View source for Closed-circuit television

{{short description|Use of video cameras to transmit a signal to a specific place on a limited set of monitors}}
{{redirect|CCTV|the broadcasting company in China|China Central Television|other uses|CCTV (disambiguation)}}
{{Distinguish|Closed captioning}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2019}}

[[File:Three Surveillance cameras.jpg|thumb|Surveillance cameras on the corner of a building]]
'''Closed-circuit television''' ('''CCTV'''), also known as '''video surveillance''',<ref>{{cite book|editor1-last=Kumar|editor1-first=Vikas|editor2-last=Svensson|editor2-first=Jakob|title=Promoting Social Change and Democracy Through Information Technology|date=2015|publisher=IGI Global|isbn=9781466685031|page=75|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jkdLCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA75}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Dempsey|first1=John S.|title=Introduction to private security|date=2008|publisher=Thomson Wadsworth|location=Belmont, CA|isbn=9780534558734|page=78|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qQo7oDMSVXgC&pg=PA78}}</ref> is the use of [[closed-circuit television camera]]s to transmit a signal to a specific place on a limited set of monitors. It differs from [[broadcast television]] in that the signal is not openly transmitted, though it may employ [[Point-to-point (telecommunications)|point-to-point]], [[Point-to-multipoint communication|point-to-multipoint]] (P2MP), or [[Mesh networking|mesh]] wired or [[Wireless|wireless links]]. Even though almost all video cameras fit this definition, the term is most often applied to those used for [[surveillance]] in areas that require additional security or ongoing monitoring ([[videotelephony]] is seldom called "CCTV"<ref>Verman, Romesh. [https://books.google.com/books?id=1VUU-eRAObAC Distance Education In Technological Age], Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd., 2005, pp.166, {{ISBN|81-261-2210-2}}, {{ISBN|978-81-261-2210-3}}.</ref><ref>"Distance education in Asia and the Pacific: Proceedings Of The Regional Seminar On Distance Education, 26 November – 3 December 1986", Asian Development Bank, Bangkok, Thailand, Volume 2, 1987</ref>).

The deployment of this technology has facilitated significant growth in state surveillance, a substantial rise in the methods of advanced social monitoring and control, and a host of crime prevention measures throughout the world.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Caves |first=R. W. |title=Encyclopedia of the City |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |pages=114}}</ref> Though surveillance of the public using CCTV is common in many areas around the world, video surveillance has generated significant debate about balancing its use with individuals' [[right to privacy]] even when in public.<ref>{{cite web|title=What's wrong with public video surveillance?|url=https://www.aclu.org/other/whats-wrong-public-video-surveillance|publisher=ACLU|access-date=5 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Surveillance Cameras and the Right to Privacy|url=http://www.cbsnews.com/news/surveillance-cameras-and-the-right-to-privacy/|access-date=5 January 2017|work=CBS News|date=13 August 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Best PoE Security Camera System|url=https://top10reviewss.com/best-poe-security-camera-system-reviews/|access-date=5 January 2017|work=CBS News|date=9 November 2019|archive-date=28 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128025924/https://top10reviewss.com/best-poe-security-camera-system-reviews/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In [[Factory|industrial plants]], CCTV equipment may be used to observe parts of a process from a central [[control room]], especially if the environments observed are dangerous or inaccessible to humans. CCTV systems may operate continuously or only as required to monitor a particular event. A more advanced form of CCTV, using [[digital video recorder]]s (DVRs), provides recording for possibly many years, with a variety of quality and performance options and extra features (such as [[motion detection]] and [[email]] alerts). More recently, decentralized [[IP camera]]s, perhaps equipped with megapixel sensors, support recording directly to [[network-attached storage]] devices or internal flash for stand-alone operation.

== History ==
[[File:THE CENTRAL POLICE CONTROL STATION, MANNED 24 HOURS A DAY CONTROLS ALL TRAFFIC LIGHTS, RECEIVES REMOTE TV INPUTS FROM... - NARA - 551905.tif|thumb|CCTV monitoring at the Central Police Control Station, Munich, Germany, in 1973]]
[[File:Cameratoezichtcentrale politie nederland.jpg|thumb|Desk in one of the regional control-rooms of the National Police in the Netherlands in 2017]]
[[File:CCTV control room monitor wall.jpg|thumb|CCTV control-room monitor wall for 176 open-street cameras in 2017]]
An early [[Mechanical television|mechanical]] CCTV system was developed in June 1927 by Russian physicist [[Leon Theremin]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Theremin: ether music and espionage|last=Glinsky, Albert.|date=2000|publisher=University of Illinois Press|isbn=0252025822|location=Urbana|pages=46–47|oclc=43286443}}</ref> Originally requested by CTO (the Soviet [[Council of Labor and Defense]]), the system consisted of a manually-operated scanning-transmitting camera and wireless shortwave transmitter and receiver, with a resolution of a hundred lines. Having been commandeered by [[Kliment Voroshilov]], Theremin's CCTV system was demonstrated to [[Joseph Stalin]], [[Semyon Budyonny]], and [[Sergo Ordzhonikidze]], and subsequently installed in the courtyard of the [[Moscow Kremlin]] to monitor approaching visitors.<ref name=":0" />

Another early CCTV system was installed by [[Siemens|Siemens AG]] at [[Test Stand VII]] in [[Peenemünde]], Nazi Germany, in 1942, for observing the launch of [[V-2 rocket]]s.<ref name="dornberger">[[Walter Dornberger|Dornberger, Walter]]: ''V-2'', [[Ballantine Books]] 1954, ASIN: B000P6L1ES, page 14.</ref>

In the United States, the first commercial closed-circuit television system became available in 1949 from [[Remington Rand]] and designed by [[CBS Laboratories]], called "Vericon".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.earlytelevision.org/pdf/nyt_8-16-50_agreement_is_seen_to_spur_color_tv.pdf|title=Agreement Seen Spur to Color TV|date=August 16, 1950|work=The New York Times}}</ref> Vericon was advertised as not requiring a government permit due to the system using cabled connections between camera and monitor rather than over-the-air transmission.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=pCQDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA179 '' "Television Rides Wires" '', February 1949, Popular Science] small article, bottom of page 179</ref>

=== Technology ===
The earliest video surveillance systems involved constant monitoring because there was no way to record and store information. The development of [[Reel-to-reel audio tape recording|reel-to-reel]] media enabled the recording of surveillance footage. These systems required magnetic tapes to be changed manually, with the operator having to manually thread the tape from the tape reel through the recorder onto a take-up reel. Due to these shortcomings, video surveillance was not widespread.<ref name=":2" />

Later, [[videocassette recorder]] technology became available in the 1970s, making it easier to record and erase information, and the use of video surveillance became more common.<ref name=":2">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DaQY8CrmqFcC&pg=PA276 |title=CCTV Surveillance|isbn=9780080468181|last1=Kruegle|first1=Herman|date=15 March 2011|publisher=Elsevier }}</ref> During the 1990s, digital [[multiplexing]] was developed, allowing several cameras to record at once, as well as [[Time lapse photography|time lapse]] and motion-only recording. This saved time and money which then led to an increase in the use of CCTV.<ref name="wecusurveillance.com"/> Recently, CCTV technology has been shifting towards Internet-based products and systems, and other technological developments.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://fennoturvapalvelut.com/ | title=Internet based CCTV on cloud services|language=fi|date=27 March 2015|publisher=fennoturvapalvelut}}</ref>

=== Application ===
Early CCTV systems were installed in central London by the Metropolitan Police between 1960 and 1965.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://professionalsecurity.co.uk/news/case-studies/polices-1960s-cctv-experiments-part-1/ |title=Police's 1960s CCTV experiments, part 1 |website=Professional Security Magazine Online |date=2023}}</ref> By 1963, CCTV was being used in Munich to monitor traffic.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://professionalsecurity.co.uk/news/case-studies/polices-1960s-cctv-experiments-part-2/ |title=Police's 1960s CCTV experiments, part 2 |website=Professional Security Magazine Online |date=2023 |last1=Rowe |first1=Mark }}</ref> Closed-circuit television was used as a form of [[pay-per-view]] [[theatre television]] for sports such as [[professional boxing]] and [[professional wrestling]], and from 1964 through 1970, the [[Indianapolis 500]] automobile race. Boxing telecasts were broadcast live to a select number of venues, mostly theaters, with arenas, stadiums, schools, and convention centres also being less often used venues, where viewers paid for tickets to watch the fight live.<ref name="Ezra">{{cite book|last=Ezra|first=Michael|title=The Economic Civil Rights Movement: African Americans and the Struggle for Economic Power|date=2013|publisher=[[Routledge]]|isbn=9781136274756|page=105|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DL41bsCigZcC&pg=PA105|language=en}}</ref><ref name="bloodyelbow">{{cite news|title=History of Prizefighting's Biggest Money Fights|url=https://www.bloodyelbow.com/2017/8/24/16170894/history-of-prizefightings-biggest-money-fights-boxing-mma-ufc|work=[[Bloody Elbow]]|agency=[[SB Nation]]|date=24 August 2017}}</ref> The first fight with a closed-circuit telecast was [[Joe Louis]] vs. [[Jersey Joe Walcott|Joe Walcott]] in 1948.<ref>{{cite book|title=Television|date=1965|publisher=Frederick A. Kugel Company|page=78|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=it0aAQAAMAAJ&q=Louis+Walcott|language=en|quote=Teleprompter's main-spring, Irving B. Kahn (he's chairman of the board and president), had a taste of closed circuit operations as early as 1948. That summer, Kahn, then a vice president of 20th Century-Fox, negotiated what was probably the first inter-city closed circuit telecast in history, a pickup of the Joe Louis-Joe Walcott fight.}}</ref>

Closed-circuit telecasts peaked in popularity with [[Muhammad Ali]] in the 1960s and 1970s,<ref name="Ezra" /><ref name="bloodyelbow" /> with "[[The Rumble in the Jungle]]" fight drawing 50{{nbsp}}million CCTV viewers worldwide in 1974,<ref>{{cite news|title=Zaire's fight promotion opens new gold mines|url=https://www.newspapers.com/newspage/28336306/|work=[[The Morning Herald]]|date=18 November 1974|language=en}}</ref> and the "[[Thrilla in Manila]]" drawing 100{{nbsp}}million CCTV viewers worldwide in 1975.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Karriem Allah|journal=[[Black Belt (magazine)|Black Belt]]|date=1976|page=35|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XtUDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA35|publisher=Active Interest Media, Inc.|language=en}}</ref> In 1985, the [[WrestleMania I]] professional wrestling show was seen by over one million viewers with this scheme.<ref>{{cite news|title=Wrestlemania In Photographs: 1-10|url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/wwe/wrestlemania-in-photographs-1-10|work=Sportskeeda|date=1 April 2017}}</ref> As late as 1996, the [[Julio César Chávez vs. Oscar De La Hoya]] boxing fight had 750,000 viewers.<ref>[https://www.chicagotribune.com/1996/06/07/chavez-de-la-hoya-fight-is-a-bout-about-contrasts/ Chavez-De La Hoya Fight Is A Bout About Contrasts], Chicago Tribune article, 1996-06-07, Retrieved on 2015-02-23</ref> Although closed-circuit television was gradually replaced by [[pay-per-view]] home [[cable television]] in the 1980s and 1990s, it is still in use today for most awards shows and other events that are transmitted live to most venues but do not air as such on network television, and later re-edited for broadcast.<ref name="bloodyelbow" />

