View source for Petitcodiac River

{{short description|River in south-eastern New Brunswick, Canada}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}}
{{good article}}
{{Infobox river
| name               = Petitcodiac River<br /><sub>''Rivière Petitcodiac'' ([[French language|French]])</sub>
| name_native        = 
| name_native_lang   = 
| name_other         = 
| name_etymology     = [[Mi'kmaq language]] ''Epetkutogoyek'', meaning "the river that bends like a bow"
| nickname = Chocolate River
<!---------------------- IMAGE & MAP -->
| image              = PetitcodiacRiver Coude.jpg
| image_size         = 300px
| image_caption      = An aerial view of the bend in the river at [[Moncton]]
| map                = Petitcodiac-river-map-closeup1.png
| map_size           = 300px
| map_caption        = A map of the Petitcodiac River, highlighted in dark blue. Purple indicates its four major tributaries.
| pushpin_map        = 
| pushpin_map_size   = 300px
| pushpin_map_caption= 
<!---------------------- LOCATION -->
| subdivision_type1  = Country
| subdivision_name1  = [[Canada]]
| subdivision_type2  = Province
| subdivision_name2  = [[New Brunswick]]
| subdivision_type3  = Counties
| subdivision_name3  = [[Westmorland County, New Brunswick|Westmorland]], [[Albert County, New Brunswick|Albert]], [[Kings County, New Brunswick|Kings]]
| subdivision_type4  = 
| subdivision_name4  = 
| subdivision_type5  = Cities
| subdivision_name5  = [[Moncton]], [[Dieppe, New Brunswick|Dieppe]]
<!---------------------- PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS -->
| length             = {{convert|79|km|mi|abbr=on}}approx. 
| width_min          = 
| width_avg          = 
| width_max          = 
| depth_min          = 
| depth_avg          = 
| depth_max          = 
| discharge1_location= Riverview Causeway
| discharge1_min     = {{convert|0.36|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
| discharge1_avg     = {{convert|27.3|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
| discharge1_max     = {{convert|730|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}}
<!---------------------- BASIN FEATURES -->
| source1            = 
| source1_location   = 
| source1_coordinates= 
| source1_elevation  = 
| source_confluence            = Anagance River and North River, [[Westmorland County, New Brunswick|Westmorland County]], [[New Brunswick]]
| source_confluence_location   = 
| source_confluence_coordinates= {{coord|45|55|37|N|65|11|20|W|display=inline}}
| source_confluence_elevation  = 
| mouth              = 
| mouth_location     = [[Shepody Bay]], [[Albert County, New Brunswick|Albert County]], [[New Brunswick]]
| mouth_coordinates  = {{coord|45|51|58|N|64|34|28|W|display=inline}}
| mouth_elevation    = 
| progression        = 
| river_system       = 
| basin_size         = {{convert|2071|km2|abbr=on}}
| tributaries_left   = [[North River (New Brunswick)|North River]], [[Mill Creek (Petitcodiac River tributary)|Mill Creek]], [[Jonathan Creek]], [[Halls Creek]], [[Fox Creek (New Brunswick)|Fox Creek]]
| tributaries_right  = Anagance River, [[Little River (Petitcodiac River tributary)|Little River]], Pollett River, [[Turtle Creek, New Brunswick|Turtle Creek]], Weldon Creek
| custom_label       = 
| custom_data        = 
| extra              = 
}}
The '''Petitcodiac River''' ({{IPAc-en|audio=EN-petitcodiac.ogg|p|ɛ|t|i|ˈ|k|oʊ|d|i|æ|k}}) is a river located in south-eastern [[New Brunswick]], Canada. Local tourist businesses often refer to it as the "chocolate river" due to its distinctive brown mud floor and brown waters. Stretching across a meander length of {{convert|79|km|mi|abbr=off}}, the river traverses [[Westmorland County, New Brunswick|Westmorland]], [[Albert County, New Brunswick|Albert]], and [[Kings County, New Brunswick|Kings]] counties, draining a [[Drainage basin|watershed area]] of about {{convert|2071|km2|sqmi|abbr=out}}. The watershed features valleys, ridges, and rolling hills, and is home to a diverse population of terrestrial and aquatic species. Ten named [[Tributary|tributaries]] join the river in its course toward its mouth in [[Shepody Bay]]. Prior to the construction of a [[causeway]] in 1968, the Petitcodiac River had one of the world's largest [[tidal bore]]s, which ranged from {{convert|1|to(-)|2|m|ft}} in height and moved at speeds of {{convert|5|to(-)|13|km/h|mph}}. With the opening of the causeway gates in April 2010, the river is flushing itself of ocean silts, and the bore is returning to its former size.

