View source for Active measures

{{short description|Political warfare conducted by the USSR & Russia}}
{{Other uses|Active Measures (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Infobox Russian term
| image = File:Lubyanka Building.jpg
| caption = [[Lubyanka Building]], the headquarters of [[KGB]] and later [[Federal Security Service|FSB]]
| russian              = активные мероприятия
| rusr                 = aktivnye meropriyatiya
| native pronunciation = {{IPA|ru|ɐkˈtʲivnɨje mʲɪrəprʲɪˈjætʲɪjə|}}
| literal meaning      = 
}}

'''Active measures''' ({{langx|ru|активные мероприятия|translit=aktivnye meropriyatiya}}) is a term used to describe [[political warfare]] conducted by the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Russia|Russian Federation]]. The term, which dates back to the 1920s, includes operations such as [[espionage]], [[propaganda]], [[sabotage]] and [[assassination]], based on foreign policy objectives of the Soviet and Russian governments.<ref name="am">{{cite journal |url=https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/point-view/2017-05-30/active-measures-russias-key-export |title=Active Measures: Russia's key export |last1=Darczewska |first1=Jolanta |last2=Żochowski |first2=Piotr |name-list-style=amp |date=June 2017 |journal=Point of View |publisher=[[Centre for Eastern Studies|OSW]] |number=64 |isbn=978-83-65827-03-6 |access-date=4 February 2022 |archive-date=3 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803171009/https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/point-view/2017-05-30/active-measures-russias-key-export |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |page=1 |author=Testimony of Alexander, Gen. (ret.) Keith B. |author-link=Keith B. Alexander |title=Disinformation: A Primer in Russian Active Measures and Influence Campaigns |date=March 30, 2017 |publisher=[[United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence]] |url=https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/os-kalexander-033017.pdf |access-date=January 8, 2019 |archive-date=24 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180924042055/https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/documents/os-kalexander-033017.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Mitrokhin">{{cite book |last1=Mitrokhin |first1=Vasili |author-link1=Vasili Mitrokhin |last2=Andrew |first2=Christopher |author-link2=Christopher Andrew (historian) |title=The Mitrokhin Archive: The KGB in Europe and the West |url=https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/25373/the-mitrokhin-archive-by-christopher-andrew-and-vasili-mitrokhin/9780141989488 |publisher=Penguin |date=2000 |isbn=0-14-028487-7 |id=[https://books.google.com/books?id=T3pzswEACAAJ google books] |access-date=23 March 2023 |archive-date=29 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929154157/https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/25373/the-mitrokhin-archive-by-christopher-andrew-and-vasili-mitrokhin/9780141989488 |url-status=live }}</ref> Active measures have continued to be used by the administration of [[Vladimir Putin]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Abrams |first=Steve |date=2016 |title=Beyond Propaganda: Soviet Active Measures in Putin's Russia |journal=Connections |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=5–31 |doi=10.11610/Connections.15.1.01 |jstor=26326426 |issn=1812-1098|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |editor-last=Bertelsen |editor-first=Olga |title=Russian Active Measures: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow |date=March 2021 |publisher=ibidem Press |isbn=978-3-83821-529-7 |url=https://cup.columbia.edu/book/russian-active-measures/9783838215297 |access-date=5 April 2021 |archive-date=29 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129174957/https://cup.columbia.edu/book/russian-active-measures/9783838215297 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Description==
Active measures were conducted by the [[Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies|Soviet]] and [[Intelligence agencies of Russia|Russian security services]] and [[secret police]] organizations ([[Cheka]], [[State Political Directorate|OGPU]], [[NKVD]], [[KGB]], and [[Federal Security Service|FSB]]) to influence the course of world events, in addition to [[Intelligence collection|collecting intelligence]] and producing revised assessments of it. Active measures range "from [[media manipulation]]s to ''special actions'' involving various degrees of violence". Beginning in the 1920s, they were used both abroad and domestically.<ref name="Mitrokhin"/>

Active measures includes the establishment and support of international [[Communist front|front organizations]] (e.g., the [[World Peace Council]]); foreign [[communist]], [[socialist]] and [[Opposition (politics)|opposition]] parties; [[wars of national liberation]] in the [[Third World]]. It also included supporting underground, revolutionary, [[insurgency]], [[Crime|criminal]], and [[Terrorism and the Soviet Union|terrorist]] groups. The programs also focused on [[counterfeit]]ing official documents, [[assassination]]s, and [[Political repression in the Soviet Union|political repression]], such as penetration into churches, and persecution of political [[Soviet dissidents|dissidents]]. The intelligence agencies of [[Eastern Bloc]] states also contributed to the program, providing operatives and intelligence for assassinations and other types of [[covert operation]]s.<ref name="Mitrokhin" />

Retired KGB Major General [[Oleg Kalugin]], former head of Foreign Counter Intelligence for the KGB (1973–1979), described active measures as "the heart and soul of the [[Soviet intelligence]]":<ref name="Kalugin"/>

<blockquote>Not intelligence collection, but [[subversion]]: active measures to weaken the West, to drive wedges in the Western community alliances of all sorts, particularly [[NATO]], to sow discord among allies, to weaken the [[United States]] in the eyes of the people of [[Europe]], [[Asia]], [[Africa]], [[Latin America]], and thus to prepare ground in case the war really occurs.<ref name="Kalugin">{{cite web |url=http://www3.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/21/interviews/kalugin/ |title=Inside the KGB: An interview with retired KGB Maj. Gen. Oleg Kalugin |date=1998 |website=CNN |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070627183623/http://www3.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/21/interviews/kalugin/ |archive-date=June 27, 2007}}</ref></blockquote>

According to the [[Mitrokhin Archive]]s, active measures was taught in the [[Academy of Foreign Intelligence|Andropov Institute]] of the KGB situated at [[Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)|Foreign Intelligence Service]] (SVR) headquarters in [[Yasenevo District]] of Moscow. The head of the "active measures department" was [[Yuri Modin]], former controller of the [[Cambridge Five]] spy ring.<ref name="Mitrokhin" />

