View source for Józef Piłsudski

{{Short description|Polish statesman (1867–1935)}}
{{Redirect|Piłsudski}}
{{featured article}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2023}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix    = [[Marshal (Poland)|Marshal]]
| name                = Józef Piłsudski
| image               = Józef Piłsudski (-1930).jpg
| imagesize           = 
| caption             = Piłsudski {{circa|1920s}}
| office2             = [[Chief of State of Poland]]
| term_start2         = 22 November 1918
| term_end2           = 14 December 1922
| primeminister2      = {{Collapsible list|title={{nobold|''See list''}}
| [[Jędrzej Moraczewski]]
| [[Ignacy Jan Paderewski]]
| [[Leopold Skulski]]
| [[Władysław Grabski]]
| [[Wincenty Witos]]
| [[Antoni Ponikowski]]
| [[Artur Śliwiński]]
| [[Julian Nowak]]
}}
| predecessor2        = [[Regency Council (Poland)|Regency Council]]
| successor2          = [[Gabriel Narutowicz]] (as [[President of Poland|President]])
| office3             = [[Prime Minister of Poland]]
| term_start3         = 2 October 1926
| term_end3           = 27 June 1928
| president3          = [[Ignacy Mościcki]]
| predecessor3        = [[Kazimierz Bartel]]
| successor3          = Kazimierz Bartel
| deputy3             = Kazimierz Bartel
| term_start4         = 25 August 1930
| term_end4           = 4 December 1930
| president4          = Ignacy Mościcki
| predecessor4        = [[Walery Sławek]]
| successor4          = Walery Sławek
| deputy4             = [[Józef Beck]]
| birth_name          = Józef Klemens Piłsudski
| birth_date          = {{Birth date|1867|12|5|df=y}}
| birth_place         = [[Zalavas|Zulov]], [[Vilna Governorate]], Russian Empire
| death_date          = {{Death date and age|1935|5|12|1867|12|5|df=y}}
| death_place         = [[Warsaw]], Poland
| constituency        = 
| party               = [[Independent politician|Independent]]
| otherparty          = [[Polish Socialist Party]] (1893–1918){{Ref label|c|c|none}}
| spouse              = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|[[Maria Piłsudska|Maria Koplewska]]|1899|1921|end=died}}
* {{marriage|[[Aleksandra Piłsudska|Aleksandra Szczerbińska]]|1921}}
}}
| children            = {{hlist|[[Wanda Piłsudska|Wanda]]|[[Jadwiga Piłsudska|Jadwiga]]}}
| profession          = 
| signature           = Józef Piłsudski Signature.svg
| footnotes           = 
| nickname            = 
| allegiance          = {{plainlist|
* [[Austria-Hungary]]
* [[Second Polish Republic]]
}}
| branch              = {{plainlist|
* [[Polish Legions in World War I|Polish Legions]]
* [[Polish Armed Forces (Second Polish Republic)|Polish Army]]
}}
| serviceyears        = {{plainlist|
* 1914–1923
* 1926–1935
}}
| rank                = [[Marshal of Poland]]
| unit                = 
| commands            = 
| battles             = {{plainlist|
* [[Revolution in the Kingdom of Poland (1905–1907)]]
* [[World War I]]
* [[Polish–Ukrainian War]]
* [[Polish–Lithuanian War]]
* [[Polish–Soviet War]]
}}
| awards              = 
| resting_place       = 
| module              = {{Listen|pos=center|embed=yes|filename=J. Piłsudski - Żywioł pracy.ogg|type=speech|title=Józef Piłsudski's voice|description=Recorded on 5 September 1924}}
}}
'''Józef Klemens Piłsudski'''{{Ref label|a|a|none}} ({{IPA|pl|ˈjuzɛf ˈklɛmɛns piwˈsutskʲi|lang|Pl-Józef_Piłsudski.ogg}}; 5 December 1867&nbsp;– 12 May 1935) was a Polish statesman who served as the [[Chief of State (Poland)|Chief of State]] (1918–1922) and first [[Marshal of Poland]] (from 1920). In the [[aftermath of World War I]], he became an increasingly dominant figure in [[Polish politics]] and exerted significant influence on shaping the country's foreign policy. Piłsudski is viewed as a father of the [[Second Polish Republic]], which was re-established in 1918, 123 years after the final [[partition of Poland]] in 1795, and was considered ''de facto'' leader (1926–1935) of the Second Republic as the [[Minister of Military Affairs (Poland)|Minister of Military Affairs]].

Seeing himself as a descendant of the culture and traditions of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]], Piłsudski believed in a multi-ethnic Poland—"a home of nations" including indigenous ethnic and religious minorities. Early in his political career, Piłsudski became a leader of the [[Polish Socialist Party]]. Believing Poland's independence would be won militarily, he formed the [[Polish Legions in World War I|Polish Legions]]. In 1914, he predicted a new major war would defeat the [[Russian Empire]] and the [[Central Powers]]. After [[World War I]] began in 1914, Piłsudski's Legions fought alongside [[Austria-Hungary]] against Russia. In 1917, with Russia faring poorly in the war, he withdrew his support for the Central Powers, and was imprisoned in [[Magdeburg]] by the Germans.

Piłsudski was Poland's Chief of State from November 1918, when Poland regained its independence, until 1922. From 1919 to 1921 he commanded [[Polish Armed Forces (Second Polish Republic)|Polish forces]] in six wars that re-defined the country's borders. On the verge of defeat in the [[Polish–Soviet War]] in August 1920, his forces repelled the invading Soviet Russians at the [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]]. In 1923, with a government dominated by his opponents, in particular the [[National Democracy (Poland)|National Democrats]], Piłsudski retired from active politics. Three years later he returned to power in the [[May Coup (Poland)|May Coup]] and became the strongman of the [[Sanation]] government.<ref name="BEIPCQ">{{cite book |title=Beyond Empire: Interwar Poland and the Colonial Question, 1918–1939 |last=Puchalski |first=Piotr |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/bfe22980348fd04646924c8349f0eb72 |publisher=The University of Wisconsin-Madison Press |year=2019 |access-date=October 19, 2024}}</ref><ref name="FMBALNPLPSC">{{cite journal |journal=Studia Iuridica Lublinensia |title=From May to Bereza: A Legal Nihilism in the Political and Legal Practice of the Sanation Camp 1926–1935 |last=Kowalski |first=Wawrzyniec |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=985623 |publisher=Wydawnictwo Naukowe Uniwersytetu Marii Curie-Sklodowskiej |issue=5 |pages=133–147 |year=2020 |doi=10.17951/sil.2020.29.5.133-147 |access-date=October 19, 2024|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="TFARPRP">{{cite journal |journal=Zapiski Historyczne |title=The Formation of Authoritarian Rule in Poland between 1926 and 1939 as a Research Problem |last=Olstowski |first=Przemysław |url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=1256530 |publisher=Towarzystwo Naukowe w Toruniu |issue=2 |pages=27–60 |year=2024 |doi=10.15762/ZH.2024.13 |access-date=October 19, 2024 |quote=The case of authoritarian rule in Poland [...] following the [[May Coup (Poland)|May Coup of 1926]], is notable for its unique origins [...] Rooted in a period when Poland lacked statehood [...] Polish authoritarianism evolved [...] Central to this phenomenon was Marshal Józef Piłsudski, the ideological leader of Poland's ruling camp after the May Coup of 1926|doi-access=free }}</ref> He focused on military and foreign affairs until his death in 1935, developing [[Józef Piłsudski's cult of personality|a cult of personality]] that has survived into the 21st century.

Although some aspects of Piłsudski's administration, such as imprisoning his political opponents at [[Bereza Kartuska Prison|Bereza Kartuska]], are controversial, he remains one of the most [[#Legacy|influential]] figures in Polish 20th-century history and is widely regarded as a founder of modern Poland.
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==Early life==
[[File:Piludski w szkole.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=A black-and-white photograph of a young boy, looking towards the right|Piłsudski, schoolboy]]

Piłsudski was born 5 December 1867 to the [[szlachta|noble]] [[Piłsudski family]] at their manor of Zulov near the village of [[Zalavas|Zulov]] (now Zalavas in [[Lithuania]]).{{sfn|Hetherington|2012|p=92}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bianchini |first=Stefano |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sLIzDwAAQBAJ&dq=Pi%C5%82sudski+Zu%C5%82%C3%B3w+Zu%C5%82owo&pg=PT30 |title=Liquid Nationalism and State Partitions in Europe |date=2017-09-29 |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=978-1-78643-661-0 |pages=30 |language=en}}</ref> The village had been part of the [[Russian Empire]] since 1795, having previously been part of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]], an integral part of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] from 1569 to 1795. After World War I, the village was part of the [[Vilnius Region]] that was contested between Lithuania and Poland throughout the interwar period. From 1922 until 1939, the village was in the Second Polish Republic. During World War II, the village suffered Soviet and German occupations. The estate was part of the dowry brought by his mother, Maria, a member of the wealthy Billewicz family.{{sfn|Hetherington|2012|p=95}} The Piłsudski family, although pauperized,{{r|POleksa04}} cherished Polish patriotic traditions,{{r|PolandGov|Urbank97_13-5}} and are characterized either as Polish{{r|Lerski96_439|Davies05_40}} or as [[Polonized]] [[Lithuanians]].{{r|POleksa04|BidJef98_186}}{{Ref label|b|b|none}} Józef was the second son born to the family.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Reddaway|first=William Fiddian|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jExpAAAAMAAJ&q=Pilsudski+%22second+son%22|title=Marshal Pilsudski|date=1939|publisher=Routledge|pages=5|language=en}}</ref>

Józef was not an especially diligent student when he attended the Russian [[Gymnasium in Vilnius]].{{sfn|Roshwald|2001|p=36}} Along with his brothers [[Bronisław Piłsudski|Bronisław]], [[Adam Piłsudski|Adam]] and [[Jan Piłsudski|Jan]], Józef was introduced by his mother Maria to Polish history and literature, which were suppressed by the Imperial authorities.{{r|McM03_208}} His father, also named Józef, fought in the [[January Uprising|January 1863 Uprising]] against Russian rule.{{r|PolandGov}} The family resented the government's [[Russification]] policies. Young Józef profoundly disliked having to attend [[Russian Orthodox Church]] services {{r|McM03_208}} and left school with an aversion for the [[Russian Tsar]], its empire, and its culture.{{r|POleksa04}}

In 1885 Piłsudski started [[medical school|medical studies]] at [[Kharkov University]] where he became involved with ''[[Narodnaya Volya]]'', part of the Russian [[Narodniks]] revolutionary movement.{{r|PWN}} In 1886, he was suspended for participating in student demonstrations.{{r|PolandGov}} He was rejected by the [[University of Dorpat]], whose authorities had been informed of his political affiliation.{{r|PolandGov}} On 22 March 1887, he was arrested by Tsarist authorities on a charge of plotting with [[Vilnius]] socialists to assassinate [[Tsar]] [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]]; Piłsudski's main connection to the plot was the involvement of his brother Bronisław.{{r|ICRAP|Urbank97_50}} Józef was sentenced to five years' exile in [[Siberia]], first at [[Kirensk]] on the [[Lena River]], then at [[Tunka (village)|Tunka]].{{r|PolandGov|Urbank97_50}}

===Siberian exile===
While being transported in a prisoners' convoy to Siberia, Piłsudski was held for several weeks at a prison in [[Irkutsk]].{{r|LandauDunlop30_30}} During his stay, another inmate insulted a guard and refused to apologize; Piłsudski and other political prisoners were beaten by the guards for their defiance and Piłsudski lost two teeth. He took part in a subsequent hunger strike until the authorities reinstated political prisoners' privileges that had been suspended after the incident.{{r|Urbank97_62-6}} For his involvement, he was sentenced in 1888 to six months' imprisonment. He had to spend the first night of his incarceration in 40-degree-below-zero Siberian cold; this led to an illness that nearly killed him and health problems that would plague him throughout life.{{r|Urbank97_68-9}}

During his exile, Piłsudski met many ''[[Sybiraks]]'', people who had been resettled (usually by force) to Siberia.{{r|Urbank97_74–7}} He was allowed to work in an occupation of his choosing and tutored local children in mathematics and foreign languages{{r|POleksa04}} (he knew French, German and Lithuanian in addition to Russian and his native Polish; he would later learn English).{{sfn|Jędrzejewicz|Cisek|1994|p=13}} Local officials decided that, as a Polish noble, he was not entitled to the 10-[[Russian ruble|ruble]] pension received by others.{{r|Urbank97_71}}

==Polish Socialist Party==
In 1892 Piłsudski returned from exile and settled in Adomavas Manor near [[Teneniai]]. In 1893, he joined the [[Polish Socialist Party]] (''PPS''){{r|PolandGov}}, and helped organize their Lithuanian branch.{{r|Urbank97_88}} Initially, he sided with the Socialists' more radical wing, but despite the socialist movement's ostensible [[proletarian internationalism|internationalism]], he remained a Polish nationalist.{{r|McM03_209}} In 1894, as its [[chief editor]], he published an [[bibuła|underground]] socialist newspaper called ''[[Robotnik (1894–1939)|Robotnik]]'' (The Worker); he would also be one of its chief writers and a [[typesetter]].{{r|PolandGov|PWN|Urbank97_93}}{{sfn|Piłsudski|1989|p=12}} In 1895, he became a PPS leader, promoting the position that doctrinal issues were of minor importance and socialist ideology should be merged with nationalist ideology because this combination offered the greatest chance of restoring Polish independence.{{r|PWN}}
[[File:Jozef Pilsudski in 1899.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|alt=A photograph of a young man, looking towards the left|Piłsudski, 1899]]
On 15 July 1899, while an underground organizer, Piłsudski married a fellow socialist organizer, [[Maria Piłsudska|Maria Juszkiewiczowa]], ''née'' Koplewska.{{r|Alabrud99_99|Garlicki195_63|Pobog-Ma90_7}} According to his biographer [[Wacław Jędrzejewicz]], the marriage was less romantic than pragmatic. ''Robotnik'''s printing press was housed in their apartment first in Vilnius, then in [[Łódź]]. A pretext of regular family life made them less suspect. Also, Russian law protected a wife from prosecution for the illegal activities of her husband.{{sfn|Jędrzejewicz|1990|loc=pp. 27–8 (1982 ed.)}} The marriage deteriorated when, several years later, Piłsudski began an affair with a younger socialist,{{r|McM03_209}} [[Aleksandra Piłsudska|Aleksandra Szczerbińska]]. Maria died in 1921; in October that year, Piłsudski married Aleksandra. By then, the couple had two daughters, [[Wanda Piłsudska|Wanda]] and [[Jadwiga Piłsudska|Jadwiga]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Drążek|first=Aleksandra|date=8 August 2021|title=Córki Piłsudskiego - co wiemy o losach córek marszałka|url=https://kronikidziejow.pl/porady/corki-pilsudskiego-co-wiemy-o-losach-corek-marszalka/|access-date=6 September 2021|website=kronikidziejow.pl}}</ref>

In February 1900 Piłsudski was imprisoned at the [[Warsaw Citadel]] when Russian authorities found ''Robotnik''{{'s}} underground printing press in Łódź. He feigned mental illness in May 1901 and escaped from a mental hospital at [[Saint Petersburg]] with the help of a Polish physician, [[Władysław Mazurkiewicz (physician)|Władysław Mazurkiewicz]], and others. He fled to [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]], then part of [[Austria-Hungary]], and thence to [[Leytonstone]] in London, staying with [[Leon Wasilewski]] and his family.{{r|PolandGov}}

===Armed resistance===
In the early 1900s, almost all parties in Russian Poland and Lithuania took a conciliatory position toward the Russian Empire and aimed at negotiating within it a limited autonomy for Poland. Piłsudski's PPS was the only political force prepared to fight the Empire for Polish independence and to resort to violence to achieve that goal.{{r|POleksa04}}