In September 1968, [[Olean, New York]], was the first city in the United States to install CCTV video cameras along its main business street in an effort to fight crime.<ref name="Robb, Gary C. 1979 pg. 571-602">[Robb, Gary C. (1979) "Police Use of CCTV Surveillance: Constitutional Implications and Proposed Regulations" University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform. pg. 572]</ref> [[Marie Van Brittan Brown and Albert L. Brown|Marie Van Brittan Brown]] received a patent for the design of a CCTV-based home security system in 1969. (''{{US patent|3482037}}''). Another early appearance was in 1973 in [[Times Square]] in [[New York City]].<ref name="Yesil, Bilge">[Yesil, Bilge. (2006) "Watching Ourselves" Cultural Studies. Vol 20(4-5) pp. 400-416]</ref> The NYPD installed it to deter crime in the area; however, crime rates did not appear to drop much due to the cameras.<ref name="Yesil, Bilge" /> Nevertheless, during the 1980s, video surveillance began to spread across the country specifically targeting public areas.<ref name="wecusurveillance.com">Roberts, Lucy. "[http://www.wecusurveillance.com/cctvhistory History of Video Surveillance and CCTV] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221172303/http://www.wecusurveillance.com/cctvhistory |date=21 December 2019 }}" We C U Surveillance Retrieved 2011-10-20</ref> It was seen as a cheaper way to deter crime compared to increasing the size of the police departments.<ref name="Yesil, Bilge" /> Some businesses as well, especially those that were prone to theft, began to use video surveillance.<ref name="Yesil, Bilge" /> From the mid-1990s on, police departments across the country installed an increasing number of cameras in various public spaces including housing projects, schools, and public parks.<ref name="Yesil, Bilge" /> CCTV later became common in banks and stores to discourage theft by recording evidence of criminal activity. In 1997, 3,100 CCTV systems were installed in public housing and residential areas in New York City.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://www.nyclu.org/sites/default/files/publications/nyclu_pub_whos_watching.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.nyclu.org/sites/default/files/publications/nyclu_pub_whos_watching.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=Who's Watching? Video Camera Surveillance in New York City and the Need for Public Oversight|year=2006|pages=5|access-date=January 30, 2022}}</ref>

Experiments in the UK during the 1970s and 1980s, including outdoor CCTV in [[Bournemouth]] in 1985, led to several larger trial programs later that decade. The first use by local government was in [[King's Lynn]], Norfolk, in 1987.<ref name=wndc>{{cite web|url=http://www.west-norfolk.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=21697|title=CCTV|last=Staff|date=August 2007|publisher=Borough Council of King's Lynn & West Norfolk|access-date=2008-12-14|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090523184010/http://www.west-norfolk.gov.uk/default.aspx?page=21697|archive-date=23 May 2009}}</ref>

== Uses ==
=== Crime prevention ===
[[File:Bulger cctv.jpg|thumb|The two-year-old [[Murder of James Bulger|James Bulger]] being led away by his killers, recorded on shopping centre CCTV in 1993; this [[narrow-bandwidth television]] system had a low [[frame rate]]]]
[[File:Video surveillance sign.jpg|thumb|Sign warning that premises are watched by CCTV cameras]]
{{further|crime prevention|predictive policing|criminal investigation}}

A 2008 report by UK Police Chiefs concluded that only 3% of crimes were solved by CCTV.<ref>[http://forward-edge.net/the-big-question-are-cctv-cameras-a-waste-of-money-in-the-fight-against-crime-822079.html "Are CCTV cameras a waste of money in the fight against crime?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304061337/http://www.forward-edge.net/the-big-question-are-cctv-cameras-a-waste-of-money-in-the-fight-against-crime-822079.html|date=4 March 2016}} Forward Edge, 7 May 2008</ref> In London, a [[Metropolitan Police]] report showed that in 2008 only one crime was solved per 1000 cameras.<ref>{{cite news |last=Hughe |first=Mark |date=25 August 2009 |title=CCTV in the spotlight: one crime solved for every 1,000 cameras |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/cctv-in-the-spotlight-one-crime-solved-for-every-1000-cameras-1776774.html |publisher=Independent News and Media Limited}}</ref> In some cases CCTV cameras have become a target of attacks themselves.<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_east/3676550.stm http://news.bbc.co.uk/]" BBC</ref> A 2009 systematic review by researchers from [[Northeastern University]] and the [[University of Cambridge]] used [[meta-analysis|meta-analytic]] techniques to pool the average effect of CCTV on crime across 41 different studies.<ref name="Public">{{cite web|url = http://journalistsresource.org/studies/economics/housing/surveillance-cameras-and-crime/ |title = Public Area CCTV and Crime Prevention: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis |publisher = Journalist's Resource.org |date = 11 February 2014 }}</ref> The studies included in the meta-analysis used [[quasi-experiment|quasi-experimental evaluation designs]] that involved before-and-after measures of crime in experimental and control areas.<ref name="Public" /> However, researchers have argued that the British car park studies included in the meta-analysis cannot accurately control for the fact that CCTV was introduced simultaneously with a range of other security-related measures.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The economics of subjective security and camera surveillance|url = https://wwz.unibas.ch/fileadmin/wwz/redaktion/wipo/Alois_Stutzer/Zehnder_B-099.pdf |date = 2009|last = Zehnder|journal = WWZ Research Paper|access-date = 27 October 2017|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170706060053/https://wwz.unibas.ch/fileadmin/wwz/redaktion/wipo/Alois_Stutzer/Zehnder_B-099.pdf|archive-date = 6 July 2017|url-status = dead}}</ref> Second, some have noted that, in many of the studies, there may be issues with [[selection bias]] since the introduction of CCTV was potentially [[Endogeneity (econometrics)|endogenous]] to previous crime trends.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Effects of Surveillance Cameras on Crime: Evidence from the Stockholm Subway|journal = The Economic Journal|date = 1 November 2015|issn = 1468-0297|pages = F289–F305|volume = 125|issue = 588|doi = 10.1111/ecoj.12327|first = Mikael|last = Priks|s2cid = 96452277}}</ref> In particular, the estimated effects may be biased if CCTV is introduced in response to crime trends.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Is camera surveillance an effective measure of counterterrorism?|journal = Defence and Peace Economics|date = 2013|pages = 1–14|volume = 24|doi = 10.1080/10242694.2011.650481|last = Stutzer|doi-access = free}}</ref>

[[File:Alexis Navy Yard 012 1dsLQLVk7nY.jpg|thumb|A CCTV captured the perpetrator of the [[Washington Navy Yard shooting]], Aaron Alexis, during his rampage]]
In 2012, cities such as Manchester in the UK are using [[Digital video recorder|DVR]]-based technology to improve accessibility for crime prevention.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2002-06-28 |title=Digital CCTV scheme switches on |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/2070312.stm |access-date=2024-12-21 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref> In 2013, City of Philadelphia Auditor found that the $15 million system was operational only 32% of the time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.viakoo.com/orphaned-video-system-in-philadelphia/|title=Orphaned Video System in Philadelphia?|date=May 2015|access-date=29 July 2015|archive-date=28 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028042359/https://www.viakoo.com/orphaned-video-system-in-philadelphia/|url-status=dead}}</ref> There is [[anecdotal evidence]] that CCTV aids in detection and conviction of offenders; for example, UK police forces routinely seek CCTV recordings after crimes.<ref>[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/crime/10512087/10484338Police-are-failing-to-recover-crucial-CCTV-footage-new-figures-suggest.html?fbHow&goback=%2Egde_1889337_member_5817222616544473092 "Police are failing to recover crucial CCTV footage, new figures suggest"], The Daily Telegraph</ref> Cameras have also been installed on [[public transport]] in the hope of deterring crime.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2003-09-11 |title=CCTV to drive down cab attacks |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/hereford/worcs/3101016.stm |access-date=2024-12-19 |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2005-02-25 |title=Taxi CCTV cameras are installed |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/bristol/somerset/4295859.stm |access-date=2024-12-19 |language=en-GB}}</ref>

A 2017 review published in the [[Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention]] compiles seven studies that use such research designs. The studies found that CCTV reduced crime by 24–28% in public streets and urban subway stations. It also found that CCTV could decrease unruly behaviour in football stadiums and theft in supermarkets/mass merchant stores. However, there was no evidence of CCTV having desirable effects in parking facilities or suburban subway stations. Furthermore, the review indicates that CCTV is more effective in preventing property crimes than in violent crimes.<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Gustav Alexandrie |date=2017 |title=Surveillance cameras and crime: a review of randomized and natural experiments |journal=Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=210–222 |doi=10.1080/14043858.2017.1387410 |s2cid=149144413}}</ref> However, a 2019, 40-year-long [[systematic review]] study reported that the most consistent effects of crime reduction of CCTV were in car parks.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Piza |first1=Eric L. |last2=Welsh |first2=Brandon C. |last3=Farrington |first3=David P. |last4=Thomas |first4=Amanda L. |date=2019 |title=CCTV surveillance for crime prevention: A 40-year systematic review with meta-analysis |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1745-9133.12419 |journal=Criminology & Public Policy |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=135–159 |doi=10.1111/1745-9133.12419 |issn=1538-6473|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

A more open question is whether most CCTV is cost-effective. While low-quality domestic kits are cheap, the professional installation and maintenance of high definition CCTV is expensive.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.allthings.com.au/Catalogue/cctv%20security%20surveillance%20ip%20network%20dome%20camera%20articles/Tip%20Sheet%205.pdf |title=National community Crime Prevention Programme |access-date=2016-03-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160229022046/http://www.allthings.com.au/Catalogue/cctv%20security%20surveillance%20ip%20network%20dome%20camera%20articles/Tip%20Sheet%205.pdf |archive-date=29 February 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Gill and Spriggs did a [[cost-effectiveness analysis]] (CEA) of CCTV in crime prevention that showed little monetary saving with the installation of CCTV as most of the crimes prevented resulted in little monetary loss.<ref name="Assessing">{{cite web |url=http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/rdsolr1205.pdf |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110218135832/http://rds.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/rdsolr1205.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2011-02-18 |title=Assessing the impact of CCTV |access-date=2011-10-16}}</ref> Critics however noted that benefits of non-monetary value cannot be captured in a traditional cost effectiveness analysis and were omitted from their study.<ref name="Assessing" />

In October 2009, an "Internet Eyes" website was announced which would pay members of the public to view CCTV camera images from their homes and report any crimes they witnessed. The site aimed to add "more eyes" to cameras which might be insufficiently monitored. Civil liberties campaigners criticized the idea as "a distasteful and a worrying development".<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/8293784.stm Public to Monitor CCTV From Home], ''[[BBC]]''</ref> Russia has also implemented a video surveillance system called 'Safe City', which has the capability to recognize facial features and moving objects, sending the data automatically to government authorities. However, the widespread tracking of individuals through video surveillance has raised significant privacy issues.<ref>Artificial intelligence in local government services: Public perceptions from Australia and Hong Kong, Government Information Quarterly, Volume 40, Issue 3, June 2023, 101833</ref>