== History ==
Defector [[Ion Mihai Pacepa]] claimed that [[Joseph Stalin]] coined the term ''disinformation'' in 1923 by giving it a [[French language|French]] sounding name in order to deceive other nations into believing it was a practice invented in [[France]]. The noun ''disinformation'' does not originate from Russia, it is a translation of the French word {{lang|fr|désinformation}}.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Ion Mihai |last1=Pacepa |author-link1=Ion Mihai Pacepa |first2=Ronald J. |last2=Rychlak |author-link2=Ronald J. Rychlak |name-list-style=amp |date=June 25, 2013 |title=Disinformation: Former Spy Chief Reveals Secret Strategies for Undermining Freedom, Attacking Religion, and Promoting Terrorism |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=WND Books |pages=4–6, 34–39, & 75 |isbn=978-1-93648-860-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |first1=Martin J. |last1=Manning |first2=Herbert |last2=Romerstein |author2-link=Herbert Romerstein |name-list-style=amp |date=November 30, 2004 |title=Historical Dictionary of American Propaganda |location=Westport, CN |publisher=Greenwood Press |pages=82–83 |isbn=978-0-31329-605-5}}</ref>

== Implementation ==
=== Guerrillas ===
==== Promotion of guerrilla and terrorist organizations worldwide ====
{{further|Propaganda in the Soviet Union}}
Soviet secret services have been described as "the primary instructors of guerrillas worldwide".<ref name="Lunev">{{cite book |last=Lunev |first=Stanislav |author-link=Stanislav Lunev |date=1998 |title=Through the Eyes of the Enemy: The Autobiography of Stanislav Lunev |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Regnery Publishing, Inc |isbn=0-89526-390-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://lib.ru/WSUWOROW/intelligence_engl.txt |last=Suvorov |first=Viktor |author-link=Viktor Suvorov |date=1984 |title=Inside Soviet Military Intelligence |location=New York City |publisher=Macmillan |isbn=0-02-615510-9 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050830232410/http://lib.ru/WSUWOROW/intelligence_engl.txt |archive-date=2005-08-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://lib.ru/WSUWOROW/specnaz_engl.txt |last=Suvorov |first=Viktor |date=1987 |title=Spetsnaz: The Inside Story of the Soviet Special Forces |location=London, UK |publisher=Hamish Hamilton Ltd |isbn=0-241-11961-8 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050910035911/http://lib.ru/WSUWOROW/specnaz_engl.txt |archive-date=2005-09-10}}</ref> According to [[Ion Mihai Pacepa]], KGB General [[Aleksandr Sakharovsky]] once said: "In today's world, when nuclear arms have made military force obsolete, terrorism should become our main weapon."<ref name="Pacep2Duplicate">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.nationalreview.com/2006/08/russian-footprints-ion-mihai-pacepa/ |title=Russian Footprints |first=Ion Mihai |last=Pacepa |date=August 24, 2006 |magazine=[[National Review]] |access-date=24 February 2023 |archive-date=13 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070213222243/http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=NjUzMGU4NTMyOTdkOTdmNTA1MWJlYjYyZDliODZkOGM= |url-status=live }}</ref> He also claimed that "Airplane hijacking is my own invention". In 1969 alone, 82 planes were hijacked worldwide by the KGB-financed [[Palestine Liberation Organization|PLO]].<ref name="Pacep2Duplicate" />

Lt. General [[Ion Mihai Pacepa]] stated that operation "SIG" ("[[Zionism|Zionist]] Governments"), devised in 1972, intended to turn the whole Islamic world against [[Israel]] and the [[United States]]. KGB Chairman [[Yuri Andropov]] allegedly explained to Pacepa that

<blockquote>a billion adversaries could inflict far greater damage on America than could a few millions. We needed to instill a [[Nazism|Nazi]]-style hatred for the [[Jews]] throughout the Islamic world, and to turn this weapon of the emotions into a terrorist bloodbath against [[Israel]] and its main supporter, the United States<ref name="Pacep2Duplicate" /></blockquote>

=== Installing and undermining governments ===
{{See also|Russia–European Union relations#Allegations of Russian intimidation and destabilisation of EU states}}

After World War II, Soviet security organizations played a key role in installing [[Satellite state#Soviet Union|puppet communist governments]] in [[Eastern Europe]], the [[China|People's Republic of China]], [[North Korea]], and later [[Afghanistan]]. Their strategy included mass [[political repression]]s and establishment of subordinate secret services in all occupied countries.<ref name="Ovseenko">{{cite book |last=Antonov-Ovseenko |first=Anton |author-link=Anton Antonov-Ovseenko |date=1999 |title=Beria |language=ru |location=Moscow |publisher=[[AST (publisher)|AST]] |isbn=5-237-03178-1}}</ref><ref name="Gordievsky">{{cite book |first1=Oleg |last1=Gordievsky |author1-link=Oleg Gordievsky |first2=Christopher |last2=Andrew |author2-link=Christopher Andrew (historian) |name-list-style=amp |date=1990 |title=KGB: The Inside Story |location=London, UK |publisher=Hodder & Stoughton |isbn=0-340-48561-2}}</ref>

Some of the active measures were undertaken by the Soviet secret services against their own governments or communist rulers. Russian historians [[Anton Antonov-Ovseenko]] and [[Edvard Radzinsky]] suggested that [[Joseph Stalin]] was killed by associates of [[NKVD]] chief [[Lavrentiy Beria]], based on the interviews of a former Stalin bodyguard and circumstantial evidence.<ref name="Radzinsky">{{cite book |last=Radzinsky |first=Edvard |author-link=Edvard Radzinsky |date=1997 |title=Stalin: The First In-depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archives |location=New York City |publisher=Doubleday |isbn=0-385-47954-9}}</ref> According to [[Yevgenia Albats]]' allegations, [[Chairman of the KGB|Chief of the KGB]] [[Vladimir Semichastny]] was among the plotters against [[Nikita Khrushchev]] in 1964, which led to the latter's downfall.<ref name="Albats">{{cite book |first1=Yevgenia |last1=Albats |author1-link=Yevgenia Albats |first2=Catherine A. |last2=Fitzpatrick |author2-link=Catherine A. Fitzpatrick |name-list-style=amp |date=1994 |title=The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia—Past, Present, and Future |location=New York City |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |isbn=0-374-52738-5}}</ref>