The [[Mi'kmaq people|Mi'kmaq]] were the first to settle near the river, who used it as part of a portage route between [[Shubenacadie, Nova Scotia|Shubenacadie]] and the village of [[Petitcodiac, New Brunswick|Petitcodiac]], where they had a winter camp. In 1698, the region was colonized by [[Acadians]] from [[Habitation at Port-Royal|Port Royal, Nova Scotia]]; however, they were later [[Expulsion of the Acadians|expelled]] in 1755 during the [[Seven Years' War]]. During this period, Acadian resistance fighters based in Village-des-Blanchard (now [[Hillsborough, New Brunswick|Hillsborough]]) fought under the command of French leader [[Charles Deschamps de Boishébert]] in the [[Battle of Petitcodiac]], attempting to repel British troops but ultimately suffering the destruction of most of their settlement. Three years later, British troops returned to the river and launched the [[Petitcodiac River Campaign]]. In the 1840s, the [[Greater Moncton]] area experienced a shipbuilding boom, which was halted following the arrival of the [[steam train]], leading to the town's de-incorporation. These changes gradually marginalized the Petitcodiac River.

In 1968, a controversial rock-and-earth fill causeway was constructed between [[Moncton]] and [[Riverview, New Brunswick|Riverview]] to prevent agricultural flooding and to carry a crossing between the two communities. The causeway caused many problems for the river and its surrounding ecosystem. An estimated {{nowrap|10 million cubic metres}} {{nowrap|(13 million cubic yards)}} of silt was deposited in the 4.7&nbsp;km (2.9&nbsp;mi) of river downstream from the causeway in the first three years following construction. The causeway restricted the movement of fish and reduced the region's salmon catches by 82&nbsp;percent. Water quality has also dropped thanks to industrial expansion around the area. In 2003, Earthwild International designated the Petitcodiac River as the most endangered river in Canada because of these problems. On 14 April 2010, the causeway's gates were opened permanently as part of a $68&nbsp;million three-phase project designed to restore the river. The causeway was replaced with a bridge, completed in September 2021.

==Etymology==
A commonly held belief suggests that the name "Petitcodiac" originates from the French term "''petit coude''," meaning "little elbow." However, the actual derivation of the name is rooted in an indigenous word, likely from [[Maliseet-Passamaquoddy language|Maliseet]] or possibly [[Mi'kmaq language|Mi'kmaq]] language. According to Maliseet Elder and linguist Dr. Peter Paul of Woodstock Reserve, the name refers to a wall of water rushing in: "now they call that ''petakuyak.'' [It] means 'sound of thunder,' well, the rush of water coming in like a thunderstorm."<ref>Dr. Peter Paul interview with anthropologist Harald E.L. Prins and Bunny McBride, Hallowell, Maine, 12/02/1988, in [[In Memoriam: Peter Lewis Paul, 1902-1989]], edited by K. Teeter, 19-21. Hull:Canadian Museum of Civilization, Canadian Ethnology Service. Mercury Series Paper 26, 1993.</ref> If the term has a [[Mi'kmaq]] origin, it could be linked to "''Petkootkweăk''," meaning "the river that bends like a bow",<ref>{{Cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=iGkiAAAAMAAJ|title = A First Reading Book in the Micmac Language: Comprising the Micmac Numerals, and the Names of the Different Kinds of Beasts, Birds, Fishes, Trees, &c. of the Maritime Provinces of Canada. Also, Some of the Indian Names of Places, and Many Familiar Words and Phrases, Translated Literally into English|last = Rand|first = Silas Tertius|date = 1875-01-01|publisher = Nova Scotia Printing Company|language = en}}</ref> possibly a reference to the river's right angle bend near Moncton.<ref name="petitcodiac-history">{{cite web |url=http://petitcodiac.org/index.php?page=historical-values&hl=en_US |title=Historical Values |publisher=Petitcodiac Riverkeeper Inc |year=2008 |access-date=5 July 2010 |archive-date=27 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727173114/http://petitcodiac.org/index.php?page=historical-values&hl=en_US |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="micmac-translate">{{Harvnb|Rayburn|1975|p=214}}</ref> The Acadians adapted the name to ''Petcoudiac'' or ''Petitcoudiac'', which was later modified to ''Petitcodiac'' by British settlers.<ref name="petitcodiac-natural-values">{{cite web |url=http://petitcodiac.org/index.php?page=natural-values&hl=en_US |title=Natural Values |publisher=Petitcodiac Riverkeeper Inc |year=2008 |access-date=6 July 2010 |archive-date=8 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308215457/http://petitcodiac.org/index.php?page=natural-values&hl=en_US |url-status=dead }}</ref> 