On the outbreak of the [[Russo-Japanese War]] in the summer of 1904, Piłsudski traveled to Tokyo, Japan, where he tried unsuccessfully to obtain that country's assistance for an uprising in Poland. He offered to supply Japan with [[intelligence (information gathering)|intelligence]] to support its war with Russia, and proposed the creation of a Polish Legion from Poles,{{r|Urbank97_109–11}} conscripted into the Russian Army, who had been captured by Japan. He also suggested a [[Prometheism#Sources of Prometheism|"Promethean" project]] directed at breaking up the Russian Empire, a goal that he later continued to pursue.{{sfn|Charaszkiewicz|2000|p=56}} Meeting with [[Yamagata Aritomo]], he suggested that starting a [[guerrilla war]] in Poland would distract Russia and asked for Japan to supply him with weapons. Although the Japanese diplomat [[Hayashi Tadasu]] supported the plan, the Japanese government, including Yamagata, was more skeptical.{{sfn|Kowner|2006|p=285}} Piłsudski's arch-rival, [[Roman Dmowski]], travelled to Japan and argued against Piłsudski's plan, discouraging the Japanese government from supporting a Polish revolution because he thought it was doomed to fail.{{r|Urbank97_109–11|Zamo87_330}} The Japanese offered Piłsudski much less than he hoped; he received Japan's help in purchasing weapons and ammunition for the PPS and their combat organisation, and the Japanese declined the Legion proposal.{{r|PolandGov|Urbank97_109–11}}

In the fall of 1904, Piłsudski formed a paramilitary unit (the [[Combat Organization of the Polish Socialist Party]], or ''bojówki'') aiming to create an armed [[resistance movement]] against the Russian authorities.{{r|Zamo87_330}} The PPS organized demonstrations, mainly in [[Warsaw]]. On 28 October 1904, Russian [[Cossack]] [[cavalry]] attacked a demonstration, and in reprisal, during a demonstration on 13 November, Piłsudski's paramilitary opened fire on Russian police and military.{{r|Zamo87_330|Urbank97_113–6}} Initially concentrating their attention on spies and informers, in March 1905, the paramilitary began using bombs to assassinate selected Russian police officers.{{r|Urbank97_117–8}}

===Russian Revolution of 1905===
During the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]], Piłsudski played a leading role in events in [[Congress Poland]]. In early 1905 he ordered the PPS to launch a general strike there; it involved some 400,000 workers and lasted two months until it was broken by the Russian authorities.{{r|Zamo87_330}} In June 1905, Piłsudski sent paramilitary aid to an uprising in Łódź, later called [[Łódź insurrection (1905)|June Days]]. In Łódź, armed clashes broke out between Piłsudski's paramilitaries and gunmen loyal to Dmowski and his [[National Democracy (Poland)|National Democrats]].{{r|Zamo87_330}} On 22 December 1905, Piłsudski called for all Polish workers to rise up; the call went largely unheeded.{{r|Zamo87_330}}

Piłsudski instructed the PPS to boycott the elections to the [[First Duma]].{{r|Zamo87_330}} The decision, and his resolve to try to win Polish independence through revolution, caused tensions within the PPS, and in November 1906, the party fractured over Piłsudski's leadership.{{r|Zamo87_332}} His faction came to be called the "Old Faction" or "[[Polish Socialist Party – Revolutionary Faction|Revolutionary Faction]]" ("''Starzy''" or "''Frakcja Rewolucyjna''"), while their opponents were known as the "Young Faction", "Moderate Faction" or "[[Polish Socialist Party – Left|Left]]" ("''Młodzi''", "''Frakcja Umiarkowana''", "''Lewica''"). The "Young" sympathized with the [[Social Democracy of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania|Social Democrats of the Kingdom of Poland and Lithuania]], and believed priority should be given to co-operation with Russian revolutionaries in toppling the Russian Empire and creating a socialist [[utopia]] to facilitate negotiations for independence.{{r|PWN}} Piłsudski and his supporters in the Revolutionary Faction continued to plot a revolution against Tsarist Russia to secure Polish independence.{{r|PolandGov}} By 1909, his faction was the majority in the PPS, and Piłsudski remained an important PPS leader until the outbreak of the First World War.{{r|Urbank97_131}}

===Prelude to World War I===
Piłsudski anticipated a coming European war{{r|Roos+Rothschild}} and the need to organize the leadership of a future Polish army. He wanted to secure Poland's independence from the three empires that partitioned Poland out of political existence in the late 18th century. In 1906 Piłsudski, with the connivance of the Austrian authorities, founded a military school in [[Kraków]] for the training of paramilitary units.{{r|Zamo87_332}} In 1906 alone, the 800-strong paramilitaries, operating in five-man teams in Congress Poland, killed 336 Russian officials; in subsequent years, the number of their casualties declined, and the paramilitaries' numbers increased to some 2,000 in 1908.{{r|Zamo87_332|Urbank97_121–2}} The paramilitaries also held up Russian currency transports that were leaving Polish territories. On the night of 26/27 September 1908, they robbed a Russian mail train that was carrying tax revenues from Warsaw to Saint Petersburg.{{r|Zamo87_332}} Piłsudski, who took part in this [[Bezdany raid]] near Vilnius, used the funds so obtained  to finance his secret military organization.{{r|EBritannica_JP}} The funds totaled 200,812 rubles which was a fortune for the time and equaled the paramilitaries' entire income for the two preceding years.{{r|Urbank97_121–2}}

In 1908, Piłsudski transformed his paramilitary units into a "[[Union of Active Struggle]]" (''Związek Walki Czynnej'', or ''ZWC''), headed by three of his associates, [[Władysław Sikorski]], [[Marian Kukiel]] and [[Kazimierz Sosnkowski]].{{r|Zamo87_332}} The ''ZWC''{{'s}} main purpose was to train officers and [[noncommissioned officer]]s for a future Polish Army.{{r|PWN}} In 1910, two legal paramilitary organizations were created in the Austrian zone of Poland, one in Lwów (now [[Lviv]], Ukraine), and one in Kraków, to conduct training in [[military science]]. With the permission of the Austrian officials, Piłsudski founded a series of "sporting clubs", then the [[Związek Strzelecki|Riflemen's Association]], as cover for the training of a Polish military force. In 1912, Piłsudski (using the pseudonym "''Mieczysław''") became commander-in-chief of a Riflemen's Association (''Związek Strzelecki''). By 1914, they had increased to 12,000 men.{{r|PolandGov|Zamo87_332}} In 1914, while giving a lecture in Paris, Piłsudski declared, "Only the sword now carries any weight in the balance for the destiny of a nation", arguing that Polish independence can only be achieved through military struggle against the partitioning powers.{{r|Zamo87_332}}<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Chimiak|first1=Galia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d5_UDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Only+the+sword+now+carries+any+weight+in+the+balance+for+the+destiny+of+a+nation%22&pg=PA13|title=Polish and Irish Struggles for Self-Determination: Living near Dragons|last2=Cierlik|first2=Bożena|date=26 February 2020|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=978-1-5275-4764-3|language=en}}</ref>

==World War I==
{{Main|History of Poland during World War I}}

At a meeting in Paris in 1914, Piłsudski presciently declared that for Poland to regain independence in the impending war, Russia must be beaten by the Central Powers (the Austro-Hungarian and German Empires) and the latter powers must in turn be beaten by [[French Third Republic|France]], [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]], and the United States.{{r|Roos+Rothschild}}<ref>[[Joseph Conrad]] and his family – who had arrived in Kraków on 28 July 1914, exactly on the outbreak of World War I – in the first days of August took refuge in the Polish mountain resort of [[Zakopane]]. There Conrad opined – as Piłsudski had in Paris earlier in 1914 – that, for Poland to regain independence, Russia must be defeated by the [[Central Powers]] (the Austro-Hungarian and German Empires), and the Central Powers must in turn be beaten by France and Britain. [[Zdzisław Najder]], ''Joseph Conrad: A Life'', Rochester, New York, Camden House, 2007, {{ISBN|978-1-57113-347-2}}, p. 464. Soon after the war, Conrad said of Piłsudski: "He was the only great man to emerge on the scene during the war." [[Zdzisław Najder]], ''Conrad under Familial Eyes'', Cambridge University Press, 1984, {{ISBN|0-521-25082-X}}, p. 239.</ref>

At the outbreak of war, on 3 August in Kraków Piłsudski formed a small [[En cadre|cadre]] military unit called the [[First Cadre Company]] from members of the [[Riflemen's Association]] and [[Polish Rifle Squads]].{{r|Urbank97_171–2}} That same day, [[The Seven Lancers of Belina|a cavalry unit]] under [[Władysław Belina-Prażmowski]] was sent to [[reconnoitre]] across the Russian border before the official [[declaration of war]] between Austria-Hungary and Russia on 6 August 1914.{{r|Urbank97_168}}
[[File:Kielce_pilsudski.jpg|thumb|alt=A group of men standing in front of a building. They are dressed in military uniforms.|Piłsudski and his staff in Kielce, 12 August 1914]]
Piłsudski's strategy was to send his forces north across the border into [[Congress Poland|Russian Poland]] into an area the [[Military history of Imperial Russia|Russian Army]] had evacuated in the hope of breaking through to Warsaw and sparking a nationwide revolution.{{r|PWN|Cienciala02}} Using his limited forces in those early days, he backed his orders with the sanction of a fictitious "National Government in Warsaw",{{r|Urbank97_174–5}} and he bent and stretched Austrian orders to the utmost, taking initiatives, moving forward, and establishing Polish institutions in liberated towns, whereas the Austrians saw his forces as good only for scouting or for supporting main Austrian formations.{{r|Urbank97_178–9}} On 12 August 1914 Piłsudski's forces took the town of [[Kielce]], in [[Kielce Governorate]], but Piłsudski found the residents less supportive than he had expected.{{r|Urbank97_170–1_180–2}}

On 27 August 1914 Piłsudski established the [[Polish Legions in World War I|Polish Legions]], formed within the [[Austro-Hungarian Army]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Thomas|first=Nigel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fwxLDwAAQBAJ&dq=polish+legions+august+22+27&pg=PT20|title=Polish Legions 1914–19|date=31 May 2018|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4728-2543-8|pages=20|language=en}}</ref> and took personal command of their [[I Brigade of the Polish Legions|First Brigade]],{{r|PolandGov}} which he would lead into several victorious battles.{{r|PWN}} He also secretly informed the British government in the fall of 1914 that his Legions would never fight against France or Britain, only Russia.{{r|Cienciala02}}

Piłsudski decreed that Legions' personnel were to be addressed by the [[French Revolution]]-inspired "Citizen" (''Obywatel''), and he was referred to as "the Commandant" ("''Komendant''").{{r|Zamo87_333}} Piłsudski enjoyed extreme respect and loyalty from his men, which would remain for years to come.{{r|Zamo87_333}} The Polish Legions fought against Russia, at the side of the Central Powers, until 1917.<ref>{{Cite book|last=May|first=Arthur J.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=71IrEAAAQBAJ&dq=polish+legions+1914+1917+%22central+powerS%22&pg=PA505|title=The Passing of the Hapsburg Monarchy, 1914-1918, Volume 2|date=11 November 2016|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=978-1-5128-0753-0|pages=505|language=en}}</ref>

In August 1914 Piłsudski had set up the [[Polish Military Organisation]] (''Polska Organizacja Wojskowa''), which served as a precursor of the [[Polish intelligence]] agency and was designed to perform espionage and sabotage missions.{{r|PWN|Cienciala02}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Wróbel|first=Piotr J.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OHdqaZBfHggC&dq=%22Polish+Military+Organisation%22+November+1914&pg=PA286|title=Spießer, Patrioten, Revolutionäre: Militärische Mobilisierung und gesellschaftliche Ordnung in der Neuzeit|date=15 September 2010|publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht|isbn=978-3-86234-113-9|editor-last=Bergien|editor-first=Rüdiger|page=286|language=de|chapter=The Revival of Poland and Paramilitary Violence, 1918-1920|editor-last2=Pröve|editor-first2=Ralf}}</ref>

[[File:Jacek Malczewski, Portret brygadiera Józefa Piłsudskiego.jpg|thumb|alt=A painting of a man looking to the left|''Portrait of Brigadier General Józef Piłsudski'', by [[Jacek Malczewski]], 1916]]
In mid-1916, after the [[Battle of Kostiuchnówka]], in which the Polish Legions delayed a Russian offensive at a cost of over 2,000 casualties,{{sfn|Rąkowski|2005|pp=109–11}} Piłsudski demanded that the Central Powers issue a guarantee of independence for Poland. He supported that demand with his own proffered resignation and that of many of the Legions' officers.{{r|Urbank97_251–2}} On 5 November 1916 the Central Powers proclaimed the independence of Poland, hoping to increase the number of Polish troops that could be sent to the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Eastern Front]] against Russia, thereby relieving German forces to bolster the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]].{{r|EBritannica_JP|Biskupski2000}}

Piłsudski agreed to serve in the [[Kingdom of Poland (1916–1918)|Regency Kingdom of Poland]], created by the Central Powers, and acted as [[minister of war]] in the newly formed [[Polish Regency government]]; as such, he was responsible for the [[Polnische Wehrmacht]].{{r|Zamo87_333}} After the [[February Revolution|Russian Revolution in early 1917]], and in view of the worsening situation of the Central Powers, Piłsudski took an increasingly uncompromising stance by insisting that his men no longer be treated as "German [[colonial troops]]" and be only used to fight Russia. Anticipating the Central Powers' defeat in the war, he did not wish to be allied with the losing side.{{r|Rothschild90_45|Urbank97_253}} 
[[File:Józef Piłsudski with Supreme Command of Polish Military Organisation in 1917.PNG|thumb|right|alt=A black-and-white photograph of several men grouped together and looking forward|Piłsudski with leadership of [[Polish Military Organisation]], 1917]]
In the aftermath of the July 1917 "[[oath crisis]]", when Piłsudski forbade Polish soldiers to swear [[loyalty oath|loyalty]] to [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] of Germany, he was arrested and imprisoned at [[Magdeburg]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/dream-of-the-polish-eagle/|title=Dream of the Polish Eagle|date=October 2010|work = Warfare History Network}}</ref> The Polish units were disbanded and the men were incorporated into the Austro-Hungarian Army,{{r|PolandGov|Cienciala02}} while the [[Polish Military Organization]] began attacking German targets.{{r|PWN}} Piłsudski's arrest greatly enhanced his reputation among Poles, many of whom began to see him as a leader willing to take on all the partitioning powers.{{r|PWN}}

On 8 November 1918, three days before the [[Armistice of 11 November 1918|Armistice]], Piłsudski and his colleague, Colonel [[Kazimierz Sosnkowski]], were released by the Germans from Magdeburg and soon placed on a train bound for the Polish capital,  Warsaw – the collapsing Germans hoping that Piłsudski would create a force friendly to them.{{r|Cienciala02}}

==Rebuilding Poland==

=== Head of state ===
[[File:Ulica Mokotowska 50, Warsaw.JPG|thumb|right|alt=see caption|''[[Mokotowska Street|Ulica Mokotowska]] 50'', Warsaw, where Piłsudski stayed 13–29 November 1918, after his release from Magdeburg]]
[[File:Polski automobil pancerny z obrony Lwowa 1918-19.JPG|thumb|alt=A man standing in front of an armored car|''Piłsudski'' improvised armored car, 1919, named after Piłsudski]]
On 11 November 1918, Piłsudski was appointed [[Commander-in-chief|Commander-in-Chief]] of Polish forces by the [[Regency Council (Poland)|Regency Council]] and was entrusted with creating a national government for the newly independent country. Later that day, which would become [[Poland's Independence Day]], he proclaimed an independent Polish state.{{r|Cienciala02}} That week, Piłsudski negotiated the evacuation of the German garrison from Warsaw and of other German troops from [[Ober Ost]]. Over 55,000 Germans peacefully departed Poland, leaving their weapons to the Poles. In the coming months, over 400,000 in total departed over Polish territories.{{r|Cienciala02|Urbank97_256_277–8}}