KGB Chairman [[Yuri Andropov]] reportedly struggled for power with [[Leonid Brezhnev]].<ref name="Soloviev">{{cite book |first1=Vladimir |last1=Solovyov |first2=Elena |last2=Klepikova |name-list-style=amp |translator-first=Guy |translator-last=Daniels |date=1984 |title=Yuri Andropov: A Secret Passage into the Kremlin |location=London, UK |publisher=R. Hale |isbn=0-7090-1630-1}}</ref> The [[Soviet coup attempt of 1991]] against [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] was organized by KGB Chairman [[Vladimir Kryuchkov]] and other hardliners.<ref name="Albats" /> [[Viktor Pavlovich Barannikov|Gen. Viktor Barannikov]], then the former State Security head, became one of the leaders of the uprising against [[Boris Yeltsin]] during the [[Russian constitutional crisis of 1993]].<ref name="Albats" />

The current Russian [[intelligence service]], the [[Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)|SVR]], allegedly works to undermine governments of former Soviet [[satellite state]]s like [[Poland]], the [[Baltic states]],<ref name="Soldatov2">{{cite news |url=http://2006.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2006/22n/n22n-s15.shtml |script-title=ru:Наши Спецслужбы — На Территории Бывшего Союза |trans-title=Our Special Services are at work in the territories of the former Soviet Union |first1=Andrei |last1=Soldatov |first2=Irina |last2=Dorogan |name-list-style=amp |date=27 March 2006 |newspaper=[[Novaya Gazeta]] |language=ru |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070212062546/http://2006.novayagazeta.ru/nomer/2006/22n/n22n-s15.shtml |archive-date=2007-02-12}}</ref> and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]].<ref name="Giorgadze">{{cite news |url=http://www.kommersant.com/page.asp?idr=1&id=703046 |title=Moscow Accused of Backing Georgian Revolt |first1=Olga |last1=Allenova |first2=Vladimir |last2=Novikov |name-list-style=amp |date=September 7, 2006 |newspaper=[[Kommersant]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930190833/http://www.kommersant.com/page.asp?idr=1&id=703046 |archive-date=2007-09-30}}</ref> During the [[2006 Georgian-Russian espionage controversy]], several Russian GRU case officers were accused by Georgian authorities of preparations to commit sabotage and terrorist acts.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}}

=== Political assassinations ===
The highest-ranking Soviet Bloc intelligence defector, Lt. Gen. [[Ion Mihai Pacepa]] claimed to have had a conversation with [[Nicolae Ceaușescu]], who told him about "ten international leaders the Kremlin killed or tried to kill": [[László Rajk]] and [[Imre Nagy]] from Hungary; [[Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu]] and [[Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej]] from Romania; [[Rudolf Slánský]] and [[Jan Masaryk]] from [[Czechoslovakia]]; the [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Shah of Iran]]; [[Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq]], President of [[Pakistan]]; [[Palmiro Togliatti]] from Italy; [[John F. Kennedy]]; and [[Mao Zedong]]. Pacepa also discussed a KGB plot to kill Mao Zedong with the help of [[Lin Biao]] organized by the Soviet intelligence agencies and alleged that "among the leaders of Moscow's satellite intelligence services there was unanimous agreement that the KGB had been involved in the assassination of President Kennedy."<ref name="Pacepa0">{{cite magazine |url=https://www.nationalreview.com/2006/11/kremlins-killing-ways-ion-mihai-pacepa/ |title=The Kremlin's Killing Ways |first1=Ion Mihai |last1=Pacepa |date=November 28, 2006 |magazine=National Review |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808171854/http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=MzY4NWU2ZjY3YWYxMDllNWQ5MjQ3ZGJmMzg3MmQyNjQ%3D |archive-date=2007-08-08}}</ref>

The second President of [[Afghanistan]], [[Hafizullah Amin]], was killed by the KGB's [[Alpha Group]] in [[Operation Storm-333]] before the full-scale [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] in 1979. Presidents of the unrecognized [[Chechen Republic of Ichkeria]] organized by Chechen separatists, including [[Dzhokhar Dudaev]], [[Zelimkhan Yandarbiev]], [[Aslan Maskhadov]], and [[Abdul-Khalim Saidullaev]], were killed by the [[FSB (Russia)|FSB]] and affiliated forces.

Other widely publicized cases are murders of Russian communist [[Leon Trotsky]] and Bulgarian writer [[Georgi Markov]] by [[NKVD]].

There were also allegations that the KGB was behind the [[Pope John Paul II assassination attempt|assassination attempt against Pope John Paul II]] in 1981. The Italian [[Mitrokhin Commission]], headed by senator [[Paolo Guzzanti]] ([[Forza Italia]]), worked on the Mitrokhin Archives from 2003 to March 2006. The Mitrokhin Commission received criticism during and after its existence.<ref name="Unit">''[[L'Unità]]'', 1 December 2006.</ref> It was closed in March 2006 without any proof brought to its various controversial allegations, including the claim that [[Romano Prodi]], former Prime Minister of Italy and former [[President of the European Commission]], was the "KGB's man in Europe." One of Guzzanti's informers, [[Mario Scaramella]], was arrested for defamation and arms trading at the end of 2006.<ref name="Guardian">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/italy/story/0,,1962357,00.html |title=Spy expert at centre of storm |first=Barbara |last=McMahon |date=2 December 2006 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=13 December 2016 |archive-date=26 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200826024548/https://www.theguardian.com/italy/story/0,,1962357,00.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Puppet rebel forces ===
==== Operation Trust ====
In "[[Operation Trust]]" (1921–1926), the [[State Political Directorate]] (OGPU) set up a fake anti-[[Bolshevik]] underground organization, "Monarchist Union of Central Russia".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Douglas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uWfrL8__VfgC&pg=PT269 |title=Former People: The Final Days of the Russian Aristocracy |date=2012-10-02 |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |isbn=978-1-4668-2775-2 |language=en}}</ref> The main success of this operation was luring [[Boris Savinkov]] and [[Sidney Reilly]] into the Soviet Union, where they were arrested and executed.