The river gained the nickname "Chocolate River" due to its heavy sedimentation, resulting in a distinctive brown tint.<ref name="chocolate-river-explanation">{{cite web|url=http://petitcodiac.org/our-river/the-chocolate-river/ |title=The Chocolate River |date=20 August 2020 |publisher=Sentinelles Petitcodiac Riverkeeper |access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref><ref name="chocolate-river" /><ref name="tt-lake-quality" /> With the construction of the Petitcodiac River Causeway, an additional {{nowrap|10 million cubic metres}} {{nowrap|(13 million cubic yards)}} of sediment began to accumulate in the 4.7&nbsp;km (2.9&nbsp;mi) stretch downstream from the causeway.<ref name="chocolate-river">{{Cite news|last=Pritchett |first=Jennifer |date=17 April 2010 |url=http://telegraphjournal.canadaeast.com/rss/article/1020361 |title=Recalling the heyday of the {{'}}Chocolate River{{'}} |newspaper=[[Telegraph-Journal]] |location=Moncton |access-date=5 July 2010}}</ref><ref name="tt-lake-quality" /><ref name="causeway-effects" />

==Geography==

===Course===
[[File:Petitcodiac River watershed.png|250px|thumb|alt=A map shows the course of the river and its tributaries, in addition to the location of its drainage area in southern New Brunswick.|A map of the Petitcodiac River watershed displaying the river and its six largest tributaries.]]

[[File:View of Petitcodiac River, NB.jpg|thumb|Petitcodiac River, view from New Brunswick Route 925, near Gautreau Village (Memramcook)]]

The river measures about {{convert|79|km|mi|abbr=on}} from its source near Three Rivers to its mouth at Shepody Bay;<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.gulfofmaine.org/times/winter97/headline.html |title=Watershed groups buoy efforts with eclectic partnerships |journal=Gulf of Maine Times |date=Winter 1997 |volume=1 |issue=4 |at=para. 45 |access-date=14 November 2010}}</ref> its source derives from the [[confluence]] of the Anagance and North rivers in western [[Westmorland County, New Brunswick|Westmorland County]].<ref name="water-quality-2009">[[#Reference-Alli-2009|Watershed Alliance 2009]], p. 49</ref><ref name="petitcodiac-map" /> The Anagance River arises from its tributaries, Hayward Brook and Holmes Brook, and drains {{convert|81|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} from the south-east of the Petitcodiac River,<ref name="anagance-river">{{cite web |url=http://www.petitcodiacwatershed.org/anagance_river |title=Anagance River |publisher=Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance |access-date=6 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727172359/http://www.petitcodiacwatershed.org/anagance_river |archive-date=27 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="tributaries">{{cite web |url=http://www.petitcodiacwatershed.org/rivers_and_streams |title=Rivers and Streams |publisher=Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance |access-date=9 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727172539/http://www.petitcodiacwatershed.org/rivers_and_streams |archive-date=27 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> while the North River drains {{convert|264|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} from the north.<ref name="water-quality-2009" /><ref name="tributaries" /><ref name="north-river">{{cite web |url=http://www.petitcodiacwatershed.org/north_river |title=North River |publisher=Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance |access-date=6 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727172421/http://www.petitcodiacwatershed.org/north_river |archive-date=27 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> From the confluence, the river passes under the bridge on [[New Brunswick Route 106|Route 106]] in Petitcodiac, The road then follows the river to Moncton on the left side of the river.<ref name="petitcodiac-map-2" /><ref name="route-106" /> [[New Brunswick Route 1|Route 1]] crosses the river a few kilometres downstream to join [[New Brunswick Route 2|Trans-Canada Highway 2]].<ref name="google-map" /><ref name="route-1" /> The community of River Glade precedes Petitcodiac River's right tributary, Pollett River, with a watershed of {{convert|314|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="tributaries" /><ref name="pollett-river">{{cite web |url=http://www.petitcodiacwatershed.org/pollett_river |title=Pollett River |publisher=Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance |access-date=6 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727172454/http://www.petitcodiacwatershed.org/pollett_river |archive-date=27 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> As the waterway runs past Salisbury, its final major right tributary,<ref name="petitcodiac-97-reports">[[#Reference-River-2000|Riverkeeper 2000]], p. 51</ref> Little River (formerly known as Coverdale River),<ref name="little-river" /> joins it. Little River's watershed is {{convert|275|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref name="tributaries" /><ref name="little-river">{{cite web |url=http://www.petitcodiacwatershed.org/little_river |title=Little River |publisher=Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance |access-date=6 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727172513/http://www.petitcodiacwatershed.org/little_river |archive-date=27 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The river passes [[Coverdale Parish, New Brunswick|Coverdale]] and is joined by Turtle Creek before widening as it approaches Moncton.<ref name="tributaries" />

