegel 1996 282">Beegel (1996), 282</ref> In an overall assessment of Hemingway's work Beegel has written: "Throughout his remarkable body of fiction, he tells the truth about human fear, guilt, betrayal, violence, cruelty, drunkenness, hunger, greed, apathy, ecstasy, tenderness, love and lust."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kansascity.com/entertainment/arts-culture/article294978/Susan-Beegel-What-I-like-about-Hemingway.html|title=Susan Beegel: What I like about Hemingway|website=kansascity.com|access-date=July 11, 2017}}</ref>

== Influence and legacy ==
[[File:Statue of Hemingway at Floridita.jpg|thumb|upright=.9|A life-sized statue of Hemingway by [[José Villa Soberón]] at [[El Floridita]], a bar in [[Havana]]]]
Hemingway's legacy to American literature is his style: writers who came after him either emulated or avoided it.<ref>Oliver (1999), 140–141</ref> After his reputation was established with the publication of ''The Sun Also Rises'', he became the spokesperson for the post–World War&nbsp;I generation, having established a style to follow.<ref name="Nagel 1996 87" /> His books [[Nazi book burning|were burned]] in Berlin in 1933, "as being a monument of modern decadence", and disavowed by his parents as "filth".<ref name="Hallengren">{{Cite web|title=A Case of Identity: Ernest Hemingway |first=Anders |last=Hallengren|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/literature/1954/hemingway/article/|access-date=January 4, 2023|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US}}</ref> Reynolds asserts the legacy is that "[Hemingway] left stories and novels so starkly moving that some have become part of our cultural heritage."<ref>Reynolds (2000), 15</ref>

Benson believes the details of Hemingway's life have become a "prime vehicle for exploitation", resulting in a Hemingway industry.<ref>Benson (1989), 347</ref> The Hemingway scholar {{interlanguage link|Anders Hallengren|lt=Hallengren|sv}} believes the "hard-boiled style" and the machismo must be separated from the author himself.<ref name="Hallengren" /> Benson agrees, describing him as introverted and private as [[J. D. Salinger]], although Hemingway masked his nature with braggadocio.<ref>Benson (1989), 349</ref>

During World War&nbsp;II, Salinger met and corresponded with Hemingway, whom he acknowledged as an influence. In a letter to Hemingway, Salinger claimed their talks "had given him his only hopeful minutes of the entire war" and jokingly "named himself national chairman of the Hemingway Fan Clubs".<ref>Baker (1969), 420</ref> In 2002, a fossil [[billfish]] from the [[Danata Formation]] of [[Turkmenistan]] was named ''[[Hemingwaya]]'' after Hemingway, who prominently featured a [[marlin]] in ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]''.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ellis |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JC-Ygl35oHoC |title=Swordfish: A Biography of the Ocean Gladiator |date=April 15, 2013 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-92292-8 |language=en}}</ref>

Mary Hemingway established the Hemingway Foundation in 1965, and in the 1970s, she donated her husband's papers to the [[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum|John F. Kennedy Library]]. In 1980, a group of Hemingway scholars gathered to assess the donated papers, subsequently forming the Hemingway Society, "committed to supporting and fostering Hemingway scholarship", publishing ''The Hemingway Review''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Leadership |url=https://www.hemingwaysociety.org/society-leadership |website=The Hemingway Society |access-date=May 30, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418040602/https://www.hemingwaysociety.org/society-leadership |archive-date=April 18, 2021 |date=April 18, 2021 |quote=Carl Eby Professor of English Appalachian State University, President (2020–2022); Gail Sinclair Rollins College, Vice President and Society Treasurer (2020–2022); Verna Kale The Pennsylvania State University, Ernest Hemingway Foundation Treasurer (2018–2020);}}</ref> His granddaughter [[Margaux Hemingway]] was a supermodel and actress and co-starred with her younger sister [[Mariel Hemingway|Mariel]] in the 1976 movie ''[[Lipstick (1976 film)|Lipstick]]''.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-08-21-me-36349-story.html |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |title=Margaux Hemingway's Death Ruled a Suicide |last=Rainey |first=James |date=August 21, 1996 |access-date=April 1, 2016 |archive-date=January 16, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190116123700/http://articles.latimes.com/1996-08-21/local/me-36349_1_margaux-hemingway |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|last=Holloway|first=Lynette|date=July 3, 1996|title=Margaux Hemingway Is Dead; Model and Actress Was 41|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/07/03/arts/margaux-hemingway-is-dead-model-and-actress-was-41.html|access-date=January 4, 2023|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Her death was later ruled a death by suicide.<ref>{{Cite news|agency=Associated Press|date=August 21, 1996|title=Coroner Says Death of Actress Was Suicide|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/08/21/us/coroner-says-death-of-actress-was-suicide.html|access-date=January 4, 2023|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

