View source for Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

{{short description|1990 U.S. civil rights law}}
{{more sources|date=November 2024}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2023}}{{Use American English|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox U.S. legislation
| shorttitle             = Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
| longtitle              = An Act to establish a clear and comprehensive prohibition of discrimination on the basis of disability
| colloquialacronym      = ADA
| nickname               = Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990
| enacted by             = 101st
| effective date         = July 26, 1990
| public law url         = http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/STATUTE-104/pdf/STATUTE-104-Pg327.pdf
| cite public law        = 101-336
| cite statutes at large = {{usstat|104|327}}
| acts amended           = 
| title amended          = [[Title 42 of the United States Code|42 U.S.C.: Public Health and Social Welfare]]
| sections created       = {{Usc-title-chap|42|126}} § 12101 et seq.
| leghisturl             = https://www.congress.gov/bill/101st-congress/senate-bill/933/actions
| introducedin           = Senate
| introducedbill         = {{USBill|101|S.|933}}
| introducedby           = [[Tom Harkin]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]–[[Iowa|IA]])
| introduceddate         = May 9, 1989
| committees             = [[United States Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor and Pensions|Senate Labor and Human Resources]]
| passedbody1            = Senate
| passeddate1            = September 7, 1989
| passedvote1            = [https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_votes/vote1011/vote_101_1_00173.htm 76–8]
| passedbody2            = House
| passeddate2            = May 22, 1990
| passedvote2            = unanimous voice vote
| conferencedate         = July 12, 1990
| passedbody3            = House
| passeddate3            = July 12, 1990
| passedvote3            = [https://clerk.house.gov/evs/1990/roll228.xml 377–28]
| passedbody4            = Senate
| passeddate4            = July 13, 1990
| passedvote4            = [https://www.senate.gov/legislative/LIS/roll_call_votes/vote1012/vote_101_2_00152.htm 91–6]
| signedpresident        = [[George H. W. Bush]]
| signeddate             = July 26, 1990
| amendments             = [[ADA Amendments Act of 2008]]
| SCOTUS cases           = {{ubl|''[[Pennsylvania Dept. of Corrections v. Yeskey]]'', {{ussc|524|206|1998}}|''[[Bragdon v. Abbott]]'', {{ussc|524|624|1998}}|''[[Wright v. Universal Maritime Service Corp.]]'', {{ussc|525|70|1999}}|''[[Cleveland v. Policy Management Systems Corp.]]'', {{ussc|526|795|1999}}|''[[Sutton v. United Air Lines, Inc.]]'', {{ussc|527|471|1999}}|''[[Murphy v. United Parcel Service, Inc.]]'', {{ussc|527|516|1999}}|''[[Albertson's, Inc. v. Kirkingburg]]'', {{ussc|527|555|1999}}|''[[Olmstead v. L.C.]]'', {{ussc|527|581|1999}}|''[[Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett]]'', {{ussc|531|356|2001}}|''[[PGA Tour, Inc. v. Martin]]'', {{ussc|532|661|2001}}|''[[Toyota Motor Manufacturing, Kentucky, Inc. v. Williams]]'', {{ussc|534|184|2002}}|''[[EEOC v. Waffle House, Inc.]]'', {{ussc|534|279|2002}}|''[[US Airways, Inc. v. Barnett]]'', {{ussc|535|391|2002}}|''[[Chevron U.S.A. Inc. v. Echazabal]]'', {{ussc|536|73|2002}}|''[[Barnes v. Gorman]]'', {{ussc|536|181|2002}}|''[[Clackamas Gastroenterology Associates, P.C. v. Wells]]'', {{ussc|538|440|2003}}|''[[Raytheon Co. v. Hernandez]]'', {{ussc|540|44|2003}}|''[[Tennessee v. Lane]]'', {{ussc|541|509|2004}}|''[[Spector v. Norwegian Cruise Line Ltd.]]'', {{ussc|545|119|2005}}|''[[United States v. Georgia]]'', {{ussc|546|151|2006}}|''[[Hosanna-Tabor Evangelical Lutheran Church & School v. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]]'', {{ussc|565|171|2012}}|''[[City and County of San Francisco v. Sheehan]]'', {{ussc|docket=13-1412|volume=575|year=2015}}|''[[Acheson Hotels, LLC v. Laufer]]'', {{ussc|docket=22–429|volume=601|year=2023}}|''[[Stanley v. City of Sanford]]'', {{ussc|docket=23-997|volume=604|year=2025}}}}
}}
The '''Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990''' or '''ADA''' ({{UnitedStatesCode|42|12101}}) is a [[civil rights]] law that prohibits [[discrimination]] based on [[disability]]. It affords similar protections against discrimination to [[Americans with disabilities]] as the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://finduslaw.com/civil-rights-act-1964-cra-title-vii-equal-employment-opportunities-42-us-code-chapter-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100125033337/http://finduslaw.com/civil_rights_act_of_1964_cra_title_vii_equal_employment_opportunities_42_us_code_chapter_21|url-status=dead|title=Civil Rights Act of 1964&nbsp;– CRA&nbsp;– Title VII&nbsp;– Equal Employment Opportunities&nbsp;– 42 US Code Chapter 21 |archive-date=January 25, 2010|website=findUSlaw }}</ref> which made discrimination based on [[Race (classification of human beings)|race]], [[religion]], [[gender|sex]], [[national origin]], and other characteristics illegal, and later [[sexual orientation]] and [[gender identity]]. In addition, unlike the Civil Rights Act, the ADA also requires covered employers to provide [[reasonable accommodation]]s to employees with disabilities, and imposes [[accessibility]] requirements on [[Public accommodations in the United States|public accommodations]].<ref>42 U.S.C. 12112(b)(5), 12182–84</ref>

In 1986, the [[National Council on Disability]] had recommended the enactment of an Americans with Disabilities Act and drafted the first version of the bill which was introduced in the [[United States House of Representatives|House]] and [[United States Senate|Senate]] in 1988. A broad bipartisan coalition of legislators supported the ADA, while the bill was opposed by business interests (who argued the bill imposed costs on business) and conservative evangelicals (who opposed protection for individuals with [[HIV]]).<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Milden |first=Ian |date=October 2022 |title=Examining the Opposition to the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990: "Nothing More than Bad Quality Hogwash" |journal=Journal of Policy History |language=en |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=505–528 |doi=10.1017/S0898030622000185 |s2cid=251956132 |issn=0898-0306|doi-access= }}</ref> The final version of the bill was [[signed into law]] on July 26, 1990, by President [[George H. W. Bush]]. It was later [[ADA Amendments Act of 2008|amended in 2008]] and signed by President [[George W. Bush]] with changes effective as of January 1, 2009.<ref>{{cite web |title=President Bush Signs ADA Changes into Law |date=September 25, 2008 |publisher=HR.BLR.com |url=http://hr.blr.com/news.aspx?id=78926 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090205192712/http://hr.blr.com/news.aspx?id=78926 |archive-date=February 5, 2009  }}</ref>

==Disabilities included==

[[File: Americans with Disabilities Act 1988.jpg|alt=April 28, 1988"A Bill to establish a prohibition of discrimination on the basis of handicap." Authored by Senator Tom Harkin|thumb|Americans with Disabilities Act of 1988, S. 2346, Page 1<ref>From the George H.W. Bush Presidential Records of the George Bush Presidential Library. Folder Title: Fact Sheet on ADA [Americans of Disabilities Act]. Unrestricted.</ref>]]
[[File:Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, page two.jpg|thumb|Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, Page 52<ref name="catalog.archives.gov"/>]]
[[File:Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, page 1.jpg|thumb|Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, Page 1<ref name="catalog.archives.gov">{{Cite book |url=https://catalog.archives.gov/id/6037488 |title=Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 |publisher=National Archives and Records Administration |date=July 26, 1990 |series=Series: C. Boyden Gray's Subject Files, January 20, 1989&nbsp;– January 20, 1993 |access-date=July 20, 2015 |archive-date=July 17, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150717020011/https://catalog.archives.gov/id/6037488 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

Conditions classed as disabilities under the ADA include both mental and physical conditions. A condition does not need to be severe or permanent to be a disability.<ref>{{cite web |author1= |title=Fact Sheet on the EEOC's Final Regulations Implementing the ADAAA |url=http://www.eeoc.gov/laws/regulations/adaaa_fact_sheet.cfm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912152103/http://www.eeoc.gov/laws/regulations/adaaa_fact_sheet.cfm |archive-date=September 12, 2014 |access-date=September 7, 2014 |website=U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission|date=May 3, 2011 }}</ref> [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]] regulations provide a list of conditions that should easily be concluded to be disabilities: [[amputation]], [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]] (ADHD), [[bipolar disorder]], [[blindness]], [[cancer]], [[cerebral palsy]], [[deafness]], [[diabetes]], [[epilepsy]], [[HIV/AIDS]], [[intellectual disability]], [[major depressive disorder]], [[mobility impairment]]s requiring a wheelchair, [[multiple sclerosis]], [[muscular dystrophy]], [[obsessive–compulsive disorder]] (OCD), [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD), and [[schizophrenia]].<ref name="FR">{{cite web |date=March 25, 2011 |title=Regulations To Implement the Equal Employment Provisions of the Americans With Disabilities Act, as Amended |url=https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2011/03/25/2011-6056/regulations-to-implement-the-equal-employment-provisions-of-the-americans-with-disabilities-act-as |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160822130008/https://www.federalregister.gov/articles/2011/03/25/2011-6056/regulations-to-implement-the-equal-employment-provisions-of-the-americans-with-disabilities-act-as |archive-date=August 22, 2016 |access-date=September 1, 2014 |publisher=Federal Register}}</ref> Other mental or physical health conditions also may be disabilities, depending on what the individual's symptoms would be in the absence of "mitigating measures"  such as medication, therapy, assistive devices, or other means of restoring function, during an "active episode" of the condition (if the condition is episodic).<ref name="FR" />