On 14 November 1918, Piłsudski was asked to supervise provisionally the running of the country. On 22 November he officially received, from the new government of [[Jędrzej Moraczewski]], the title of Provisional Chief of State (''Tymczasowy Naczelnik Państwa'') of renascent Poland.{{r|PolandGov}} Various Polish military organizations and provisional governments (the Regency Council in Warsaw; [[Ignacy Daszyński]]'s government in [[Lublin]]; and the [[Polish Liquidation Committee]] in Kraków) supported Piłsudski. He established a coalition government that was predominantly socialist and introduced many reforms long proclaimed as necessary by the Polish Socialist Party, such as the [[eight-hour day]], free school education and [[women's suffrage]], to avoid major unrest. As head of state, Piłsudski believed he must remain separated from partisan politics.{{r|PWN|Cienciala02}}

The day after his arrival in Warsaw, he met with old colleagues from his time working with the underground resistance, who addressed him socialist-style as "[[Comrade]]" (''Towarzysz'') and asked for his support for their revolutionary policies. He refused it and supposedly answered: <blockquote>"Comrades, I took the red tram of socialism to the stop called Independence, and that's where I got off. You may keep on to the final stop if you wish, but from now on let's address each other as '[[Slavic honorifics|Mister']] [rather than continue using the socialist term of address, 'Comrade']!"{{r|PolandGov}}</blockquote>However, the authenticity of this quote is disputed.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Gdzie Piłsudski wysiadł z tramwaju, czyli historie poprzekręcane |url=https://histmag.org/Gdzie-Pilsudski-wysiadl-z-tramwaju-czyli-historie-poprzekrecane-14909 |access-date=16 March 2023 |website=histmag.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title="Wysiadłem z czerwonego tramwaju...", czyli czego NIE powiedział Józef Piłsudski |url=https://kurierhistoryczny.pl/artykul/wysiadlem-z-czerwonego-tramwaju-czyli-czego-nie-powiedzial-jozef-pilsudski,368 |access-date=16 March 2023 |website=Kurier Historyczny}}</ref> Piłsudski declined to support any party and did not form any political organization of his own; instead, he advocated creating a coalition government.{{r|PWN|Suleja04_202}}

=== First policies ===
Piłsudski set about organizing a Polish army out of Polish veterans of the German, Russian, and Austrian armies. Much of former Russian Poland had been destroyed in the war, and systematic looting by the Germans had reduced the region's wealth by at least 10%.{{r|McM03_210}} A British diplomat who visited Warsaw in January 1919 reported: "I have nowhere seen anything like the evidence of extreme poverty and wretchedness that meet one's eye at almost every turn."{{r|McM03_210}} In addition, the country had to unify the disparate systems of law, economics, and [[administration (government)|administration]] in the former German, Austrian, and Russian sectors of Poland. There were nine legal systems, five currencies, and 66 types of rail systems (with 165 models of locomotives), each needing to be consolidated.{{r|McM03_210}}

[[File:Warszawaid4.jpg|thumb|alt=see caption|Statue of Piłsudski in front of Warsaw's [[Belweder]] Palace, Piłsudski's official residence during his years in power]]

Biographer [[Wacław Jędrzejewicz]] described Piłsudski as very deliberate in his decision-making: Piłsudski collected all available pertinent information, then took his time weighing it before arriving at a final decision. He held long working hours, and maintained a simple lifestyle, eating plain meals alone at an inexpensive restaurant.{{r|McM03_210}} Though he was popular with much of the Polish public, his reputation as a loner (the result of many years' underground work) and as a man who distrusted almost everyone led to strained relations with other Polish politicians.{{r|McM03_209}}

Piłsudski and the first Polish government were distrusted in the West because he had co-operated with the Central Powers from 1914 to 1917 and because the governments of Daszyński and Moraczewski were primarily socialist.{{r|Cienciala02}} It was not until January 1919, when pianist and composer [[Ignacy Jan Paderewski]] became [[Prime Minister of Poland]] and foreign minister of a new government, that Poland was recognized in the West.{{r|Cienciala02}} Two separate governments were claiming to be Poland's legitimate government: Piłsudski's in Warsaw and Dmowski's in Paris.{{r|McM03_210}} To ensure that Poland had a single government and to avert civil war, Paderewski met with Dmowski and Piłsudski and persuaded them to join forces, with Piłsudski acting as Provisional Chief of State and Commander-in-Chief, while Dmowski and Paderewski represented Poland at the [[Paris Peace Conference of 1919|Paris Peace Conference]].{{r|McM03_213-4}} Articles 87–93 of the [[Treaty of Versailles]]{{r|VersaillesTreaty1919_87-93}} and the [[Little Treaty of Versailles]], signed on 28 June 1919, formally established Poland as an independent and sovereign state in the international arena.{{r|Grant99_114}}

Piłsudski often clashed with Dmowski for viewing the Poles as the dominant nationality in renascent Poland, and attempting to send the [[Blue Army (Poland)|Blue Army]] to Poland through Danzig, Germany (now [[Gdańsk]], Poland).{{r|McM03_211-214|Boemeke98_314}} On 5 January 1919, some of Dmowski's supporters ([[Marian Januszajtis-Żegota]] and [[Eustachy Sapieha]]) attempted [[Polish Coup (1919)|a coup]] against Piłsudski but failed.{{r|Urbank97_499–501}} On 20 February 1919, Polish parliament (the [[Sejm]]) confirmed his office when it passed the [[Little Constitution of 1919]], although Piłsudski proclaimed his intention to eventually relinquish his powers to the parliament. "Provisional" was struck from his title, and Piłsudski held the office of the Chief of State until 9 December 1922, after [[Gabriel Narutowicz]] was elected as the first [[president of Poland]].{{r|PolandGov}}

Piłsudski's major foreign policy initiative was a proposed federation (to be called ''"Międzymorze"'' ([[Polish language|Polish]] for "Between-Seas"), and known from the [[Latin]] as ''[[Intermarium]]'', stretching from the [[Baltic Sea]] to the [[Black Sea]]. In addition to Poland and Lithuania, it was to consist of [[Ukraine]], [[Belarus]], [[Latvia]] and [[Estonia]],{{r|Cienciala02}} somewhat in emulation of the [[partitions of Poland|pre-partition]] [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]].{{r|PWN}}{{sfn|Jędrzejewicz|1990|p=93}} Piłsudski's plan met with opposition from most of the prospective member states, which refused to relinquish their independence, as well as the Allied powers, who thought it to be too bold a change to the existing [[balance of power in international relations|balance-of-power]] structure.{{r|HistNet_01}} According to historian [[George Sanford (political scientist)|George Sanford]], it was around 1920 that Piłsudski came to realize the infeasibility of that version of his Intermarium project.{{sfn|Sanford|2002|pp=5–6}} Instead of a Central and Eastern European alliance, there soon appeared a series of border conflicts, including the [[Polish–Ukrainian War]] (1918–19), the [[Polish–Lithuanian War]] (1919–1920, culminating in [[Żeligowski's Mutiny]]), [[Polish–Czechoslovak border conflicts]] (beginning in 1918), and most notably the Polish–Soviet War (1919–21).{{r|PWN}} [[Winston Churchill]] commented, "The war of giants has ended; the wars of the pygmies have begun."{{r|HydeP01_75}}

==Polish–Soviet War==
{{Main|Polish–Soviet War}}
[[File:Jozef Pilsudski w Poznaniu.jpg|thumb|alt=A crowd of men wearing military uniforms|Piłsudski in [[Poznań]] in 1919]]
In the [[aftermath of World War I]], there was unrest on all Polish borders. Regarding Poland's future frontiers, Piłsudski said: "All that we can gain in the west depends on the Entente—on the extent to which it may wish to squeeze Germany." The situation was different in the east, of which Piłsudski said that "there are doors that open and close, and it depends on who forces them open and how far."{{r|McM03_211}} In the east, Polish forces clashed with Ukrainian forces in the Polish–Ukrainian War, and Piłsudski's first orders as Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army, on 12 November 1918, were to provide support for the [[Battle of Lemberg (1918)|Polish struggle in Lviv]].{{r|Urbank97_281}}

Piłsudski was aware that the Bolsheviks would not ally with an independent Poland and predicted that war with them was inevitable.{{r|Urbank97_2_90}} He viewed their advance west as a major problem, but he also considered the Bolsheviks less dangerous for Poland than their [[White movement|White opponents]].{{r|Kenez99_37}} The "White Russians", representatives of the old Russian Empire, were willing to accept limited independence for Poland, probably within borders similar to those of the former [[Congress Poland]]. They objected to Polish control of Ukraine, which was crucial for Piłsudski's Intermarium project.{{r|Urbank97_2_83}} This contrasted with the Bolsheviks, who proclaimed the partitions of Poland null and void.{{r|Urbank97_291}} Piłsudski speculated that Poland would be better off with the Bolsheviks, alienated from the Western powers, than with a restored Russian Empire.{{r|Kenez99_37|Urbank97_2_45}} By ignoring the strong pressures from the [[Entente Cordiale]] to join the attack on Lenin's struggling Bolshevik government, Piłsudski probably saved it in the summer and the fall of 1919.{{r|Urbank97_2_92}}

[[File:Jozef Pilsudski.jpg|thumb|left|upright|alt=The profile of a man in a military uniform|In March 1920, Piłsudski was made "First [[Marshal of Poland]]".]]
	
After the [[Soviet westward offensive of 1918–1919]], and a series of escalating battles that resulted in the Poles advancing eastward, on 21 April 1920, [[Marshal]] Piłsudski (as his rank had been since March 1920) signed a military alliance called the [[Treaty of Warsaw (1920)|Treaty of Warsaw]] with Ukrainian leader [[Symon Petliura]]. The treaty allowed both countries to conduct joint operations against [[Soviet Russia]]. The goal of the Polish-Ukrainian Treaty was to establish an independent Ukraine and independent Poland in alliance, resembling that once existing within [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]].{{r|Davies03_95ff}} The Polish and Ukrainian Armies under Piłsudski's command launched [[Kiev offensive (1920)|a successful offensive]] against the Russian forces in Ukraine and on 7 May 1920, with remarkably little fighting, they captured [[Kiev]].{{r|Davies03_00}}

The Bolshevik leadership framed the Polish actions as an invasion, successfully generating popular support for their cause at home.{{r|Figes96_699}} The Soviets then launched a counter-offensive from [[Belarus]], and counterattacked in Ukraine, advancing into Poland{{r|Davies03_00}} in a drive toward Germany to encourage the [[Communist Party of Germany]] in their struggles for power.{{r|Lenin1920}} The Soviets announced their plans to invade Western Europe; Soviet Communist theoretician [[Nikolai Bukharin]], writing in ''[[Pravda]]'', hoped for the resources to carry the campaign beyond Warsaw "straight to London and Paris".{{r|CohenS80_101}} Soviet commander [[Mikhail Tukhachevsky]]'s order of the day for 2 July 1920 read: "To the West! Over the corpse of White Poland lies the road to worldwide conflagration. March upon Vilnius, [[Minsk]], Warsaw!"{{r|Lawrynowicz}} and "onward to Berlin over the corpse of Poland!"{{r|Cienciala02}}

[[File:Pilsudski and Rydz-Smigly.jpg|thumb|right|alt=see caption|Piłsudski ''(left)'' and [[Edward Rydz-Śmigły]], 1920, during [[Polish-Soviet War]]]]

On 1 July 1920, in view of the rapidly advancing Soviet offensive, Poland's parliament, the Sejm, formed a [[Council for Defense of the Nation]], chaired by Piłsudski, to provide expeditious decision-making as a temporary supplanting of the fractious Sejm.{{r|Urbank97_341–6_357–8}} The [[National Democracy (Poland)|National Democrats]] contended that the string of Bolshevik victories had been Piłsudski's fault{{r|Suleja04_265}} and demanded that he resign; some even accused him of treason.{{r|Urbank97_341–6}} On 19 July they failed to carry a [[vote of no-confidence]] in the council and this led to Dmowski's withdrawal from the council.{{r|Urbank97_341–6}} On 12 August, Piłsudski tendered his resignation to Prime Minister [[Wincenty Witos]], offering to be the scapegoat if the military solution failed, but Witos refused to accept his resignation.{{r|Urbank97_341–6}} The Entente pressured Poland to surrender and enter into negotiations with the Bolsheviks. Piłsudski, however, was a staunch advocate of continuing the fight.{{r|Urbank97_341–6}}

==="Miracle at the Vistula"===
Piłsudski's plan called for Polish forces to withdraw across the [[Vistula]] River and to defend the bridgeheads at Warsaw and on the [[Wieprz]] River while some 25% of the available [[division (military)|divisions]] concentrated to the south for a counteroffensive. Afterwards, two armies under General [[Józef Haller]], facing Soviet frontal attack on Warsaw from the east, were to hold their [[trench|entrenched]] positions while an army under General [[Władysław Sikorski]] was to strike north from outside Warsaw, cutting off Soviet forces that sought to envelop the Polish capital from that direction. The most important role of the plan was assigned to a relatively small, approximately 20,000-man, newly assembled "Reserve Army" (also known as the "Strike Group", "''Grupa Uderzeniowa''"), comprising the most determined, battle-hardened Polish units that were commanded by Piłsudski. Their task was to spearhead a lightning northward offensive, from the Vistula-Wieprz triangle south of Warsaw, through a weak spot that had been identified by Polish intelligence between the Soviet Western and Southwestern [[Front (Soviet Army)|Fronts]]. That offensive would separate the Soviet Western Front from its reserves and disorganize its movements. Eventually, the gap between Sikorski's army and the "Strike Group" would close near the [[East Prussia]]n border, bringing about the destruction of the encircled Soviet forces.{{r|Cisek02_1401|Urbank97_346-441_357-8}}

Piłsudski's plan was criticized as "amateurish" by high-ranking army officers and military experts, quick to point out Piłsudski's lack of formal military education. However, the desperate situation of the Polish forces persuaded other commanders to support it. When a copy of the plan was acquired by the Soviets, Western Front commander [[Mikhail Tukhachevsky]] thought it was a ruse and disregarded it.{{sfn|Davies|2003|p=197}} Days later, the Soviets were defeated in the [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]], halting the Soviet advance in one of the worst defeats for the [[Red Army]].{{r|Davies03_00|Urbank97_346-441_357-8}} [[Stanisław Stroński]], a National Democrat Sejm deputy, coined the phrase "Miracle at the Vistula" (''Cud nad Wisłą''){{r|Głos05}} to express his disapproval of Piłsudski's "Ukrainian adventure". Stroński's phrase was adopted as praise for Piłsudski by some patriotically- or piously minded Poles, who were unaware of Stroński's ironic intent.{{r|Urbank97_346-441_357-8}}{{sfn|Davies|1998|p=935}}

While Piłsudski had a major role in crafting the war strategy, he was aided by others, notably [[Tadeusz Rozwadowski]].{{r|Erickson01_95}} Later, some supporters of Piłsudski would seek to portray him as the sole author of the Polish strategy, while his opponents would try to minimize his role.{{r|LönnrothEt94_230}} On the other hand, in the West, the role of General [[Maxime Weygand]] of the [[French Military Mission to Poland]] was, for a time, exaggerated.{{r|Cienciala02|LönnrothEt94_230|Szczep}}