==== Forensics ====
Material collected by surveillance cameras has been used as a tool in post-event forensics to identify tactics and perpetrators of [[terrorist attack]]s. Furthermore, there are various projects—such as [[INDECT]]—that aim to detect suspicious behaviours of individuals and crowds.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mould |first1=Nick |last2=Regens |first2=James L. |last3=Jensen |first3=Carl J. |last4=Edger |first4=David N. |date=30 August 2014 |title=Video surveillance and counterterrorism: the application of suspicious activity recognition in visual surveillance systems to counterterrorism |journal=Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=151–175 |doi=10.1080/18335330.2014.940819 |s2cid=62710484}}</ref> It has been argued that terrorists will not be deterred by cameras, that terror attacks are not really the subject of the current use of video surveillance and that terrorists might even see it as an extra channel for [[propaganda]] and publication of their acts.<ref>{{cite magazine |date=10 May 2010 |title=In the Petabyte Age of Surveillance, Software Polices |url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/security/how-to/a5776/surveillance-cameras-and-data/ |access-date=4 January 2017 |magazine=Popular Mechanics}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=26 October 2016 |title=Mehr Videoüberwachung gegen Terroristen - WDR aktuell - Sendung - Video - Mediathek - WDR |url=http://www1.wdr.de/mediathek/video/sendungen/wdr-aktuell/video-mehr-videoueberwachung-gegen-terroristen-100.html |access-date=4 January 2017 |publisher=WDR}}</ref> In Germany, calls for extended video surveillance by the country's main political parties, [[Social Democratic Party of Germany|SPD]], [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]], and [[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]] have been dismissed as "little more than a [[placebo]] for a subjective feeling of security" by a member of the Left party.<ref>{{cite web |title=Calls increase for sweeping surveillance after Berlin attack |url=http://www.dw.com/en/calls-increase-for-sweeping-surveillance-after-berlin-attack/a-36854715 |access-date=4 January 2017 |publisher=Deutsche Welle}}</ref>

In Singapore, since 2012, thousands of CCTV cameras have helped deter [[loan shark]]s, nab litterbugs, and stop illegal parking, according to government figures.<ref>{{Cite web |date=8 March 2016 |title=Network of CCTV cameras proving effective |url=http://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/network-of-cctv-cameras-proving-effective |access-date=2017-02-06 |publisher=straitstimes}}</ref> In 2013, [[Oaxaca]], Mexico, hired deaf police officers to [[lip reading|lip read]] conversations to uncover criminal conspiracies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Maria Alvarez |first=Jose |date=November 20, 2013 |title=Mexico's Angels of Silence: Deaf police officers see crime where others don't |url=http://m.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/oaxacas-angels-of-silence-deaf-police-officers-see-crime-where-others-dont/article15520263/?service=mobile |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20131121124759/http://m.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/oaxacas-angels-of-silence-deaf-police-officers-see-crime-where-others-dont/article15520263/?service=mobile#selection-101.1-101.78 |archive-date=21 November 2013 |website=Globe & Mail}}</ref>
[[File:Omar Habhan Westgate attack.webp|thumb|[[Omar Nabhan]], as seen on CCTV during the [[Westgate shopping mall attack]] that resulted in the deaths of 71 people. Authorities observed the attack via the cameras within the mall.]]

=== Body-worn cameras ===
{{Main|Body worn video}}
In recent years, the use of [[body worn video|body-worn video]] cameras has been introduced for a number of uses. For example, as a new form of surveillance in law enforcement, there are surveillance cameras that are worn by the police officer and are usually located on a police officer's chest or head.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Bayley|first1=David H.|last2=Stenning|first2=Philip C.|title=Governing the Police: Experience in Six Democracies|date=2016|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-1412862318|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=klW5CwAAQBAJ&pg=PT100}}</ref><ref name=Hung>{{cite web|last1=Hung |last2=Babin |last3=Coberly |first1=Vivian |first2=Steven |first3=Jacqueline|title=A Market Survey on Body Worn Camera Technologies|url=https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/250381.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/250381.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|website=The Department of Justice's National Institute of Justice|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory}}</ref> According to the [[Bureau of Justice Statistics]] (BJS), in the United States, in 2016, about 47% of the 15,328 general-purpose [[Law enforcement in the United States|law enforcement]] agencies had acquired body-worn cameras.<ref>{{Cite web |last=S. Hyland |first=Shelley |date=November 2018 |title=Body-Worn Cameras in Law Enforcement Agencies, 2016, NCJ 251775 |url=https://bjs.ojp.gov/content/pub/pdf/bwclea16.pdf |publisher=Bureau of Justice Statistics}}</ref>

=== Traffic flow monitoring ===
{{Main|Traffic camera}}

Many cities and [[motorway]] networks have extensive traffic-monitoring systems. Many of these cameras however, are owned by private companies and transmit data to drivers' [[GPS]] systems.

[[Highways England]] has a publicly owned CCTV network of over 3000 pan–tilt–zoom cameras covering the British motorway and trunk road network. These cameras are primarily used to monitor traffic conditions and are not used as [[speed cameras]]. With the addition of fixed cameras for the [[active traffic management]] system, the number of cameras on the Highways England's CCTV network is likely to increase significantly over the next few years.<ref>Networx Security. "[https://www.networxsecurity.org/members-area/glossary/c/cctv.html Closed Circuit Television]." Retrieved 7 March 2019.</ref> The [[London congestion charge]] is enforced by cameras positioned at the boundaries of and inside the congestion charge zone, which automatically read the number plates of vehicles that enter the zone. If the driver does not pay the charge then a fine will be imposed.<ref>Kablenet, The Register. "[https://www.theregister.co.uk/2008/06/06/congestion_charge_tags/ TfL hands out contracts for congestion charge tags]." 6 June 2008. Retrieved 7 March 2019.</ref> Similar systems are being developed as a means of locating cars reported stolen.<ref>Rowena Coetsee, Bay Area News Group. "[https://www.eastbaytimes.com/2017/08/11/new-surveillance-cameras-doing-their-job-antiochs-top-cop-says/ New surveillance cameras doing their job, Antioch's top cop says]." 11 August 2017. Retrieved 8 March 2019.</ref> Other surveillance cameras serve as [[traffic enforcement camera]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Volokh |first=Eugene |date=March 26, 2002 |title=Traffic Enforcement Cameras |url=https://www2.law.ucla.edu/volokh/cameras.htm |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=The Wall Street Journal}}</ref>

In [[Mecca]], Saudi Arabia, CCTV cameras are used for monitoring (and thus [[Crowd control|managing]]) the flow of crowds.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2016/05/26/Saudi-Arabia-installs-new-security-cameras-in-Makkah|title=Saudi Arabia installs new security cameras in Makkah|date=26 May 2016|website=Al Arabiya English}}</ref> In the Philippines, [[San Antonio, Quezon City|barangay San Antonio]] used CCTV cameras and artificial intelligence software to detect the [[Social distancing|formation of crowds]] during an [[Disease outbreak|outbreak of a disease]]. Security personnel were sent whenever a crowd formed at a particular location in the city.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 27, 2020 |title=AI-equipped CCTV cameras enable a barangay to monitor people out on the streets |url=https://www.topgear.com.ph/news/motoring-news/san-antonio-pasig-street-monitoring-system-a4354-20200327 |website=TopGear Philippines}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=27 March 2020 |title=Pasig barangay turns to smart CCTV to enforce social distancing |url=https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/topstories/metro/731619/pasig-mayor-vico-sotto-turns-to-smart-cctv-to-enforce-social-distancing/story/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107201859/https://www.gmanetwork.com/news/topstories/metro/731619/pasig-mayor-vico-sotto-turns-to-smart-cctv-to-enforce-social-distancing/story/ |archive-date=7 January 2022 |website=GMA News Online |location=Philippines}}</ref>

=== Use in homes and buildings ===

==== In schools ====
{{further|Video surveillance in schools}}
[[File:Andover Tornado CCTV.webm|thumb|250x250px|Surveillance video of the [[2022 Andover tornado]] as it passed by a school. Several cameras in and outside of the building captured the event.]]
In the United States, Britain, Canada,<ref>{{cite news |date=22 October 2013 |title=Use of CCTV surveillance in schools |url=https://www.atl.org.uk/policy-and-campaigns/policy-posts/use-cctv-surveillance-schools?resetmyATL=true |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161109021738/https://www.atl.org.uk/policy-and-campaigns/policy-posts/use-cctv-surveillance-schools?resetmyATL=true |archive-date=9 November 2016 |access-date=8 November 2016 |publisher=ATL the education union}}</ref> Australia,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/nsw/school-security-cctv-puts-bullies-on-pause/story-e6freuzi-1226311797645|title= School security CCTV puts bullies on pause | author= Bruce McDougall and Katherine Danks |access-date=8 November 2016|newspaper= The Daily Telegraph|date=28 March 2012}}</ref> and New Zealand, CCTV is widely used in schools to prevent [[bullying]], [[vandalism]], monitoring visitors, and maintaining a record of evidence of a crime. There are some restrictions: cameras are not typically installed in areas where there is a "reasonable [[expectation of privacy]]", such as bathrooms, gym locker areas, and private offices. Cameras are generally acceptable in parking lots, cafeterias, and supply rooms. Though some teachers object to the installation of cameras.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.ncjrs.gov/school/ch2a_18.html/|title = Legal aspects of the use of video cameras in schools =|access-date = 25 March 2014|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160215174520/https://www.ncjrs.gov/school/ch2a_18.html/|archive-date = 15 February 2016|url-status = dead}}</ref> A study of high school students in Israeli schools shows that students' views on CCTV used in school are based on how they think of their teachers, school, and authorities.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Birnhack|first1=Michael D.|last2=Perry-Hazan|first2=Lotem|date=2020|title=School Surveillance in Context: High School Students' Perspectives on CCTV, Privacy, and Security|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3587450|journal=SSRN Electronic Journal|doi=10.2139/ssrn.3587450|s2cid=234991261|issn=1556-5068|url-access=subscription}}</ref> It also stated that most students do not want CCTV installed inside a classroom.<ref name=":1" />

==== In private and public places ====
Many homeowners choose to install CCTV systems either inside or outside their own homes, sometimes both. Modern CCTV systems can be monitored through mobile phone apps with internet coverage. Some systems also provide motion detection, so when movement is detected, an alert can be sent to a phone.<ref name="cnet">{{cite web |last1=Wollerton |first1=Megan |title=Turn an old phone into a security camera in 3 steps. Here's how to do it |url=https://www.cnet.com/home/security/turn-old-phone-into-security-camera-in-3-steps-heres-how-android-iphone/ |website=cnet.com |publisher=CNET |access-date=18 June 2021}}</ref>[[File:SISS VPU3400 8-channel 20080502.jpg|thumb|right|Digital video recorder for public transport]]