==== Basmachi Revolt ====
{{main|Basmachi movement}}
The [[Islam]]ic anti-Soviet [[Basmachi movement]] in [[Central Asia]] posed an early threat to the Bolshevik movement. The movement's roots lay in the [[Central Asian revolt of 1916|anti-conscription violence of 1916]] that erupted when the Russian Empire began to draft Muslims for army service in [[World War I]].<ref>Victor Spolnikov, "Impact of Afghanistan's War on the Former Soviet Republics of Central Asia", in Hafeez Malik, ed, Central Asia: Its Strategic Importance and Future Prospects (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1994), 101.</ref> In the months following the [[October Revolution]] of 1917, the [[Bolsheviks]] seized power in many parts of the Russian Empire and the [[Russian Civil War]] began. [[Turkestan|Turkestani]] Muslim political movements attempted to form an autonomous government in the city of [[Kokand]], in the [[Fergana Valley]]. The Bolsheviks launched an assault on Kokand in February 1918 and carried out a general massacre of up to 25,000 people.{{citation needed|date=January 2024}} The massacre rallied support to the Basmachi who waged a [[Guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] and conventional war that seized control of large parts of the Fergana Valley and much of [[Turkestan]].<ref name="Uzbekistan pg. 30">Uzbekistan, By Thomas R McCray, Charles F Gritzner, pg. 30, 2004, {{ISBN|1438105517}}.</ref><ref name="ReferenceB">Martha B. Olcott, ''The Basmachi or Freemen's Revolt in Turkestan'', 1918-24, 355.</ref> The group's notable leaders were [[Enver Pasha]] and, later, [[Ibrahim Bek]]. Soviet Russia responded by deploying special Soviet military detachments masqueraded as [[Basmachi]] forces and received support from British and Turkish intelligence services. The operations of these detachments facilitated the collapse of the Basmachi movement and the assassination of Pasha.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baumann |first=Dr Robert F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yaVvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT110 |title=Russian-Soviet Unconventional Wars in the Caucasus, Central Asia, and Afghanistan [Illustrated Edition] |date=2015-11-06 |publisher=Pickle Partners Publishing |isbn=978-1-78289-965-5 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=1922-08-18 |title=ENVER PASHA SLAIN BY SOVIET FORCE; Turks' War Leader Is Left Dead on the Field After Desperate Fight in Bokhara. LAST OF THE TRIUMVIRATE His Colleagues Talaat and Djemal Assassinated by Armenians After Fleeing From Constantinople. |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1922/08/18/archives/enver-pasha-slain-by-soviet-force-turks-war-leader-is-left-dead-on.html |access-date=2023-03-15 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=15 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315001056/https://www.nytimes.com/1922/08/18/archives/enver-pasha-slain-by-soviet-force-turks-war-leader-is-left-dead-on.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Post World War II counter-insurgency operations ====
{{main|Anti-communist insurgencies in Central and Eastern Europe}}
{{see also|Anti-communist resistance in Poland (1944–1953)|Guerrilla war in the Baltic states|Anti-Soviet resistance by the Ukrainian Insurgent Army}}
Following World War II, various partisan organizations in the Baltic states, Poland and Western Ukraine fought for independence of their countries, which were under [[Military occupations by the Soviet Union|Soviet occupation]], against Soviet forces. Many [[NKVD]] agents were sent to join and penetrate the independence movements. Puppet rebel forces were also created by the NKVD and permitted to attack local Soviet authorities to gain credibility and exfiltrate senior NKVD agents to the West.<ref name="Bodansk">{{cite book |last=Bodansky |first=Yossef |title=The Secret History of the Iraq War |date=2005 |publisher=Regan Books |isbn=0-06-073680-1 |location=New York City |author-link=Yossef Bodansky}}</ref>

=== Supporting political movements ===
According to [[Stanislav Lunev]], [[GRU (Russian Federation)|GRU]] alone spent more than $1 billion for the [[peace movements]] against the [[Vietnam War]], which was a "hugely successful campaign and well worth the cost".<ref name="Lunev" /> Lunev claimed that "the GRU and the KGB helped to fund just about every [[antiwar movement]] and organization in America and abroad".<ref name="Lunev" />

By the 1980s, the US intelligence community was skeptical of claims that attempted [[Soviet influence on the peace movement]] had a direct influence on the non-aligned part of the movement.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Vinocur |first=John |date=1983-07-26 |title=K.G.B. Officers Try To Infiltrate Antiwar Groups |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1983/07/26/world/kgb-officers-try-to-infiltrate-antiwar-groups.html |access-date=2021-09-14 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=14 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210914182942/https://www.nytimes.com/1983/07/26/world/kgb-officers-try-to-infiltrate-antiwar-groups.html |url-status=live }}</ref> However, the KGB's widespread attempts at influence in the United States, [[Switzerland]], and [[Denmark]] targeting the peace movement were known, and the World Peace Council was categorized as a [[communist front]] organization by the CIA.<ref name=":0" />

The [[World Peace Council]] was established on the orders of the Communist Party of the USSR in the late 1940s, and for over forty years carried out campaigns against western, mainly American, military action. Many organisations controlled or influenced by Communists affiliated themselves with it. According to [[Oleg Kalugin]],