In February 1921, Piłsudski visited Paris, where, in negotiations with French President [[Alexandre Millerand]], he laid the foundations for the [[Franco-Polish alliance]], which would be signed later that year.{{r|Urbank97_484}} The [[Treaty of Riga]], ending the Polish-Soviet War in March 1921, partitioned [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]] between Poland and Russia. Piłsudski called the treaty an "act of cowardice".{{sfn|Davies|2005|loc=p. 399 (1982 ed. Columbia Univ. Press)}} The treaty and his secret approval of General [[Lucjan Żeligowski]]'s [[Żeligowski's Mutiny|capture of Vilnius]] from the Lithuanians marked an end to this incarnation of Piłsudski's federalist [[Intermarium]] plan.{{r|PWN}} After Vilnius was occupied by the [[Army of Central Lithuania|Central Lithuanian Army]], Piłsudski said that he "could not help but regard them [Lithuanians] as brothers".{{Sfn|Snyder|2004|p=70}} In parliament, Piłsudski once said: "I cannot not reach out to Kaunas. .. I cannot disregard those brothers who consider the day of our triumph a day of shock and mourning."<ref>{{Cite journal |date=1957 |title=Dialogas tarp lenkų ir lietuvių |url=http://partizanai.org/index.php/i-laisve-1957-13-50/956-dialogas-tarp-lenku-ir-lietuviu |journal=[[Į Laisvę]] |language=lt |volume=13 |issue=50 |quote=Pilsudskis seime kalbėjo; “Negaliu netiesti rankos Kaunui. .. negaliu nelaikyti broliais tų, kurie mūsų triumfo dieną laiko smūgio ir gedulo diena”.}}</ref> On 25 September 1921, when Piłsudski visited Lwów (now [[Lviv]]) for the opening of the first [[Eastern Trade Fair]] (''Targi Wschodnie''), he was the target of an unsuccessful assassination attempt by [[Stepan Fedak]], acting on behalf of Ukrainian-independence organizations, including the [[Ukrainian Military Organization]].{{r|Urbank97_485}}

==Retirement and coup==
[[File:Narutowicz Pilsudski.jpg|thumb|alt=see caption|At [[Belweder Palace]], Piłsudski (''left'') transfers his powers to President-elect [[Gabriel Narutowicz|Narutowicz]].]] 
[[File:Pilsudski in Bristol.jpg|thumb|alt=A crowd of men dressed in tuxedoes and military uniforms|At Warsaw's [[Hotel Bristol, Warsaw|Hotel Bristol]], 3 July 1923, Piłsudski announces his retirement from active politics.]]
The Polish [[March Constitution (Poland)|Constitution of March 1921]] severely limited the powers of the [[presidency]] intentionally, to prevent Piłsudski from waging war. This caused Piłsudski to decline to run for the office.{{r|PWN}} In the run-up to the first presidential election, a [[1922 Polish parliamentary election|parliamentary election]] was held, in which Piłsudski endorsed two lists: the National-State Union, and the [[State Unity in the Kresy]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Cat-Mackiewicz |first=Stanisław |date=2012 |title=Historia Polski od 11 listopada 1918 do 17 września 1939 |publisher=Universitas |isbn=97883-242-3740-1}}</ref> neither of which secured any seats in the Sejm. On 9 December 1922, the Polish [[National Assembly of the Republic of Poland|National Assembly]] elected [[Gabriel Narutowicz]] of [[Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie"]]; his election, opposed by the right-wing parties, caused public unrest.{{r|Urbank97_487-8}} On 14 December at the [[Belweder]] Palace, Piłsudski officially transferred his powers as Chief of State to his friend Narutowicz; the ''Naczelnik'' was replaced by the President.{{r|Urbank97_488|EBritannica_JP}}
[[File:Piłsudski on Poniatowski's Bridge.jpg|thumb|alt=see caption|Piłsudski on Warsaw's [[Poniatowski Bridge]] during the [[May Coup (Poland)|May 1926 coup]]. At right is General [[Gustaw Orlicz-Dreszer]].]]
Two days later, on 16 December 1922, Narutowicz was shot dead by a right-wing painter and art critic, [[Eligiusz Niewiadomski]], who had originally wanted to kill Piłsudski but had changed his target, influenced by National Democrat anti-Narutowicz propaganda.{{r|Urbank97_489}} For Piłsudski, that was a major shock; he started to doubt that Poland could function as a democracy{{r|Suleja04_300}} and supported a government led by a strong leader.{{sfn|Davies|1986|p=140}} He became [[Chief of the General Staff (Poland)|Chief of the General Staff]] and, together with [[Polish Minister of Military Affairs|Minister of Military Affairs]] [[Władysław Sikorski]], quelled the unrest by instituting a [[state of emergency]].{{r|Urbank97_489–90}}

[[Stanisław Wojciechowski]] of [[Polish People's Party "Piast" (1913–1931)|Polish People's Party "Piast"]] (PSL Piast), another of Piłsudski's old colleagues, was elected the new president, and [[Wincenty Witos]], also of PSL Piast, became prime minister. The new government, an alliance among the centrist PSL Piast, the right-wing [[Popular National Union]] and [[Polskie Stronnictwo Chrześcijańskiej Demokracji|Christian Democrat]] parties, contained right-wing enemies of Piłsudski. He held them responsible for Narutowicz's death and declared that it was impossible to work with them.{{r|Urbank97_490–1}} On 30 May 1923, Piłsudski resigned as Chief of the General Staff.{{r|Urbank97_490}}

Piłsudski criticized General [[Stanisław Szeptycki]]'s proposal that the military should be supervised by civilians as an attempt to politicize the army, and on 28 June, he resigned his last political appointment. The same day, the Sejm's left-wing deputies voted for a resolution, thanking him for his work.{{r|Urbank97_490}} Piłsudski went into retirement in [[Sulejówek]], outside Warsaw, at his country manor, ''"Milusin"'', presented to him by his former soldiers.{{sfn|Watt|1979|p=210}} There, he wrote a series of political and military memoirs, including ''Rok 1920'' (The Year 1920).{{r|PolandGov}}

Meanwhile, Poland's economy was a shambles. [[Hyperinflation]] fueled public unrest, and the government was unable to find a quick solution to the mounting unemployment and economic crisis.{{r|Urbank97_502}} Piłsudski's allies and supporters repeatedly asked him to return to politics, and he began to create a new power base, centred on former members of the [[Polish Legions in World War I|Polish Legions]], the [[Polish Military Organization]] and some left-wing and [[intelligentsia]] parties. In 1925, after several governments had resigned in short order and the political scene was becoming increasingly chaotic, Piłsudski became more and more critical of the government and eventually issued statements demanding the resignation of the Witos cabinet.{{r|PolandGov|PWN}} When the [[Chjeno-Piast]] coalition, which Piłsudski had strongly criticized, formed a new government,{{r|PWN}} on 12–14 May 1926, Piłsudski returned to power in the [[May Coup (Poland)|May Coup]], supported by the Polish Socialist Party, [[Polish People's Party "Wyzwolenie"|Liberation]], the [[Stronnictwo Chłopskie|Peasant Party]], and the [[Communist Party of Poland]].{{r|Urbank97_515}} Piłsudski had hoped for a bloodless coup but the government had refused to surrender;{{r|Suleja04_343}} 215 soldiers and 164 civilians had been killed, and over 900 persons had been wounded.{{sfn|Roszkowski|1992|loc= p. 53, section 5.1}}

==In government==
[[File:5 Warszawa 083.jpg|thumb|right|alt=see caption|[[Belweder]] Palace, Warsaw, Piłsudski's official residence during his years in power]]On 31 May 1926, the Sejm elected Piłsudski president of the Republic, but Piłsudski refused the office due to the presidency's limited powers. Another of his old friends, [[Ignacy Mościcki]], was elected in his stead. Mościcki then appointed Piłsudski as [[Ministry of National Defence (Poland)|Minister of Military Affairs]] (defence minister), a post he held for the rest of his life through eleven successive governments, two of which he headed from 1926 to 1928 and for a brief period in 1930. He also served as [[General Inspector of the Armed Forces]] and Chairman of the War Council.{{r|PolandGov}}

Piłsudski had no plans for major reforms; he quickly distanced himself from the most radical of his left-wing supporters and declared that his coup was to be a "revolution without revolutionary consequences".{{r|PWN}} His goals were to stabilize the country, reduce the influence of political parties (which he blamed for corruption and inefficiency) and strengthen the army.{{r|PWN|Urbank97_528–9}} His role in the Polish government over the subsequent years has been called a dictatorship or a "quasi-dictatorship".{{sfn|Biskupski|2012|p=46}}

===Internal politics===
Piłsudski's coup entailed sweeping limitations on parliamentary government, as his [[Sanation]] government (1926–1939), at times employing authoritarian methods, sought to curb perceived corruption and incompetence of the parliament rule, and in Piłsudski's words, restore "moral health" to public life (hence the name of his faction, "Sanation", which could be understood as "moral purification").<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Biskupski|first1=M. B. B.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I-ySkJHOQsIC&dq=Pilsudski+%22moral+health%22&pg=PA145|title=The Origins of Modern Polish Democracy|last2=Pula|first2=James S.|last3=Wróbel|first3=Piotr J.|date=15 April 2010|publisher=Ohio University Press|isbn=978-0-8214-4309-5|pages=145|language=en}}</ref><ref name="BEIPCQ" /><ref name="FMBALNPLPSC" /><ref name="TFARPRP" /> From 1928, the Sanation government was represented by the ''[[Non-partisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government]]'' (BBWR).<ref name="BEIPCQ" /><ref name="FMBALNPLPSC" /><ref name="TFARPRP" /> Popular support and an effective propaganda apparatus allowed Piłsudski to maintain his authoritarian powers, which could not be overruled either by the president, who was appointed by Piłsudski, or by the Sejm.{{r|PolandGov}} The powers of the Sejm were curtailed by [[August Novelization|constitutional amendments]] that were introduced soon after the coup, on 2 August 1926.{{r|PolandGov}} From 1926 to 1930, Piłsudski relied chiefly on propaganda to weaken the influence of opposition leaders.{{r|PWN}}

The culmination of his dictatorial and supralegal policies came in the 1930s, with the imprisonment and trial of political opponents (the [[Brest trial]]s) on the eve of the [[1930 Polish legislative election]] and with the 1934 establishment of the [[Bereza Kartuska Detention Camp]] for political prisoners in present-day [[Biaroza]],{{r|PWN}} where some prisoners were brutally mistreated.{{r|Śleszyński03}} After the BBWR's 1930 victory, Piłsudski allowed most internal matters to be decided by [[Piłsudski's colonels|his colonels]] while he concentrated on military and foreign affairs.{{r|PWN}} His treatment of political opponents and their 1930 arrest and imprisonment was internationally condemned and the events damaged Poland's reputation.{{r|Biskupski2000}}
[[File:Aleksandra Piłsudska.JPG|thumb|alt=A man, a woman, and a child are on the left, posed to face the camera. To the right is a girl, drawing|Piłsudski, second wife [[Aleksandra Piłsudska|Aleksandra]], daughters, 1928]]
Piłsudski became increasingly disillusioned with democracy in Poland.{{r|CohenY89_65}} His intemperate public utterances (he called the Sejm a "prostitute") and his sending of 90 armed officers into the Sejm building in response to an impending [[vote of no-confidence]] caused concern in contemporary and modern observers who have seen his actions as setting precedents for authoritarian responses to political challenges.{{r|Times7Apr1930|Times11Nov1929|NYT12091993_Perlez}} He sought to transform the [[parliamentary system]] into a [[presidential system]]; however, he opposed the introduction of [[totalitarianism]].{{r|PWN}} The adoption of a new Polish constitution in April 1935 was tailored by Piłsudski's supporters to his specifications, providing for a strong presidency; but the [[April Constitution]] served Poland until World War II, and carried its [[Polish Government in Exile|Government in Exile]] until the end of the war and beyond. Piłsudski's government depended more on his [[charismatic authority]] than on [[rational-legal authority]].{{r|PWN}} None of his followers could claim to be his legitimate heir, and after his death the [[Sanacja|Sanation]] structure would quickly fracture, returning Poland to the pre-Piłsudski era of parliamentary political contention.{{r|PWN}}
[[File:Józef Piłsudski homaging at John III Sobieski tomb, commemorating 250 anniversary of battle of Vienna.PNG|thumb|alt=A man is standing, facing a staircase|In 1933 Piłsudski pays homage at tomb of King [[John III Sobieski]], commemorating 250th anniversary of victorious [[Battle of Vienna]].]]

Piłsudski's government began a period of national stabilization and of improvement in the situation of [[ethnic minorities]], which formed about a third of the Second Republic's population.{{r|Stachura04_79|ColuEncyclPoland}} Piłsudski replaced the [[National Democracy (Poland)|National Democrats]]' "[[polonization|ethnic-assimilation]]" with a "state-assimilation" policy: citizens were judged not by their ethnicity but by their loyalty to the state.{{r|Snyder04_144|Zimm04_166}} Widely recognized for his opposition to the National Democrats' anti-Semitic policies,{{r|Vital99_788|Payne95_141|Lieven94_163|Engelking01_75|Flannery05_200|Zimm03_19}} he extended his policy of "state-assimilation" to [[Polish Jews]].{{r|Snyder04_144|Zimm04_166|Prizel98_61|Wein90_292}} The years 1926 to 1935 and Piłsudski himself were favorably viewed by many Polish Jews whose situation improved especially under Piłsudski-appointed Prime Minister [[Kazimierz Bartel]].{{r|Cieplinski02|Paulsson03_37}} Many Jews saw Piłsudski as their only hope for restraining antisemitic currents in Poland and for maintaining public order; he was seen as a guarantor of stability and a friend of the Jewish people, who voted for him and actively participated in his political bloc.{{r|Snyder07_66}} Piłsudski's death in 1935 brought a deterioration in the quality of life of Poland's Jews.{{r|Zimm03_19}}

During the 1930s, a combination of developments, from the [[Great Depression]]{{r|Snyder04_144}} to the [[vicious spiral]] of ''[[Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists|OUN]]'' terrorist attacks and government pacifications, caused government relations with the national minorities to deteriorate.{{r|Snyder04_144}}{{sfn|Davies|2005|loc=p. 407 (1982 ed. Columbia Univ. Press)}} Unrest among national minorities was also related to foreign policy. Troubles followed repressions in the largely-Ukrainian eastern Galicia, where nearly 1,800 persons were arrested. Tension also arose between the government and Poland's German minority, particularly in [[Upper Silesia]]. The government did not yield to calls for antisemitic measures, but the Jews (8.6% of Poland's population) grew discontented for economic reasons that were connected with the Depression. By the end of Piłsudski's life, his government's relations with national minorities were increasingly problematic.{{sfn|Leslie|1983|p=182}}

In the military sphere, Piłsudski was praised for his plan at the Battle of Warsaw in 1920, but was criticized for subsequently concentrating on personnel management and neglecting modernization of military strategy and equipment.{{r|PWN|Garlicki195_178}} According to his detractors, his experiences in World War I and the Polish-Soviet War led him to over-estimate the importance of cavalry, and to neglect the development of armor and air forces.{{r|Garlicki195_178}} His supporters, on the other hand, contend that, particularly from the late 1920s, he supported the development of these military branches.{{r|Urbank97_2_330-7}} Modern historians concluded that the limitations on Poland's military modernization in this period was less doctrinal than financial.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Zaloga|first1=Steve|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L1EpAQAAMAAJ&q=%22+financial+rather+than+doctrinal%22|title=The Polish Campaign, 1939|last2=Madej|first2=W. Victor|date=1990|publisher=Hippocrene Books|isbn=978-0-87052-013-6|pages=11|language=en}}</ref>