The causeway, built in 1968, formed a wall blocking all but {{convert|100|m|ft|abbr=on}} of water as the river flowed downstream toward the [[Gunningsville Bridge]].<ref name="macleans-29-04">{{Cite news|title=The river continues to divide them |url=http://www.macleans.ca/2010/04/29/the-river-continues-to-divide-them/ |last=Henheffer |first=Tom |work=[[Maclean's]] |date=29 April 2010 |access-date=14 November 2010}}</ref> Before the causeway's construction, the river's area would expand through Moncton, attaining a width of 1.6&nbsp;km (one mile).<ref name="petitcodiac-map" /> A series of banks to both sides precede the 90-degree turn to the south,<ref name="petitcodiac-map">{{harvnb|Roe|Roe|1878|p=49}}</ref> a feature that gave Moncton its original name, ''Le Coude'' (The Elbow).<ref name="moncton-history">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Medjuck |first=Sheva |date=13 March 2007 |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/moncton |title=Moncton |encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |access-date=5 July 2010}}</ref> The river passes Dieppe on its eastern side and Hillsborough on its western side before it approaches its mouth.<ref name="petitcodiac-map" /><ref name="tributaries" />

The Memramcook River, which has a watershed area of {{convert|412|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} joins the Petitcodiac River near its mouth.<ref name="memramcook-river-main">{{cite web |url=http://www.petitcodiacwatershed.org/memramcook_main |title=Memramcook Main |publisher=Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance |access-date=6 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727172524/http://www.petitcodiacwatershed.org/memramcook_main |archive-date=27 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="memramcook-river-lower">{{cite web |url=http://www.petitcodiacwatershed.org/memramcook_south |title=Memramcook South |publisher=Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance |access-date=6 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727172534/http://www.petitcodiacwatershed.org/memramcook_south |archive-date=27 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The Petitcodiac River then widens and drains into Shepody Bay, where there is a {{convert|122|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} wetland.<ref name="ramsar-shepody">{{cite web|url=http://www.ramsar.org/cda/en/ramsar-pubs-annolist-annotated-ramsar-16491/main/ramsar/1-30-168%5E16491_4000_0__ |title=The Annotated Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance |publisher=[[Ramsar Convention|Ramsar Convention on Wetlands]] |date=10 January 2000 |access-date=7 July 2010}}</ref> Once past the [[Hopewell Rocks]], Shepody Bay merges with the [[Cumberland Basin (Canada)|Cumberland Basin]], which runs south-west toward [[Chignecto Bay]].<ref name="petitcodiac-map" /> Chignecto Bay drains into the Bay of Fundy, which flows into the [[Gulf of Maine]], which proceeds south-east into the [[Atlantic Ocean]] through the Northeast Channel.<ref name="gulf-of-maine">{{cite web |url=http://www.gulfofmaine.org/gommi/imagelibrary.php |title=Gulf of Maine Mapping Initiative – Image Library |publisher=Gulf of Maine Council on the Marine Environment |year=2010 |access-date=7 July 2010 |archive-date=18 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818173354/http://www.gulfofmaine.org/gommi/imagelibrary.php |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Watershed===
The Petitcodiac River watershed is about {{convert|2071|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{Harvnb|Aubé et al.|2005|p=128}}</ref> The average yearly precipitation in the watershed is {{convert|1100|mm|in}}, with average temperatures of {{convert|17.5|C|F|lk=on}} in the summer and {{convert|-7.5|C|F}} in the winter.<ref name="petitcodiac-report-2007">{{Cite report |url=http://www.gnb.ca/0009/0371/0013/English/Petitcodiac.pdf |title=Environmental Reporting Series 2007 |publisher=[[Department of Environment (New Brunswick)|New Brunswick Department of Environment]] |year=2007 |access-date=5 July 2010 |archive-date=11 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611063109/http://www.gnb.ca/0009/0371/0013/English/Petitcodiac.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The watershed is located in the Kings, Westmorland, and Albert counties in south-east New Brunswick, with some of it crossing into the Caledonian Highlands to the south-east.<ref name="petitcodiac-report-2007" /><ref name="water-quality-2001" /><ref>{{Cite map|url=http://www.gnb.ca/0078/minerals/pdf/nr_9-e.pdf |title=Landscape Map of New Brunswick |publisher=NB Publications |cartography=New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources and Energy |scale=1 : 770 000 |year=2003 |access-date=10 November 2010}}</ref> It borders the Bay of Fundy and three other designated watersheds in the province: the lower [[Saint John River (New Brunswick)|Saint John River]] to the north-west, the Shediac Bay to the north-east, and the [[Kennebecasis River]] to the south.<ref name="tributaries" /> Although the Petitcodiac River's watershed is geographically distinct from that of the nearby Memramcook River, some groups merge the two for categorisation purposes.<ref name="tributaries" /><ref name="petitcodiac-report-2007" />