On a [[One-man operation|driver-only operated]] train, CCTV cameras may allow the driver to confirm that people are clear of doors before closing them and starting the train.<ref>{{Cite AV media |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-k9n6WVihu0 |title=FCC Train Dispatch training video |date=25 March 2013 |access-date=2018-07-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140630053044/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-k9n6WVihu0 |archive-date=2014-06-30 |url-status=dead |via=[[YouTube]]}} (From 7:35, the video explains about DOO train dispatch and describes the use of CCTV at stations.)</ref> A trial by [[Rotterdamse Elektrische Tram|RET]] in 2011 with [[Facial recognition system|facial recognition]] cameras mounted on trams made sure that people who were banned from them did not sneak on anyway.<ref>{{Cite web |date=11 September 2011 |title=Facial recognition cameras to be installed on Rotterdam trams |url=https://www.dutchnews.nl/news/2011/09/facial_recognition_cameras_to/}}</ref> CCTV has also been frequently operated in many department stores and shopping malls to mitigate concerns of potential theft. In some countries, malls must obtain approval from the [[Interior ministry|Ministry of Interior]] (MOI)<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-19 |title=Leading New Steps for MOI CCTV Approval for Malls |url=https://axlesys.com/steps-for-moi-cctv-approval-for-malls/ |access-date=2024-12-19 |website=Axle Systems |language=en-US}}</ref> or [[Information Commissioner's Office]] (ICO) before installing CCTVs.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-12-04 |title=A Quick Guide to CCTV Systems for Retail Centres {{!}} ACCL |url=https://network-data-cabling.co.uk/blog/cctv-retail-guide/ |access-date=2024-12-19 |website=ACCL Network Data Cabling |language=en}}</ref> Some organizations also use CCTV to monitor the actions of workers in a workplace.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Using CCTV to monitor the workplace |url=http://www.icaew.com/en/archive/library/subject-gateways/business-management/smes/small-business-update/2015-01/using-cctv-to-monitor-the-workplace |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161014052835/http://www.icaew.com/en/archive/library/subject-gateways/business-management/smes/small-business-update/2015-01/using-cctv-to-monitor-the-workplace |archive-date=14 October 2016 |access-date=2016-09-18 |publisher=icaew}}</ref>[[File:CCTV dome camera subway Rotterdam.jpg|thumb|upright|Dome camera in [[Rotterdam Centraal station|Rotterdam central metro station]]]]Many sporting events in the United States use CCTV inside the venue, either to display on the stadium or arena's [[scoreboard]] or in the concourse or restroom areas to allow people to view action outside the seating bowl. The cameras send the feed to a central control centre where a producer selects feeds to send to the television monitors that people can view. In a trial with CCTV cameras, football club fans no longer needed to identify themselves manually, but could pass freely after being authorized by the facial recognition system.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 March 2019 |title=Doe mee aan de proef met gezichtsherkenning |trans-title=Participate in the facial recognition trial |url=https://www.heracles.nl/2019/03/26/doe-mee-aan-de-proef-met-gezichtsherkenning/ |website=Heracles |language=nl}}</ref>

=== Criminal use ===
Criminals may use surveillance cameras to monitor the public. For example, a [[hidden camera]] at an [[Automated Teller Machine|ATM]] can capture people's [[Personal Identification Number|PINs]] as they are entered without their knowledge. The devices are small enough not to be noticed, and are placed where they can monitor the keypad of the machine as people enter their PINs. Images may be transmitted wirelessly to the criminal. Even lawful surveillance cameras sometimes have their data received by people who have no legal right to receive it.<ref>{{cite web |date=20 July 2018 |title=Benalla. Trois policiers suspendus pour avoir transmis des images de vidéosurveillance |trans-title=Benalla: Three police officers suspended for transmitting video surveillance images |url=https://www.letelegramme.fr/france/benalla-trois-policiers-suspendus-pour-avoir-transmis-des-images-de-videosurveillance-20-07-2018-12032279.php |language=fr}}</ref>

== Prevalence ==
[[File:Surveillance cameras mapped.png|thumb|A crowdsourced map of CCTV cameras near [[Grande Arche]], Paris, using [[OpenStreetMap]] data<ref>{{cite web |url=http://osmcamera.tk/index.php?lat=48.89280064&lon=2.2415328&zoom=17&layer=osm |title=The CCTV Map |website=osmcamera |author=khris78 |access-date=2 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141025180244/http://osmcamera.tk/index.php?lat=48.89280064&lon=2.2415328&zoom=17&layer=osm |archive-date=25 October 2014 }}</ref>]][[File:UnitedNationsNewYork.JPG|thumb|right| The [[headquarters of the United Nations]] in New York, with cameras visible on the side of the [[United Nations General Assembly Building|UN General Assembly Building]]]]

=== In Asia ===
About 65% of CCTV cameras in the world are installed in Asia.<ref name="SDM2016">{{cite web|url=http://www.sdmmag.com/articles/92407-rise-of-surveillance-camera-installed-base-slows |website=SDM Magazine |title=Rise of Surveillance Camera Installed Base Slows|date=5 May 2016|access-date=5 January 2017}}</ref> In Asia, different human activities attracted the use of surveillance camera systems and services, including but not limited to business and related industries,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Walton, Greg|title=China's Golden Shield: corporations and the development of surveillance technology in the People's Republic of China|publisher=Rights & Democracy|year=2001}}</ref> transportation,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.futuregov.asia/articles/australian-state-government-to-expand-cctv-use-across-transport-network|title=Australian state government to expand CCTV use across transport network|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402091654/http://www.futuregov.asia/articles/australian-state-government-to-expand-cctv-use-across-transport-network|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=dead|access-date=2015-03-11}}</ref> sports,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/blogs/early-doors/chinese-tv-station-cctv-provide--old-school--analysis-of-afc-asian-cup-match-133815624.html|title=Chinese TV station CCTV provide 'old school' analysis of AFC Asian Cup match|work=Yahoo Eurosport UK |access-date=2015-03-11}}</ref> and care for the environment.<ref>{{cite web| last = Ng | first = Kelly|url=http://www.futuregov.asia/articles/4530-indian-state-government-uses-cctv-to-cut-forest-crimes|title=Indian state government uses CCTV to cut forest crimes|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011012135/http://www.futuregov.asia/articles/4530-indian-state-government-uses-cctv-to-cut-forest-crimes|date = 11 October 2014 |archive-date=11 October 2014|url-status=dead|access-date=2015-03-11}}</ref>

In 2018, China was reported to have over 170 million CCTV cameras.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2018-04-13 |title=Chinese man caught by facial recognition at pop concert |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-43751276 |access-date=2024-12-19 |work=British Broadcasting Corporation |language=en-GB}}</ref> In 2023, China was estimated to have [[Mass surveillance in China|a huge surveillance network]] of around 540–626 million surveillance cameras, though numbers differ significantly between sources.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-03-07 |title=Who's watching: the cities with the most CCTV cameras |url=https://geographical.co.uk/science-environment/whos-watching-the-cities-with-the-most-cctv-cameras |access-date=2024-12-19 |website=Geographical |language=en-GB}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |last=Bischoff |first=Paul |date=2019-08-15 |title=Surveillance Camera Statistics: Which City has the Most CCTV? |url=https://www.comparitech.com/vpn-privacy/the-worlds-most-surveilled-cities/ |access-date=2024-12-19 |website=Comparitech |language=en}}</ref> [[Beijing]], China's capital city, has the most cameras for a city overall, with a total of 1.15 million installed.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |date=November 2020 |title=Surveillance Cities: who has the most CCTV cameras in the world? |url=https://surfshark.com/surveillance-cities |access-date=2024-12-19 |website=Surfshark |language=en-US}}</ref> The cameras are used to record details such as gender, age, and ethnicity. Cameras have been used in a southern Chinese city to issue tickets to people for [[Summary offence|infractions]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Hui |first=Mary |date=2024-02-21 |title=China wants more control of its mass surveillance system |url=https://qz.com/china-mass-surveillance-system-control-1851273607 |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=Quartz |language=en}}</ref> In India, the cities of [[Hyderabad]] and [[Delhi]], the capital, have around 900,000 and 450,000 cameras, respectively.<ref name=":3" /> The city of [[Chennai]] has the highest density per area of CCTV cameras worldwide, with 657 cameras per square kilometer in 2020 (from 280,000 CCTVs). China and India have some of the highest-density and the most amount of CCTVs in cities.<ref name=":4" />

South Korea's military has removed over 1,300 surveillance Chinese cameras from its bases for security reasons.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Jankowicz |first=Mia |date=September 17, 2024 |title=South Korea removed 1,300 cameras from its military bases after discovering they're designed to feed back to a Chinese server |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/south-korea-military-removes-1300-cctv-cameras-china-bases-security-2024-9 |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=Business Insider |language=en-US}}</ref> In Hong Kong, the police have stated that they are planning to install up to 7,000 surveillance cameras across Hong Kong in roughly three years time, up from the estimated 600 installed cameras in 2024; this amounts to roughly 2,000 planned cameras every year starting from 2025.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-12-17 |title=Police plan to put up 7,000 CCTVs in HK by 2027 |url=https://gbcode.rthk.hk/TuniS/news.rthk.hk/rthk/en/component/k2/1783865-20241217.htm |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=Radio Television Hong Kong |language=en-gb}}</ref> Earlier, in June 2024, the cameras have also been vaguely planned to be integrated with facial recognition artificial intelligence.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 July 2024 |title=New CCTV cameras in Hong Kong to be equipped with facial recognition technology, security chief says |url=https://hongkongfp.com/2024/07/26/new-cctv-cameras-in-hong-kong-to-be-equipped-with-facial-recognition-technology-security-chief-says/ |access-date=December 19, 2024 |website=Hong Kong Free Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Yeung |first=Jessie |date=2024-10-06 |title=Hong Kong plans to install thousands of surveillance cameras. Critics say it's more proof the city is moving closer to China |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2024/10/05/asia/hong-kong-police-cameras-facial-recognition-intl-hnk-dst/index.html |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> The plan has been criticized for the potential for the country to become similar to the "intense surveillance of mainland China".<ref>{{Cite web |author1=Leonie Helm |date=2024-10-11 |title=Hong Kong to get thousands of new security cameras – with AI and facial recognition technology |url=https://www.digitalcameraworld.com/news/hong-kong-to-get-thousands-of-new-security-cameras-with-ai-and-facial-recognition-technology |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=digitalcameraworld |language=en}}</ref> In Japan, an estimation by [[Nikkei Business Publications|Nikkei Business]] estimated that the total number of security cameras in Japan is approximately 5 million in 2018.<ref>{{cite web |last=Yoshino |first=Jiro |date=13 November 2018 |title=日本の防犯カメラ、500万台に迫る |trans-title=Japan's security cameras approach 5 million |url=https://business.nikkei.com/atcl/report/16/110800252/111200002/ |access-date=5 February 2023 |language=ja}}</ref> In Singapore, it was estimated that the total number of CCTVs was around 90,000 in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-01 |title=Almost 90,000 police cameras installed in Singapore, 'many more to come': Shanmugam |url=https://sg.news.yahoo.com/90000-police-cameras-installed-singapore-shanmugam-102536548.html?guccounter=1&guce_referrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLmNvbS8&guce_referrer_sig=AQAAAKrzGD0rET5mGJEye2JXEGcYpvYV6G4ozyUmZlkOhi29hPl3Y1s9oebOaE-AKJlQoNoC25cFJxik-TjU0bDE8k91qiC9iu9WbhByp6FGFSR9ARZs_kUExjgfiCwi-n0XH3uF0ys9OOkWGI-X0wWrNpeVDlxo01wNS_Sc3to6A2TQ |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=Yahoo News |language=en-SG}}</ref>