Certain specific conditions that are widely considered [[anti-social behavior|anti-social]], or tend to result in illegal activity, such as [[kleptomania]], [[pedophilia]], [[exhibitionism]], [[voyeurism]], etc. are excluded under the definition of "disability" in order to prevent abuse of the statute's purpose.<ref name="42USC12102">{{cite web |author1=Civil Rights Division, US Department of Justice |year=2009 |title=42 U.S. Code § 12102&nbsp;– Definition of disability, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, As Amended |url=http://www.ada.gov/pubs/adastatute08.htm#12102 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212094708/https://www.ada.gov/pubs/adastatute08.htm#12102 |archive-date=February 12, 2022 |access-date=September 29, 2014 |publisher=ADA.gov}}</ref><ref name="PL110325">{{cite web |author1= |date=September 25, 2008 |title=Americans with Disabilities Act Amendments Act of 2008, PL 110-325 (S 3406) |url=http://www.eeoc.gov/laws/statutes/adaaa.cfm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226213407/https://www.eeoc.gov/laws/statutes/adaaa.cfm |archive-date=February 26, 2020 |access-date=September 29, 2014 |publisher=Equal Employment Opportunity Commission}}</ref> Additionally, sexual orientation is no longer considered a disorder and is also excluded from the definition of "disability".<ref name=PL110325 /><ref name="42USC12211">{{cite web |author1=Civil Rights Division, US Department of Justice |year=2009 |title=42 U.S. Code § 12211&nbsp;– Definitions, Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, As Amended |url=http://www.ada.gov/pubs/adastatute08.htm#12211 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220212094708/https://www.ada.gov/pubs/adastatute08.htm#12211 |archive-date=February 12, 2022 |access-date=September 29, 2014 |publisher=ADA.gov}}</ref> However, in 2022, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit]] stated that the ADA covers individuals with [[gender dysphoria]], which may aid [[transgender]] people in accessing legal protections they otherwise may be unable to.<ref name="auto">{{cite news |author=Cole |first=Devan |date=August 16, 2022 |title=Federal appeals court says Americans with Disabilities Act protections cover 'gender dysphoria,' handing a win to trans people |work=CNN |agency= |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/16/politics/americans-with-disabilities-act-transgender-gender-dysphoria/index.html |access-date=September 5, 2022 |archive-date=September 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220903201535/https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/16/politics/americans-with-disabilities-act-transgender-gender-dysphoria/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Titles==
===Title I—employment <span class="anchor" id="Title I"></span>===
: ''See also [[US labor law]] and {{UnitedStatesCode|42|12111|12117}}.''
[[File:President George H W Bush Signing of the ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act) Bill 1990.gif|thumb|right|Speech cards used by President George H. W. Bush at the signing ceremony of the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) on July 26, 1990<ref name=ada90>{{cite web |url=http://finduslaw.com/americans_with_disabilities_act_of_1990_ada_42_u_s_code_chapter_126 |title=Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990&nbsp;– ADA&nbsp;– 42 U.S. Code Chapter 126 |access-date=November 6, 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111227074955/http://finduslaw.com/americans_with_disabilities_act_of_1990_ada_42_u_s_code_chapter_126 |archive-date=December 27, 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>]]

The ADA states that a "[[Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act|covered entity]]" shall not discriminate against "a qualified individual with a disability".<ref name="12112a">{{UnitedStatesCode|42|12112(a)}}</ref> This applies to [[application for employment|job application]] procedures, hiring, advancement and discharge of employees, job training, and other terms, conditions, and privileges of employment. "Covered entities" include employers with 15 or more employees, as well as [[employment agencies]], [[labor organizations]], and joint [[Industrial relations|labor-management]] committees.<ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|title=Employee Assistance Programs and Rehab Centers|url=http://luxury.rehabs.com/employee-assistance-programs/|url-status=live|access-date=March 27, 2021|website=luxury.rehabs.com|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140107084927/http://luxury.rehabs.com:80/employee-assistance-programs/ |archive-date=January 7, 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{UnitedStatesCode|42|12111(2)}}</ref> There are strict limitations on when a covered entity can ask job applicants or employees disability-related questions or require them to undergo medical examination, and all medical information must be kept confidential.<ref>{{cite web |author1=EEOC |title=Enforcement Guidance: Preemployment Disability-Related Questions and Medical Examinations |url=http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/preemp.html |website=EEOC.gov |date=July 6, 2000 |access-date=September 6, 2014 |archive-date=April 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403173546/https://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/preemp.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author1=EEOC |title=EEOC Enforcement Guidance: Disability-Related Inquiries and Medical Examinations of Employees Under the Americans with Disabilities Act |url=http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/preemp.html |website=EEOC.gov |date=July 6, 2000 |access-date=September 6, 2014 |archive-date=April 3, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200403173546/https://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/preemp.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Prohibited discrimination may include, among other things, firing or refusing to hire someone based on a real or perceived disability, segregation, and harassment based on a disability. Covered entities are also required to provide [[reasonable accommodation]]s to job applicants and employees with disabilities.<ref>{{UnitedStatesCode|42|12112(b)(5)}}</ref> A reasonable accommodation is a change in the way things are typically done that the person needs because of a disability, and can include, among other things, special equipment that allows the person to perform the job, scheduling changes, and changes to the way work assignments are chosen or communicated.<ref>{{cite web |author1=EEOC |title=EEOC Enforcement Guidance: Reasonable Accommodation and Undue Hardship Under the Americans with Disabilities Act |url=http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/accommodation.html |website=EEOC.gov |date=October 15, 2002 |access-date=September 6, 2014 |archive-date=April 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404232332/https://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/accommodation.html |url-status=live }}</ref> An employer is not required to provide an accommodation that would involve [[undue hardship]] (excessive difficulty or expense), and the individual who receives the accommodation must still perform the essential functions of the job and meet the normal performance requirements. An employee or applicant who currently engages in the illegal use of drugs is not considered qualified when a covered entity takes adverse action based on such use.<ref>{{UnitedStatesCode|42|12111}}</ref>

Part of Title I was found unconstitutional by the [[United States Supreme Court]] as it pertains to states in the case of ''[[Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett]]'' as violating the [[sovereign immunity]] rights of the several states as specified by the [[Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution]]. The Court determined that state employees cannot sue their employer for violating ADA rules. State employees can, however, file complaints at the [[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] or the [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]], who can sue on their behalf.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Disability Rights in the Supreme Court|url=http://www.civilrights.org/monitor/vol11_no4/art1p1.html|website = The Leadership Conference on Civil and Human Rights|access-date = January 27, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020201040214/http://www.civilrights.org/monitor/vol11_no4/art1p1.html|archive-date = February 1, 2002|url-status = dead|df = mdy-all}}</ref>

===Title II—public entities (and public transportation) <span class="anchor" id="Title II"></span>===
{{Hatnote|See {{UnitedStatesCode|42|12131|12165}}.}}

Title II prohibits disability discrimination by all public entities at the local level, e.g., school district, municipal, city, or county, and at state level. Public entities must comply with Title II regulations by the [[United States Department of Justice|U.S. Department of Justice]]. These regulations cover access to all programs and services offered by the entity. Access includes physical access described in the ADA Standards for Accessible Design and programmatic access that might be obstructed by discriminatory policies or procedures of the entity.

Title II applies to public transportation provided by public entities through regulations by the [[United States Department of Transportation|U.S. Department of Transportation]]. It includes the [[Amtrak|National Railroad Passenger Corporation]] (Amtrak), along with all other commuter authorities. This section requires the provision of [[paratransit]] services by public entities that provide fixed-route services. ADA also sets minimum requirements for space layout in order to facilitate wheelchair securement on public transport.<ref>'Wheelchair Securement in Public Transport', http://thequantumleap.com/faq/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302015706/http://thequantumleap.com/faq/ |date=March 2, 2017 }}</ref>

Title II also applies to all state and local public housing, housing assistance, and housing referrals. The [[Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity]] is charged with enforcing this provision.

===Title III—public accommodations (and commercial facilities) <span class="anchor" id="Title III"></span>===
{{Hatnote|See {{UnitedStatesCode|42|12181|12189}}.}}
[[File: Drano Lake accessible fishing platform signage.jpg|thumb|The ADA sets standards for construction of accessible public facilities. Shown is a sign indicating an accessible fishing platform at [[Drano Lake]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]].]]

Under Title III, no individual may be discriminated against on the basis of disability with regards to the full and equal enjoyment of the goods, services, facilities, or accommodations of any place of public accommodation by any person who owns, leases, or operates a place of public accommodation. Public accommodations include most places of lodging (such as inns and hotels), recreation, transportation, education, and dining, along with stores, care providers, and places of public displays.

Under Title III of the ADA, all new construction (construction, modification or alterations) after the effective date of the ADA (approximately July 1992) must be fully compliant with the Americans With Disabilities Act Accessibility Guidelines (ADAAG)<ref name=ada90/> found in the [[Code of Federal Regulations]] at 28&nbsp;C.F.R., Part 36, Appendix ''A''.

Title III also has applications to existing facilities. One of the definitions of "discrimination" under Title III of the ADA is a "failure to remove" architectural barriers in existing facilities. See {{UnitedStatesCodeSub|42|12182|b|2|A|iv}}. This means that even facilities that have not been modified or altered in any way after the ADA was passed still have obligations. The standard is whether "removing barriers" (typically defined as bringing a condition into compliance with the ADAAG) is "readily achievable", defined as "...easily accomplished without much difficulty or expense".

The statutory definition of "readily achievable" calls for a [[balancing test]] between the cost of the proposed alteration and the wherewithal of the business and/or owners of the business. Thus, what might be "readily achievable" for a sophisticated and financially capable corporation might not be readily achievable for a small or local business.

There are exceptions to this title; many private clubs and religious organizations may not be bound by Title III. With regard to historic properties (those properties that are listed or that are eligible for listing in the [[National Register of Historic Places]], or properties designated as historic under state or local law), those facilities must still comply with the provisions of Title III of the ADA to the "maximum extent feasible" but if following the usual standards would "threaten to destroy the historic significance of a feature of the building" then alternative standards may be used.