The area has been occupied by Europeans since the late 17th century.<ref name="pt-10" /> Moncton's population has grown rapidly since the 19th&nbsp;century, rising from fewer than 100 people in 1825,<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|p=114}}</ref> to over 15,000 people in 1917,<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|pp=201–202}}</ref> and to 126,000 people in 2006.<ref name="water-quality-2006">[[#Reference-Alli-2006|Watershed Alliance 2006]], p. 1</ref> In spite of this growth, most of the area remains relatively undisturbed: 80&nbsp;percent of the watershed is covered with forest,<ref name="petitcodiac-report-2007" /><ref name="pt-10">{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|pp=40–41}}</ref> a tenth is used for agriculture and three&nbsp;percent is occupied by [[wetland]]s. Only four&nbsp;percent of the area is used for commercial, residential, or private usage.<!-- Emphasising the fact that the area is low density. --> Nevertheless, the Petitcodiac Watershed Monitoring Group noted in 2001 that this growth is one of the main factors for the ongoing "[[environmental degradation]]" of the river.<ref>[[#Reference-PWMG-2001|PWMG 2001]], p. 25</ref>

==Hydrology==

===Water quality===
[[File:Petitcodiac-water-pollution.jpg|thumb|alt=A dirty brown creek with garbage in it|A polluted waterway in the Petitcodiac River watershed]]

The Petitcodiac River was listed in 2003 as the most endangered river in Canada by Earthwild International,<ref name="earthwild-list-2003">{{Cite news|last1=Braun |first1=David |last2=Markey |first2=Shawn |date=7 July 2003 |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/07/0707_030707_canadarivers.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030713155542/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2003/07/0707_030707_canadarivers.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 July 2003 |title=Top Ten Endangered Canadian Rivers Named |work=[[National Geographic Society|National Geographic News]] |access-date=14 August 2010}}</ref> and was listed second, behind [[Quebec]]'s [[Rupert River]], in 2002.<ref name="earthwild-list-2002">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/amp/1.332821 |title=Group names Canada's most-threatened rivers |work=[[CBC News]] |date=18 June 2002 |access-date=14 August 2010}}</ref> The causeway was cited as one of the major factors behind the river's degraded health.<ref name="earthwild-list-2003" /> The [[Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment]]'s Water Quality Index gave two study sites an "excellent" rating, 20 sites a "good" rating, 27 sites a "fair" rating, and five sites a "marginal" rating.<ref name="petitcodiac-report-2007" />

Since 1999, the Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance (known as the Petitcodiac Watershed Monitoring Group at the time) has collected water samples from May to October to study bacteria, nutrient, [[pH]], [[Oxygen saturation|dissolved oxygen]] (DO), and sediment levels.<ref>[[#Reference-Alli-2009|Watershed Alliance 2009]], p. 1</ref> Two sampling sites, one upstream from the causeway and one downstream, were used during the 2009 study.<ref>[[#Reference-Alli-2009|Watershed Alliance 2009]], p. 49.</ref> The river had an average temperature of {{convert|27|C|F}} in August at the upstream location, in contrast to the average of {{convert|20.1|C|F}} at the same site over the total period of the study.<ref name="2009-water-results">[[#Reference-Alli-2009|Watershed Alliance 2009]], pp. 50–51</ref><ref name="2009-water-overall">[[#Reference-Alli-2009|Watershed Alliance 2009]], p. 9</ref> ''[[Escherichia coli|E. coli]]'' levels were high upstream, and above recreationally safe levels downstream in June, July, and August. [[Nitrate]]s and [[phosphate]]s failed to meet the safe quality threshold on occasion.<ref name="2009-water-results" /> A publication by the New Brunswick Department of Environment in 2007 showed that the watershed did not meet the quality guidelines for ''E. coli'' in 10&nbsp;percent of samples, for dissolved oxygen in 5&nbsp;percent of samples, and pH in 3&nbsp;percent of samples; in contrast, the river was always within safe nitrate levels.<ref name="petitcodiac-report-2007" />