===In the Americas===
[[File:2017-08-13 Sunriver Airport 18.jpg|thumb|Surveillance camera mounted on a tripod in [[Sunriver, Oregon]]]]
In 2009, there were an estimated 15,000 CCTV systems in [[Chicago]], many linked to an integrated camera network.<ref name="WSJ2009">{{cite news |date=17 November 2009 |title=Chicago's Camera Network Is Everywhere |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704538404574539910412824756 |access-date=5 January 2017 |work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |year=2010 |title=Chicago Links Police, Private Cameras |url=https://abc7chicago.com/archive/7370352/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406171238/http://abclocal.go.com/wls/story?section=news%2Flocal&id=7370352 |archive-date=6 April 2010 |access-date=2010-08-16 |publisher=[[WLS-TV]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=February 2011 |title=Chicago's Video SURVEILLANCE CAMERAS: A PERVASIVE AND UNREGULATED THREAT TO OUR PRIVACY |url=http://www.aclu-il.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/Surveillance-Camera-Report1.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327043725/http://www.aclu-il.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/Surveillance-Camera-Report1.pdf |archive-date=27 March 2016 |access-date=5 January 2017 |publisher=ACLU of Illinois}}</ref> New York City's [[Domain Awareness System]] has 6,000 video surveillance cameras linked together,<ref>{{cite news |date=21 June 2013 |title=NYPD expands surveillance net to fight crime as well as terrorism |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/usa-ny-surveillance-idUSL2N0EV0D220130621 |access-date=31 October 2015 |work=Reuters}}</ref> there are over 4,000 cameras on the subway system (although nearly half of them do not work),<ref>{{cite news |date=29 March 2010 |title=Lack of Video Slows Hunt for a Killer in the Subway |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/30/nyregion/30subway.html |access-date=31 October 2015 |work=The New York Times}}</ref> and two-thirds of large apartment and commercial buildings use video surveillance cameras.<ref>{{cite news |date=7 August 2005 |title=The State Of Surveillance |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/bw/stories/2005-08-07/the-state-of-surveillance |access-date=31 October 2015 |work=Bloomberg Business}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=4 October 2013 |title=The Building Has 1,000 Eyes |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/06/realestate/more-surveillance-cameras-at-new-york-residences.html |access-date=5 January 2017 |work=The New York Times}}</ref> In [[Washington, D.C.]], there are more than 30,000 surveillance cameras in schools,<ref>{{cite news |date=1 January 2015 |title=30,000 Surveillance Cameras Monitor D.C.-Area Public Schools |url=http://www.nbcwashington.com/news/local/30000-Surveillance-Cameras-Monitor-DC-Area-Public-Schools-287297041.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151006071902/http://www.nbcwashington.com/news/local/30000-Surveillance-Cameras-Monitor-DC-Area-Public-Schools-287297041.html |archive-date=6 October 2015 |access-date=31 October 2015 |work=NBC Washington}}</ref> and the [[Washington Metro|Metro]] has nearly 6,000 cameras in use across the system.<ref>{{cite news |date=1 April 2013 |title=Metro Plans to Triple Number of Security Cameras |url=http://www.nbcwashington.com/news/local/Metro-Plans-to-Triple-Number-of-Security-Cameras-200859881.html |access-date=31 October 2015 |work=NBC Washington}}</ref>

There were an estimated 30 million surveillance cameras in the United States in 2011.<ref>{{cite book |title=Technocreep: the surrender of privacy and the capitalization of intimacy. |date=2014 |publisher=Greystone Books |location=[S.l.] |isbn=978-1771641227 |page=28 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RExHBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA28 |postscript=none}}; {{cite news |title=Surveillance Society: New High-Tech Cameras Are Watching You |url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/military/a2398/4236865/ |access-date=31 October 2015 |work=Popular Mechanics |date=30 September 2009 |postscript=none}}; {{cite news |title=Lawmakers want more surveillance on the ground -- and in the sky |url=http://usnews.nbcnews.com/_news/2013/04/20/17830619-lawmakers-want-more-surveillance-on-the-ground-and-in-the-sky?lite |access-date=31 October 2015 |work=NBC News |date=20 April 2013 |postscript=none}}; {{cite book |last1=Dempsey |first1=John |last2=Forst |first2=Linda |title=An Introduction to Policing |date=2015 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=9781305544680 |page=485 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W4TCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA485}}</ref> Video surveillance has been common in the United States since the 1990s; for example, one manufacturer reported net earnings of $120 million in 1995.<ref>{{cite web |title=Public Video Surveillance: Is It An Effective Crime Prevention Tool? |url=http://www.library.ca.gov/crb/97/05/ |publisher=California Research Bureau |access-date=5 February 2015 |date=June 1997 |quote=The popularity of CCTV security systems has not gone unnoticed by the manufacturers of camera surveillance systems. ...A leading CCTV manufacturer reported net earnings of $120 million in 1995, compared with net earnings of $16 million the previous year. ...Over 50 percent of all CCTV surveillance equipment sales are to industrial and commercial clients. CCTV surveillance is also very common in the American workplace. |archive-date=17 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417005043/http://www.library.ca.gov/CRB/97/05/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> With lower cost and easier installation, sales of home security cameras increased in the early 21st century. Following the [[September 11 attacks]], the use of video surveillance in public places became more common to deter future terrorist attacks.<ref name="Yesil, Bilge" /> Under the [[Homeland Security Grant Program]], government grants are available for cities to install surveillance camera networks.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Minoli |first1=Daniel |title=Building the internet of things with IPv6 and MIPv6 the evolving world of M2M communications |date=2013 |publisher=Wiley |location=New Jersey |isbn=9781118647134 |page=86 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6DW8UbAiaLEC&pg=PT85}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |title=The great surveillance boom |url=http://fortune.com/2013/04/26/the-great-surveillance-boom/ |magazine=Fortune |access-date=24 January 2016 |date=26 April 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Privacy Fears Grow as Cities Increase Surveillance|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/14/technology/privacy-fears-as-surveillance-grows-in-cities.html|access-date=5 January 2017|work=The New York Times|date=13 October 2013}}</ref> In 2018, there are approximately 70 million surveillance cameras in the United States.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ilic-Godfrey |first=Stanislava |date=2021 |title=Artificial intelligence: taking on a bigger role in our future security |url=https://www.bls.gov/opub/btn/volume-10/investigation-and-security-services.htm |access-date=2024-12-19 |website=Bureau of Labor Statistics |language=en}}</ref>

In Canada, Project SCRAM is a policing effort by the Canadian policing service [[Halton Regional Police Service]] to register and help consumers understand privacy and safety issues related to the installations of home security systems. The project service has not been extended to commercial businesses.<ref name="One Vision, One Mission, One Team">{{Cite web |title=Security Camera Registration And Monitoring (S.C.R.A.M.) |url=http://haltonpolice.ca/CommunityPolicing/Pages/securitycameraregistration.aspx |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20160114161848/http://www.haltonpolice.ca:80/COMMUNITYPOLICING/Pages/securitycameraregistration.aspx |archive-date=2016-01-14 |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=Halton Regional Police Service}}</ref>

In Latin America, the CCTV market is growing rapidly with the increase of property crime.<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 8, 2009 |title=Latin American Physical Security Market Growing Rapidly |url=https://www.securitymagazine.com/articles/80152-latin-american-physical-security-market-growing-rapidly |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=Security Magazine |language=en}}</ref> In Brazil, CCTV usage is only permitted in public areas, though individuals must be informed about the presence of the camera according to the Brazilian [[General Personal Data Protection Law|LGPD]] (which broadly aligns with the EU's GDPR),<ref>{{Cite web |date=28 January 2024 |title=Law in Brazil |url=https://www.dlapiperdataprotection.com/?t=law&c=BR |access-date=2024-12-22 |website=DLA Piper Global Data Protection Laws of the World}}</ref> the [[Brazilian Civil Code]],<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Brazil: Relevant legislation |url=https://www.npsa.gov.uk/system/files/documents/npsa_dentons_brazil.pdf |journal=National Protective Security Authority}}</ref> and the [[Brazilian National Standards Organization|Brazilian Association of Technical Standards]]. However, starting in 2023, in Brazil, the Smart Sampa project, a project that plans to deploy 20,000 facial recognition cameras by 2024, has been criticized for its potential to be "biased against [[Black people|Black individuals]]" and overall risks of data privacy.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mari |first=Angelica |date=13 July 2023 |title=Facial recognition surveillance in São Paulo could worsen racism |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/economy/2023/7/13/facial-recognition-surveillance-in-sao-paulo-could-worsen-racism |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref>

=== In Russia ===
[[File:Soviet Motorised CCTV camera - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Soviet motorized CCTV camera]]
In 2017, in Russia, the Moscow network included 160,000 CCTV cameras and 95 percent of residential buildings; over 3,500 Russian cameras were connected to the General Centre for Data Storage and Processing.<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 September 2017 |title=Moscow has one of the world's largest CCTV systems with face recognition |url=https://www.mos.ru/en/news/item/30105073/ |website=mos.ru}}</ref> Video recordings are used to solve 70 percent of offenses and crimes.<ref>{{Cite news |last=McGoogan |first=Cara |date=29 September 2017 |title=Facial recognition fitted to 5,000 CCTV cameras in Moscow |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2017/09/29/facial-recognition-fitted-5000-cctv-cameras-moscow/ |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2017/09/29/facial-recognition-fitted-5000-cctv-cameras-moscow/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |newspaper=The Telegraph |via=www.telegraph.co.uk}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In 2024, there are over 1 million video surveillance cameras in Russia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 13, 2024 |title=Шадаев сообщил, что в России работает более 1 млн камер видеонаблюдения |trans-title=Shadayev reported that there are more than 1 million CCTV cameras in operation in Russia |url=https://tass.ru/ekonomika/20219873 |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=[[TASS]] |language=ru}}</ref> About 230,000 are in use in Moscow alone.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Создание городской системы видеонаблюдения |trans-title=Creation of a city video surveillance system |url=https://um.mos.ru/exhibits/sozdanie-gorodskoy-sistemy-videonablyudeniya/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20240605174427/https://um.mos.ru/exhibits/sozdanie-gorodskoy-sistemy-videonablyudeniya/ |archive-date=2024-06-05 |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=um.mos.ru |language=ru}}</ref> According to data from the Russian Minister for Digital Development, [[Maksut Shadayev]], one in three of all CCTVs in Russia were connected to a [[facial recognition system]]. A leaked document revealed that the president of Russia, [[Vladimir Putin]], called on the [[Federal Security Service|Russian security services]] to fund "a massive AI-based surveillance apparatus". The spending of over {{Currency|115 million|USD|passthrough=yes}} was planned for the system in 2024–2026.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Gielewska |first=Anna |date=2024-03-27 |title=Kremlin Leaks: How Putin's Regime is Building AI Surveillance Operations |url=https://vsquare.org/kremlin-leaks-russia-putin-ai-surveillance-facial-recognition-ntechlab/ |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=VSquare.org |language=en-US}}</ref>