Under 2010 revisions of Department of Justice regulations, newly constructed or altered swimming pools, wading pools, and spas must have an accessible means of entrance and exit to pools for disabled people. However, the requirement is conditioned on whether providing access through a fixed lift is "readily achievable". Other requirements exist, based on pool size, include providing a certain number of accessible means of entry and exit, which are outlined in Section 242 of the standards. However, businesses are free to consider the differences in the application of the rules depending on whether the pool is new or altered, or whether the swimming pool was in existence before the effective date of the new rule. Full compliance may not be required for existing facilities; Section 242 and 1009 of the 2010 Standards outline such exceptions.<ref>{{cite web |title=2013 ADA Pool Lift Compliance Deadline: Has Your Business Complied? |url=http://www.natlawreview.com/article/2013-ada-pool-lift-compliance-deadline-has-your-business-complied |work=The National Law Review |publisher=Lowndes, Drosdick, Doster, Kantor & Reed, P.A. |date=January 29, 2013 |access-date=February 19, 2013 |archive-date=December 17, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217070851/http://www.natlawreview.com/article/2013-ada-pool-lift-compliance-deadline-has-your-business-complied |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Service animals====
{{or section|date=November 2024}}
ADA provides explicit coverage for [[service animal]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ada.gov/service_animals_2010.htm | title=ADA 2010 Revised Requirements: Service Animals | date=July 12, 2011 | publisher=US Department of Justice | access-date=July 2, 2019 | archive-date=July 11, 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110711125702/http://www.ada.gov/service_animals_2010.htm | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ada.gov/regs2010/service_animal_qa.html|title=Americans with Disabilities Act Questions and Answers: Service Animals|website=www.ada.gov|access-date=May 10, 2016|archive-date=May 10, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510094055/http://www.ada.gov/regs2010/service_animal_qa.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Guidelines protect persons with disabilities and indemnify businesses from damages related to granting access to service animals. Businesses are allowed to ask if the animal is a service animal and ask what tasks it is trained to perform, but are not allowed to ask the service animal to perform the task nor ask for an animal ID. They cannot ask what the person's disabilities are. A person with a disability cannot be removed from the premises unless one of two things happen: the animal is out of control and its owner cannot control it (e.g., a dog barking uncontrollably), or the animal is a direct threat to someone's health and safety. Allergies and fear of animals are not considered to be such a threat. 

Businesses that prepare or serve food must allow service animals and their owners on the premises even if state or local health laws otherwise prohibit animals. Businesses that prepare or serve food are not required to provide care, food, a relief area for service animals. Extra fees for service animals are forbidden. They cannot be discriminated against, such as by isolation from people at a restaurant. 

People with disabilities cannot be treated as "less than" other customers. However, if a business normally charges for damages caused by the person to property, damage caused by a service animal can also require compensation.

====Auxiliary aids <span class="anchor" id="Auxiliary aid"></span>====
{{redirect|Auxiliary aid|the concept of auxiliary aid in United Kingdom law|United Kingdom employment equality law#Disability claims}}
The ADA provides explicit coverage for auxiliary aids.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |url=https://www.ada.gov/reachingout/t3regl2.html | title=Sec. 36.303 Auxiliary aids and services. | date=June 13, 2020 | publisher=US Department of Justice | access-date=June 13, 2020 | archive-date=June 9, 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200609225746/https://www.ada.gov/reachingout/t3regl2.html | url-status=live }}{{Source-attribution}}</ref>

ADA says that "a public accommodation shall take those steps that may be necessary to ensure that no individual with a disability is excluded, denied services, segregated or otherwise treated differently than other individuals because of the absence of auxiliary aids and services, unless the public accommodation can demonstrate that taking those steps would fundamentally alter the nature of the goods, services, facilities, privileges, advantages, or accommodations being offered or would result in an undue burden, i.e., significant difficulty or expense."<ref name=":2" /> The term "auxiliary aids and services" includes:<ref name=":2" />

# Qualified interpreters on-site or through [[video remote interpreting]] (VRI) services; notetakers; real-time computer-aided transcription services; written materials; exchange of written notes; telephone handset amplifiers; assistive listening devices; assistive listening systems; telephones compatible with hearing aids; [[Closed captioning|closed caption]] decoders; open and closed captioning, including real-time captioning; voice, text, and video-based telecommunications products and systems, including text telephones (TTYs), videophones, and captioned telephones, or equally effective telecommunications devices; videotext displays; accessible electronic and information technology; or other effective methods of making aurally delivered information available to individuals who are deaf or hard of hearing;
# Qualified readers; taped texts; audio recordings; Brailled materials and displays; screen reader software; magnification software; optical readers; secondary auditory programs (SAP); large print materials; accessible electronic and information technology; or other effective methods of making visually delivered materials available to individuals who are blind or have low vision;
# Acquisition or modification of equipment or devices; and
# Other similar services and actions.

Captions are considered one type of auxiliary aid. Since the passage of the ADA, the use of captioning has expanded. Entertainment, educational, informational, and training materials are captioned for deaf and hard-of-hearing audiences at the time they are produced and distributed. The '''Television Decoder Circuitry Act of 1990''' requires that all televisions larger than 13 inches sold in the United States after July 1993 have a special built-in decoder that enables viewers to watch closed-captioned programming. The Telecommunications Act of 1996 directs the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) to adopt rules requiring closed captioning of most television programming. The FCC's rules on closed captioning became effective January 1, 1998.<ref>{{Cite web|date=August 18, 2015|title=Captions For Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Viewers|url=https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/captions-deaf-and-hard-hearing-viewers|access-date=June 13, 2020|website=NIDCD|language=en|archive-date=June 13, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200613183901/https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/captions-deaf-and-hard-hearing-viewers|url-status=live}} {{include-USGov|agency=NIDCD}}</ref>

===Title IV—telecommunications <span class="anchor" id="Title IV"></span>===
Title IV of the ADA amended the [[Communications Act of 1934]] primarily by adding section {{UnitedStatesCode|47|225}}. This section requires that all telecommunications companies in the U.S. take steps to ensure functionally equivalent services for consumers with disabilities, notably those who are deaf or hard of hearing and those with speech impairments. When Title IV took effect in the early 1990s, it led to the installation of public [[teletypewriter]] (TTY) machines and other TDD ([[Telecommunications Device for the Deaf|telecommunications devices for the deaf]]). Title IV also led to the creation, in all 50 states and the District of Columbia, of what was then called dual-party relay services and now are known as [[Telecommunications Relay Services]] (TRS), such as [[STS relay]]. Today, many TRS-mediated calls are made over the Internet by consumers who use broadband connections. Some are [[Video Relay Service]] (VRS) calls, while others are text calls. In either variation, communication assistants translate between the signed or typed words of a consumer and the spoken words of others. In 2006, according to the [[Federal Communications Commission]] (FCC), VRS calls averaged two million minutes a month.

===Title V—miscellaneous provisions <span class="anchor" id="Title V"></span>===
{{Hatnote|See {{UnitedStatesCode|42|12201|12213}}.}}

Title V includes technical provisions. It discusses, for example, the fact that nothing in the ADA amends, overrides or cancels anything in [[Section 504]].<ref name="Sec12187">{{UnitedStatesCode|42|12187}}</ref> Additionally, Title V includes an anti-retaliation or coercion provision. The ''Technical Assistance Manual'' for the ADA explains this provision:

{{blockquote|III-3.6000 Retaliation or coercion. Individuals who exercise their rights under the ADA, or assist others in exercising their rights, are protected from retaliation. The prohibition against retaliation or coercion applies broadly to any individual or entity that seeks to prevent an individual from exercising his or her rights or to retaliate against him or her for having exercised those rights ... Any form of retaliation or coercion, including threats, intimidation, or interference, is prohibited if it is intended to interfere.}}

==History==
The ADA has roots in [[Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act|Section 504]] of the [[Rehabilitation Act of 1973]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Disability Rights Movement: from Charity to Confrontation|url=https://archive.org/details/disabilityrights00flei|url-access=limited|last1=Fleischer|first1=Doris Zames|last2=Zames|first2=Frieda|publisher=Temple University Press|year=2001|pages=[https://archive.org/details/disabilityrights00flei/page/n125 93]–95}}</ref>

===Drafting===
[[File:ADA Development of Administration Disability Policy 042189 Page 1.jpg|thumb|Development of George H. W. Bush Administration Disability Policy. White House Memo. April 21, 1989.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bush41.org/|title=George H.W. Bush Library Center|website=www.bush41.org|access-date=December 6, 2021|archive-date=February 6, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190206232136/https://www.bush41.org/|url-status=live}}</ref>]]
The law began in the [[Virginia House of Delegates]] in 1985 as the Virginians with Disabilities Act—supported by [[Warren G. Stambaugh]]—which was passed by the [[Virginia General Assembly]]. It is the first iteration of the Americans with Disabilities Act.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Battiata |first=Mary |date=17 February 1984 |title=Va. Senate Kills Handicapped Bill of Rights |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1984/02/18/va-senate-kills-handicapped-bill-of-rights/8f8723a9-b7f1-4817-bc99-0209f1a75f4d/ |access-date=2024-04-09 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref>

In 1986, the National Council on Disability (NCD), an independent federal agency, issued a report, Towards Independence, in which the Council examined incentives and disincentives in federal laws towards increasing the independence and full integration of people with disabilities into U.S. society. Among the disincentives to independence the Council identified was the existence of large remaining gaps in civil rights coverage for people with disabilities in the United States. A principal conclusion of the report was to recommend the adoption of comprehensive civil rights legislation, which became the ADA.<ref>{{cite web |title=ADA&nbsp;– Findings, Purpose, and History |url=https://www.adaanniversary.org/findings_purpose |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200307153732/https://www.adaanniversary.org/findings_purpose |archive-date=March 7, 2020 |access-date=March 7, 2020 |website=ADAanniversary.org}}</ref>

The idea of federal legislation enhancing and extending civil rights legislation to millions of Americans with disabilities gained bipartisan support in late 1988 and early 1989. In early 1989 both Congress and the newly inaugurated Bush White House worked separately, then jointly, to write legislation capable of expanding civil rights without imposing undue harm or costs on those already in compliance with existing rules and laws.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://presidentialtimeline.org/#/exhibit/41/06 |title=The Americans with Disabilities Act Exhibit |website=The Presidential Timeline |publisher=The Presidential Libraries of the National Archives and Records Administration |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151206204300/http://www.presidentialtimeline.org/#/exhibit/41/06 |archive-date=December 6, 2015  }}
</ref>

===Lobbying===
Over the years, key activists and advocates played an important role in lobbying members of the U.S. Congress to develop and pass the ADA, including [[Justin Whitlock Dart Jr.]], [[Patrisha Wright]] and others.