During their 2001 study, the Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance noted the effects of agriculture on the river's water quality, and recommended to work with local farmers to install [[Agricultural fencing|cattle fencing]] around streams which run through their properties, and "eventually phase out" cosmetic pesticide usage.<ref>[[#Reference-PWMG-2001|PWMG 2001]], p. 45–46</ref> The Petitcodiac Riverkeeper holds a stronger position on the issue: the organisation notes that pesticides "find their way into the surface and ground water by leaching into the soil or as part of [[Stormwater#Stormwater runoff as a source of pollution|stormwater runoff]]." They request that, while measures have been taken in 2009 by the provincial government to regulate cosmetic pesticide usage, the province must forbid its usage altogether and require chemical manufacturers to disclose health warnings and all ingredients on labels.<ref name="pst-usag">[[#Reference-River-2010|Riverkeeper 2010]], pp. 13–14</ref> The New Brunswick Department of Environment also warned of the erosion caused by the removal of the river's [[riparian zone]]s, which is a common "land use practice".<ref name="petitcodiac-report-2007" />

Although mining around the area essentially stopped with the closure of the gypsum mines in 1982,<ref name="land-usage-10">{{Harvnb|Zelazny et al.|2007|p=308}}</ref> uranium mining has surfaced as a potential problem for the river.<ref name="uranium-riverkep">[[#Reference-River-2010|Riverkeeper 2010]], pp. 14–15</ref> The province was the subject of a controversy in 2007 when it gave [[Vale Limited]] (formerly known as CVRD Inco) the right to mine for uranium at [[Turtle Creek (New Brunswick)|Turtle Creek]], where the Greater Moncton water reservoir is maintained.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/turtle-creek-uranium-exploration-angers-moncton-councillors-1.633570 |title=Turtle Creek uranium exploration angers Moncton councillors |work=[[CBC News]] |date=8 June 2007 |access-date=13 November 2010}}</ref> Environmentalists warned of the dangers related to the move, fearing that contaminants could be pushed into the surrounding water.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/uranium-mining-could-endanger-moncton-water-meeting-told-1.699673 |title=Uranium mining could endanger Moncton water, meeting told |work=[[CBC News]] |date=31 March 2008 |access-date=13 November 2010}}</ref> The [[Petitcodiac Riverkeeper]] also noted uranium mining's "irreversible effects to the health of ecosystems, watersheds, wildlife, agriculture, recreation, and public health", and joined 30 other environmental groups in asking the provincial government to establish a ban on the act. The province would later restrict uranium mining to {{convert|300|m|ft|abbr=on}} from residential areas and ban it from protected drinking water areas.<ref name="uranium-riverkep" /> Another controversy in 2006 involved exploration for oil and gas deposits in the same area, but access was blocked by the municipal government.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/council-bans-oil-gas-tests-in-moncton-watershed-1.588401 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121107224711/http://www.cbc.ca/news/story/2006/11/07/nb-notests.html |url-status=live |archive-date=7 November 2012 |title=Council bans oil, gas tests in Moncton watershed |work=[[CBC News]] |date=7 November 2006 |access-date=13 November 2010}}</ref>