== Selected works ==
[[File:Old-man-and-the-cat.jpg|thumb|''The Old Man and the Cat'' by [[George Lundeen]]<ref>{{cite news |title=New Hemingway sculpture idea was born decades ago in Cuba |url=https://eu.petoskeynews.com/story/entertainment/2021/09/08/new-hemingway-sculpture-idea-born-decades-ago-cuba/5768079001/ |access-date=April 27, 2025 |work=[[Petoskey News-Review]] |date=September 8, 2021}}</ref>]]

{{main|Ernest Hemingway bibliography}}
This is a list of work that Ernest Hemingway published during his lifetime. While much of his later writing was published posthumously, they were finished without his supervision, unlike the works listed below.
* ''[[Three Stories and Ten Poems]]'' (1923)
* ''[[In Our Time (short story collection)#in our time|in our time]]'' (1924)
* ''[[In Our Time (short story collection)|In Our Time]]'' (1925)
* ''[[The Torrents of Spring]]'' (1926)
* ''[[The Sun Also Rises]]'' (1926)
* ''[[Men Without Women (short story collection)|Men Without Women]]'' (1927)
* ''[[A Farewell to Arms]]'' (1929)
*  ''[[Death in the Afternoon]]'' (1932)
* ''[[Winner Take Nothing]]'' (1933)
*  ''[[Green Hills of Africa]]'' (1935)
* ''[[To Have and Have Not]]'' (1937)
* ''[[The Fifth Column and the First Forty-Nine Stories]]'' (1938)
*''[[For Whom the Bell Tolls]]'' (1940) 
* ''[[Across the River and into the Trees]]'' (1950)
* ''[[The Old Man and the Sea]]'' (1952)

==See also==
* [[:File:Ernest Hemingway family tree.svg|Family tree showing Ernest Hemingway's parents, siblings, wives, children and grandchildren]]

== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{reflist|group=note}}

=== Citations ===
{{reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin|30em}}
* [[Carlos Baker|Baker, Carlos]]. (1969). ''Ernest Hemingway: A Life Story''. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. {{ISBN|978-0-02-001690-8}}
* [[Carlos Baker|Baker, Carlos]]. (1972). ''Hemingway: The Writer as Artist''. Princeton, NJ: [[Princeton University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-691-01305-3}}
* [[Carlos Baker|Baker, Carlos]]. (1981). "Introduction" in ''Ernest Hemingway Selected Letters 1917–1961''. New York: Scribner's. {{ISBN|978-0-684-16765-7}}
* Banks, Russell. (2004). "PEN/Hemingway Prize Speech". ''The Hemingway Review''. Volume 24, issue 1. 53–60
* [[Nina Baym|Baym, Nina]]. (1990). "Actually I Felt Sorry for the Lion", in Benson, Jackson J. (ed.), ''New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway''. Durham, NC: [[Duke University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8223-1067-9}}
* Beegel, Susan. (1996). "Conclusion: The Critical Reputation", in Donaldson, Scott (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway''. New York: [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-521-45574-9}}
* Beegel, Susan (2000). "Eye and Heart: Hemingway's Education as a Naturalist", in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed.), ''A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway''. New York: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-19-512152-0}}
* Beegel, Susan. (2017) "Review of Hemingway's Brain, by Andrew Farah". ''The Hemingway Review''. Volume 37, no. 1. 122–127.
* Benson, Jackson. (1989). "Ernest Hemingway: The Life as Fiction and the Fiction as Life". ''American Literature''. Volume 61, issue 3. 354–358
* Benson, Jackson. (1975). ''The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway: Critical Essays''. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8223-0320-6}}
* Burwell, Rose Marie. (1996). ''Hemingway: the Postwar Years and the Posthumous Novels''. New York: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-48199-1}}
* Desnoyers, Megan Floyd. [http://www.jfklibrary.org/Research/The-Ernest-Hemingway-Collection/Online-Resources/Storytellers-Legacy.aspx?p=1 "Ernest Hemingway: A Storyteller's Legacy"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160823081905/https://www.jfklibrary.org/Research/The-Ernest-Hemingway-Collection/Online-Resources/Storytellers-Legacy.aspx |date=August 23, 2016 }}. John F. Kennedy Presidential Library Online Resources. [[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum]]. Retrieved November 30, 2011.
* Farah, Andrew. (2017). ''Hemingway's Brain''. Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press. {{ISBN|978-1-61117-743-5}}
* [[Leslie Fiedler|Fiedler, Leslie]]. (1975). ''Love and Death in the American Novel''. New York: Stein and Day. {{ISBN|978-0-8128-1799-7}}
* [[Mimi Reisel Gladstein|Gladstein, Mimi]]. (2006). "Bilingual Wordplay: Variations on a Theme by Hemingway and Steinbeck" ''The Hemingway Review'' Volume 26, issue 1. 81–95.
* Griffin, Peter. (1985). ''Along with Youth: Hemingway, the Early Years''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-503680-0}}
* Hemingway, Ernest. (1929). ''A Farewell to Arms''. New York: Scribner. {{ISBN|978-1-4767-6452-8}}
* Hemingway, Ernest. (1932). ''Death in the Afternoon''. New York. Scribner. {{ISBN|978-0-684-85922-4}}
* Hemingway, Ernest. (1975). "The Art of the Short Story", in Benson, Jackson (ed.), ''New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway''. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8223-1067-9}}
* [[Leicester Hemingway|Hemingway, Leicester]]. (1996). ''My Brother, Ernest Hemingway''. New York: [[World Publishing Company]]. {{ISBN|978-1-56164-098-0}}
* Herlihy, Jeffrey. (2011). ''Hemingway's Expatriate Nationalism''. Amsterdam: Rodopi. {{ISBN|978-90-420-3409-9}}
* Hoberek, Andrew. (2005). ''Twilight of the Middle Class: Post World War II fiction and White Collar Work''. New York: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-691-12145-1}}
* [[A. E. Hotchner|Hotchner, A. E.]] (1983). ''Papa Hemingway: A personal Memoir''. New York: Morrow. {{ISBN|9781504051156}}
* Hutchisson, James M. (2016). ''Ernest Hemingway: A New Life''. [[Penn State University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-271-07534-1}}
* Josephs, Allen. (1996). "Hemingway's Spanish Sensibility", in Donaldson, Scott (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway''. New York: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-45574-9}}
* Kert, Bernice. (1983). ''The Hemingway Women''. New York: Norton. {{ISBN|978-0-393-31835-7}}
* [[Stephen Koch (writer)|Koch, Stephen]]. (2005). ''The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles''. New York: Counterpoint. {{ISBN|978-1-58243-280-9}}
* [[Ray Long|Long, Ray]] – editor. (1932). "Why Editors Go Wrong: '[[Fifty Grand]]' by Ernest Hemingway", ''20 Best Stories in Ray Long's 20 Years as an Editor''. New York: Crown Publishers. 1–3
* [[Kenneth S. Lynn|Lynn, Kenneth]]. (1987). ''Hemingway''. Cambridge, MA: [[Harvard University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-674-38732-4}}
* McCormick, John (1971). ''American Literature 1919–1932''. London: [[Routledge]]. {{ISBN|978-0-7100-7052-4}}
* [[James R. Mellow|Mellow, James]]. (1992). ''Hemingway: A Life Without Consequences''. Boston: [[Houghton Mifflin]]. {{ISBN|978-0-395-37777-2}}
* [[James R. Mellow|Mellow, James]]. (1991). ''Charmed Circle: Gertrude Stein and Company''. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. {{ISBN|978-0-395-47982-7}}
* [[Jeffrey Meyers|Meyers, Jeffrey]]. (1985). ''Hemingway: A Biography''. New York: Macmillan. {{ISBN|978-0-333-42126-0}}
* Meyers, Jeffrey. (2020). "Gregory Hemingway: Transgender Tragedy". ''American Imago'', Volume 77, issue 2. 395–417 
* Miller, Linda Patterson. (2006). "From the African Book to Under Kilimanjaro". ''The Hemingway Review'', Volume 25, issue 2. 78–81
* Muller, Gilbert. (2019). ''Hemingway and the Spanish Civil War''. [[Palgrave Macmillan]]. {{ISBN|978-3-030-28124-3}}
* Müller, Timo. (2010). "The Uses of Authenticity: Hemingway and the Literary Field, 1926–1936". ''Journal of Modern Literature''. Volume 33, issue 1. 28–42
* Nagel, James. (1996). "Brett and the Other Women in ''The Sun Also Rises''", in Donaldson, Scott (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway''. New York: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-45574-9}}
* Oliver, Charles. (1999). ''Ernest Hemingway A to Z: The Essential Reference to the Life and Work''. New York: Checkmark Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0-8160-3467-3}}
* [[Donald Pizer|Pizer, Donald]]. (1986). "The Hemingway: Dos Passos Relationship". ''Journal of Modern Literature''. Volume 13, issue 1. 111–128
* [[Michael S. Reynolds|Reynolds, Michael]] (2000). "Ernest Hemingway, 1899–1961: A Brief Biography", in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed.), ''A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-512152-0}}
* Reynolds, Michael. (1999). ''Hemingway: The Final Years''. New York: Norton. {{ISBN|978-0-393-32047-3}}
* Reynolds, Michael. (1989). ''Hemingway: The Paris Years''. New York: Norton. {{ISBN|978-0-393-31879-1}}
* Reynolds, Michael. (1998). ''The Young Hemingway''. New York: Norton. {{ISBN|978-0-393-31776-3}}
* Reynolds, Michael. (2012). ''Hemingway: The 1930s through the final years''. New York: Norton. {{ISBN|978-0-393-34320-5}}
* Robinson, Daniel. (2005). "My True Occupation is That of a Writer: Hemingway's Passport Correspondence". ''The Hemingway Review''. Volume 24, issue 2. 87–93
* Sanderson, Rena. (1996). "Hemingway and Gender History", in Donaldson, Scott (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway''. New York: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-45574-9}}
* Scholes, Robert. (1990). "New Critical Approaches to the Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway", in Benson, Jackson J., ''Decoding Papa: 'A Very Short Story' as Work and Text''. 33–47. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8223-1067-9}}
* Smith, Paul (1996). "1924: Hemingway's Luggage and the Miraculous Year", in Donaldson, Scott (ed.), ''The Cambridge Companion to Ernest Hemingway''. New York: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-45574-9}}
* Spanier, Sandra (ed.) et al. (2024), "The Letters of Ernest Hemingway Vol. 6 1934-1936." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-89738-9}}
* Stoltzfus, Ben. (2005). "Sartre, 'Nada,' and Hemingway's African Stories". ''Comparative Literature Studies''. Volume 42, issue 3. 205–228
* Svoboda, Frederic. (2000). "The Great Themes in Hemingway", in Wagner-Martin, Linda (ed.), ''A Historical Guide to Ernest Hemingway''. New York: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-512152-0}}
* Thomas, Hugh. (2001). ''The Spanish Civil War''. New York: Modern Library. {{ISBN|978-0-375-75515-6}}
* Trodd, Zoe. (2007). "Hemingway's Camera Eye: The Problems of Language and an Interwar Politics of Form". ''The Hemingway Review''. Volume 26, issue 2. 7–21
* Trogdon, Robert W. "Forms of Combat: Hemingway, the Critics and Green Hills of Africa". ''The Hemingway Review''. Volume 15, issue 2. 1–14
* Wells, Elizabeth J. (1975). "A Statistical Analysis of the Prose Style of Ernest Hemingway: ''Big Two-Hearted River''", in Benson, Jackson (ed.), ''The Short Stories of Ernest Hemingway: Critical Essays''. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8223-0320-6}}
* Young, Philip. (1964). ''Ernest Hemingway''. St. Paul, MN: University of Minnesota. {{ISBN|978-0-8166-0191-2}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links |wikt=no |c=yes |n=no |q=yes |s=yes |b=no |v=no}}
{{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes|by=yes}}