Wright is known as "the General" for her work in coordinating the campaign to enact the ADA.<ref name="Timeline">{{cite web|url=http://isc.temple.edu/neighbor/ds/disabilityrightstimeline.htm |title=Disability History Timeline |year=2002 |work=Rehabilitation Research & Training Center on Independent Living Management |publisher=[[Temple University]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131220065328/http://isc.temple.edu/neighbor/ds/disabilityrightstimeline.htm |archive-date=December 20, 2013 }}</ref><ref name="dredf.org">{{cite news |url=https://dredf.org/patrisha-a-wright/ |title=Disability Rights Education and Defense Fund&nbsp;– Patrisha A. Wright |newspaper=Disability Rights Education & Defense Fund |date=June 28, 2021 |publisher=dredf.org |access-date=June 28, 2021  |archive-date=April 13, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413212257/https://dredf.org/patrisha-a-wright/ |url-status=live }}</ref> She is widely considered the main force behind the campaign lobbying for the ADA.<ref name="tmc.edu">{{cite web |url=http://www.tmc.edu/tmcnews/03_15_00/page_01.html |title=Texas Medical Center NEWS |work=tmc.edu |access-date=January 21, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820081506/http://www.tmc.edu/tmcnews/03_15_00/page_01.html |archive-date=August 20, 2008 |url-status=dead  }}</ref>

===Support and opposition===
====Support====
Senator [[Bob Dole]] was a supporter and advocate for the bill.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Seelye|first=Katharine Q.|date=December 5, 2021|title=Bob Dole, Old Soldier and Stalwart of the Senate, Dies at 98|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/05/us/politics/bob-dole-dead.html|access-date=December 6, 2021|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=December 27, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211227081010/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/05/us/politics/bob-dole-dead.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

====Opposition from religious groups====
Conservative evangelicals opposed the ADA because the legislation protected individuals with HIV, which they associated with homosexuality.<ref name=":0" />

The debate over the Americans with Disabilities Act led some religious groups to take opposite positions.<ref name="Lawton">Lawton, K.A. ''Christianity Today'', 10/8/90, Vol. 34 Issue 14, p. 71</ref> The [[Association of Christian Schools International]] opposed the ADA in its original form,<ref name=":1">"Should the Senate Approve the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1989?" ''[[Congressional Digest]]'' December (1989): 297</ref> primarily because the ADA labeled religious institutions "public accommodations" and thus would have required churches to make costly structural changes to ensure access for all.<ref name=":1" /> The cost argument advanced by ACSI and others prevailed in keeping religious institutions from being labeled as "public accommodations".<ref name="Sec12187" /> Church groups such as the [[National Association of Evangelicals]] testified against the ADA's Title I employment provisions on grounds of religious liberty. The NAE believed the regulation of the internal employment of churches was "... an improper intrusion [of] the federal government."<ref name="Lawton" />

====Opposition from business interests====
Many companies, corporations, and business groups opposed the Americans with Disabilities Act, arguing that the legislation would impose costs on businesses.<ref name=":0" /> Testifying before Congress, [[Greyhound Bus Lines]] stated that the act had the potential to "deprive millions of people of affordable intercity public transportation and thousands of rural communities of their only link to the outside world." The [[US Chamber of Commerce]] argued that the costs of the ADA would be "enormous" and have "a disastrous impact on many small businesses struggling to survive."<ref>"Should the Senate Approve the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1989?" [[Congressional Digest]] December (1989): 208.</ref> The [[National Federation of Independent Business]], an organization that lobbies for small businesses, called the ADA "a disaster for small business".<ref>Mandel, Susan. "Disabling the GOP", ''The National Review'' November 6, 1990, Vol. 42 Issue 11, pp. 23–24</ref> Pro-business conservative commentators joined in opposition, writing that the Americans with Disabilities Act was "an expensive headache to millions" that would not necessarily improve the lives of people with disabilities.<ref>Doherty, Brian. ''Reason'', Aug–Sep 95, Vol. 27 Issue 4, p. 18</ref>

==="Capitol Crawl"===
Shortly before the act was passed, [[disability rights]] activists with [[physical disability|physical disabilities]] coalesced in front of the [[United States Capitol|Capitol Building]], shed their crutches, [[wheelchair]]s, [[powerchair]]s and other [[assistive device]]s, and immediately proceeded to crawl and pull their bodies up all 100 of the Capitol's front steps, without warning.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Eaton |first1=William J. |author-link1=William J. Eaton |title=Disabled Persons Rally, Crawl Up Capitol Steps: Congress: Scores protest delays in passage of rights legislation. The logjam in the House is expected to break soon. |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-03-13-mn-211-story.html |access-date=September 4, 2015 |work=Los Angeles Times |date=March 13, 1990 |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208082837/http://articles.latimes.com/1990-03-13/news/mn-211_1_capitol-steps |url-status=live }}</ref> As the activists did so, many of them chanted "ADA now", and "Vote, Now". Some activists who remained at the bottom of the steps held signs and yelled words of encouragement at the "Capitol Crawlers". Jennifer Keelan, a second grader with [[cerebral palsy]], was videotaped as she pulled herself up the steps, using mostly her hands and arms, saying "I'll take all night if I have to." This [[direct action]] is reported to have "inconvenienced" several senators and to have pushed them to approve the act. While there are those who do not attribute much overall importance to this action, the "Capitol Crawl" of 1990 is seen by some present-day disability activists in the United States as a central act for encouraging the ADA into law.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Esshaki|first1=Tiffany|title=Remembering the 'Capitol Crawl'|url=http://www.candgnews.com/news/remembering-%E2%80%98capitol-crawl%E2%80%99-84863|access-date=January 15, 2016|work=C&G News|date=July 21, 2015|quote=The event, known as the 'Capitol Crawl', was an image that legislators couldn't ignore, Bauer said. She had fought since the 1960s to legally protect the rights of people with disabilities, and with that heroic display, she said, lawmakers simply couldn't go back to their constituents without action.|archive-date=March 5, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305011822/http://www.candgnews.com/news/remembering-%E2%80%98capitol-crawl%E2%80%99-84863|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Final passage===
[[File:Bush signs in ADA of 1990.jpg|thumb|right|250px|President Bush signs the Americans with Disabilities Act into law.[[File:United States House 1990 ADA.svg|thumb]][[File:US House 1990 ADA.svg|thumb|House vote and Senate vote]]]]

Senator [[Tom Harkin]] ([[Democratic Party (United States)|D]]-[[Iowa|IA]]) authored what became the final bill and was its chief sponsor in the Senate. Harkin delivered part of his introduction speech in sign language, saying it was so his deaf brother could understand.<ref>{{cite AV media |date=July 13, 1990 |title=Senator Tom Harkin (D-IA) Delivers Floor Speech in American Sign Language |url=http://www.c-span.org/video/?c4519067/senator-tom-harkin-delivers-floor-speech-american-sign-language |access-date=January 14, 2015 |publisher=C-SPAN |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304222330/http://www.c-span.org/video/?c4519067/senator-tom-harkin-delivers-floor-speech-american-sign-language |url-status=live }}</ref>

President [[George H. W. Bush]], on signing the measure on July 26, 1990,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/36831?ret=True|title=The Americans with Disabilities Act: July 26, 1990|publisher=[[U.S. House of Representatives]]|access-date=July 27, 2020|archive-date=January 4, 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104004726/https://history.house.gov/HistoricalHighlight/Detail/36831?ret=True|url-status= live}}</ref> said:

{{blockquote|I know there may have been concerns that the ADA may be too vague or too costly, or may lead endlessly to litigation. But I want to reassure you right now that my administration and the United States Congress have carefully crafted this Act. We've all been determined to ensure that it gives flexibility, particularly in terms of the timetable of implementation; and we've been committed to containing the costs that may be incurred.... Let the shameful wall of exclusion finally come tumbling down.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.eeoc.gov/ada/bushspeech.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060419075839/http://www.eeoc.gov/ada/bushspeech.html|url-status=dead|title=The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission|archive-date=April 19, 2006}}</ref>}}

{{listen
|title=Remarks on the Signing of the Americans with Disabilities Act (July 26, 1990)
|filename=George HW Bush Americans with Disabilities Act.ogg
|description =[[George H. W. Bush]]'s July 26, 1990, Remarks on the Signing of the Americans with Disabilities Act
| format = [[Ogg]]
| type = speech
}}

===ADA Amendments Act, 2008===
The ADA defines a covered disability as a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities, a history of having such an impairment, or being regarded as having such an impairment. The [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]] (EEOC) was charged with interpreting the 1990 law with regard to discrimination in employment. The EEOC developed regulations limiting an individual's impairment to one that "severely or significantly restricts" a major life activity. The ADAAA directed the EEOC to amend its regulations and replace "severely or significantly" with "substantially limits", a more lenient standard.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fact Sheet on the EEOC's Final Regulations Implementing the ADAAA |url=http://www1.eeoc.gov//laws/regulations/adaaa_fact_sheet.cfm?renderforprint=1 |website=U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission | date=May 3, 2011 |access-date=September 4, 2015 |archive-date=September 6, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906192239/http://www1.eeoc.gov//laws/regulations/adaaa_fact_sheet.cfm?renderforprint=1 |url-status=live }}</ref>

On September 25, 2008, President [[George W. Bush]] signed the [[ADA Amendments Act of 2008]] (ADAAA) into law. The amendment broadened the definition of "disability", thereby extending the ADA's protections to a greater number of people.<ref name=BLR>{{cite web |title=ADA Amendments Act (ADAAA)—What Employers Need to Know |year=2008 |publisher=HR.BLR.com |url=http://www.blr.com/information-ada/ |access-date=October 10, 2008 |archive-date=October 24, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024203026/http://www.blr.com/information-ada/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The ADAAA also added to the ADA examples of "major life activities" including, but not limited to, "caring for oneself, performing manual tasks, seeing, hearing, eating, sleeping, walking, standing, lifting, bending, speaking, breathing, learning, reading, concentrating, thinking, communicating, and working" as well as the operation of several specified "major bodily functions".<ref name=BLR /> The act overturned a [[Sutton v. United Air Lines, Inc.|1999 US Supreme Court case]] that held that an employee was not disabled if the impairment could be corrected by mitigating measures; it specifically provides that such impairment must be determined without considering such ameliorative measures. It also overturned the [[Toyota Motor Manufacturing, Kentucky, Inc. v. Williams|court's finding]] that an impairment that substantially limits one major life activity must also limit others to be considered a disability.<ref name=BLR />
In 2008, the [[United States House Committee on Education and Labor]] stated that the amendment "makes it absolutely clear that the ADA is intended to provide broad coverage to protect anyone who faces discrimination on the basis of disability."<ref>{{cite book |title=United States of America Congressional Record Proceedings and Debates of the 110th Congress Second Session Volume 154-Part 10 |date=2008 |publisher=Government Printing Office |location=Washington, D. C. |isbn=9786131199639 |page=13769 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RUk4z1xt77IC&q=absolutely+clear+that+the+ADA+is+intended+to+provide&pg=PA113 |access-date=September 4, 2015 |archive-date=October 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020110451/https://books.google.com/books?id=RUk4z1xt77IC&q=absolutely+clear+that+the+ADA+is+intended+to+provide&pg=PA113 |url-status=live }}</ref> Thus the ADAAA led to broader coverage of impaired employees.