<blockquote>... the Soviet intelligence [was] really unparalleled. ... The [KGB] programs—which would run all sorts of congresses, peace congresses, youth congresses, festivals, women's movements, trade union movements, campaigns against U.S. missiles in Europe, campaigns against neutron weapons, allegations that AIDS ... was invented by the CIA ... all sorts of forgeries and faked material—[were] targeted at politicians, the academic community, at [the] public at large. ...<ref name="Kalugin" /></blockquote>

It has been widely claimed that the Soviet Union organised and financed western peace movements; for example, ex-KGB agent [[Sergei Tretyakov (intelligence officer)|Sergei Tretyakov]] claimed that in the early 1980s the KGB wanted to prevent the United States from deploying nuclear missiles in [[Western Europe]] as a counterweight to Soviet missiles in [[Eastern Bloc|Eastern Europe]],<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://nuke.fas.org/control/inf/inf-chron.htm |title=Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces &#91;INF&#93; Chronology |access-date=23 April 2023 |archive-date=13 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413221043/https://nuke.fas.org/control/inf/inf-chron.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> and that they used the [[Soviet Peace Committee]] to organize and finance anti-American demonstrations in western Europe.<ref name="Comrade J">{{cite book |last=Earley |first=Pete |author-link=Pete Earley |date=2007 |title=Comrade J: The Untold Secrets of Russia's Master Spy in America After the End of the Cold War |location=New York City |publisher=Berkley Books |pages=167–177 |isbn=978-0-399-15439-3}}</ref><ref name="CNN Opposition to the Bomb">{{cite web |url=http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/experience/the.bomb/opposition/ |title=Opposition to The Bomb: The fear, and occasional political intrigue, behind the ban-the-bomb movements |first=Bruce |last=Kennedy |date=1998 |website=CNN |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080418133553/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/experience/the.bomb/opposition/ |archive-date=April 18, 2008}}</ref><ref name="Moscow and the Peace, Offensive">{{cite web |url=http://www.heritage.org/research/russiaandeurasia/bg184.cfm |title=Moscow and the Peace, Offensive |first=Jeffrey G. |last=Barlow |date=May 14, 1982 |website=[[The Heritage Foundation]] |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081027233109/http://www.heritage.org/Research/RussiaandEurasia/bg184.cfm |archive-date=2008-10-27}}</ref> The Soviet Union first deployed the [[RSD-10 Pioneer]] (called ''SS-20 Saber'' in the West) in its European territories in March 1976, a mobile, concealable [[intermediate-range ballistic missile]] (IRBM) with a [[multiple independently targetable reentry vehicle]] (MIRV) containing three nuclear 150-kiloton [[warhead]]s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theses.gla.ac.uk/4814/1/1998CantPhD.pdf|title=The development of the SS-20|last=Cant|first=James|date=May 1998|website=Glasgow Thesis Service|access-date=9 January 2019|archive-date=13 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220213165043/https://theses.gla.ac.uk/4814/1/1998CantPhD.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The SS-20's range of {{convert|4700–5,000|km|mi|sp=us}} was great enough to reach Western Europe from well within Soviet territory; the range was just below the [[Strategic Arms Limitation Talks#SALT II Treaty|Strategic Arms Limitation Talks II (SALT II) Treaty]] minimum range for an [[intercontinental ballistic missile]] (ICBM).{{convert|5500|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=ss20>{{cite web |title=RSD-10 MOD 1/-MOD 2 (SS-20) |publisher=Missile Threat |date=17 October 2012 |url=http://missilethreat.com/missiles/rsd-10-mod-1-mod-2-ss-20/ |access-date=15 August 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160828104632/http://missilethreat.com/missiles/rsd-10-mod-1-mod-2-ss-20/ |archive-date=28 August 2016}}</ref><ref name=faschron>{{cite web |title=Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces [INF] Chronology |publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]] |url=http://fas.org/nuke/control/inf/inf-chron.htm |access-date=15 August 2016 |archive-date=4 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220404053656/https://nuke.fas.org/control/inf/inf-chron.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite report |last1=Bohlen |first1=Avis |author1-link=Avis Bohlen |last2=Burns |first2=William |last3=Pifer |first3=Steven |author3-link=Steven Pifer |last4=Woodworth |first4=John |title=The Treaty on Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces: History and Lessons Learned |year=2012 |url=https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/30-arms-control-pifer-paper.pdf |access-date=16 August 2016 |publisher=Brookings Institution |location=Washington, D.C. |page=7 |archive-date=15 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215124917/https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/30-arms-control-pifer-paper.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Tretyakov made further stated that "[t]he KGB was responsible for creating the entire [[nuclear winter]] story to stop the [[Pershing II]] missiles,"<ref name="Comrade J" /> and that they fed misinformation to western peace groups and thereby influenced a key scientific paper on the topic by western scientists.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/pss/4312777 |title=The Atmosphere after a Nuclear War: Twilight at Noon |last1=Crutzen |first1=Paul J. |author-link1=Paul J. Crutzen |last2=Birks |first2=John W. |author-link2=John W. Birks |name-list-style=amp |date=1982 |journal=[[Ambio]] |volume=11 |number=2/3 |pages=114–125|jstor=4312777 }}</ref>

According to intelligence historian [[Christopher Andrew (historian)|Christopher Andrew]], the KGB in Britain was unable to infiltrate major figures in the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament|CND]], and the Soviets relied on influencing "less influential contacts" which were more receptive to the Moscow line. Andrew wrote that [[MI5]] "found no evidence that KGB funding to the British peace movement went beyond occasional payment of fares and expenses to individuals."<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Andrew |first=Christopher M. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/421785376 |title=The Defence of the Realm: The Authorized History of MI5 |date=2009 |location=London, UK |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=978-0-7139-9885-6 |oclc=421785376}}</ref>

=== United States ===
{{see also|Soviet espionage in the United States}}
Some of the active measures by the USSR against the [[United States]] were exposed in the [[Mitrokhin Archive]]:<ref name="Mitrokhin" />