=== In Europe<!-- Severely lacking coverage of other European countries. --> ===

==== In the United Kingdom ====
In the United Kingdom, the vast majority of CCTV cameras are operated not by government bodies, but by private individuals or companies, especially to monitor the interiors of shops and businesses. According to the [[Freedom of Information Act 2000]] requests, the total number of local government-operated CCTV cameras was around 52,000 over the entirety of the UK.<ref name="refBBW1">{{cite web|title= The Price of Privacy: How local authorities spent £515m on CCTV in four years|url= http://www.bigbrotherwatch.org.uk/files/priceofprivacy/Price_of_privacy_2012.pdf|publisher= Big Brother Watch|date= February 2012|page= 30|access-date= 4 February 2015|archive-date= 23 September 2015|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150923185058/http://www.bigbrotherwatch.org.uk/files/priceofprivacy/Price_of_privacy_2012.pdf|url-status= dead}}</ref>

An article published in ''CCTV Image'' magazine estimated the number of private and local government-operated cameras in the United Kingdom was 1.85 million in 2011. The estimate was based on extrapolating from a comprehensive survey of public and private cameras within the [[Cheshire Constabulary]] jurisdiction. This works out as an average of one camera for every 32 people in the UK, although the density of cameras varies greatly from place to place. The Cheshire report also claims that the average person on a typical day would be seen by 70 CCTV cameras.<ref name="Guardian2011">{{cite news|title=You're being watched: there's one CCTV camera for every 32 people in UK - Research shows 1.85m machines across Britain, most of them indoors and privately operated|url= https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2011/mar/02/cctv-cameras-watching-surveillance|access-date=7 January 2017|newspaper=The Guardian|date=2 March 2011}}</ref>

The Cheshire figure is regarded as more dependable than a previous study by Michael McCahill and Clive Norris of ''UrbanEye'' published in 2002.<ref name="Guardian2011" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.urbaneye.net/results/ue_wp6.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.urbaneye.net/results/ue_wp6.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=CCTV in London|access-date=22 July 2009}}</ref> Based on a small sample in [[Putney]] High Street, McCahill and Norris extrapolated the number of surveillance cameras in [[London|Greater London]] to be around 500,000 and the total number of cameras in the UK to be around 4.2 million. According to their estimate, the UK has one camera for every 14 people. Although it has been acknowledged for several years that the methodology behind this figure is flawed,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/society/factcheck+how+many+cctv+cameras/2291167|title=FactCheck: how many CCTV cameras?|publisher=Channel 4 News|date=18 June 2008|access-date=8 May 2009|archive-date=11 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100511054941/http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/society/factcheck+how+many+cctv+cameras/2291167|url-status=dead}}</ref> it has been widely quoted. Furthermore, the figure of 500,000 for Greater London is often confused with the figure for the police and local government-operated cameras in the [[City of London]], which was about 650 in 2011.<ref name="refBBW1" />

The ''CCTV User Group'' estimated that there were around 1.5 million private and local government CCTV cameras in city centres, stations, airports, and major retail areas in the UK.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cctvusergroup.com/art.php?art=94|title=How many cameras are there?|publisher=CCTV User Group|date=18 June 2008|access-date=8 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081023191646/http://www.cctvusergroup.com/art.php?art=94|archive-date=23 October 2008}}</ref> Research conducted by the Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research and based on a survey of all Scottish local authorities identified that there are over 2,200 public space CCTV cameras in Scotland.<ref>Bannister, J., Mackenzie, S. and Norris, P. [http://www.sccjr.ac.uk/pubs/Public-Space-CCTV-in-Scotland--Results-of-a-National-Survey-of-Scotlands-Local-Authorities/182 Public Space CCTV in Scotland] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120927060757/http://www.sccjr.ac.uk/pubs/Public-Space-CCTV-in-Scotland--Results-of-a-National-Survey-of-Scotlands-Local-Authorities/182 |date=27 September 2012 }}(2009), Scottish Centre for Crime and Justice Research (Research Report)</ref> The UK has often been cited as a country that has one of the most CCTV cameras in Europe.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Surveillance cameras in Germany and Europe: A statistical overview |url=https://weberprotect.com/en/blogs/news/uberwachungskameras-in-deutschland-und-europa-ein-statistischer-uberblick |access-date=2024-12-19 |website=Weber Protect |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=13 January 2021 |title=The story of CCTV in Europe, from resistance to adoption |url=https://www.calipsa.io/blog/the-story-of-cctv-in-europe-from-resistance-to-adoption |access-date=2024-12-19 |website=www.calipsa.io |language=en}}</ref>

=== In Africa ===
In South Africa, due to the [[Crime in South Africa|high crime rate]], CCTV surveillance is widely prevalent. The first [[IP camera]] was released in 1996 by [[Axis Communications]], but IP cameras did not arrive in South Africa until 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://intellisec.co.za/cctv-systems/|title=CCTV Systems|access-date=24 February 2017|archive-date=2 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170402063442/http://intellisec.co.za/cctv-systems/|url-status=dead}}</ref> To regulate the number of suppliers in 2001, the Private Security Industry Regulation Act was passed requiring all security companies to be registered with the Private Security Industry Regulatory Authority (PSIRA).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.psira.co.za/psira/images/Documents/Code_of_conduct/2014_psira_act.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.psira.co.za/psira/images/Documents/Code_of_conduct/2014_psira_act.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|title=PSIRA ACT|publisher=Private Security Industry Regulatory Authority|date=25 February 2002|access-date=2016-10-12}}</ref> In Egypt, the capital city of [[Cairo]] has approximately 47,000 cameras,<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bischoff |first=Paul |date=2019-08-15 |title=Surveillance Camera Statistics: Which City has the Most CCTV? |url=https://www.comparitech.com/vpn-privacy/the-worlds-most-surveilled-cities/ |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=Comparitech |language=en}}</ref> while the [[New Administrative Capital]] has more than 6,000 surveillance cameras in 2023.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023 |title=Concern over violations as Egypt plans CCTV cameras in new high-tech capital |url=https://thearabweekly.com/concern-over-violations-egypt-plans-cctv-cameras-new-high-tech-capital |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20230105224717/https://www.thearabweekly.com/concern-over-violations-egypt-plans-cctv-cameras-new-high-tech-capital |archive-date=2023-01-05 |access-date=2024-12-18 |work=Arab Weekly |language=en}}</ref> In South Sudan, the Ministry of Interior has reinstated the operation of CCTV surveillance cameras in [[Juba]] after the cameras have been inactive for over four years;<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-30 |title=Interior ministry restores Juba CCTV cameras |url=https://www.radiotamazuj.org/en/news/article/interior-ministry-restores-juba-cctv-cameras |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=Radio Tamazuj |language=en-US}}</ref> South Sudan also launched a drone security system in 2024 in Juba.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2017-12-04 |title=South Sudan launches CCTV and drone system to fight crime |url=https://www.africanews.com/2017/12/04/south-sudan-launches-cctv-and-drone-system-to-fight-crime/ |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=AfricaNews |language=en}}</ref>

== Privacy ==
[[File:Wfm cctv van.jpg|thumb|A mobile closed-circuit TV van monitoring a street market]]{{See also|Visual privacy}}
Proponents of CCTV cameras argue that cameras are effective at deterring and solving crime, and that appropriate regulation and legal restrictions on surveillance of ''public'' spaces can provide sufficient protections so that an individual's [[right to privacy]] can reasonably be weighed against the benefits of surveillance.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kroener|first1=Inga|title=CCTV: A Technology Under the Radar?|date=2014|publisher=Ashgate Publishing |isbn= 9781472400963}}</ref> However, [[anti-surveillance activists]] have held that there is a right to privacy in public areas, that the development of CCTV in public areas, linked to databases of people's pictures and identity, presents a breach of [[civil liberties]] and the loss of [[anonymity]] in [[public place]]s.<ref>{{cite news |author=Todd Lewan |date=7 July 2007 |title=Microchips in humans spark privacy debate |url=https://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/surveillance/2007-07-21-chips_N.htm |access-date=2012-06-07 |newspaper=[[USAToday]]}}</ref>

Furthermore, some scholars have argued that situations wherein a person's rights can be justifiably compromised are so rare as to not sufficiently warrant the frequent compromising of public privacy rights that occurs in regions with widespread CCTV surveillance. For example, in her book ''Setting the Watch: Privacy and the Ethics of CCTV Surveillance'', Beatrice von Silva-Tarouca Larsen argues that CCTV surveillance is ethically permissible only in "certain restrictively defined situations", such as when a specific location has a "comprehensively documented and significant criminal threat".<ref>{{cite book|author= Beatrice Von Silva-Tarouca Larsen|year=2011| title=Setting the watch: Privacy and the ethics of CCTV surveillance|publisher=Hart Publishing|isbn=9781849460842|page=160}}</ref>[[File:CCTV graffiti - geograph.org.uk - 977154.jpg|thumb|Anti-CCTV graffiti on the wall of the [[British Library]]]]

=== Law by countries ===
In the [[United States]], the Constitution does not explicitly include the [[right to privacy]] although the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] has said several of the amendments to the Constitution implicitly grant this right.<ref>{{cite web|title=Your Right to Privacy|url=https://www.aclu.org/your-right-privacy|publisher=American Civil Liberties Union}}</ref> Access to video surveillance recordings may require a judge's [[writ]], which is readily available.<ref>[[United States Department of Justice|Department of Justice]] - [https://www.justice.gov/usao/eousa/foia_reading_room/usam/title9/7mcrm.htm Video Surveillance] Retrieved 6 August 1982</ref> However, there is little legislation and regulation specific to video surveillance.<ref>{{cite web|title=What's Wrong With Public Video Surveillance|url=https://www.aclu.org/whats-wrong-public-video-surveillance|publisher=American Civil Liberties Union|access-date=24 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Inga Kroener|title=CCTV: A Technology Under the Radar?|date=2014|publisher=Ashgate Publishing|isbn=9781472400963|page=110}}</ref> In [[Canada]], the use of video surveillance has grown very rapidly. In [[Ontario]], both the ''municipal'' and ''provincial'' versions of the [[Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act (Ontario)|Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act]] outline guidelines that control how images and information can be gathered by this method and or released.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act, R.S.O. 1990, c. F.31 |url=https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/90f31 |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20241216053951/https://www.ontario.ca/laws/statute/90f31 |archive-date=2024-12-16 |access-date=2024-12-19 |website=Ontario.ca |language=en}}</ref>