===Foreign policy===
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-B0527-0001-293, Warschau, Empfang Goebbels bei Marschall Pilsudski.jpg|thumb|alt=Four men are posed, facing the camera|German ambassador, [[Hans-Adolf von Moltke]], Piłsudski, [[Joseph Goebbels]] and [[Józef Beck]], Polish Foreign minister, in [[Warsaw]] on 15 June 1934, five months after the [[German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact]]]]Piłsudski sought to maintain his country's independence in the international arena. Assisted by his protégé, Foreign Minister [[Józef Beck]], he sought support for Poland in alliances with western powers, such as France and Britain, and with friendly neighbors such as Romania and Hungary.{{r|Urbank97_539–40}} A supporter of the Franco-Polish Military Alliance and the [[Polish–Romanian alliance]], part of the [[Little Entente]], Piłsudski was disappointed by the policy of [[appeasement]] pursued by the French and British governments, evident in their signing of the [[Locarno Treaties]].{{r|Prizel98_71|Lukacs01_30|Jordan02_23}} The Locarno treaties were intended by the British government to ensure a peaceful handover of the territories claimed by Germany such as the [[Sudetenland]], the [[Polish Corridor]], and the [[Free City of Danzig]] (modern [[Gdańsk]], Poland) by improving Franco-German relations to such extent that France would dissolve its alliances in eastern Europe.{{sfn|Schuker|1999|p=48-49}} Piłsudski aimed to maintain good relations with the Soviet Union and Germany,{{r|Prizel98_71|Lukacs01_30|Jordan02_23}} and relations with Germany and the [[Soviet Union]] during Piłsudski's tenure could, for the most part, be described as neutral.{{r|Prizel98_71|Urbank97_538-40}} Under Piłsudski, Poland maintained good relations with neighboring [[Kingdom of Romania|Romania]], Hungary and [[Latvia]], but were strained with [[Czechoslovakia]], and worse with [[Lithuania]].{{sfn|Goldstein|2002|p=29}}

A recurring fear of Piłsudski was that France would reach an agreement with Germany at the expense of Poland. In 1929, the French agreed to pull out of the Rhineland in 1930, five years earlier than the Treaty of Versailles specified. The same year, the French announced plans for the [[Maginot Line]] along the border with Germany, and construction of the Maginot line began in 1930. The Maginot line was a tacit French admission that Germany would be rearming beyond the limits set by the Treaty of Versailles in the near-future and that France intended to pursue a defensive strategy.{{sfn|Young|1996|p=19-21}} At the time Poland signed the alliance with France in 1921, the French were occupying the Rhineland and Polish plans for a possible war with ''Reich'' were based on the assumption of a French offensive into the north German plain from their bases in the Rhineland. The French pullout from the Rhineland and a shift to a defensive strategy as epitomized by the Maginot line completely upset the entire basis of Polish foreign and defense policy.{{sfn|Young|1996|p=21}}

In June 1932, just before the [[Lausanne Conference of 1932|Lausanne Conference]] opened, Piłsudski heard reports that the new German chancellor [[Franz von Papen]] was about to make an offer for a Franco-German alliance to the French Premier Édouard Herriot which would be at the expense of Poland.{{sfn|Wandycz|1988|p=237}} In response, Piłsudski sent the destroyer [[ORP Wicher (1928)|ORP ''Wicher'']] into the harbour of Danzig.{{sfn|Wandycz|1988|p=237}} Though the issue was ostensibly about access rights for the Polish Navy in Danzig, the real purpose of sending ''Wircher'' was as a way to warn Herriot not to disadvantage Poland in a deal with Papen.{{sfn|Wandycz|1988|p=237}} The ensuring [[Danzig crisis (1932)|Danzig crisis]] sent the desired message to the French and improved the Polish Navy's access rights to Danzig.{{sfn|Wandycz|1988|p=237}}

Poland signed the [[Soviet-Polish Non-Aggression Pact]] in 1932.{{r|Urbank97_539–40}} The Soviet-Polish Pact was considered at the time to be a major success of Polish diplomacy, which had been greatly weakened by the [[toll war]] with Germany, the renouncement of parts of the [[Treaty of Versailles]] and the loosened ties with [[France]] after it agreed to the [[Locarno Treaties]]. Critics of the pact state that it allowed Stalin to eliminate his socialist opponents, primarily in Ukraine. The pacts were supported by advocates of Piłsudski's [[Prometheism|Promethean]] programme.{{sfn|Charaszkiewicz|2000|p=64}} After [[Adolf Hitler]] [[Machtergreifung|came to power]] in Germany in January 1933, Piłsudski is rumored to have proposed to France a [[preventive war]] against Germany.{{r|Urbank97_2_317-26}} Lack of French enthusiasm may have been a reason for Poland signing the [[German–Polish Non-Aggression Pact]] in 1934.{{r|EBritannica_JP|Urbank97_539–40}}<ref name="TT_NGP"/><ref name="GQH"/> Little evidence has, however, been found in French or Polish diplomatic archives that such a proposal for preventive war was ever actually advanced.<ref name="Bel"/> Critics of Poland's pact with Germany accused Piłsudski of underestimating Hitler's aggressiveness,{{r|Hehn05_76}} and giving Germany time to re-arm.{{sfn|Kershaw|2001|p=237}}{{r|Davidson04_25}} Hitler repeatedly suggested a German-Polish alliance against the Soviet Union, but Piłsudski declined, instead seeking precious time to prepare for a potential war with either Germany or the Soviet Union. Just before his death, Piłsudski told [[Józef Beck]] that it must be Poland's policy to maintain neutral relations with Germany, keep up the Polish alliance with France and improve relations with the United Kingdom.{{r|Urbank97_539–40}} The two non-aggression pacts were intended to strengthen Poland's position in the eyes of its allies and neighbors.{{r|PolandGov}} Piłsudski was probably aware of the weakness of the pacts, stating: "Having these pacts, we are straddling two stools. This cannot last long. We have to know from which stool we will tumble first, and when that will be".{{r|Kipp93_95}}

===Economic policy===
Despite coming from a socialist background and initially implementing socialist reforms, Piłsudski's government followed the conservative free-market economic tradition of the [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] throughout its existence. Poland had one of the lowest taxation rates in Europe, with 9.3% of taxes as a distribution of national income. Piłsudski's government was also heavily dependent on foreign investments and economies, with 45.4% of Polish equity capital controlled by foreign corporations. After the [[Great Depression]], the Polish economy crumbled and failed to recover until [[Ignacy Mościcki]]'s government introduced economic reforms with more government interventions with an increase in tax revenues and public spending after Piłsudski's death. These interventionist policies saw Poland's economy recover from the recession until the USSR and the German invasion of Poland in 1939.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Dadak |first=Casimir |date=May 2012 |title=National Heritage and Economic Policies in Free and Sovereign Poland after 1918 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/contemporary-european-history/article/abs/national-heritage-and-economic-policies-in-free-and-sovereign-poland-after-1918/B65FA110EF9020504F284BB52EB5B907 |journal=Contemporary European History |language=en |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=193–214 |doi=10.1017/S0960777312000112 |s2cid=161683968 |issn=1469-2171}}</ref>

==Religious views==
Piłsudski's religious views are a matter of debate. He was baptised Roman Catholic on 15 December 1867 in the church of Powiewiórka (then [[Švenčionys|Sventsiany]] deanery). His godparents were Joseph and Constance Martsinkovsky Ragalskaya.<ref>[Adam Borkiewicz: Źródła do biografii Józefa Piłsudskiego the z lat 1867–1892, Niepodległość. T. XIX. Warszawa: 1939.]</ref> On 15 July 1899, at the village of Paproć Duża, near [[Łomża]], he married [[Maria Piłsudska|Maria Juskiewicz]], a divorcée. As the [[Catholic Church]] did not recognise divorces, she and Piłsudski had converted to [[Protestantism]].<ref>Andrzej Garlicki, ''Józef Piłsudski: 1867–1935'', [[Warsaw]], [[Czytelnik]], 1988, {{ISBN|8307017157}}, pp. 63–64.</ref> Pilsudski later returned to the Catholic Church to marry [[Aleksandra Piłsudska|Aleksandra Szczerbińska]]. Piłsudski and Aleksandra could not get married as Piłsudski's wife Maria refused to divorce him. It was only after Maria's death in 1921 that they were married, on 25 October that year.<ref>Adviser Daria and Thomas, ''Jozef Pilsudski: Legends and Facts'', Warsaw 1987, {{ISBN|83-203-1967-6}}, p. 132.]</ref><ref>Suleja Vladimir, ''Jozef Pilsudski'', Wroclaw – Warsaw – Kraków 2005, {{ISBN|83-04-04706-3}}, pp. 290.</ref>

==Death==
[[File: Pilsudski old2.jpg |thumb|upright|Piłsudski, 1935]]
By 1935, unbeknown to the public, Piłsudski had for several years been in declining health. On 12 May 1935, he died of [[Hepatocellular carcinoma|liver cancer]] at Warsaw's [[Belweder]] Palace. The celebration of his life began spontaneously within half an hour of the announcement of his death.{{sfn|Drozdowski|Szwankowska|1995|p=5}} It was led by military personnel – former [[Polish Legions in World War I|Legionnaires]], members of the [[Polish Military Organization]], veterans of the wars of 1919–21 – and by his political collaborators from his service as Chief of State, and later, Prime Minister and Inspector-General.{{r|DroSzwa95_911}}

The [[Communist Party of Poland]] immediately smeared Piłsudski as a "[[Fascist (insult)#Eastern Europe|fascist]] and [[Bourgeoisie|capitalist]]",{{r|DroSzwa95_911}}<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=SwMOAAAAQAAJ&dq=%22a+liberal+democrat+in+the+clothes+of+an+old-world+knight.%22&pg=PA138 ''Ideas into Politics: Aspects of European History, 1880–1950''] R. J. Bullen, Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann, A. B. Polonsky, Taylor & Francis, 1984, p. 138</ref> Other opponents of the Sanation government were more civil; socialists (such as [[Ignacy Daszyński]] and [[Tomasz Arciszewski]]) and [[Polish Christian Democratic Party|Christian Democrats]] (represented by Ignacy Paderewski, [[Stanisław Wojciechowski]] and [[Władysław Grabski]]) expressed condolences. The peasant parties split in their reactions. [[Wincenty Witos]] voiced criticism of Piłsudski. In contrast, [[Maciej Rataj]] and [[Stanisław Thugutt]] were supportive, while [[Roman Dmowski]]'s [[National Democracy (Poland)|National Democrats]] expressed a toned-down criticism.{{r|DroSzwa95_911}}
[[File:10zł józef front.jpg|thumb|upright|Silver 1935 [[Polish złoty|10-złoty]] coin showing Piłsudski]]
Condolences were officially expressed by senior clergy, including [[Pope Pius XI]] and [[August Cardinal Hlond]], [[Primate of Poland]]. The Pope called himself a "personal friend" of Piłsudski. Notable appreciation for Piłsudski was expressed by Poland's ethnic and religious minorities. [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Greek Orthodox]], Protestant, Jewish, and Islamic organizations expressed condolences, praising Piłsudski for his policies of religious tolerance.{{r|DroSzwa95_911}} His death was a shock to members of the Jewish minority amongst which he was respected for his lack of prejudice and vocal opposition to the Endecja.<ref name="Marcus2011">{{cite book|author=Joseph Marcus|title=Social and Political History of the Jews in Poland 1919–1939|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oEfDKjjX5AEC&pg=PA349|date=18 October 2011|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-083868-8|page=349}}</ref><ref name="Woznica2008">{{cite book|author=Aviva Woznica|title=Fire Unextinguished|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4YOMAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA37|date=11 April 2008|publisher=Xlibris Corporation|isbn=978-1-4691-0600-7|page=37}}</ref> Mainstream organizations of ethnic minorities similarly expressed their support for his policies of ethnic tolerance, though he was still criticized by Ukrainian, German, Lithuanian activists and Jewish supporters of the [[General Jewish Labour Bund in Poland]].{{r|DroSzwa95_911}}
On the international scene, Pope Pius XI held a special ceremony on 18 May in the [[Holy See]], a commemoration was conducted at [[League of Nations]] [[Geneva]] headquarters, and dozens of messages of condolence arrived in Poland from [[head of state|heads of state]] across the world, including Germany's Adolf Hitler, the Soviet Union's [[Joseph Stalin]], Italy's [[Benito Mussolini]] and King [[Victor Emmanuel III of Italy|Victor Emmanuel III]], France's [[Albert Lebrun]] and [[Pierre-Étienne Flandin]], Austria's [[Wilhelm Miklas]], Japan's Emperor [[Hirohito]], and Britain's King [[George V of the United Kingdom|George V]].{{r|DroSzwa95_911}} In Berlin, a service for Piłsudski was ordered by Adolf Hitler. This was the only time that Hitler attended a [[Holy Mass]] as a leader of the Third Reich and probably one of the last times when he was in a church.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://rarehistoricalphotos.com/adolf-hitler-memorial-pilsudski-1935/|title=Adolf Hitler attending memorial service of the Polish First Marshall Jozef Pilsudski in Berlin, 1935 – Rare Historical Photos|date=3 December 2013}}</ref>

=== Funeral ===
[[File:Pogrzeb Pilsudski 1935.jpg|thumb|Funeral procession, 15 May 1935 along [[Krakowskie Przedmieście]] Street in Warsaw]]
State funeral ceremonies for Piłsudski was held in Warsaw and [[Kraków]] between 15 and 18 May 1935, including official [[mass (liturgy)|masses]] and funeral processions in both cities. A [[funeral train]] toured Poland before the remains of Piłsudski were laid to rest at [[Wawel]].<ref>[[#refHumphrey1936|Humphrey 1936]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=BNkwAAAAIAAJ&q=Pi%C5%82sudski+%22funeral+train%22 p. 295].</ref> A series of postcards, stamps and postmarks were also released to commemorate the event. The nation-wide ceremonies were accompanied by extensive media coverage and reflected the [[Józef Piłsudski's cult of personality|personality cult]] of Piłsudski. The final funeral procession in Krakow on 18 May, with an estimated 300,000 participants and official representatives from 16 foreign states, constituted the largest public funeral in Poland's history.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kowalski |first=Waldemar |date=2017 |title=Piłsudski pośród królów - droga marszałka na Wawel |url=https://dzieje.pl/artykulyhistoryczne/pilsudski-posrod-krolow-droga-marszalka-na-wawel |access-date=7 January 2023 |website=dzieje.pl Portal Historyczny |publisher=Polish Press Agency |language=pl}}</ref> Separate funeral ceremonies were held for the burial of his brain, which Piłsudski had willed for study to [[Vilnius University|Stefan Batory University]], and his heart, which was interred in his mother's grave at Vilnius's [[Rasos Cemetery]].{{r|PolandGov}}{{sfn|Watt|1979|p=338}}

In 1937, after a two-year display at [[St. Leonard's Crypt]] in [[Kraków]]'s [[Wawel Cathedral]], Piłsudski's remains were transferred to the cathedral's Crypt under the Silver Bells. The decision, made by his long-standing adversary [[Adam Stefan Sapieha|Adam Sapieha]], then [[Archbishop of Krakow]], incited widespread protests that included calls for Sapieha's removal, setting off a series of clashes between the representatives of the Polish Catholic Church and the Polish government in what has come to be known as "konflikt wawelski" ("Wawel conflict"). Despite heavy and protracted criticism, Sapieha never allowed Piłsudski's coffin to be transferred back to St. Leonard's Crypt.<ref name="Crowds urge Poland to banish Archbishop; Pilsudski Legionnaires also Assail Catholic Church on the Removal of Marshal's Body" />{{sfn|Lerski|1996|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QTUTqE2difgC&pg=PA525 p. 525]}}

==Legacy==
{{rquote|right|I am not going to dictate to you what you write about my life and work. I only ask that you not make me out to be a 'whiner and sentimentalist.'|author=Józef Piłsudski, 1908{{r|Urbank97_133–41}}|align=center}}