===Web Content Accessibility Guidelines, 2019===
In October 2019, the Supreme Court declined to resolve a [[circuit split]] as to whether websites are covered by the ADA. The Court turned down an appeal from [[Domino's Pizza]] and let stand a [[United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit|U.S. 9th Circuit Court of Appeals]] ruling which held that the Americans with Disabilities Act protects access not just to brick-and-mortar public accommodations, but also to the websites and apps of those businesses.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2019-10-07/blind-person-dominos-ada-supreme-court-disabled|title = Supreme Court allows blind people to sue retailers if their websites are not accessible|website = [[Los Angeles Times]]|date = October 7, 2019|access-date = January 29, 2020|archive-date = December 14, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191214144100/https://www.latimes.com/politics/story/2019-10-07/blind-person-dominos-ada-supreme-court-disabled|url-status = live}}</ref>

==Impact==
The ADA led to significant improvements in terms of access to public services, [[accessibility]] in the [[built environment]], and societal understanding of disability.<ref name="nejm2">{{cite journal |author1=G. Peacock |author2=L.I. Iezzoni |author3=T.R. Harkin |date=September 3, 2015 |title=Health Care for Americans with Disabilities&nbsp;— 25 Years after the ADA |journal=N. Engl. J. Med. |volume=373 |issue=10 |pages=892–893 |doi=10.1056/NEJMp1508854 |pmc=4617620 |pmid=26225616}}</ref>

===Accessibility===
{{Empty section|date=April 2022}}

===Employment===
{{Update section|date=November 2022|reason=there's been more research since 2005}}
Between 1991 (after the enactment of the ADA) and 1995, the employment rate of men with disabilities dropped by 7.8% regardless of age, educational level, or type of disability, with the most affected being young, less-educated and intellectually disabled men.<ref name="deleire">{{cite journal |last=DeLeire |first=Thomas |year=2000 |title=The Unintended Consequences of the Americans with Disabilities Act |url=http://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/regulation/2000/4/deleire.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Regulation |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=21–24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513021610/http://www.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/serials/files/regulation/2000/4/deleire.pdf |archive-date=May 13, 2013 |access-date=July 11, 2013}}</ref> While no causal link between the ADA and that trend has been definitively identified,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Picker |first1=Les |title=Did the ADA Reduce Employment of the Disabled? |url=https://www.nber.org/digest/nov04/w10528.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180228193140/http://www.nber.org/digest/nov04/w10528.html |archive-date=February 28, 2018 |access-date=March 9, 2018 |website=nber.org}}</ref> some researchers have characterized the ADA as ineffectual and argued that it caused this decline by raising the cost of doing business for employers, who quietly avoid hiring people with disabilities for fear of lawsuit.<ref name="r594">{{cite journal | author=Schall | title=The Americans with Disabilities Act—are we keeping our promise? An analysis of the effect of the ADA on the employment of persons with disabilities. | journal=Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation | volume=10 | date=1998 | doi=10.1016/S1052-2263(98)00024-5 | page=191}}</ref><ref name="q460">{{cite journal | author=Schwochau, Susan; Blanck, Peter David | title="Economics of the Americans with Disabilities Act, Part III: Does the ADA Disable the Disabled" | date=2000 | doi=10.15779/Z38G34N | journal=Berkeley Journal of Employment & Labor Law|page=}}</ref> To these employers, hiring people with disabilities became too expensive as they had to spend extra on assistive technology.

In 2001, for men of all working ages and women under 40, [[Current Population Survey]] data showed a sharp drop in the employment of disabled workers, leading at least two economists to attribute the cause to the Act.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Acemoglu |first=Daron |author2=Angrist, Joshua D. |title=Consequences of Employment Protection? The Case of the Americans with Disabilities Act |journal=Journal of Political Economy |date=October 1, 2001 |volume=109 |issue=5 |pages=915–957 |doi=10.1086/322836 |url=http://economics.mit.edu/files/17 |hdl=1721.1/63433 |citeseerx=10.1.1.321.1338 |s2cid=15460395 |access-date=July 11, 2013 |archive-date=May 22, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522153518/http://economics.mit.edu/files/17 |url-status=live }}</ref> By contrast, a study in 2003 found that while the Act may have led to short term reactions by employers, in the long term, there were either positive or neutral consequences for wages and employment.<ref>Douglas Kruse and Lisa Schur, 'Employment of People with Disabilities Following the ADA' (2003) [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-232X.00275/full 42(1) Industrial Relations 31] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828095901/http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1468-232X.00275/full |date=August 28, 2016 }}</ref> In 2005, the rate of employment among disabled people increased to 45% of the population of disabled people.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/p70-131.pdf|title=US Census 2012|access-date=December 9, 2017|archive-date=October 25, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025154610/https://www.census.gov/prod/2012pubs/p70-131.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Societal attitudes===
{{Empty section|date=April 2022}}

==="Professional plaintiffs"===
Since enforcement of the act began in July 1992, it has quickly become a major component of employment law. The ADA allows private plaintiffs to receive only [[injunctive relief]] (a court order requiring the public accommodation to remedy violations of the accessibility regulations) and attorneys' fees, and does not provide monetary rewards to private plaintiffs who sue non-compliant businesses. Unless a state law, such as the California [[Unruh Civil Rights Act]],<ref name="time ada">{{Cite news|url=http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1866666,00.html |title=Lawsuits by the Disabled: Abuse of the System? |author=Stateman, Alison |access-date=March 15, 2021 |magazine=Time |date=December 29, 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210315151852/http://content.time.com/time/nation/article/0,8599,1866666,00.html |archive-date=March 15, 2021 |url-status=live }}</ref> provides for monetary damages to private plaintiffs, persons with disabilities do not obtain direct financial benefits from suing businesses that violate the ADA.

The attorneys' fees provision of Title III does provide incentive for lawyers to specialize and engage in serial ADA litigation, but a disabled plaintiff does not obtain a financial reward from attorneys' fees unless they act as their own attorney, or as mentioned above, a disabled plaintiff resides in a state that provides for minimum compensation and court fees in lawsuits. Moreover, there may be a benefit to these [[Private attorney general|private attorneys general]] who identify and compel the correction of illegal conditions: they may increase the number of public accommodations accessible to persons with disabilities. "Civil rights law depends heavily on private enforcement. Moreover, the inclusion of penalties and damages is the driving force that facilitates voluntary compliance with the ADA."<ref>Parr v. L & L Drive-Inn Restaurant (D. Hawaii 2000) 96&nbsp;F.Supp.2d 1065, 1082, citing and quoting, Committee Print, Vol. II, 101st Cong., 2d Sess., at 1481–82 (1990); {{UnitedStatesCode|42|12101}}(b)(2); S.Rep. No. 101-116, at 15 (1989).</ref> Courts have noted:

{{blockquote|As a result, most ADA suits are brought by a small number of private plaintiffs who view themselves as champions of the disabled. For the ADA to yield its promise of equal access for the disabled, it may indeed be necessary and desirable for committed individuals to bring serial litigation advancing the time when public accommodations will be compliant with the ADA.<ref>''Molski v. Evergreen Dynasty Corp.'', (9th Cir. 2007) 500&nbsp;F.3d 1047, 1062; ''D'Lil v. Best Western Encina Lodge & Suites'' (9th Cir. 2008) 538&nbsp;F.3d 1031, 1040.</ref>}}

[[File:Gavin Newsom on 30th anniversary of the ADA.ogg|thumb|California Governor [[Gavin Newsom]] speaking about the ADA on the 30th anniversary in 2020]]

However, in states that have enacted laws that allow private individuals to win monetary awards from non-compliant businesses (as of 2008, these include California, Florida, Hawaii, and Illinois), "professional plaintiffs" are typically found. At least one of these plaintiffs in California has been barred by courts from filing lawsuits unless he receives prior court permission.<ref name="time ada"/> Through the end of fiscal year 1998, 86% of the 106,988 ADA charges filed with and resolved by the [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]], were either dropped or investigated and dismissed by EEOC but not without imposing opportunity costs and legal fees on employers.<ref name="deleire" />{{Unreliable source?|reason=Ideologically-driven and heavily biased publication|date=February 2020}}

==Case law==
<!-- note ADA Litigation in the United States redirects here -->
There have been some notable cases regarding the ADA. For example, a major hotel room marketer ([[Hotels.com]]) with their business presence on the Internet was sued because their customers with disabilities could not reserve hotel rooms through their website without substantial extra efforts that persons without disabilities were not required to perform.<ref>[http://www.dralegal.org/cases/private_business/Smith_v_Hotels_com.php Smith v. Hotels.com] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111122142738/http://www.dralegal.org/cases/private_business/Smith_v_Hotels_com.php |date=November 22, 2011 }} at Disability Rights Advocates</ref> Such lawsuits represent a major potential expansion of the ADA in that they (known as "bricks vs. clicks"), seek to expand the ADA's authority to [[cyberspace]], where entities may not have actual physical facilities that are required to comply.