Shortly after the building of the causeway, a {{convert|35|ha|acre|abbr=on|adj=on}} landfill was built near the river. Various materials were disposed of in the area, including petroleum [[waste oil]], pipe and foam insulation, sewage sludge, and medical waste. While the landfill was shut down in 1992, samples by the Environmental Bureau of Investigation and the Petitcodiac Riverkeeper showed that ammonium levels around the [[leachate]] exceeded Canadian quality guidelines by as much as 15 times, and contained heavy metals, petroleum hydrocarbons, and [[Polychlorinated biphenyls|PCB]]s. A mortality rate of 100&nbsp;percent was found for test trout and [[daphnia]] when exposed to water samples.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.eprf.ca/ebi/index.cfm?DSP=content&ContentID=1615 |title=Former Moncton landfill kills fish |work=Environmental Bureau of Investigation |date=12 December 2000 |access-date=13 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706180228/http://www.eprf.ca/ebi/index.cfm?DSP=content&ContentID=1615 |archive-date=6 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Gemtec Limited, the company responsible for planning and closing the landfill, and the City of Moncton were charged on 12 March 2002, for offences relating to the Canadian Environmental Protection Act (1999) and the Fisheries Act. The city pleaded guilty on 23 September 2003, paid a $35,000 fine, and was ordered to help reduce the leachate flow from the landfill. Three years later, Gemtec Limited was fined a total of $6,000 and was ordered to contribute a total of $22,000 to the federal Environmental Damages Fund and the Jonathan Creek Committee.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.ec.gc.ca/default.asp?lang=En&n=714D9AAE-1&news=D9FB5515-46A6-4FD3-BFE7-90E281EFEB98 |work=[[Environment Canada]] |title=Sentencing in Landmark Environmental Law Case |date=23 June 2006 |access-date=13 November 2010}}</ref>

===Discharge===
The river aids in the drainage of ten significant bodies of water: Weldon Creek, Fox Creek, Mill Creek, Halls Creek, Jonathan Creek, Turtle Creek, Little River, Pollett River, Anagance River, and North River.<ref name="tributaries-list" /> A report in 2000 showed that it handles an average [[Discharge (hydrology)|discharge]] of {{convert|27.3|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}} at the causeway yearly, with a recorded high of {{convert|730|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}} in 1962 and a low of {{convert|0.36|m3/s|cuft/s|abbr=on}} in 1966.<ref>{{Harvnb|Caissie|2000|pp=6–7}}</ref> The same report estimated mean values for the minimum and maximum discharges for every two-year, 10-year, and [[100-year flood]] events, and minimum discharges for every two-year, five-year, and 100-year "drought" events:

{| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto;"
|+ Mean maximum and minimum discharges at the Riverview Causeway<ref>{{Harvnb|Caissie|2000|pp=6–8}}</ref>
|-
! rowspan=2 style="width: 13em;" |
! colspan=2 style="width: 10em;" | Minimum
! colspan=2 style="width: 10em;" | Maximum
! rowspan=2 style="width: 13em;" |
|-
!m<sup>3</sup>/s
!cu ft/s
!m<sup>3</sup>/s
!cu ft/s
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Two-year low
|  style="background:#f5f5f5; text-align:center;"| 1.5
|  style="background:#f5f5f5; text-align:center;"| {{convert|1.5|m3|cuft|disp=output number only}}
|  style="background:#f5f5f5; text-align:center;"| 293
|  style="background:#f5f5f5; text-align:center;"| {{convert|293|m3|cuft|disp=output number only}}
| style="text-align:center;"| Two-year high
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| Five-year low
|  style="background:#f5f5f5; text-align:center;"| 0.92
|  style="background:#f5f5f5; text-align:center;"| {{convert|0.92|m3|cuft|disp=output number only}}
|  style="background:#f5f5f5; text-align:center;"| 457
|  style="background:#f5f5f5; text-align:center;"| {{convert|457|m3|cuft|disp=output number only}}
| style="text-align:center;"| Ten-year high
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| 100-year low
|  style="background:#f5f5f5; text-align:center;"| 0.32
|  style="background:#f5f5f5; text-align:center;"| {{convert|0.32|m3|cuft|disp=output number only}}
|  style="background:#f5f5f5; text-align:center;"| 655
|  style="background:#f5f5f5; text-align:center;"| {{convert|655|m3|cuft|disp=output number only}}
| style="text-align:center;"| 100-year high
|- style="text-align:center;"
|| '''Record low'''
|  style="background:#eee; "| '''0.36'''
|  style="background:#eee; "| '''12'''
|  style="background:#eee; "| '''730'''
|  style="background:#eee; "| '''25,780'''
|| '''Record high'''
|}
[[File:Petitcodiac-tidal-bore-1906.png|thumb|alt=A wave rolls by in the foreground, while a boat sits to the left of the background.|A reproduction of the tidal bore in 1906]]