On 13 May 1935, in accordance with Piłsudski's last wishes, [[Edward Rydz-Śmigły]] was named by Poland's president and government to be [[Inspector general|Inspector General]] of the [[Polish Armed Forces]], and on 10 November 1936, he was elevated to [[Marshal of Poland]].{{sfn|Jabłonowski|Stawecki|1998|p=13}} As the Polish government became increasingly authoritarian and conservative, the Rydz-Śmigły faction was opposed by the more moderate [[Ignacy Mościcki]], who remained President.{{r|JabStaw98_14}} Although Rydz-Śmigły reconciled with the President in 1938, the ruling group remained divided into the "President's Men", mostly civilians (the "Castle Group", after the President's official residence, [[Warsaw's Royal Castle]]), and the "Marshal's Men" ("[[Piłsudski's colonels]]"), professional military officers and Piłsudski's old comrades-in-arms.<ref name="AjnenkielDrzycimski19912">{{cite book|author1=Andrzej Ajnenkiel|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MUFFAAAAIAAJ|title=Prezydenci Polski|author2=Andrzej Drzycimski|author3=Janina Paradowska|publisher=Wydawn. Sejmowe|year=1991|page=62|isbn = 9788370590000|language=pl|quote=grupa pułkowników, zespół wywodzących się z wojska najbliższych współpracowników Marszałka, takich jak płk Sławek czy płk Prystor; ich koncepcje różniły się wyraźnie od stanowiska zajmowanego przez prezydenta.}}</ref> Some of this political division would continue in the [[Polish government-in-exile]] after the German [[invasion of Poland]] in 1939.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Dworski|first=Michał|title=Republic in Exile ͵ Political Life of Polish Emigration in United Kingdom After Second World War|url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=700313|journal=Toruńskie Studia Międzynarodowe|year=2018|language=en|volume=1|issue=10|pages=101–110|doi=10.12775/TSM.2017.008|issn=2391-7601|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pra ż mowska|first=Anita|date=1 July 2013|title=The Polish Underground Resistance During the Second World War: A Study in Political Disunity During Occupation|url=https://doi.org/10.1177/0265691413490495|journal=European History Quarterly|language=en|volume=43|issue=3|pages=464–488|doi=10.1177/0265691413490495|s2cid=220737108 |issn=0265-6914}}</ref>

[[File:Side View of the Józef Piłsudski Monument in Piłsudski Square.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Józef Piłsudski Monument in Warsaw (Piłsudski Square)|Statue of Piłsudski]] on Warsaw's [[Piłsudski Square]]—one of many [[statuary]] tributes throughout Poland]]

After World War II, little of Piłsudski's political ideology influenced the policies of the [[Polish People's Republic]], a ''de facto'' [[satellite state|satellite]] of the [[Soviet Union]].<ref>{{harvnb|Charaszkiewicz|2000|p=56}}</ref> For a decade after World War II, Piłsudski was either ignored or condemned by Poland's Communist government, along with the entire interwar [[Second Polish Republic]]. This began to change after [[de-Stalinization]] and the [[Polish October]] in 1956, and historiography in Poland gradually moved away from a purely negative view of Piłsudski toward a more balanced and neutral assessment.{{r|Władyka+Żuławnik}} After the 1991 [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], Piłsudski once again came to be publicly acknowledged as a Polish national hero.<ref name="Roshwald"/> On the sixtieth anniversary of his death on 12 May 1995, Poland's Sejm adopted a resolution: <blockquote>"Józef Piłsudski will remain, in our nation's memory, the founder of its independence and the victorious leader who fended off a foreign assault that threatened the whole of Europe and its civilization. Józef Piłsudski served his country well and has entered our history forever."<ref name="Sejm1995" /> </blockquote>Piłsudski continues to be viewed by most Poles as a providential figure in the country's 20th-century history.<ref name="KoppNizynska2012">{{cite book|author1=K. Kopp|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZpmAQAAQBAJ&pg=PT121|title=Germany, Poland and Postmemorial Relations: In Search of a Livable Past|author2=J. Nizynska|date=7 May 2012|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-137-05205-6|pages=120–121}}</ref><ref name="ErsoyG¢rny2010">{{cite book|author1=Ahmet Ersoy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8j-Uemo6SfoC&pg=PA407|title=Modernism: The Creation of Nation-States: Discourses of Collective Identity in Central and Southeast Europe 1770?1945: Texts and Commentaries, Volume III/1|author2=Maciej G¢rny|author3=Vangelis Kechriotis|date=1 January 2010|publisher=Central European University Press|isbn=978-963-7326-61-5|page=407}}</ref>

[[File:Pilsudski carricature by Szwajcer.PNG|thumb|upright|Contemporary [[caricature]] of Józef Piłsudski by [[Jerzy Szwajcer]]]]
Several military units have been named for Piłsudski, including the [[1st Legions Infantry Division (Poland)|1st Legions Infantry Division]], [[Armoured trains of Poland|armoured train No. 51]] ("''I Marszałek''"—"the First Marshal"),<ref name="PIBWL"/> and the Romanian [[634th Infantry Battalion (Romania)|634th Infantry Battalion]].<ref>{{cite web|title=De ce Batalionul 634 Infanterie din Piatra-Neamț se numește "Mareşal Józef Piłsudski"?|url=https://www.ziarpiatraneamt.ro/de-ce-batalionul-634-infanterie-din-piatra-neamt-se-numeste-maresal-jozef-pilsudski|language=ro|website=ziarpiatraneamt.ro|date=6 December 2021}}</ref> Also named for Piłsudski have been [[Piłsudski's Mound]], one of four-man-made [[mound]]s in [[Kraków]];<ref name="mound" /> the [[Józef Piłsudski Institute of America]], a New York City research center and museum on the modern [[history of Poland]];<ref name="Institute" /> the [[Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw]];<ref name="MON" /> a passenger ship, {{MS|Piłsudski}}; a gunboat, {{ORP|Komendant Piłsudski}}; and a racehorse, ''[[Pilsudski (horse)|Pilsudski]]''. Many Polish cities [[:pl:Kategoria:Ulice i place nazwane imieniem Józefa Piłsudskiego|have their own "Piłsudski Street"]].<ref name="Smele2015">{{cite book|author=Jonathan D. Smele|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwquCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA872|title=Historical Dictionary of the Russian Civil Wars, 1916-1926|date=19 November 2015|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers|isbn=978-1-4422-5281-3|page=872}}</ref> There are statues of Piłsudski in many Polish cities; Warsaw, which has three in little more than a mile between the [[Belweder]] Palace, Piłsudski's residence, and [[Piłsudski Square]].<ref name="Smele2015" /> In 2020, Piłsudski's manor house in Sulejówek opened as a museum as part of the celebrations of the one hundredth anniversary of the [[Battle of Warsaw (1920)|Battle of Warsaw]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.thefirstnews.com/article/house-and-home-pilsudskis-old-manor-opens-as-museum-14922 |title=House and home: Piłsudski's old manor opens as museum |access-date=16 August 2020}}</ref>

Piłsudski has been a character in numerous works of fiction, a trend already visible during his lifetime,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Ujma|first= Martyna|editor-last=Krywoszeja|editor-first=Igor|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i65fzgEACAAJ|title=Polsko-ukraińskie spotkania z Klio|editor-last2=Morawiec|editor-first2=Norbert|editor-last3=Terszak|editor-first3=Rafał|last4=Historyczne)|editor-first4=Oddział |editor-last4=Częstochowa|date=2016|publisher=Polskie Towarzystwo Historyczne. Oddział Częstochowa|isbn=978-83-947379-1-7|pages=61–76|language=pl|chapter=Od nadziei do rozczarowania - Józef Piłsudski w międzywojennej literaturze (na wybranych przykładach)}}</ref> including the 1922 novel ''Generał Barcz'' (General Barcz) by [[Juliusz Kaden-Bandrowski]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Goss|first=Łukasz|date=2008|title="Okno na Barcza" (o powieści Juliusza Kadena-Bandrowskiego "Generał Barcz")|url=http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.hdl_11089_10754|journal=Acta Universitatis Lodziensis. Folia Litteraria Polonica|language=en|volume=11|issn=2353-1908}}</ref> Later works in which he is featured include the 2007 novel ''[[Ice (Dukaj novel)|Ice]]'' (''Lód'') by [[Jacek Dukaj]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ryrych|first=Tomasz|date=2019|title=Biały steampunk – dwa oblicza carskiej Rosji. "Lód" Jacka Dukaja i cykl opowiadań o doktorze Skórzewskim Andrzeja Pilipiuka|url=https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=819574|journal=Creatio Fantastica|language=Polish|volume=60|issue=1|pages=97–114|issn=2300-2514}}</ref> Poland's [[National Library of Poland|National Library]] lists over 500 publications related to Piłsudski;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://katalogi.bn.org.pl/discovery/search?query=any,contains,Pi%C5%82sudski&tab=LibraryCatalog&search_scope=MyInstitution&vid=48OMNIS_NLOP:48OMNIS_NLOP&lang=en&offset=0|title=Piłsudski (keyword)|work=National Library Of Poland|access-date=15 January 2008}}</ref> the U.S. [[Library of Congress]], over 300.<ref name="Library of Congress Online Catalog" /> Piłsudski's life was the subject of a 2001 Polish television documentary, ''Marszałek Piłsudski'', directed by Andrzej Trzos-Rastawiecki.<ref name="Mazierska2007">{{cite book|author=Ewa Mazierska|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fEaaNtRd9T8C&pg=PA122|title=Polish Postcommunist Cinema: From Pavement Level|publisher=Peter Lang|year=2007|isbn=978-3-03910-529-8|page=122}}</ref> He was also the subject of paintings by artists such as [[Jacek Malczewski]] (1916) and [[Wojciech Kossak]] (leaning on his sword, 1928; and astride his horse, ''[[Kasztanka]]'', 1928), as well as photos and caricatures.<ref name="Milewska1998">{{cite book|author=Wacława Milewska|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5OdwAAAAIAAJ|title=Legiony Polskie 1914–1918: zarys historii militarnej i politycznej|publisher=Księg. Akademicka|year=1998|isbn=978-83-7188-228-9|page=14}}</ref><ref name="JedrzejewiczCisek1998">{{cite book|author1=Wacław Jedrzejewicz|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iBIsAQAAMAAJ|title=Kalendarium życia Józefa Piłsudskiego: 1867-1935. 1918-1926. TomII|author2=Janusz Cisek|publisher=Oficyna wydawnicza RYTM|year=1998|isbn=978-83-86678-97-6|page=337}}</ref> He has been reported to be quite fond of the latter.<ref name="Szałapak2005">{{cite book|author=[[Anna Szałapak]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7f1oAAAAMAAJ|title=Legends and mysteries of Cracow: from King Krak to Piotr Skrzynecki|publisher=Muzeum Historyczne Miasta Krakowa|year=2005|isbn=9788389599070|page=193|quote=Piłsudski... bardzo lubił karykatury na swój temat.}}</ref>

==Descendants==
Both daughters of Marshal Piłsudski returned to Poland in 1990, after the [[Revolutions of 1989]] and the fall of the Communist system. Jadwiga Piłsudska's daughter Joanna Jaraczewska returned to Poland in 1979. She married a Polish [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity]] activist [[Janusz Onyszkiewicz]] in a political prison in 1983. Both were very involved in the [[Solidarity (Polish trade union)|Solidarity movement]] between 1979 and 1989.<ref>{{cite web |author=Lachowicz, Teofil |editor=Karkowska, Julita |title=Droga na szczyty |website=Nowy Dziennik |language=pl |url=http://www.dziennik.com/www/dziennik/kult/archiwum/01-06-06/pp-03-03-02.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723095525/http://www.dziennik.com/www/dziennik/kult/archiwum/01-06-06/pp-03-03-02.html |archive-date=23 July 2011 |access-date=24 July 2011 }}</ref>

==Honours==
{{main|List of honours awarded to Józef Piłsudski}}

Piłsudski was awarded numerous honours, domestic and foreign.

==See also==
* [[Józef Piłsudski's cult of personality]]
* [[List of covers of Time magazine (1920s)|List of people on the cover of Time Magazine: 1920s]]&nbsp;– 7 June 1926
* [[List of Polish people#Politics|List of Poles]]
* [[Piłsudskiite]] (''Piłsudczyk'')

==Notes==
{{refbegin}}
'''a.''' {{Note label|a|a|none}} Józef Klemens Piłsudski was commonly referred to without his middle name, as "Józef Piłsudski". A few English sources translate his first name as "Joseph", but this is not the common practice. As a young man, he belonged to underground organizations and used various pseudonyms, including "''Wiktor''", "''Mieczysław''" and "''Ziuk''" (the latter also being his family nickname). Later he was often affectionately called "''Dziadek''" ("Grandpa" or "the Old Man") and "''Marszałek''" ("the Marshal"). His ex-soldiers from the [[Polish Legions in World War I|Legions]] also referred to him as "''Komendant''" ("the Commandant").

'''b.''' {{Note label|b|b|none}} Piłsudski sometimes spoke of being a Lithuanian of Polish culture.{{sfn|Davies|1986|p=139}} For several centuries, declaring both [[Polish-Lithuanian identity|Lithuanian and Polish identity]] was commonplace, but around the turn of the last century it became much rarer in the wake of arising modern nationalisms. [[Timothy Snyder]], who calls him a "Polish-Lithuanian", notes that Piłsudski did not think in terms of 20th-century nationalisms and [[ethnicity|ethnicities]]; he considered himself ''both'' a Pole and a Lithuanian, and his homeland was the historic [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]].{{sfn|Snyder|2004|p=70}}

'''c.''' {{Note label|c|c|none}} [[Polish Socialist Party – Revolutionary Faction]] from 1906 to 1909

{{refend}}

==References==
{{reflist|refs=
<ref name=HydeP01_75>{{harvnb|Hyde-Price|2001|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=M-2Obqk-VZUC&pg=PA75 p. 75].}}</ref>

<ref name=Alabrud99_99>{{harvnb|Alabrudzińska|1999|p=99}}.</ref>

<ref name=Boemeke98_314>{{harvnb|Boemeke et al.|1998 |loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zqj-oHp4KsgC&pg=RA1-PA314 p. 314]}}.</ref>

<ref name="Bel">{{cite journal |language=pl |last=Baliszewski |first=Dariusz |author-link=Dariusz Baliszewski |url=http://www.wprost.pl/ar/?O=70406 |title=Ostatnia wojna marszałka |journal=[[Wprost]] |issue=48/2004; 1148 |publisher=Agencja Wydawniczo-Reklamowa "Wprost" |date=28 November 2004 |access-date=24 March 2005}}</ref>

<ref name=Biskupski2000>{{harvnb|Biskupski|2000|}}.</ref>

<ref name=EBritannica_JP>{{Britannica|460674|Józef Piłsudski}}.</ref>

<ref name=Cienciala02>{{harvnb|Cienciala|2002|}}.</ref>

<ref name=Cieplinski02>{{cite web |last=Cieplinski |first=Feigue |year=2002 |title=Poles and Jews: The Quest For Self-Determination 1919–1934 |website=Binghamton University History Department |url=http://www.binghamton.edu/history/resources/bjoh/PolesAndJews.htm |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20020918204723/http://www.binghamton.edu/history/resources/bjoh/PolesAndJews.htm |archive-date=18 September 2002 }}</ref>

<ref name=Paulsson03_37>{{harvnb|Paulsson|2003|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vjJimC--9-kC&pg=PA37 p. 37]}}.</ref>

<ref name=Snyder07_66>{{harvnb|Snyder|2007|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PKrjew-H0JMC&pg=PA66 p. 66]}}.</ref>

<ref name=CohenS80_101>{{harvnb|Cohen|1980|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BUg-lWpZcsIC&pg=RA1-PA101 p. 101]}}.</ref>

<ref name=CohenY89_65>{{harvnb|Cohen|1989|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aN96TB0RUB8C&pg=PA65 p. 65]}}.</ref>

<ref name=Cisek02_1401>{{harvnb|Cisek|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hNuGZOGk6UoC&pg=PA140 pp. 140–141]}}.</ref>

<ref name="Głos05">{{cite journal |last=Frątczak |first=Sławomir Z. |year=2005 |title=Cud nad Wisłą |journal=[[Głos (1991)|Głos]] |issue=32 |language=pl |url=http://glos.com.pl/Archiwum_nowe/Rok%202005/032/strona/Cud.html |access-date=26 June 2009 |archive-date=10 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510063137/http://glos.com.pl/Archiwum_nowe/Rok%202005/032/strona/Cud.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name=Stachura04_79>{{harvnb|Stachura|2004|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BkKuir9oQYMC&pg=PA79 p. 79]}}.</ref>