* Attempts to discredit the [[Central Intelligence Agency]], using writer [[Philip Agee]] (codenamed PONT), who exposed the identities of many CIA personnel. Mitrokhin alleges that Agee's bulletin ''[[CovertAction Quarterly|CovertAction]]'' received assistance from the Soviet KGB and Cuban [[Dirección de Inteligencia|DGI]]<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C |last1=Andrew |first1=Christopher |last2=Mitrokhin |first2=Vasili |name-list-style=amp |title=The Sword and The Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB |date=1999 |location=New York |publisher=Basic Books |pages=230–234 |isbn=0-465-00310-9 |oclc=42368608}}</ref>
* Stirring up racial tensions in the United States by mailing bogus letters from the [[Ku Klux Klan]], placing an explosive package in "the Negro section of New York" ([[Operation PANDORA]])<ref>{{cite book |last1=Andrew |first1=Christopher |last2=Mitrokhin |first2=Vasili |name-list-style=amp |title=The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB |date=2001 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=0-465-00312-5 |pages=237–239}}</ref>
* Planting claims that both [[John F. Kennedy]] and [[Martin Luther King Jr.]] had been assassinated by the CIA<ref name="g">{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2017/jun/14/russian-fake-news-is-not-new-soviet-aids-propaganda-cost-countless-lives |title=Russian fake news is not new: Soviet Aids propaganda cost countless lives |first=David Robert |last=Grimes |date=14 June 2017 |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=24 June 2020 |archive-date=1 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200701205100/https://www.theguardian.com/science/blog/2017/jun/14/russian-fake-news-is-not-new-soviet-aids-propaganda-cost-countless-lives |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Andrew |first1=Christopher |last2=Mitrokhin |first2=Vasili |name-list-style=amp |date=2000 |title=The Mitrokhin Archive: The KGB in Europe and the West |location=London, UK |publisher=[[Allen Lane (imprint)|Allen Lane]] |at=Ch. 14 |isbn=0-14-028487-7}}</ref><ref name="m">{{cite book |last1=Andrew |first1=Christopher |last2=Mitrokhin |first2=Vasili |name-list-style=amp |date=2005 |title=The Mitrokhin Archive II: The KGB in the World |location=London, UK |publisher=Allen Lane |isbn=978-0-71399-359-2}}</ref><ref name="h">{{cite journal |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/fall_winter_2001/article02.html |title=The Lie that Linked CIA to the Kennedy Assassination |last=Holland |first=Max |author-link=Max Holland |date=2001 |journal=[[Studies in Intelligence]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |number=11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181221134108/https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/fall_winter_2001/article02.html |archive-date=December 21, 2018}}</ref>
* In the Middle East in 1975, the KGB claimed to identify 45 statesmen from around the world who had been the victims of successful or unsuccessful CIA assassination attempts over the past decade<ref name="m" />
* Make US military aid to the [[El Salvador]] government (increased more than fivefold by the Reagan administration between 1981 and 1984) so unpopular within the United States that public opinion would demand that it be halted. About 150 committees were created in the United States which spoke out against US interference in El Salvador, and contacts were made with US Senators<ref name="m" />
* Fabrication of the story that the [[HIV|AIDS virus]] was [[Operation INFEKTION|manufactured by US scientists]] at [[Fort Detrick]]; the story was spread by Russian-born biologist [[Jakob Segal]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://thereader.mitpress.mit.edu/operation-denver-kgb-aids-disinformation-campaign/ |title=Lessons From Operation "Denver," the KGB's Massive AIDS Disinformation Campaign |first=Mark |last=Kramer |date=2020-05-26 |website=The MIT Press Reader |language=en |access-date=2021-04-15 |archive-date=13 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213150658/https://thereader.mitpress.mit.edu/operation-denver-kgb-aids-disinformation-campaign/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In a secondary role to the KGB during the operation, former East German spymaster [[Markus Wolf]] admitted, during a visit to Italy in 1998, the role of the [[Main Directorate for Reconnaissance|HVA]] in spreading AIDS conspiracy theories<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Selvage |first=Douglas |date=2019-10-01 |title=Operation "Denver": The East German Ministry of State Security and the KGB's AIDS Disinformation Campaign, 1985–1986 (Part 1) |journal=Journal of Cold War Studies |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=71–123 |doi=10.1162/jcws_a_00907 |issn=1520-3972 |doi-access=}}</ref>

In 1974, according to KGB statistics, over 250 active measures were targeted against the CIA alone, leading to denunciations of Agency abuses, both real and (more frequently) imaginary,<ref>''Mitrokhin Archive''. Vol. 3 pak, app. 3, item 410.</ref> in media, parliamentary debates, demonstrations and speeches by leading politicians around the world.<ref name="m" />

=== Blowback ===
{{further|Blowback (intelligence)}}

Soviet intelligence, as part of active measures, frequently spread [[disinformation]] to distort their adversaries' decision-making. However, sometimes this information filtered back through the KGB's own contacts, leading to distorted reports.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Garthoff |first=Raymond L. |author-link=Raymond L. Garthoff |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OOpqCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |title=Soviet Leaders and Intelligence: Assessing the American Adversary during the Cold War |date=2015-08-15 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Georgetown University Press |isbn=978-1-62616-230-3 |page=48 |language=en}}</ref> [[Lawrence Martin-Bittman|Lawrence Bittman]] also addressed Soviet intelligence blowback in ''[[The KGB and Soviet Disinformation]]'', stating that "There are, of course, instances in which the operator is partially or completely exposed and subjected to countermeasures taken by the government of the target country."<ref name="bittman1985">{{cite book |last=Bittman |first=Ladislav |title=The KGB and Soviet Disinformation: An Insider's View |pages=49–52 |year=1985 |location=Washington, D.C. |publisher=Pergamon-Brassey's |isbn=978-0-08-031572-0}}</ref>