===Digital collections===
* {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/ernest-hemingway}}
* {{Gutenberg author|name=Ernest Hemingway}}
* {{FadedPage|id=Hemingway, Ernest|name=Ernest Hemingway|author=yes}}
* {{Internet Archive author|sname=Ernest Hemingway}}
* {{Librivox author}}

===Physical collections===
* [https://www.jfklibrary.org/archives/ernest-hemingway-collection Ernest Hemingway Collection] at the [[John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum]]
* [https://archives.lib.umd.edu/repositories/2/resources/107 Ernest Hemingway collection] at the [[University of Maryland Libraries]]
* [[hdl:10079/fa/beinecke.heming|Ernest Hemingway Collection]]. Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library.
* [https://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadid=00056 Ernest Hemingway's Collection] at [[The University of Texas at Austin]]
* [https://findingaids.library.columbia.edu/ead/nnc-rb/ldpd_4079484 Finding aid to Adele C. Brockhoff letters, including Hemingway correspondence, at Columbia University. Rare Book & Manuscript Library.]
* [https://www.nypl.org/sites/default/files/archivalcollections/pdf/mss18572_1.pdf Hemingway legal files collection, 1899–1971] Manuscripts and Archives, New York Public Library.
* [https://archives.library.sc.edu/repositories/5/resources/869 Maurice J. Speiser papers at the University of South Carolina Department of Rare Books and Special Collections]

===Journalism===
* [https://www.theparisreview.org/interviews/4825/the-art-of-fiction-no-21-ernest-hemingway "The Art of Fiction No. 21"]. ''The Paris Review''. Spring 1958.
* [http://www.historicjournalism.com/ernest-hemingway-1.html Ernest Hemingway's journalism] at The Archive of American Journalism

===Biographical and other information===
* {{Nobelprize}}
* [http://vault.fbi.gov/ernest-miller-hemingway/ernest-hemingway-part-01-of-01/view FBI Records: The Vault, Subject: Ernest Hemingway]

{{Ernest Hemingway |state=autocollapse}}
{{Nobel Prize in Literature Laureates 1951–1975}}
{{PulitzerPrize Fiction 1951–1975}}
{{1954 Nobel Prize winners}}
{{Modernism}}
{{Authority control}}

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