<ref name=ColuEncyclPoland>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://encyclopedia2.tfd.com/Poland |title=Poland |access-date=29 December 2007 |encyclopedia=[[Columbia Encyclopedia]]}}</ref>

<ref name="Crowds urge Poland to banish Archbishop; Pilsudski Legionnaires also Assail Catholic Church on the Removal of Marshal's Body">{{cite news|title=Crowds urge Poland to banish Archbishop; Pilsudski Legionnaires also Assail Catholic Church on the Removal of Marshal's Body|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1937/06/26/archives/crowds-urge-poland-to-banish-archbishop-pilsudski-legionnaires-also.html|work=The New York Times|date=26 June 1937|access-date=14 December 2009 | first=Wireless | last=To}}</ref>

<ref name=Lerski96_439>{{harvnb|Lerski|1996|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=S6aUBuWPqywC&pg=PA439 p. 439].}}</ref>

<ref name=BidJef98_186>{{harvnb|Bideleux|Jeffries|1998|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6Eh9KQTrOckC&pg=PA186 p. 186].}}</ref>

<ref name=Davies05_40>{{harvnb|Davies|2005|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9Tbed6iMNLEC&pg=PA40 p. 40].}}</ref>
<ref name=Davies03_00>{{harvnb|Davies|2003|}}</ref>
<ref name=Davies03_95ff>{{harvnb|Davies|2003|loc=pp. 95ff.}}</ref>

<ref name=Figes96_699>{{harvnb|Figes|1996|p=699}}. "Within weeks of Brusilov's appointment, 14,000 officers had joined the army to fight the Poles, thousands of civilians had volunteered for war-work, and well over 100,000 deserters had returned to the Red Army on the Western Front".</ref>

<ref name=ICRAP>{{cite web |title=Bronisław Piotr Piłsudski – Calendar of events |website=ICRAP |url=http://panda.bg.univ.gda.pl/ICRAP/en/BPcv-eng.html |access-date=2 March 2018 |archive-date=21 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210921205628/http://panda.bg.univ.gda.pl/ICRAP/en/BPcv-eng.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name=Erickson01_95>{{harvnb|Erickson|2001|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rgkSxFpKmIsC&pg=PA95 p. 95]}}.</ref>

<ref name="GQH">[[#refQuester2000|Quester 2000]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=h5ApNEq4L0IC&dq=Pilsudski+France+1933&pg=PA27 p. 27]. The author gives a source: {{harvnb|Watt|1979|}}.</ref>

<ref name=Garlicki195_178>{{harvnb|Garlicki|1995|p=178}}.</ref>
<ref name=Garlicki195_63>{{harvnb|Garlicki|1995|p=63}}.</ref>

<!-- Not in use
<ref name="Goldfarb">[[#refGoldfarb1992|Goldfarb 1992]], [https://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN0226300986&id=7aHEDQ0HbyIC&pg=PA152 p. 152].</ref>
Not in use-->

<ref name="Institute">{{cite web |url=http://www.pilsudski.org/English/Institute/Welcome.htm |title=Józef Piłsudski Institute of America Welcome Page |work=Józef Piłsudski Institute of America |access-date=26 May 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060615113226/http://pilsudski.org/English/Institute/Welcome.htm |archive-date=15 June 2006 }}</ref>

<ref name=Lukacs01_30>{{harvnb|Lukacs|2001|p=30}}.</ref>

<ref name="Roos+Rothschild">{{harvnb|Roos|1966|p=14}}; {{harvnb|Rothschild|1990|p=45}}.</ref>

<ref name=Rothschild90_45>{{harvnb|Rothschild|1990|p=45}}.</ref>

<ref name=JabStaw98_14>{{harvnb|Jabłonowski|Stawecki|1998|p=14}}.</ref>

<ref name=Kenez99_37>{{harvnb|Kenez|1999|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aIY9qb6iIEcC&pg=PA37 p. 37]}}.</ref>

<ref name=Lawrynowicz>{{cite web |last=Lawrynowicz |first=Witold |title=Battle of Warsaw 1920 |website=Polish Militaria Collector's Association in memory of Andrzej Zaremba |url=http://www.hetmanusa.org/engarticle1.html |access-date=5 November 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118065334/http://www.hetmanusa.org/engarticle1.html |archive-date=18 January 2012 }}</ref>

<ref name=Lenin1920>See Lenin's speech on 22 September 1920 at the 9th Conference of the Russian Communist Party. English translation in {{harvnb|Pipes|1993|pp=181–182}} and excerpts in {{harvnb|Cienciala|2002|}}. The speech was first published in {{Cite journal |last1=Artizov |first1=Andrey |last2=Usov |first2=R.A. |year=1992 |title="Я прошу записывать меньше: это не должно попадать в печать&nbsp;...": Выступления В.И.Ленина на IX конференции РКП(б) 22 сентября 1920 г. |journal=Istoricheskii Arkhiv |volume=1 |issue=1 |issn=0869-6322 |language=ru }}</ref>

<ref name="Library of Congress Online Catalog">{{cite web |url=http://catalog.loc.gov |title=Library of Congress Online Catalog |access-date =20 December 2007 }}</ref>

<ref name=McM03_208>{{harvnb|MacMillan|2003|p=208}}.</ref>
<ref name=McM03_209>{{harvnb|MacMillan|2003|p=209}}.</ref>
<ref name=McM03_210>{{harvnb|MacMillan|2003|p=210}}.</ref>
<ref name=McM03_211>{{harvnb|MacMillan|2003|p=211}}.</ref>

<ref name=McM03_211-214>{{harvnb|MacMillan|2003|pp=211, 214}}.</ref>
<ref name=McM03_213-4>{{harvnb|MacMillan|2003|pp=213–214}}.</ref>

<ref name="MON">{{cite web |url=http://www.menis.gov.pl/menis_en/higher_education/f_wawa.php |title=Józef Piłsudski Academy of Physical Education in Warsaw |work=Polish Ministry of Education and Science |archive-date=23 September 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050923063522/http://www.menis.gov.pl/menis_en/higher_education/f_wawa.php |access-date =30 May 2006 }}</ref>

<ref name=Jordan02_23>{{harvnb|Jordan|2002|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4iQQrESpA48C&pg=PA23 p. 23]}}.</ref>

<ref name=Kipp93_95>{{harvnb|Kipp|1993|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=__zem3Mlm8AC&pg=PA95 95]}}.</ref>

<ref name=Hehn05_76>{{harvnb|Hehn|2005|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nOALhEZkYDkC&pg=PA76 p. 76]}}.</ref>

<ref name=Davidson04_25>{{harvnb|Davidson|2004|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qncE3wy3TTsC&pg=PA25 p. 25]}}.</ref>

<ref name=Prizel98_61>{{harvnb|Prizel|1998|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fE2quB852jcC&pg=PA61 p. 61]}}.</ref>

<ref name=Prizel98_71>{{harvnb|Prizel|1998|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fE2quB852jcC&pg=PA71 p. 71]}}.</ref>

<ref name=Wein90_292>{{harvnb|Wein|1990|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=11f9xBbOBBEC&pg=PA292 p. 292]}}.</ref>

<ref name="LönnrothEt94_230">{{harvnb|Lönnroth et al.|1994|loc= [https://books.google.com/books?id=uIVvQoxIHQkC&pg=PA230 p. 230]}}.</ref>

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<ref name=Times7Apr1930>{{cite magazine |date=7 April 1930 |title=Pilsudski Bros. |magazine=Time |url-access=subscription |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,787573,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100717043739/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,787573,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 July 2010 }}</ref>
<ref name=Times11Nov1929>{{cite magazine |date=11 November 1929 |title=Pilsudski v. Daszynski |magazine=Time |url-access=subscription |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,737985,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090815041117/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,737985,00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 August 2009 }}</ref>

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<ref name=Pobog-Ma90_7>{{harvnb|Pobóg-Malinowski|1990|p=7}}.</ref>

<ref name=PolandGov>{{cite web |title=History – Józef Piłsudski (1867–1935) |website=Poland.gov |url=http://poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html |access-date=23 April 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060213175243/http://poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html |archive-date=13 February 2006 }}</ref>

<ref name=HistNet_01>{{cite web |last=Szymczak |first=Robert |title=Polish-Soviet War: Battle of Warsaw |website=TheHistoryNet |access-date=10 October 2007 |url=http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3038436.html?featured=y&c=y |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071007194853/http://www.historynet.com/wars_conflicts/20_21_century/3038436.html?featured=y&c=y |archive-date= 7 October 2007 }}</ref>

<ref name=DroSzwa95_911>{{harvnb|Drozdowski|Szwankowska|1995|pp=9–11}}.</ref>

<ref name="Roshwald">[[#refRoshwald2002|Roshwald 2002]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=uteV3ytfmqQC&pg=PA60 p. 60].</ref>

<ref name="Sejm1995">Translation of ''Oświadczenie Sejmu Rzeczypospolitej Polskiej z dnia 12 maja 1995 r. w sprawie uczczenia 60 rocznicy śmierci Marszałka Józefa Piłsudskiego.'' ([[Monitor Polski|MP]] z dnia 24 maja 1995 r.). For Polish original online, see here [http://www.bankier.pl/firma/narzedzia/akty-prawne/monitor-polski-1995/pozycja-0297.html].</ref>

<ref name=Snyder04_144>{{harvnb|Snyder|2004|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC&pg=PA144 p. 144]}}.</ref>

<ref name=Suleja04_202>{{harvnb|Suleja|2004|p=202}}.</ref>
<ref name=Suleja04_265>{{harvnb|Suleja|2004|p=265}}.</ref>
<ref name=Suleja04_300>{{harvnb|Suleja|2004|p=300}}.</ref>
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<ref name=Urbank97_50>{{harvnb|Urbankowski|1997|loc=vol. 1, p. 50.}}</ref>
<ref name=Urbank97_71>{{harvnb|Urbankowski|1997|loc=vol. 1, p. 71.}}</ref>
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<ref name=Zamo87_330>{{harvnb|Zamoyski|1987|p=330}}.</ref>
<ref name=Zamo87_332>{{harvnb|Zamoyski|1987|p=332}}.</ref>
<ref name=Zamo87_333>{{harvnb|Zamoyski|1987|p=333}}.</ref>

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<ref name=Vital99_788>{{harvnb|Vital|1999|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XB1d1JhKoVUC&pg=PA788 p. 788]}}.</ref>

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<ref name=Engelking01_75>{{harvnb|Engelking|2001|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0oystlNB7JAC&pg=PA75 p. 75]}}.</ref>

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<ref name=Zimm03_19>{{harvnb|Zimmerman|2003|p=19}}.</ref>

<ref name="mound">{{cite web |url=http://www.wsp.krakow.pl/geo/krakow/kopiec_p.html |title=Kopiec Józefa Piłsudskiego |work=Pedagogical University of Kraków |language=pl |access-date=18 September 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070707232437/http://www.wsp.krakow.pl/geo/krakow/kopiec_p.html |archive-date=7 July 2007 }}</ref>

<ref name="Władyka+Żuławnik">{{harvnb|Władyka|2005|pp=285–311}}; {{harvnb|Żuławnik, Małgorzata & Mariusz|2005}}.</ref>