===''Green v. State of California''===
''[[Green v. State of California, No. S137770 (Cal. August 23, 2007)]]''<ref>{{cite court |litigants=Green v. State of California |vol=452 |reporter=F.Supp.2d |opinion=946 |court=N.D. Cal. |date=2007 |url=https://law.justia.com/cases/california/supreme-court/2007/s137770.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128072334/https://law.justia.com/cases/california/supreme-court/2007/s137770.html |url-status=live }}</ref> was a case in which the California Supreme Court was faced with deciding whether an employee suing the state is required to prove they are able to perform "essential" job duties, regardless of whether or not there was "reasonable accommodation", or if the employer must prove the person suing was unable to do so. The court ruled the burden was on the employee, not the employer, and reversed a disputed decision by the lower courts. Plaintiff attorney David Greenberg<ref>{{cite web |title=David Greenberg |url=https://www.greenbergrubylaw.com/our-team/attorney-profile |publisher=ADA |access-date=January 21, 2021 |archive-date=January 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117094745/https://www.greenbergrubylaw.com/our-team/attorney-profile/ |url-status=live }}</ref> brought forth considerations of the concept that, even in the state of California, employers do not have to employ a worker who is unable to perform "essential job functions" with "reasonable accommodation". Forcing employers to do so "would defy logic and establish a poor public policy in employment matters."

===''National Federation of the Blind v. Target Corporation''===
{{Main|National Federation of the Blind v. Target Corp.}}
''[[National Federation of the Blind v. Target Corp.]]''<ref>{{cite court |litigants=National Federation of the Blind v. Target Corp. |vol=452 |reporter=F.Supp.2d |opinion=946 |court=N.D. Cal. |date=2006 |url=https://www.leagle.com/decision/20061398452fsupp2d94611322 |access-date=December 17, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117012136/https://www.leagle.com/decision/20061398452fsupp2d94611322 |url-status=live }}</ref> was a case where a major retailer, [[Target Corp.]], was sued because their web designers failed to design its website to enable persons with low or no vision to use it.<ref>[http://www.dralegal.org/cases/private_business/nfb_v_target.php National Federation for the Blind v. Target] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070705103922/http://www.dralegal.org/cases/private_business/nfb_v_target.php |date=July 5, 2007 }} at Disability Rights Advocates</ref>

===''Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett''===
{{Main|Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett}}
''[[Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett]]''<ref>{{ussc|name=Board of Trustees of the University of Alabama v. Garrett|link=|volume=531|page=356|pin=|year=2001}}</ref> was a [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] case about [[United States Congress|Congress's]] [[congressional power of enforcement|enforcement powers]] under the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]]. It decided that Title I of the Americans with Disabilities Act was unconstitutional insofar as it allowed private citizens to sue states for [[money damages]].

===''Barden v. The City of Sacramento''===
''[[Barden v. The City of Sacramento (case)|Barden v. The City of Sacramento]]'', filed in March 1999, claimed that the City of Sacramento failed to comply with the ADA when, while making public street improvements, it did not bring its sidewalks into compliance with the ADA. Certain issues were resolved in federal court. One issue, whether sidewalks were covered by the ADA, was appealed to the [[9th Circuit Court of Appeals]], which ruled that sidewalks were a "program" under the ADA and must be made accessible to persons with disabilities. The ruling was later appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court, which refused to hear the case, letting stand the ruling of the 9th Circuit.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://dralegal.org/case/barden-v-sacramento/ |title=Barden v. Sacramento |website=Disability Rights Advocates |access-date=July 17, 2019 |archive-date=July 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717172902/https://dralegal.org/case/barden-v-sacramento/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-9th-circuit/1375815.html |title=BARDEN v. CITY OF SACRAMENTO, United States Court of Appeals, Ninth Circuit |website=Findlaw |date=June 12, 2002 |access-date=July 17, 2019 |archive-date=July 17, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717172903/https://caselaw.findlaw.com/us-9th-circuit/1375815.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===''Bates v. United Parcel Service, Inc''===

''[[Bates v. United Parcel Service, Inc]] (UPS;'' begun in 1999) was the first [[equal opportunity employment]] class action brought on behalf of Deaf and Hard of Hearing workers throughout the country concerning workplace discrimination.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bates v. United Parcel Service, Inc., No. C99-2216 TEH {{!}} Casetext Search + Citator |url=https://casetext.com/case/bates-v-united-parcel-service-2 |access-date=December 2, 2022 |website=casetext.com |archive-date=December 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202180028/https://casetext.com/case/bates-v-united-parcel-service-2 |url-status=live }}</ref> It established legal precedent for these employees to be fully covered under the ADA. Key findings included:
# UPS failed to address communication barriers and to ensure equal conditions and opportunities for deaf employees;
# Deaf employees were routinely excluded from workplace information, denied opportunities for promotion, and exposed to unsafe conditions due to lack of accommodations by UPS;
# UPS also lacked a system to alert these employees as to emergencies, such as fires or chemical spills, to ensure that they would safely evacuate their facility; and
# UPS had no policy to ensure that deaf applicants and employees actually received effective communication in the workplace.
The outcome was that UPS agreed to pay a $5.8 million award and agreed to a comprehensive accommodations program that was implemented in their facilities throughout the country.

===''Spector v. Norwegian Cruise Line Ltd.''===
{{Main|Spector v. Norwegian Cruise Line Ltd.}}
''[[Spector v. Norwegian Cruise Line Ltd.]]''<ref>{{ussc|name=Spector v. Norwegian Cruise Line Ltd.|link=|volume=545|page=119|pin=|year=2005}}.</ref> was a case that was decided by the [[United States Supreme Court]] in 2005. The defendant argued that as a vessel flying the flag of a foreign nation it was exempt from the requirements of the ADA. This argument was accepted by a federal court in Florida and, subsequently, the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals. However, the U.S. Supreme Court reversed the ruling of the lower courts on the basis that Norwegian Cruise Lines was a business headquartered in the United States whose clients were predominantly Americans and, more importantly, operated out of port facilities throughout the United States.

===''Olmstead v. L.C.''===
{{Main|Olmstead v. L.C.}}{{Distinguish|text=[[Olmstead v. United States]], 277 U.S. 438 (1928), a case regarding wiretapping}}

''[[Olmstead v. L.C.]]''<ref name=Olmstead>{{ussc|name=Olmstead v. L.C.|link=|volume=527|page=581|pin=|year=1999}}.</ref> was a case before the [[United States Supreme Court]] in 1999. The two plaintiffs, [[Lois Curtis]] and E.W., were institutionalized in Georgia for diagnosed "mental retardation" and schizophrenia. Clinical assessments by the state determined that the plaintiffs could be appropriately treated in a community setting rather than the state institution. The plaintiffs sued the state of Georgia and the institution for being inappropriately treated and housed in the institutional setting rather than being treated in one of the state's community-based treatment facilities.

The Supreme Court decided under Title II of the ADA that mental illness is a form of disability and therefore covered under the ADA, and that unjustified institutional isolation of a person with a disability is a form of discrimination because it "...perpetuates unwarranted assumptions that persons so isolated are incapable or unworthy of participating in community life." The court added, "Confinement in an institution severely diminishes the everyday life activities of individuals, including family relations, social contacts, work options, economic independence, educational advancement, and cultural enrichment."

Therefore, under Title II no person with a disability can be unjustly excluded from participation in or be denied the benefits of services, programs or activities of any public entity.<ref name=Olmstead/>

===''Michigan Paralyzed Veterans of America v. The University of Michigan''===
{{Main|Michigan Paralyzed Veterans of America v. The University of Michigan}}
''[[Michigan Paralyzed Veterans of America v. The University of Michigan]]'' was a case filed before the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan. It was filed on behalf of the Michigan [[Paralyzed Veterans of America]] against the University of Michigan claiming that [[Michigan Stadium]] violated the Americans with Disabilities Act in its $226-million renovation by failing to add enough seats for disabled fans or accommodate the needs for disabled restrooms, concessions and parking. Additionally, the distribution of the accessible seating was at issue, with nearly all the seats being provided in the end-zone areas. The U.S. Department of Justice assisted in the suit, which was settled in March 2008.<ref>Erb, Robin. "U-M fans rave about new seats for disabled", Detroit Free Press. September 9, 2008.</ref> The settlement required the stadium to add 329 wheelchair seats throughout the stadium by 2010, and an additional 135 accessible seats in clubhouses to go along with the existing 88 wheelchair seats. This case was significant because it set a precedent for the uniform distribution of accessible seating and gave the DOJ the opportunity to clarify previously unclear rules.<ref name=wolffe>Wolffe, Jerry. "New wheelchair seats will be full at U-M's Big House." The Oakland Press. September 14, 2008.</ref> The agreement now is a blueprint for all stadiums and other public facilities regarding accessibility.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 11, 2008 |title=U. of Michigan Reaches Settlement in Lawsuit Over Wheelchair Seating in Stadium |url=https://www.chronicle.com/article/u-of-michigan-reaches-settlement-in-lawsuit-over-wheelchair-seating-in-stadium/ |access-date=March 29, 2023 |website=The Chronicle of Higher Education |language=en |archive-date=March 29, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230329000242/https://www.chronicle.com/article/u-of-michigan-reaches-settlement-in-lawsuit-over-wheelchair-seating-in-stadium/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===''Paralyzed Veterans of America v. Ellerbe Becket Architects and Engineers''===
{{Main|Paralyzed Veterans of America v. Ellerbe Becket Architects and Engineers}}
One of the first major ADA lawsuits, ''[[Paralyzed Veterans of America v. Ellerbe Becket Architects and Engineers]]'' (PVA 1996) was focused on the wheelchair accessibility of a stadium project that was still in the design phase, MCI Center (now known as [[Capital One Arena]]) in Washington, D.C. Previous to this case, which was filed only five years after the ADA was passed, the DOJ was unable or unwilling to provide clarification on the distribution requirements for accessible wheelchair locations in large assembly spaces. While Section 4.33.3 of ADAAG makes reference to lines of sight, no specific reference is made to seeing over standing patrons. The MCI Center, designed by [[Ellerbe Becket]] Architects & Engineers, was designed with too few wheelchair and companion seats, and the ones that were included did not provide sight lines that would enable the wheelchair user to view the playing area while the spectators in front of them were standing. This case<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://casetext.com/case/paralyzed-veterans-america-v-dc-arena |title=Paralyzed Veterans, America v. D.C. Arena, 117 F.3d 579 &#124; Casetext |website=casetext.com |access-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714145107/https://casetext.com/case/paralyzed-veterans-america-v-dc-arena |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Paralyzed Veterans of America v. Ellerbe Becket Architects United States' Memorandum in Opposition to Defendant's Motion to Dismiss (7/10/96) |url=https://www.ada.gov/briefs/pvabr.pdf |publisher=ADA |access-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-date=October 16, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201016165613/https://www.ada.gov/briefs/pvabr.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> and another related case<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://casetext.com/case/us-v-ellerbe-becket-inc |title=U.S. v. Ellerbe Becket, Inc, 976 F. Supp. 1262 &#124; Casetext |website=casetext.com |access-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714145106/https://casetext.com/case/us-v-ellerbe-becket-inc |url-status=live }}</ref> established precedent on seat distribution and sight lines issues for ADA enforcement that continues to present day.