== Russian Federation active measures, 1991 to present ==
{{See also|Propaganda in the Russian Federation|Second Cold War}}
Active measures have continued in the post-Soviet [[Russia|Russian Federation]] and are in many ways based on Cold War schematics.<ref name="am"/> After the [[annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|annexation of Crimea]], Kremlin-controlled media spread disinformation about Ukraine's government. In July 2014, [[Malaysia Airlines Flight 17|Malaysia Airlines flight MH17]] was shot down by a Russian missile over eastern Ukraine, killing all 298 passengers. Kremlin-controlled media and online agents spread disinformation, claiming Ukraine had shot down the airplane.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2018/02/22/russian-disinformation-distorts-american-and-european-democracy |title=Russian disinformation distorts American and European democracy |date=22 February 2018 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |access-date=26 November 2018 |archive-date=26 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181126181142/https://www.economist.com/briefing/2018/02/22/russian-disinformation-distorts-american-and-european-democracy |url-status=live }}</ref>

Russia's alleged disinformation campaign, its involvement in [[Brexit|the UK's withdrawal from the EU]], [[interference in the 2016 United States presidential election]], and its alleged support of far-left and documented support of far-right movements in the West, has been compared to the Soviet Union's active measures in that it aims to "disrupt and discredit Western democracies".<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/news/europe/21711538-1930s-moscow-beacon-international-movement-russian-propaganda |title=The motherlands calls: Russian propaganda is state-of-the-art again |date=10 December 2016 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |access-date=13 December 2016 |archive-date=13 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161213022837/http://www.economist.com/news/europe/21711538-1930s-moscow-beacon-international-movement-russian-propaganda |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/01/russia-is-already-winning-214648 |title=Russia Is Already Winning |first=Molly K. |last=McKew |date=18 January 2017 |website=[[Politico]] |access-date=24 January 2017 |archive-date=21 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170121093116/http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/01/russia-is-already-winning-214648 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In testimony before the [[United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence|United States Senate Intelligence Committee]] hearing on the US policy response to Russian interference in the 2016 elections, [[Victoria Nuland]], former US Ambassador to [[NATO]], referred to herself as "a regular target of Russian active measures."<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.c-span.org/video/?447328-1/obama-administration-officials-testify-russia-election-interference#Victoria&start=772 |title=Senate Intelligence Committee on the policy response to Russian interference in the 2016 elections |first=Victoria |last=Nuland |date=June 20, 2018 |website=[[C-SPAN]] |access-date=July 19, 2018 |archive-date=15 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180715064539/https://www.c-span.org/video/?447328-1/obama-administration-officials-testify-russia-election-interference#Victoria&start=772 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/CHRG-115shrg30501.pdf |title=Hearing Before The Select Committee on Intelligence of the United States Senate: Policy Response To The Russian Interference in the 2016 U.S. Elections |date=June 20, 2018 |website=U.S. Senate |access-date=23 August 2020 |archive-date=26 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200826024415/https://www.intelligence.senate.gov/sites/default/files/hearings/CHRG-115shrg30501.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

The introduction of the Internet, specifically social media offered new opportunities for active measures. The Kremlin-affiliated [[Internet Research Agency]], also referred to as the Information Warfare Branch, was established in 2013.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26271634 |title=Commanding the Trend: Social Media as Information Warfare |last=Prier |first=Jarred |date=2017 |journal=[[Strategic Studies Quarterly]] |publisher=[[Air University Press]] |volume=11 |number=4 |pages=50–85 |jstor=26271634 |access-date=28 October 2021 |archive-date=4 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210204160128/https://www.jstor.org/stable/26271634 |url-status=live }}</ref> This agency is devoted to spreading disinformation through the Internet, the most well-known and prominent operation being its part in the interference in the 2016 US presidential election.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bastos |first1=Marco |last2=Farkas |first2=Johan |date=2019-04-01 |title='Donald Trump Is My President!': The Internet Research Agency Propaganda Machine |journal=Social Media + Society |language=en |volume=5 |issue=3 |doi=10.1177/2056305119865466 |s2cid=181681781 |issn=2056-3051|doi-access=free |hdl=2043/29693 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> According to the [[United States House Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence|House Intelligence Committee]], by 2018, organic content created by the Russian IRA reached at least 126 million US Facebook users, while its politically divisive ads reached 11.4 million US Facebook users. Tweets by the IRA reached approximately 288 million American users. According to committee chair [[Adam Schiff]], "[The Russian] social media campaign was designed to further a broader Kremlin objective: sowing discord in the U.S. by inflaming passions on a range of divisive issues. The Russians did so by weaving together fake accounts, pages, and communities to push politicized content and videos, and to mobilize real Americans to sign [[online petition]]s and join rallies and protests."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Exposing Russia's Effort to Sow Discord Online: The Internet Research Agency and Advertisements |url=https://intelligence.house.gov/social-media-content/ |url-status=dead |access-date=2021-11-05 |website=[[Permanent Select Committee on Intelligence]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107222939/https://intelligence.house.gov/social-media-content/ |archive-date=7 January 2019 }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Active Measures Working Group]]
* [[Agent of influence]]
* [[Agents provocateurs]]
* [[Chronology of Soviet secret police agencies]]
* [[Dezinformatsia (book)|''Dezinformatsia'' (book)]]
* [[First Chief Directorate]] of KGB of the USSR
* ''[[The Gospel of Afranius]]''
* [[Hybrid warfare]]—a military strategy which employs political warfare and blends conventional warfare, irregular warfare and cyberwarfare
* ''[[The KGB and Soviet Disinformation]]''—book
* [[Kompromat]]
* [[Operation Cedar (KGB)]]
* [[Operation INFEKTION]]
* [[Operation PANDORA]]
* [[Operation Trust]]
* [[Poison laboratory of the Soviet secret services]]
* [[Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections]]
* [[Russian military deception]]
* [[Russian web brigades]]
* [[Troll farm]]
* [[Vulkan files leak]]
* [[Whataboutism]]
* [[Yasenevo District]]—The Forest
{{div col end}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{Library resources box}}
* {{Cite book |last=Baumann |first=Dr Robert F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yaVvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT110 |title=Russian-Soviet Unconventional Wars in the Caucasus, Central Asia, and Afghanistan [Illustrated Edition] |date=2015-11-06 |publisher=Pickle Partners Publishing |isbn=978-1-78289-965-5 |language=en}}
* {{cite journal |url=http://aei.pitt.edu/88535/1/pw_64_ang_active-measures_net_0.pdf |title=Active Measures: Russia's key export |last1=Darczewska |first1=Jolanta |last2=Żochowski |first2=Piotr |name-list-style=amp |date=June 2017 |journal=Point of View |publisher=[[Centre for Eastern Studies]] |isbn=978-83-65827-03-6}}
* {{cite report |url=https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/Operation-Secondary-Infektion_English.pdf |author=Digital Forensic Research Lab |date=2019 |title=Operation "Secondary Infektion": A Suspected Russian Intelligence Operation Targeting Europe and the United States |publisher=[[Atlantic Council]]}}
* {{cite book |first=Ishmael |last=Jones |title=The Human Factor: Inside the CIA's Dysfunctional Intelligence Culture |location=New York City |publisher=Encounter Books |date=2010 |isbn=978-1-59403-223-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Mitrokhin |first1=Vasili |author-link1=Vasili Mitrokhin |last2=Andrew |first2=Christopher |author-link2=Christopher Andrew (historian) |title=The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World |publisher=Basic Books |date=2005 |isbn=0-465-00311-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Rid |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas Rid |title=Active Measures: The Secret History of Disinformation and Political Warfare |publisher=Farrar, Straus and Giroux |date=2020 |isbn=978-0374287269}}