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|last2=Stawecki |first2=Piotr
|year=1998
|title=Następca komendanta. Edward Śmigły-Rydz. Materiały do biografii
|location=Pułtusk
|publisher=Wyższa Szkoła Humanistyczna w Pułtusku
|language=pl
|isbn=978-83-909208-0-1
}}
* {{cite book
|editor-last1=Jabłonowski |editor-first1=Marek
|editor-last2=Kossewska |editor-first2=Elżbieta
|title=Piłsudski na łamach i w opiniach prasy polskiej 1918–1989
|trans-title=Piłsudski as Seen in the Polish Press, 1918–1989
|year=2005
|publisher=Oficyna Wydawnicza ASPRA–JR and Warsaw University
|location=Warsaw
|language=pl
|isbn=978-83-89964-44-1
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Jędrzejewicz |first=Wacław |author-link=Wacław Jędrzejewicz
|year=1990
|orig-year=1982
|title=Pilsudski: A Life For Poland
|location=New York
|publisher=Hippocrene Books
|isbn=978-0-87052-747-0
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ngsWAQAAMAAJ
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Jędrzejewicz |first1=Wacław
|last2=Cisek |first2=Janusz
|title=Kalendarium Życia Józefa Piłsudskiego
|year=1994
|location=Wrocław
|publisher=Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich
|language=pl
|isbn=978-83-04-04114-1
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Jordan |first=Nicole |author-link=Nicole Jordan
|year=2002
|title=The Popular Front and Central Europe: The Dilemmas of French Impotence 1918–1940
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=978-0-521-52242-7
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Kenez
|first=Peter
|author-link=Peter Kenez
|year=1999
|title=A History of the Soviet Union from the Beginning to the End
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=978-0-521-31198-4
|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofsovietu00kene
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Kershaw |first=Ian |author-link=Ian Kershaw
|year=2001
|title=Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis
|location=New York 
|publisher=W.W. Norton
|isbn=978-0-393-32252-1
}}
* {{cite book
|editor-last=Kipp |editor-first=Jacob
|year=1993
|title=Central European Security Concerns: Bridge, Buffer, Or Barrier?
|location=Portland OR
|publisher=F. Cass
|isbn=978-0-7146-4545-2
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Kowner |first=Rotem |author-link=Rotem Kowner
|year=2006
|title=Historical Dictionary of the Russo-Japanese War
|publisher=The Scarecrow Press
|isbn=0-8108-4927-5
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Lerski
|first=Jerzy Jan
|author-link=Jerzy Jan Lerski
|others=Editing and emendations by Piotr Wróbel and Richard J. Kozicki
|title=Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966–1945
|year=1996
|publisher=Greenwood Press
|location=Westport, CN
|isbn=978-0-313-26007-0
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Leslie |first=R. F.
|year=1983
|title=The History of Poland Since 1863
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=978-0-521-27501-9
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Lieven |first=Anatol |author-link=Anatol Lieven
|year=1994
|title=The Baltic Revolution: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and the Path to Independence
|location=New Haven
|publisher=Yale University Press
|isbn=978-0-300-06078-2
}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Lönnroth |first1=Erik |author-link=Erik Lönnroth
|last2=Björk |first2=Ragnar
|last3=Molin |first3=Karl
|year=1994
|title=Conceptions of National History: Proceedings of Nobel Symposium 78
|location=Berlin; New York 
|publisher=Walter de Gruyter
|isbn=978-3-11-013504-6
|ref=CITEREFLönnroth et al.1994
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Lukacs
|first=John
|author-link=John Lukacs
|year=2001
|title=The Last European War: September 1939 – December 1941
|publisher=Yale University Press
|isbn=978-0-300-08915-8
|url=https://archive.org/details/lasteuropeanwar00john
}}
* {{cite book
|last=MacMillan
|first=Margaret
|author-link=Margaret MacMillan
|title=Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World
|year=2003
|publisher=Random House Trade Paperbacks
|edition=Random House trade paperback
|location=New York
|isbn=978-0-375-76052-5
}}
* [[Zdzisław Najder|Najder, Zdzisław]], ''Conrad under Familial Eyes'', Cambridge University Press, 1984, {{ISBN|0-521-25082-X}}.
* [[Zdzisław Najder|Najder, Zdzisław]], ''Joseph Conrad: A Life'', Rochester, New York, Camden House, 2007, {{ISBN|978-1-57113-347-2}}. 
* {{cite book
|last=Paulsson
|first=Gunnar S.
|author-link=Gunnar S. Paulsson
|year=2003
|title=Secret City: The Hidden Jews of Warsaw, 1940–1945
|location=New Haven
|publisher=Yale University Press
|isbn=978-0-300-09546-3
|url=https://archive.org/details/secretcityhidden00paul
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Payne
|first=Stanley G.
|author-link=Stanley G. Payne
|year=1995
|title=A History of Fascism, 1914–1945
|publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]]
|isbn=978-0-299-14874-4
|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780299148744
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Pidlutskyi
|first=Oleksa
|year=2004
|chapter=Józef Piłsudski: The Chief who Created Himself a State
|title=Postati XX stolittia |trans-title=Figures of the 20th century
|location=Kyiv
|publisher=Triada-A
|isbn=978-966-8290-01-5
}} (Reprinted in ''[[Dzerkalo Tyzhnia]]'', 5, 3–9 February 2001, [https://dt.ua/SOCIUM/postati_hh_storichchyayuzef_pilsudskiy_nachalnik,_yakiy_stvoriv_sobi_derzhavu.html available online]
* {{cite book
|last=Piłsudski |first=Józef
|editor=Urbankowski, Bohdan
|year=1989
|title=Myśli, mowy i rozkazy
|location=Warsaw
|publisher=Kwadryga
|language=pl
|isbn=978-83-85082-01-9
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Pipes
|first=Richard
|author-link=Richard Pipes
|year=1993
|title=Russia under the Bolshevik Regime
|location=New York 
|publisher=Knopf
|isbn=978-0-394-50242-7
|url=https://archive.org/details/russiaunderbolsh00rich
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Plach
|first=Eva
|title=The Clash of Moral Nations: Cultural Politics in Pilsudski's Poland, 1926–1935
|year=2006
|publisher=Ohio University Press
|location=Athens
|isbn=978-0-8214-1695-2
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Pobóg-Malinowski |first=Władysław |author-link=Władysław Pobóg-Malinowski
|year=1990
|title=Najnowsza historia polityczna Polski 1864–1945
|location=Warsaw
|publisher=Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza
|isbn=978-83-03-03163-1
|language=pl
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Prizel |first=Ilya
|year=1998
|title=National Identity and Foreign Policy: Nationalism and Leadership in Poland, Russia and Ukraine
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=978-0-521-57697-0
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Quester
|first=George H.
|title=Nuclear Monopoly
|year=2000
|publisher=Transaction Publishers
|location=New Brunswick
|isbn=978-0-7658-0022-0
|ref=refQuester2000
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Rąkowski |first=Grzegorz
|year=2005
|title=Wołyń: przewodnik krajoznawczo-historyczny po Ukrainie Zachodniej
|publisher=Rewasz
|isbn=83-89188-32-5
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Roos |first=Hans
|year=1966
|others=Translated by J.R. Foster from the German ''Geschichte der polnischen Nation, 1916–1960''.
|title=A History of Modern Poland, from the Foundation of the State in the First World War to the Present Day
|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernp00roos |url-access=registration |location=New York
|publisher=Knopf
|edition=1st American
|oclc=396836
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Roshwald |first=Aviel |author-link=Aviel Roshwald
|year=2001
|title=Ethnic Nationalism and the Fall of Empires: Central Europe, the Middle East and Russia, 1914–1923
|location=London; New York
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-0-415-24229-5
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Roshwald
|first=Aviel
|author2=Stites, Richard
 |title=European Culture in the Great War: The Arts, Entertainment and Propaganda, 1914–1918
|year=2002
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|location=Cambridge; New York
|isbn=978-0-521-01324-6
|ref=refRoshwald2002
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Roszkowski |first=Wojciech |author-link=Wojciech Roszkowski
|year=1992
|title=Historia Polski 1914–1991
|location=Warsaw
|publisher=Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN
|isbn=978-83-01-11014-7
|language=pl
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Rothschild
|first=Joseph
|year=1990
|title=East Central Europe Between the Two World Wars
|location=Seattle
|publisher=University of Washington Press
|isbn=978-0-295-95357-1
|url=https://archive.org/details/eastcentraleurop09jose
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Sanford |first=George |author-link=George Sanford (scholar)
|year=2002
|title=Democratic Government in Poland: Constitutional Politics Since 1989
|location=New York
|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan
|isbn=978-0-333-77475-5
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Schuker
|first=Stephen
|chapter=The End of Versailles
|pages=38–56
|title=The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered A.J.P. Taylor and the Historians'
|editor=Gordon Martel
|location=London
|publisher= Routledge
|isbn=0415163250
|year=1999
|edition=2nd
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Snyder |first=Timothy |author-link=Timothy Snyder
|year=2004
|title=The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569–1999
|publisher=Yale University Press
|isbn=978-0-300-10586-5
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xSpEynLxJ1MC
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Snyder |first=Timothy
|year=2007
|title=Sketches from a Secret Warr: A Polish Artist's Mission to Liberate Soviet Ukraine
|publisher=Yale University Press
|isbn=978-030012599-3
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Stachura |first=Peter D.
|year=2004
|title=Poland, 1918–1945: An Interpretive and Documentary History of the Second Republic
|publisher=Routledge
|isbn=978-0-415-34358-9
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Suleja |first=Włodzimierz
|year=2004
|title=Józef Piłsudski
|location=Wrocław
|publisher=Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich
|language=pl
|isbn=978-83-04-04706-8
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Torbus
|first=Tomasz
|title=Nelles Guide Poland
|year=1999
|publisher=Hunter Publishing
|location=Munich
|isbn=978-3-88618-088-2
|ref=refTorbus1999
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Urbankowski |first=Bohdan |author-link=Bohdan Urbankowski
|year=1997
|title=Józef Piłsudski: Marzyciel i strateg |trans-title=Józef Piłsudski: Dreamer and Strategist
|volume=1–2
|location=Warsaw
|publisher=Wydawnictwo ALFA
|language=pl
|isbn=978-83-7001-914-3 <!--refUrbankowski1997-->
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Young
|first=Robert
|year=1996
|title=France and the Origins of the Second World War
|location=New York
|publisher=St. Martin's Press
|language=en
|isbn=0312161867
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Vital
|first=David
|year=1999
|title=A People Apart: The Jews in Europe, 1789–1939
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|isbn=978-0-19-821980-4
|url=https://archive.org/details/peopleapartjewsi00vita
}}
* {{cite journal
|last=Wandycz |first=Piotr S. |author-link=Piotr S. Wandycz
|year=1990
|title=Poland's Place in Europe in the Concepts of Piłsudski and Dmowski
|journal=East European Politics & Societies
|volume=4 |issue=3
|pages=451–468
|doi=10.1177/0888325490004003004 |s2cid=144503092 
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Wandycz
|first=Piotr Stefan
|year=1988
|title=The Twilight of French Eastern Alliances, 1926–1936: French-Czechoslovak-Polish Relations from Locarno to the Remilitarization of the Rhineland
|location=Princeton
|publisher=Princeton University Press
|language=en
|isbn=9780691635255
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Watt |first=Richard M.
|year=1979
|title=Bitter Glory
|location=New York
|publisher=Simon and Schuster
|isbn=978-0-671-22625-1
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Wein|first=Berel
|year=1990
|title=Triumph of Survival: The Story of the Jews in the Modern Era 1650–1990.
|publisher=Shaar / Mesorah
|isbn=0-89906-498-1-
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Władyka |first=Władysław
|year=2005
|title=Z Drugą Rzeczpospolitą na plecach. Postać Józefa Piłsudskiego w prasie i propagandzie PRL do 1980 roku
}} In {{harvnb|Jabłonowski|Kossewska|2005|}}.

* {{cite book
|last=Zamoyski
|first=Adam
|author-link=Adam Zamoyski
|year=1987
|title=The Polish Way
|location=London
|publisher=John Murray
|isbn=978-0-531-15069-6
|url=https://archive.org/details/polishwaythousa00zamo
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Zimmerman |first=Joshua D.
|year=2003
|title=Contested Memories: Poles and Jews During the Holocaust and Its Aftermath
|publisher=Rutgers University Press
|isbn=978-0-8135-3158-8
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Zimmerman |first=Joshua D.
|year=2004
|title=Poles, Jews, and the Politics of Nationality: The Bund and the Polish Socialist Party in Late Tsarist Russia, 1892–1914
|publisher=[[University of Wisconsin Press]]
|isbn=978-0-299-19464-2
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Żuławnik |first=Małgorzata |author2=Żuławnik, Mariusz
|year=2005
|title=Powrót na łamy. Józef Piłsudski w prasie oficjalnej i podziemnej 1980–1989
|trans-title=Return to the Newspapers: Józef Piłsudski in the Official and Underground Press, 1980–1989
|ref=CITEREFŻuławnik, Małgorzata & Mariusz2005
}} In {{harvnb|Jabłonowski|Kossewska|2005|}}.

{{refend}}

==Further reading==
:''This is only a small selection. See also National Library in Warsaw [http://www.ekologia.neostrada.pl/hwjpl.html lists] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411184337/http://www.ekologia.neostrada.pl/hwjpl.html |date=11 April 2021 }}.''
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
*{{cite book
|editor-last=Czubiński
|editor-first=Antoni
|title=Józef Piłsudski i jego legenda
|trans-title=Józef Piłsudski and His Legend
|year=1988
|publisher=Państowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN
|location=Warsaw
|isbn=978-83-01-07819-5
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Davies
|first=Norman
|author-link=Norman Davies
|title=Heart of Europe, The Past in Poland's Present
|year=2001
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|location=Oxford; New York
|isbn=978-0-19-280126-5
|orig-year=1984
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Dziewanowski
|first=Marian Kamil
|author-link=Marian Kamil Dziewanowski
|title=Joseph Pilsudski: A European Federalist, 1918–1922
|year=1969
|publisher=Stanford University Press
|location=Stanford
|isbn=978-0-8179-1791-3
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Garlicki
|first=Andrzej
|chapter=Piłsudski, Józef Klemens
|title=[[Polish Biographical Dictionary]] (Polski Słownik Biograficzny) vol. XXVI
|year=1981
|publisher=Polska Akademia Nauk
|location=Wrocław
|pages=311–324
|language=pl
}}
*{{cite journal
|last=Hauser
|first=Przemysław
|others=Dorosz, Janina (transl.)
|title=Józef Piłsudski's Views on the Territorial Shape of the Polish State and His Endeavours to Put them into Effect, 1918–1921
|journal=Polish Western Affairs
|year=1992
|issue=2
|location=Poznań
|pages=235–249
|publisher=Komisja Naukowa Zachodniej Agencji Prasowej
|issn=0032-3039
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Jędrzejewicz
|first=Wacław
|author-link=Wacław Jędrzejewicz
|title=Józef Piłsudski 1867–1935
|year=1989
|publisher=Wydawnictwo LTW
|location=Wrocław
|isbn=978-83-88736-25-4
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Piłsudska
|first=Aleksandra
|author-link=Aleksandra Piłsudska
|title=Pilsudski: A Biography by His Wife
|year=1941
|publisher=Dodd, Mead
|location=New York
|oclc=65700731
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Piłsudski
|first=Józef
|author2=Gillie, Darsie Rutherford
 |title=Joseph Pilsudski, the Memories of a Polish Revolutionary and soldier
|year=1931
|publisher=Faber & Faber
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Piłsudski
|first=Józef
|title=Year 1920 and its Climax: Battle of Warsaw during the Polish-Soviet War, 1919–1920, with the Addition of Soviet Marshal Tukhachevski's March beyond the Vistula
|year=1972
|publisher=Józef Piłsudski Institute of America
|location=New York
|asin=B0006EIT3A
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Reddaway
|first=William Fiddian
|title=Marshal Pilsudski
|year=1939
|publisher=Routledge
|location=London
|oclc=1704492
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Rothschild
|first=Joseph
|title=Pilsudski's Coup d'État
|year=1967
|publisher=Columbia University Press
|location=New York
|isbn=978-0-231-02984-1
}}
*{{cite journal
|last=Wandycz
|first=Piotr S.
|title=Polish Federalism 1919–1920 and its Historical Antecedents
|journal=East European Quarterly
|volume=4
|issue=1
|pages=25–39
|year=1970
|location=Boulder, Colorado
|issn=0012-8449
}}
*{{cite book
|last=Wójcik
|first=Włodzimierz
|title=Legenda Piłsudskiego w Polskiej literaturze międzywojennej (Piłsudski's Legend in Polish Interwar Literature)
|year=1987
|publisher=Śląsk
|location=Warsaw
|isbn=978-83-216-0533-3
}}
* Zimmerman, Joshua D. ''Jozef Pilsudski: Founding Father of Modern Poland'' (Harvard University Press, 2022) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=59107 online review]

{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons|Józef Piłsudski}}
* [http://www.jpilsudski.org/ A site dedicated to Józef Piłsudski and the prewar Poland] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150817212035/http://www.jpilsudski.org/ |date=17 August 2015 }} {{in lang|pl}}
* [http://www.pilsudski.org Józef Piłsudski Institute of America] {{in lang|en|pl}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090423005635/http://monika.univ.gda.pl/~literat/bibula/index.htm ''Bibuła'']&nbsp;– Book by Józef Piłsudski {{in lang|pl}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090416231707/http://monika.univ.gda.pl/~literat/media/index.htm Historical media]&nbsp;– Recording of short speech by Piłsudski from 1924 {{in lang|pl}}
* {{PM20|FID=pe/013635}}
{{Navboxes
|title=Offices
|list1=
{{s-start}}
{{s-off}}
{{s-bef|before=None (Independence regained)<br /><small>(eventually [[Regency Council (Poland)|Regency Council]])</small>}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[President of Poland|Chief of State of the Republic of Poland]]|years=18 November 1918&nbsp;– 9 December 1922}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Gabriel Narutowicz]]<br /><small>President of the Republic</small>}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Juliusz Tarnawa-Malczewski]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Ministry of National Defence of the Republic of Poland|Minister of Military Affairs]]|years=16 May 1926&nbsp;– 12 May 1935}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Tadeusz Kasprzycki]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Stanisław Wojciechowski]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[President of Poland|President-elect of the Republic of Poland]]<br /><small>(did not take office)</small>|years=elected 31 May 1926}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Ignacy Mościcki]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Kazimierz Bartel]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Prime Minister of the Republic of Poland]]|years=2 October 1926&nbsp;– 27 June 1928}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Kazimierz Bartel]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Walery Sławek]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Prime Minister of the Republic of Poland]]|years=15 August – 4 December 1930}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Walery Sławek]]}}
{{s-mil|}}
{{s-bef|before=none}}
{{s-ttl|title=Commandant of the [[Brigade I of the Polish Legions]]|years=1914–1916}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Marian Żegota-Januszajtis]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Władysław Sikorski]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[General Staff of the Polish Army|Chief of the General Staff of the Polish Army]]|years=17 December 1922&nbsp;– 9 June 1923}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Stanisław Haller]]}}
{{s-bef|before=none}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[General Inspector of the Armed Forces]]|years=27 August 1926&nbsp;– 12 May 1935}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Edward Rydz-Śmigły]]}}
{{s-end}}
}}
{{Marshals of Poland}}
{{Presidents of Poland}}
{{Prime Ministers of Poland}}
{{General Inspectors of the Polish Armed Forces}}
{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pilsudski, Jozef Klemens}}
[[Category:Józef Piłsudski| ]]
[[Category:1867 births]]
[[Category:1935 deaths]]
[[Category:Burials at Wawel Cathedral]]
[[Category:Candidates for President of Poland]]
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[[Category:Government ministers of Poland]]
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[[Category:Marshals of Poland]]
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[[Category:Polish Military Organisation members]]
[[Category:Polish nationalists]]
[[Category:19th-century Polish nobility]]
[[Category:Polish people of World War I]]
[[Category:Polish people of the Polish–Soviet War]]
[[Category:Polish Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Polish Socialist Party politicians]]
[[Category:Prime ministers of the Second Polish Republic]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Cross of Independence with Swords]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Cross of Valour (Poland)]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Gold Cross of Merit (Poland)]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Military Order of the Cross of the Eagle, Class I]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of Lāčplēsis, 1st class]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of Michael the Brave]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Poland)]]
[[Category:Sanacja politicians]]
[[Category:20th-century Polish nobility]]