===''Toyota Motor Manufacturing, Kentucky, Inc. v. Williams''===
{{Main|Toyota Motor Manufacturing, Kentucky, Inc. v. Williams}}
''[[Toyota Motor Manufacturing, Kentucky, Inc. v. Williams]]'',<ref name=Toyota>{{ussc|name=Toyota Motor Manufacturing, Kentucky, Inc. v. Williams|link=|volume=534|page=184|pin=|year=2002}}.</ref> was a case in which the US Supreme Court interpreted the meaning of the phrase "substantially impairs" as used in the Americans with Disabilities Act. It reversed a Sixth Circuit Court of Appeals decision to grant partial [[summary judgment]] in favor of the respondent, Ella Williams, that classified her inability to perform manual job-related tasks as a disability. The Court held that the "major life activity" definition for evaluating the performance of manual tasks focuses the inquiry on whether Williams was unable to perform a range of tasks central to most people in carrying out the activities of daily living, not whether Williams was unable to perform her specific job tasks. Therefore, the determination of whether an impairment rises to the level of a disability is not limited to activities in the workplace solely, but rather to manual tasks in life in general. When the Supreme Court applied this standard, it found that the Court of Appeals had incorrectly determined the presence of a disability because it relied solely on her inability to perform specific manual work tasks, which was insufficient in proving the presence of a disability. The Court of Appeals should have taken into account the evidence presented that Williams retained the ability to do personal tasks and household chores, such activities being the nature of tasks most people do in their daily lives, and placed too much emphasis on her job disability. Since the evidence showed that Williams was performing normal daily tasks, it ruled that the Court of Appeals erred when it found that Williams was disabled.<ref name=Toyota/><ref name="workerrights">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GGRFPMUFUSkC&q=TOYOTA+of+KY+v+Ella+WILLIAMS&pg=PA70 |title=Workers' Rights |access-date=October 7, 2009 |last=Worth |first=Richard |isbn=978-0-7614-2574-8 |date=November 15, 2007 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |archive-date=October 20, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020101951/https://books.google.com/books?id=GGRFPMUFUSkC&q=TOYOTA+of+KY+v+Ella+WILLIAMS&pg=PA70 |url-status=live }}</ref> This ruling has since been legislatively overturned by the [[ADA Amendments Act of 2008]] (ADAAA). In fact, Congress explicitly cited ''Toyota v. Williams'' in the text of the ADAAA itself as one of its driving influences for passing the ADAAA.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ADA AMENDMENTS ACT OF 2008 |url=https://www.eeoc.gov/statutes/ada-amendments-act-2008 |access-date=2024-10-06 |website=US EEOC |language=en}}</ref>

===''US Airways, Inc. v. Barnett''===
{{Main|US Airways, Inc. v. Barnett}}
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2023}}
''[[US Airways, Inc. v. Barnett]]'' was decided by the US Supreme Court in 2002. This case<ref name="USABARN">{{ussc|name=US Airways, Inc. v. Barnett|link=|volume=535|page=391|pin=|year=2002}}.</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/00-1250.ZS.html |title=US AIRWAYS, INC. V. BARNETT |publisher=Cornell University Law School, Legal Information Institute |access-date=September 20, 2016 |archive-date=February 6, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206220926/https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/00-1250.ZS.html |url-status=live }}</ref> held that even requests for accommodation that might seem reasonable on their face, e.g., a transfer to a different position, can be rendered unreasonable because it would require a violation of the company's seniority system. While the court held that, in general, a violation of a seniority system renders an otherwise reasonable accommodation unreasonable, a plaintiff can present evidence that, despite the seniority system, the accommodation is reasonable in the specific case at hand, e.g., the plaintiff could offer evidence that the seniority system is so often disregarded that another exception would not make a difference.

Importantly, the court held that the defendant need not provide proof that this particular application of the seniority system should prevail, and that, once the defendant showed that the accommodation violated the seniority system, it fell to Barnett to show it was nevertheless reasonable.

In this case, Barnett was a US Airways employee who injured his back, rendering him physically unable to perform his cargo-handling job.<ref>{{Cite web |title=US Airways, Inc. v. Barnett {{!}} Case Brief for Law School {{!}} LexisNexis |url=https://www.lexisnexis.com/community/casebrief/p/casebrief-us-airways-inc-v-barnett |access-date=January 10, 2023 |website=Community |language=en |archive-date=January 10, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230110204100/https://www.lexisnexis.com/community/casebrief/p/casebrief-us-airways-inc-v-barnett |url-status=live }}</ref> Invoking seniority, he transferred to a less-demanding mailroom job, but this position later became open to seniority-based bidding and was bid on by more senior employees. Barnett requested the accommodation of being allowed to stay on in the less-demanding mailroom job. US Airways denied his request, and he lost his job.

The Supreme Court decision invalidated both the approach of the district court, which found that the mere presence and importance of the seniority system was enough to warrant a summary judgment in favor of US Airways, as well as the circuit court's approach that interpreted 'reasonable accommodation' as 'effective accommodation.'

===''Access Now v. Southwest Airlines''===
{{Main|Access Now, Inc. v. Southwest Airlines Co.}}
''[[Access Now, Inc. v. Southwest Airlines Co.]]'' was a 2002 case where the [[United States district court|District Court]] decided that the website of [[Southwest Airlines]] was not in violation of the Americans with Disabilities Act, because the ADA is concerned with things with a physical existence and thus cannot be applied to cyberspace. Judge [[Patricia A. Seitz]] found that the "virtual ticket counter" of the website was a virtual construct, and hence not a "public place of accommodation". As such, "To expand the ADA to cover 'virtual' spaces would be to create new rights without well-defined standards."<ref name="CLR">{{cite web |title=Order Granting Defendant's Motion to Dismiss |work=Tech Law Journal |url=http://www.techlawjournal.com/courts2002/accessnow_southwest/20021018.asp |access-date=May 25, 2010 |archive-date=June 13, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110613195157/http://www.techlawjournal.com/courts2002/accessnow_southwest/20021018.asp |url-status=live }}</ref>

===''Ouellette v. Viacom International Inc.''===
{{Main|Ouellette v. Viacom International Inc.}}
''[[Ouellette v. Viacom International Inc.]]'' (2011) held that a mere online presence does not subject a website to the ADA guidelines. Thus [[Myspace]] and [[YouTube]] were not liable for a dyslexic man's inability to navigate the site regardless of how impressive the "online theater" is.

===''Authors Guild v. HathiTrust''===
{{Main|Authors Guild, Inc. v. HathiTrust}}
''[[Authors Guild v. HathiTrust]]'' was a case in which the District Court decided that the [[HathiTrust]] digital library was a transformative, fair use of copyrighted works, making a large number of written text available to those with [[print disability]].<ref name="17usc501b">{{usc|17|501(b)}}</ref>

===''Zamora-Quezada v. HealthTexas Medical Group''===
''[[Zamora-Quezada v. HealthTexas Medical Group]]''<ref>{{cite court |litigants=Zamora-Quezada v. HealthTexas Medical Group |vol=34 |reporter=F. Supp. 2d |opinion=433 |court=W.D. Tex. |date=1998 |url=https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp2/34/433/2462630/ |access-date=December 17, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117011924/https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp2/34/433/2462630/ |url-status=live }}</ref> (begun in 1998) was the first time this act was used against [[Health maintenance organization|HMOs]] when a novel lawsuit<ref>{{cite news |last=Geyelin |first=Milo |date=January 26, 2000 |title=A Disabled Attorney's Novel Strategy Puts A Civil-Rights Spin on HMO Litigation |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB948843817639823315 |newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]] |location=Wsj.com |access-date=May 2, 2016 |archive-date=June 2, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602073921/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB948843817639823315 |url-status=live }}</ref> was filed by Texas attorney [[Robert Provan]] against five HMOs for their practice of revoking the contracts of doctors treating disabled patients. In 1999, these HMOs sought to dismiss Provan's lawsuit, but a federal court ruled against them, and the case was settled out of court. Many decisions relating to Provan's unique lawsuit against these HMOs have been cited in other court cases since.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp2/227/652/2529984/|title=Rogers v. CIGNA Healthcare of Texas, 227 F. Supp. 2d 652|website=Justia.com|access-date=June 8, 2022|archive-date=June 8, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608003642/https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/district-courts/FSupp2/227/652/2529984/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nnFmZ5dPM_YC&dq=robert+provan+%22americans+with+disabilities%22&pg=PA64 |title=ABA Journal Apr 1999 pg 64|website=[[Google Books]]|date=April 1999}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Elliott |first=Janet |date=August 12, 2000 |title=Polio survivor goes to bat for sick kids |url=http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/Polio-survivor-goes-to-bat-for-sick-kids-2032768.php |newspaper=[[Houston Chronicle]] |location=Chrn.com |access-date=May 2, 2016 |archive-date=June 2, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160602060636/http://www.chron.com/news/houston-texas/article/Polio-survivor-goes-to-bat-for-sick-kids-2032768.php |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=10192820632469458565&hl=en&as_sdt=5,43&sciodt=6,43|title=Baylor University Medical Center, Plaintiff, v. Arkansas Blue Cross Blue Shield, Defendant.|website=[[Google Scholar]]|access-date=June 8, 2022|archive-date=June 8, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608003640/https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=10192820632469458565&hl=en&as_sdt=5,43&sciodt=6,43|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=8618940476357581495&hl=en&as_sdt=5,43&sciodt=6,43|title=EDUMOZ, LLC, Plaintiff, v. REPUBLIC OF MOZAMBIQUE|website=[[Google Scholar]]|access-date=June 8, 2022|archive-date=June 8, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608003641/https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=8618940476357581495&hl=en&as_sdt=5,43&sciodt=6,43|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=12697224137707194870&hl=en&as_sdt=5,43&sciodt=6,43|title=BAYLOR UNIVERSITY MEDICAL CENTER, et al., Plaintiffs, v. EPOCH GROUP, L.C., Defendant.|website=[[Google Scholar]]|access-date=June 8, 2022|archive-date=June 8, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608003639/https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=12697224137707194870&hl=en&as_sdt=5,43&sciodt=6,43|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=15028724583750606718&hl=en&as_sdt=5,43&sciodt=6,43|title=CROSSROADS OF TEXAS, LLC; Children's Center of Victoria, LLP, Plaintiffs, v. GREAT-WEST LIFE & ANNUITY INSURANCE COMPANY|website=[[Google Scholar]]|access-date=June 8, 2022|archive-date=June 8, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608003640/https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=15028724583750606718&hl=en&as_sdt=5,43&sciodt=6,43|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.uh.edu/healthlaw/perspectives/Managed/990217Physicians.html|title=Physicians and Patients Claim HMO Cost-cutting Incentives Violate ADA|website=[[University of Houston]]|access-date=June 8, 2022|archive-date=September 25, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220925170303/https://www.law.uh.edu/healthlaw/perspectives/Managed/990217Physicians.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cobar.org/opinions/opinion.cfm?opinionid=1871&courtid=1|title=No. 99CA0089. Salas v. Grancare, Inc|website=[[Colorado Bar Association]]|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512170035/http://www.cobar.org/opinions/opinion.cfm?opinionid=1871&courtid=1|archivedate=May 12, 2016}}</ref>{{Overcite|date=November 2024}}