== External links ==
{{commons category}}
* {{cite web |url=http://cicentre.com/disinformation.htm |title=Crash Course in KGB/SVR/FSB Disinformation and Active Measures |date=2007 |publisher=The Centre for Counterintelligence and Security Studies |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070614052728/http://cicentre.com/disinformation.htm |archive-date=2007-06-14}} 
* {{cite web |url=http://www.answers.com/topic/disinformation |title=Disinformation |website=Gale Encyclopedia of Espionage & Intelligence |via=Answers.com |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100730130750/http://www.answers.com/topic/disinformation |archive-date=2010-07-30}}
* {{cite web |url=http://usinfo.state.gov/media/misinformation.html |title=Identifying Misinformation |publisher=U.S. State Department |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070104092905/http://usinfo.state.gov/media/misinformation.html |archive-date=2007-01-04}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.psywar.org/content/sovietActiveMeasures |title=Soviet Active Measures in the West and the Developing World |date=1981 |publisher=Psywar.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817161219/https://www.psywar.org/content/sovietActiveMeasures |archive-date=August 17, 2018}}
* {{cite journal |url=https://www.bu.edu/iscip/vol10/Bittman.html |title=Disinforming the Public |first=Lawrence |last=Bittman |date=February 2000 |journal=Perspective |volume=X |number=3 |publisher=Institute for the Study of Conflict, Ideology, and Policy |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610020448/https://www.bu.edu/iscip/vol10/Bittman.html |archive-date=June 10, 2008}}
* {{cite web |url=http://intellit.muskingum.edu/russia_folder/russiad%26d_folder/russiadis%26dectoc.html |title=Soviet Active Measures: Deception, Disinformation, and Propaganda |first=J. Ransom |last=Clark |publisher=The Literature of Intelligence: A Bibliography of Materials, with Essays, Reviews, and Comments |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070112144010/http://intellit.muskingum.edu/russia_folder/russiad%26d_folder/russiadis%26dectoc.html |archive-date=2007-01-12}}
* {{cite web |url=http://axisglobe.com/article.asp?article=252 |title=Russian Secret Services' Links with Al-Qaeda |first=Michel |last=Elbaz |date=18 July 2005 |publisher=Axis Information and Analysis |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060223070505/http://axisglobe.com/article.asp?article=252 |archive-date=2006-02-23}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AhAzGLb1j40 |title=Yuri Bezmenov: Deception Was My Job (Complete) 1984 |author=Greene Ernest |date=5 December 2017 |publisher=YouTube}}
* {{cite news |url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2017/03/01/welcome-to-russian-psychological-warfare-operations-101-a57301 |title=The Secrets of Russia's Propaganda War, Revealed |first1=Alexey |last1=Kovalev |first2=Matthew |author-link=Alexey Kovalev (journalist) |last2=Bodner |name-list-style=amp |date=March 1, 2017 |newspaper=[[The Moscow Times]]}}
* {{cite web |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/39977961.pdf |title=Modern Russian Psychological Operations (PSYOPS) |first=Peter A. |last=Mattsson |date=2015 |publisher=[[CORE (research service)|CORE]]}}
* {{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tR_6dibpDfo |title=Operation InfeKtion: How Russia Perfected the Art of War |website=The New York Times |date=25 November 2018 |via=YouTube}}
* {{cite web |url=http://intellit.muskingum.edu/russia_folder/pcw_era/index.htm#Contents |title=Soviet Active Measures in the 'Post-Cold War' Era 1988-1991 |author=U.S. Information Agency |date=June 1992 |publisher=The Literature of Intelligence: A Bibliography of Materials, with Essays, Reviews, and Comments}}

{{Soviet Bloc disinformation in the Cold War}}
{{Cold War}}
{{Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections}}

[[Category:Cold War espionage]]
[[Category:Communist theory]]
[[Category:Communist propaganda]]
[[Category:Foreign relations of the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:KGB]]
[[Category:Law enforcement in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Propaganda in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Propaganda techniques]]
[[Category:Psychological warfare techniques]]
[[Category:Russian intelligence agencies]]
[[Category:Soviet intelligence agencies]]
[[Category:Soviet phraseology]]