All countries in the [[European Union]] are signatories to the [[European Convention on Human Rights]], which protects individual rights, including the right to privacy. The [[General Data Protection Regulation]] (GDPR) required that the footage should only be retained for as long as necessary for the purpose for which it was collected. In [[Sweden]], the use of CCTV in public spaces is regulated both nationally and via GDPR. In an opinion poll commissioned by [[Lund University]] in August 2017, the general public of Sweden was asked to choose one measure that would ensure their need for privacy when subject to CCTV operation in public spaces: 43% favored regulation in the form of clear routines for managing, storing, and distributing image material generated from surveillance cameras, 39% favored regulation in the form of clear signage informing that camera surveillance in public spaces is present, 10% favored regulation in the form of having restrictive policies for issuing permits for surveillance cameras in public spaces, 6% were unsure, and 2% favored regulation in the form of having permits restricting the use of surveillance cameras during certain times.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Lahtinen |first1=Markus |date=2017 |title=The perception of surveillance cameras and privacy among the general public in Sweden |url=http://lusax.se/Lahtinen_2017_OpinionPoll_DataSheet.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://lusax.se/Lahtinen_2017_OpinionPoll_DataSheet.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |publisher=LUSAX-research group, Lund University School of Economics and Management, Sweden}}</ref>[[File:SurveillanceCamera4.jpg|thumb|upright|A surveillance camera aimed at a public street ([[Kungsgatan, Stockholm|Kungsgatan]]) in Stockholm, Sweden, mounted on top of the pole]]

In an updated opinion poll commissioned by [[Lund University]] in December 2019, the general public of Sweden was asked to share their attitudes toward the use of surveillance cameras (CCTV) in public spaces. A significant majority, 88%, expressed a positive view—45% were very positive and 43% quite positive—while only 11% held negative views, and 1% were unsure. Participants were also asked whether they believed surveillance cameras in various environments violated their personal privacy. A majority rejected that such surveillance violated their privacy at national border-crossings (82%), in city centers (77%), parks and green spaces (74%), large public events (80%), and healthcare units (68%). Somewhat less rejection was observed for surveillance in residential areas, where 67% rejected the notion that it violated their privacy. When asked about the perceived use of automatic facial recognition in surveillance cameras in Sweden, 9% believed it was used quite a lot, 55% believed it was not used much, 21% believed it was not used at all, and 15% were unsure. Regarding privacy risks, 55% of respondents believed the greatest risk came from commercial documentation of individuals (e.g., data collection tracking online consumer behavior), followed by 20% who pointed to other members of the public documenting them (e.g., photography or audio recording), and 11% who saw the greatest risk in public sector data collection (e.g., by law enforcement or healthcare providers). 15% were unsure. When asked to whom they would turn to report a privacy breach related to public camera surveillance, 35% said the Swedish National Police, 6% mentioned the Swedish Data Protection Authority, and 39% did not know where to turn. <ref>{{cite web |last1=Lahtinen |first1=Markus |date=2019 |title=The Swedish general public's attitudes towards the use of surveillance cameras (CCTV) in public spaces |url=http://lusax.se/Lahtinen_2019_OpinionPoll_DataSheet.pdf |publisher=LUSAX-research group, Lund University School of Economics and Management, Sweden}}</ref>

In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Data Protection Act 1998]] imposes legal restrictions on the uses of CCTV recordings and mandates the registration of CCTV systems with the Data Protection Agency. In 2004, the successor to the Data Protection Agency, the [[Information Commissioner's Office]], clarified that this required registration of all CCTV systems with the Commissioner and prompt deletion of archived recordings. However, subsequent case law ([[Durant v Financial Services Authority|Durant vs. FSA]]) limited the scope of the protection provided by this law, and not all CCTV systems are currently regulated.<ref>{{cite web|title=Memorandum by A A Adams, BSc, MSc, PhD, LLM, MBCS, CITP School of Systems Engineering|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200809/ldselect/ldconst/18/18we03.htm|website=UK Parliament Constitution Committee - Written Evidence. Surveillance: Citizens and the State|date=January 2007}}</ref>

A 2007 report by the UK Information Commissioner's Office highlighted the need for the public to be made more aware of the growing use of surveillance and the potential impact on civil liberties.<ref>{{cite news|title=Privacy watchdog wants curbs on surveillance|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1550218/Privacy-watchdog-wants-curbs-on-surveillance.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1550218/Privacy-watchdog-wants-curbs-on-surveillance.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=1 May 2007}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=13 April 2012 |title=CCTV, computers and the 'climate of fear' |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/cctv-computers-and-the-climate-of-fear-7204625.html |newspaper=Evening Standard}}</ref> In the same year, a campaign group claimed that the majority of CCTV cameras in the UK are operated illegally or are in breach of privacy guidelines.<ref name="Telegraph2007">{{cite news |last=Hall |first=Tim |date=31 May 2007 |title=Majority of UK's CCTV cameras 'are illegal' |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/05/31/ncamera131.xml |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070602114448/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=%2Fnews%2F2007%2F05%2F31%2Fncamera131.xml |archive-date=2 June 2007 |access-date=18 July 2021 |newspaper=The Telegraph}}</ref> In response, the Information Commissioner's Office rebutted the claim and added that any reported abuses of the Data Protection Act are swiftly investigated.<ref name="Telegraph2007" /> Even if there are some concerns arising from the use of CCTV such as involving privacy,<ref>{{Cite news |last=Siddique |first=Haroon |date=2014-12-11 |title=Home surveillance CCTV images may breach data protection laws, ECJ rules |url=https://www.theguardian.com/law/2014/dec/11/home-surveillance-cctv-images-may-breach-data-protection-rules-european-court-judgment-says |access-date=2024-12-19 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> more commercial establishments are still installing CCTV systems in the UK. In 2012, the UK government enacted the [[Protection of Freedoms Act 2012|Protection of Freedoms Act]] which includes several provisions related to controlling the storage and use of information about individuals. Under this Act, the [[Home Office]] published a code of practice in 2013 for the use of surveillance cameras by government and local authorities. The code wrote that "surveillance by consent should be regarded as analogous to [[policing by consent]]."<ref>{{cite web|title=Surveillance Camera Code of Practice|url=https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/204775/Surveillance_Camera_Code_of_Practice_WEB.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/204775/Surveillance_Camera_Code_of_Practice_WEB.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|publisher=UK Government Home Office|access-date=1 December 2013|page=5|date=June 2013}}</ref>

In the [[Philippines]], the main laws governing CCTV usage are [[Data Privacy Act of 2012]] and the [[Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012]]. The Data Privacy Act of 2012 (Republic Act No. 10173) is the primary law that governs data privacy in the Philippines. The Act mandates that the privacy of individuals must be respected and protected. The law applies to CCTV cameras as they collect and process personal data. The Cybercrime Prevention Act of 2012 (Republic Act No. 10175) includes provisions that apply to CCTV usage. Under the Act, the unauthorized access to, interception of, or interference with data is a criminal offense. This means that unauthorized access to CCTV footage could potentially be considered a cybercrime.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Manalo |first1=Dennes M. |last2=Mapoy |first2=Kim Alvin |last3=Villano |first3=Kim Joem K. |last4=Reyes |first4=Kenneth Angelo D. |last5=Bautista |first5=Merwina Lou A. |date=2015 |title=Status of Closed Circuit Television Camera Usage in Batangas City: Basis for Enhancement |url=https://research.lpubatangas.edu.ph/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/CRIM-2015-003-Status-of-Closed-Circuit-Television-Camera-Usage-in-Batangas-City.pdf |journal=College of Criminology Research Journal |volume=6 |via=Pubatangas}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Republic Act 10173 - Data Privacy Act of 2012 |url=https://www.privacy.gov.ph/data-privacy-act/ |website=National Privacy Commission}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Republic Act No. 10175 {{!}} GOVPH |url=https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2012/09/12/republic-act-no-10175/ |access-date=2023-05-11 |website=Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines |date=12 September 2012 |language=en-US |archive-date=9 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211209023224/https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2012/09/12/republic-act-no-10175/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Technological developments ==
[[File:closed.circuit.camera.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|Surveillance camera at [[Heathrow Airport|London Heathrow Airport]] with a wiper for clear images during rain]]

=== Computer-controlled identification ===
Computer-controlled cameras can identify, [[video tracking|track]], and categorize objects in their field of view.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vincent |first=James |date=2018-01-23 |title=Artificial intelligence is going to supercharge surveillance |url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/1/23/16907238/artificial-intelligence-surveillance-cameras-security |access-date=2024-12-19 |website=The Verge |language=en}}</ref> [[Video content analysis]], also referred to as video analytics, is the capability of automatically analyzing [[video]] to detect and determine temporal events not based on a single image but rather on [[object classification]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=2018 9th International Conference on Information and Communication Systems (ICICS) : 3-5 April 2018, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, Jordan.|others=Jordan University of Science & Technology, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Jordan Section, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|year=2018 |isbn=9781538643662|location=Piscataway, New Jersey}}</ref> Advanced VCA applications can measure object speed. Some video analytics applications can be used to apply rules to designated areas. These rules can relate to access control. For example, they can describe which objects can enter into a specific area.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mate.co.il/page.asp?newsid=53&type=6&cat=28&lang=1|title=MATE's Analytics Integrate with Hirsch Security Systems|access-date=28 March 2011|archive-date=16 February 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090216014657/http://www.mate.co.il/page.asp?newsid=53&type=6&cat=28&lang=1|url-status=dead}}</ref> There are different approaches to implementing VCA technology. Data may be processed on the camera itself ([[Edge computing|edge processing]]) or by a centralized server.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Image Processing Techniques for Video Content Extraction |url=http://www.ercim.eu/publication/ws-proceedings/DELOS4/oliveira.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.ercim.eu/publication/ws-proceedings/DELOS4/oliveira.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09}}</ref> [[Artificial intelligence]]-powered CCTV cameras have also been further tested to detect congestion,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Indra Bayu Pangestu |last2=Maimunah |first2=Maimunah |last3=Mukhtar Hanafi |date=2024-09-30 |title=Traffic Congestion Detection Using YOLOv8 Algorithm With CCTV Data |journal=PIKSEL: Penelitian Ilmu Komputer Sistem Embedded and Logic |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=435–444 |doi=10.33558/piksel.v12i2.9953 |issn=2620-3553|doi-access=free }}</ref> be used as a facial recognition system, and predict signs of criminal activities.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 12, 2024 |title=CCTV Surveillance Systems |url=https://communications.itas-egy.com/ |access-date=2024-12-18 |website=itas communications |language=en}}</ref>

=== Compression ===
There is a cost in the retention of the images produced by CCTV systems. The amount and quality of data stored on storage media is subject to compression ratios, images stored per second, and image size, and is affected by the retention period of the videos or images.<ref name="JVSG Video Compression Guide 2010">{{cite web|title= MotionJPEG, JPEG2000, H.264 and MPEG-4 compression methods in CCTV|access-date=2011-05-01|url=http://www.jvsg.com/cctv-compression-guide/}}</ref> DVRs store images in a variety of [[proprietary file format]]s. CCTV security cameras can either store the images on a local hard disk drive, an SD card, or in the cloud. Recordings may be retained for a preset amount of time and then automatically archived, overwritten, or deleted, the period being determined by the organisation that generated them.