===''Campbell v. General Dynamics Government Systems Corp.''===
{{Main|Campbell v. General Dynamics Government Systems Corp.}}
''[[Campbell v. General Dynamics Government Systems Corp.]]'' (2005)<ref>{{cite court |litigants=Campbell v. General Dynamics Government Systems Corp. |vol=407 |reporter=F.3d |opinion=546 |court=1st Cir. |date=2005 |url=https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F3/407/546/635288/ |access-date=December 17, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117070242/https://law.justia.com/cases/federal/appellate-courts/F3/407/546/635288/ |url-status=live }}</ref> concerned the enforceability of a mandatory arbitration agreement contained in a dispute resolution policy linked to an e-mailed company-wide announcement, insofar as it applies to employment discrimination claims brought under the Americans with Disabilities Act.

===''Tennessee v. Lane''===
{{Main|Tennessee v. Lane}}
''[[Tennessee v. Lane]]'',<ref>{{ussc|name=Tennessee v. Lane|541|509|2004}}.</ref> 541 U.S. 509 (2004), was a case in the [[Supreme Court of the United States]] involving [[United States Congress|Congress's]] [[congressional power of enforcement|enforcement powers]] under section 5 of the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]]. George Lane was unable to walk after a 1997 car accident in which he was accused of driving on the wrong side of the road. A woman was killed in the crash, and Lane faced misdemeanor charges of reckless driving. The suit was brought about because he was denied access to appear in criminal court because the courthouse had no elevator, even though the court was willing to carry him up the stairs and then willing to move the hearing to the first floor. He refused, citing he wanted to be treated as any other citizen, and was subsequently charged with failure to appear, after appearing at a previous hearing where he dragged himself up the stairs.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Mears |first1=Bill |title=CNN.com&nbsp;– Court debates disabled access liability&nbsp;– Jan. 13, 2004 |url=https://www.cnn.com/2004/LAW/01/13/scotus.disabled/ |access-date=January 7, 2020 |work=www.cnn.com |archive-date=August 4, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804005901/https://www.cnn.com/2004/LAW/01/13/scotus.disabled/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The court ruled that Congress did have enough evidence that disabled people were being denied those fundamental rights that are protected by the Due Process clause of the Fourteenth Amendment and had the enforcement powers under section 5 of the Fourteenth Amendment. It further ruled that "reasonable accommodations" mandated by the ADA were not unduly burdensome and disproportionate to the harm.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mears |first1=Bill |title=CNN.com&nbsp;– Disabled win victory in ruling over access to government buildings&nbsp;– May 17, 2004 |url=https://www.cnn.com/2004/LAW/05/17/scotus.disabled/ |access-date=January 7, 2020 |website=www.cnn.com |archive-date=August 10, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200810172241/https://www.cnn.com/2004/LAW/05/17/scotus.disabled/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Gender dysphoria===
In 2022, the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit]] stated that the ADA covers individuals with [[gender dysphoria]], which may aid transgender people in accessing legal protections they otherwise may be unable to.<ref name="auto"/>

==See also==
{{cmn|colwidth=20em|rules=yes|
* [[ADA Compliance Kit]]
* [[ADA Signs]]
* [[American Disability rights movement]]
* [[Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities]]
* [[Developmental disability]]
* [[Disability in the United States]]
*[[European Accessibility Act]]
* [[Individual rights advocate]]
* [[Interactive accommodation process]]
* [[Job Accommodation Network]]
* [[List of anti-discrimination acts]]
** [[Disability discrimination act]]
** [[Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964]]
** [[Architectural Barriers Act of 1968]]
* [[List of disability rights activists]]
* [[Stigma management]]
* [[Timeline of disability rights in the United States]]
* [[United States Access Board]]
* [[Wheelchair ramp]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal | author =  [[Daron Acemoglu|Acemoglu, Daron]] & [[Joshua Angrist|Angrist, Joshua D.]] | year = 2001 | title = Consequences of Employment Protection? The Case of the Americans with Disabilities Act | journal = Journal of Political Economy | volume = 109 | issue = 5| pages = 915–957 | doi=10.1086/322836| hdl = 1721.1/63433| citeseerx = 10.1.1.510.623| s2cid = 15460395 }}
* [[George H. W. Bush|Bush, George H. W.]], ''Remarks of President George Bush at the Signing of the Americans with Disabilities Act''. Available online at [https://web.archive.org/web/20060419075839/http://www.eeoc.gov/ada/bushspeech.html Equal Employment Opportunity Commission].
* [[Lennard J. Davis|Davis, Lennard J.]] ''Enabling Acts. The Hidden Story of How the Americans with Disabilities Act Gave the Largest US Minority Its Rights''. Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 2015.
* {{cite journal | author = DeLeire Thomas | year = 2000 | title = The Wage and Employment Effects of the Americans with Disabilities Act | journal = Journal of Human Resources | volume = 35 | issue = 4| pages = 693–715 | doi=10.2307/146368| jstor = 146368 }}
* Fielder, J. F. ''Mental Disabilities and the Americans with Disabilities Act''. Westport, CT: Quorum Books, 2004.
* Hamilton Krieger, Linda, ed., ''Backlash Against the ADA: Reinterpreting Disability Rights'' Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003.
* Johnson, Mary. (2000). ''Make Them Go Away: [[Clint Eastwood]], [[Christopher Reeve]] & the Case Against Disability Rights''. Louisville, KY: The Advocado Press.
* Mayer, Arlene. (1992). ''The History of the Americans with Disabilities Act: A Movement Perspective''. Available online at the [http://dredf.org/news/publications/the-history-of-the-ada/ Disability Rights Education & Defense Fund website]
* [[Ruth O'Brien (political scientist)|O'Brien, Ruth]], ed. ''Voices from the Edge: Narratives about the Americans with Disabilities Act''. New York: Oxford, 2004. {{ISBN|0-19-515687-0}}
* Pletcher, David and Ashlee Russeau-Pletcher. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120601171408/http://aabss.org/Perspectives2008/AABSS2008Article5DisabilityHistory.pdf History of the Civil Rights Movement for the Physically Disabled]
* Switzer, Jacqueline Vaughn. ''Disabled Rights: American Disability Policy and the Fight for Equality''. Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2003.
* Weber, Mark C. ''Disability Harassment''. New York: NYU Press, 2007.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Americans with Disabilities Act}}
{{Spoken Wikipedia|Wikipedia - ADA 1990.ogg|date=April 9, 2009}}
* {{Official website|https://www.ada.gov/}} from the [[United States Department of Justice Civil Rights Division|DOJ Civil Rights Division]]
* [https://www.dol.gov/general/topic/disability/ada ADA page] from the [[United States Department of Labor|Department of Labor]]
* [https://www.eeoc.gov/eeoc-disability-related-resources ADA page] from the [[Equal Employment Opportunity Commission]]
* [https://uscode.house.gov/view.xhtml?path=/prelim@title42/chapter126&edition=prelim As codified in 42 U.S.C. chapter 126] of the [[United States Code]] from the [[United States House of Representatives|US House of Representatives]]
* [https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/42/chapter-126 As codified in 42 U.S.C. chapter 126] of the [[United States Code]] from the [[Legal Information Institute|LII]]
* [https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/COMPS-803/uslm/COMPS-803.xml Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990] as amended ([https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/COMPS-803/pdf/COMPS-803.pdf PDF]/[https://www.govinfo.gov/app/details/COMPS-803/ details]) in the [[United States Government Publishing Office|GPO]] [https://www.govinfo.gov/help/comps Statute Compilations collection]
* [https://fndusa.org/ Family Network on Disabilities FNDUSA.ORG]—Florida Parent Training and Information Center funded by DOED Offices of Special Education Programs (OSEP)
* [https://www.lflegal.com/global-law-and-policy/#United-States-8211-federal-national Lainey Feingold's Global Law and Policy: United States&nbsp;– federal (national)]
* [https://prep.continualengine.com/blog/ada-compliance/ What is ADA compliance? How to Create an ADA-Compliant PDF?]

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