=== IP cameras ===
{{Main|IP camera}}
[[File:Intellinet Network Solutions NSC11-WN Home Network IP Camera.jpg|thumb|A wireless [[IP camera]]]]
A growing branch in CCTV is ''internet protocol'' cameras (IP cameras). It is estimated that 2014 was the first year that IP cameras outsold analog cameras.<ref>{{cite web |date=19 December 2013 |title=Global value of IP camera sales now close to 50% of CCTV cameras sold, but... |url=http://www.networkwebcams.co.uk/blog/2013/12/19/the-global-value-of-ip-camera-sales-is-close-to-50-of-total-cctv-cameras-sold-worldwide-but-they-are-not-yet-plug-and-play/ |website=Network Webcams}}</ref> IP cameras use the [[Internet Protocol]] (IP) used by most [[local area network]]s (LANs) to transmit video across data networks in digital form. IP can optionally be transmitted across the public internet, allowing users to view their cameras remotely on a computer or phone via an internet connection.<ref>{{cite web |title=Remote Escort |url=https://www.securitasinc.com/services/remote-guarding/remote-escort/ |website=Securitas |access-date=14 June 2022}}</ref> IP cameras are considered part of the [[Internet of things]] ([[Internet of things|IoT]]) and have many of the same benefits and security risks as other IP-enabled devices.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.trendmicro.com/vinfo/mx/security/news/internet-of-things/securing-ip-surveillance-cameras-in-the-iot-ecosystem|title=Securing IP Surveillance Cameras in the IoT Ecosystem - Noticias de seguridad - Trend Micro MX|website=www.trendmicro.com|language=es|access-date=2020-02-18}}</ref> [[Smart doorbell]]s are one example of a type of CCTV that uses IP to allow it to send alerts.

Main types of IP cameras include fixed cameras, [[Pan–tilt–zoom camera|pan–tilt–zoom]] (PTZ) cameras, and multi-sensor cameras.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://internationalsecurityjournal.com/selecting-most-suitable-cameras/ |title= Selecting the most suitable cameras to monitor large areas |website= internationalsecurityjournal.com |date= 19 November 2020 |publisher= International Security Journal |access-date= 2021-06-23}}</ref> Fixed cameras' resolution typically does not exceed 20 [[Pixel|megapixels]]. The main feature of a PTZ is its remote directional and [[Zoom lens|optical zoom]] capability. With multi-sensor cameras, wider areas can be monitored. Industrial video surveillance systems use [[network video recorder]]s to support IP cameras. These devices are responsible for the recording, storage, video stream processing, and alarm management. Since 2008, IP video surveillance manufacturers can use a standardized network interface ([[ONVIF]]) to support compatibility between systems.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.ifsecglobal.com/onvif/ |title= ONVIF: a guide to the open security platform |website= ifsecglobal.com |publisher= IFSEC Global |access-date= 2021-06-23}}</ref> For professional or public infrastructure security applications, IP video is restricted to within a private network or [[VPN]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Dispelling the Top 10 Myths of IP Surveillance |url=http://www.axis.com/files/articles/ar_10myths_secinfowatch_us_0512.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.axis.com/files/articles/ar_10myths_secinfowatch_us_0512.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |access-date=30 March 2016}}</ref>

=== Networking CCTV cameras ===
The city of [[Chicago]] operates a networked video surveillance system which combines CCTV video feeds of government agencies with those of the private sector, installed in city buses, businesses, public schools, subway stations, housing projects, etc.<ref>{{cite web|title=The City of Chicago's OEMC and IBM Launch Advanced Video Surveillance System|url=http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/22385.wss|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090524151923/http://www-03.ibm.com/press/us/en/pressrelease/22385.wss|url-status=dead|archive-date=24 May 2009|website=IBM News Room}}</ref> Even homeowners are able to contribute footage. It is estimated to incorporate the video feeds of a total of 15,000 cameras.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704538404574539910412824756|title=Chicago's Camera Network Is Everywhere|author=William M. Bulkeley|newspaper=Wall Street Journal}}</ref> The system is used by Chicago's [[Office of Emergency Management]] in case of an emergency call: it detects the caller's location and instantly displays the real-time video feed of the nearest security camera to the operator, not requiring any user intervention. While the system is far too vast to allow complete real-time monitoring, it stores the video data for use as evidence in criminal cases.<ref>"[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704538404574539910412824756 Chicago's Camera Network Is Everywhere]", The Wall Street Journal</ref>

=== Wireless security cameras ===
{{Main|Wireless security camera}}
[[File:Lorex digital wireless camera.jpg|thumb|[[Wireless security camera]]]]
Many consumers are turning to wireless security cameras for home surveillance. Wireless cameras do not require a video cable for video/audio transmission, simply a cable for power. Wireless cameras are also easy and inexpensive to install.<ref>{{Cite web |title=CCTV Camera Installation Guide |url=https://is3tech.com/commercial-security-camera-systems/cloud-based |access-date=2023-10-30 |website=iS3 Tech}}</ref> Previous generations of wireless security cameras relied on analogue technology; modern wireless cameras use digital technology with usually more secure and interference-free signals.<ref>{{cite book|title=Digital Video Essentials: Shoot, Transfer, Edit, Share By Erica Sadun|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x_yb92nsqnUC&q=video+digital+vs+analog&pg=PA3|access-date=16 October 2013|isbn=9780470113196|last1=Sadun|first1=Erica|date=26 December 2006| publisher=John Wiley & Sons }}</ref> [[Wireless mesh network]]s have been used for connection with the other radios in the same group.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=Caputo |first=Tony C. |title=Digital video surveillance and security |date=2010 |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |isbn=978-0-08-096169-9 |location=Burlington, MA |pages=146–149}}</ref> There are also cameras using solar power. Wireless IP cameras can become a client on the [[Wireless LAN|WLAN]], and they can be configured with encryption and [[authentication protocol]]s with a connection to an [[Wireless access point|access point]].<ref name=":5" />

=== Talking CCTV ===
{{main|Talking CCTV}}
In [[Wiltshire]], United Kingdom, in 2003, a [[Pilot experiment|pilot scheme]] for what is now known as "Talking CCTV" was put into action, allowing operators of CCTV cameras to communicate through the camera via a speaker when it is needed. In 2005, [[Ray Mallon]], the mayor and former senior police officer of [[Middlesbrough]], implemented "Talking CCTV" in his area.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/tees/5353538.stm|title=Town trials talking CCTV cameras|work=BBC News|date=17 September 2006}}</ref> Other towns have had such cameras installed. In 2007, several of the devices were installed in [[Bridlington]] town centre, [[East Riding of Yorkshire]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/humber/6492925.stm|title='Talking' CCTV cameras are tested|work=BBC News|date=25 March 2007}}</ref>

== Countermeasures ==
In December 2016, a form of anti-CCTV and facial recognition sunglasses called "reflectacles" were invented by a craftsman based in Chicago named Scott Urban.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 29, 2016 |title=Be Seen and Unseen! Reflectacles are the Sunglasses of the Future |url=http://www.magneticmag.com/2016/12/be-seen-and-unseen-reflectacles-are-the-sunglasses-of-the-future/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205042059/https://www.magneticmag.com/2016/12/be-seen-and-unseen-reflectacles-are-the-sunglasses-of-the-future/ |archive-date=5 December 2017 |website=Magnetic Magazine}}</ref> They reflect infrared and, optionally, visible light which makes the user's face a white blur to cameras. The project passed its funding goal of $28,000, and "reflectacles" became commercially available in June 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.kickstarter.com/projects/reflectacles/reflectacles-reflective-eyewear-and-sunglasses|title=Reflectacles - Reflective Eyewear and Sunglasses|website=Kickstarter|date=22 July 2019 }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Artificial intelligence for video surveillance]]
* [[Bugging]]
* [[Cable TV|"CATV" as cable television]]—not to be confused with CCTV
* [[Closed-circuit television camera]]
* [[Day and night camera]]
* [[Effio]], uncompressed analog streaming video format
* [[Eye in the sky (camera)]]
* [[Fake security camera]]
* [[INDECT]]
* [[IP camera]]
* [[Security operations center]]
* [[Security smoke]]
* [[Smart camera]]
* [[Sousveillance]] (inverse surveillance)
* [[Surveillance]]
* [[The Convention on Modern Liberty]]
* [[TV Network Protocol]]
* [[Under vehicle inspection]]
* [[Video analytics]]
* [[Video evidence]]
* [[Videotelephony]]
* [[Washington County Closed-Circuit Educational Television Project]]
* [[Unmanned aerial vehicle#Applications|Surveillance drone]]
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|editor=Armstrong, Gary|title=The maximum surveillance society: the rise of CCTV|publisher=Berg (originally, University of Michigan Press)|year=1999|isbn=9781859732212|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6gENAQAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book|author1=Fyfe, Nicholas|author2=Bannister, Jon|chapter=City Watching: Closed-Circuit Television in Public Spaces|editor=Fyfe, Nicholas |editor2=Kenny, Judith T.|title=The Urban Geography Reader|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2005|isbn=9780415307017|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=box4yhB5TL4C&pg=PA364|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/urbangeographyre0000unse}}
* {{cite journal|author=Nassauer, Anne|title=How Robberies Succeed or Fail: Analyzing Crime Caught on CCTV|journal=[[Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency]]|year=2018|volume=55|issue=1|pages=125–154|doi=10.1177/0022427817715754|doi-access=free}}
* {{cite book|author1=Newburn, Tim |author2=Hayman, Stephanie|title=Policing, Surveillance and Social Control: CCTV and police monitoring of suspects|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2001|isbn=9781843924692|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YaonBzDpUjIC}} 
* {{cite book|author=Norris, Clive|chapter=From Personal to Digital: CCTV, the panopticon, and the technological mediation of suspicion and social control|editor=Lyon, David|title=Surveillance as Social Sorting: Privacy, Risk, and Digital Discrimination|publisher=Psychology Press|year=2003|isbn=9780415278737|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yCLFBfZwl08C&pg=PA249}}
* Wei Qi Yan (2019). [https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-030-10713-0 Introduction to Intelligent Surveillance: Surveillance Data Capture, Transmission, and Analytics], Springer London.

==External links==
{{Commons category|Closed-circuit television (CCTV)}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20070212072806/http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/hors292.pdf Assessing the impact of CCTV, a UK Home office study on the effectiveness of closed-circuit television]

{{privacy}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Closed-Circuit Television}}
[[Category:Applications of computer vision]]
[[Category:Assistive technology]]
[[Category:Crime prevention]]
[[Category:Law enforcement techniques]]
[[Category:Physical security]]
[[Category:Public safety]]
[[Category:Security engineering]]
[[Category:Security technology]]
[[Category:Surveillance]]
[[Category:Video surveillance]]
[[Category:Video]]
[[Category:Warning systems]]
[[Category:Telecommunications-related introductions in 1942]]