===Tidal bore===
The Petitcodiac River tidal bores—retrograde waves moving upstream over downstream waves—occur twice a day and come from the world's highest tides in the Bay of Fundy.<ref name="tidal-bore-sentinelles">{{cite web |url=http://petitcodiac.org/index.php?page=tidal-bore&hl=en_US |title=Tidal Bore |publisher=Petitcodiac Riverkeeper Inc |year=2008 |access-date=8 July 2010 |archive-date=27 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727173726/http://petitcodiac.org/index.php?page=tidal-bore&hl=en_US |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="bay-of-fundy">{{cite web |url=http://www.thehopewellrocks.ca/English/highest_tides.htm |title=The Great Tides of the Bay of Fundy |publisher=[[Hopewell Rocks]] |date=4 January 2010 |access-date=8 July 2010 |archive-date=5 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100305134533/http://www.thehopewellrocks.ca/English/highest_tides.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The first European mention of the bore was by British Lieutenant Colonel George Scott on 17 November 1758, during a downstream voyage from Moncton to Fort Frederick, near Saint John.<ref name="pt-battle-his-5" /> The [[British Admiralty|Admiralty]] referred to the tidal bore in a hydrographic chart published in 1861, observing that "[after] its passage the rise of the tide is very rapid until high water is attained", and that "[during the lowest tides] the Bore still appears but its broken front usually is only a few inches high."<ref name="pt-battle-his-7" />

The bores ranged from {{convert|1|to(-)|2|m|ft|abbr=on}} in height, with speeds from {{convert|5|to(-)|13|km/h|mph|abbr=on}}.<ref name="bore-list">{{cite web |url=http://petitcodiac.org/uploads/Posters/Renaissance_1_mascarets.pdf |title=The Great Bores |publisher=Petitcodiac Riverkeeper Inc |access-date=4 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308220110/http://petitcodiac.org/uploads/Posters/Renaissance_1_mascarets.pdf |archive-date=8 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="tidal-bore-sentinelles-2">{{cite web |url=http://petitcodiac.org/index.php?page=petitcodiac&hl=en_US |title=Tidal Bores of the World – Petitcodiac River |publisher=Petitcodiac Riverkeeper Inc |year=2008 |access-date=8 July 2010 |archive-date=27 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727173813/http://petitcodiac.org/index.php?page=petitcodiac&hl=en_US |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="river-progress" /> In 1825, [[Peter Fisher (historian)|Peter Fisher]] noted that the "noise of the Bore is heard a great distance, and animals immediately take to the highland, and manifest visible signs of terror if near it."<ref>{{Harvnb|Fisher|1921|p=70}}</ref> Before the causeway (1968), values were compared with the tidal bores of the [[Qiantang River|Qiantang]], [[Hooghly River|Hooghly]] and [[Amazon River|Amazon]] rivers.<ref name="petitcodiac-natural-values" /><ref name="tidal-bore-sentinelles" /> After the causeway was built, the bores reached heights from about {{convert|5|to(-)|75|cm|in|abbr=on|lk=in}}.<ref name="tidal-bore-sentinelles-2" />

==Wildlife==
[[File:The Shad (Clupea Sapidissima).jpg|thumb|alt=A white-bellied dark-green fish with a small head pointing to the left.|A shad. The [[American shad]] is one of the four fish species that have disappeared from the river since 1968.]]

Before the construction of the causeway, the Petitcodiac River was home to many aquatic species. Fish originally included hundreds of thousands of Atlantic tomcod and rainbow smelt, tens of thousands of gaspereau and American shad, thousands of American eel, Atlantic salmon, brook trout, lamprey, and striped bass and hundreds of Atlantic sturgeon.<ref name="fish-report">{{Cite report |url=http://petitcodiac.org/uploads/Posters/Marine_species_Petitcodiac_2.pdf |title=Marine Species of the Petitcodiac River |publisher=Petitcodiac Riverkeeper Inc |year=2005 |access-date=9 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727173900/http://petitcodiac.org/uploads/Posters/Marine_species_Petitcodiac_2.pdf |archive-date=27 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Other fish include the blueback herring, the brown bullhead, the chain pickerel, the smallmouth bass, the white perch, and the white sucker.<ref name="fish-list">{{cite web |url=http://petitcodiac.org/index.php?page=marine-species&hl=en_US |title=Marine Species |publisher=Petitcodiac Riverkeeper Inc |year=2008 |access-date=9 July 2010 |archive-date=1 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501164025/http://petitcodiac.org/index.php?page=marine-species&hl=en_US |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Marine mammals]] were uncommon, but normally consisted of pilot whales, Atlantic white-sided dolphins, harbour porpoise, harbour seals, and porbeagles.<ref name="fish-report" /> [[Freshwater mollusc]] species included the brook floater, the [[dwarf wedgemussel]], the eastern elliptio, the eastern floater, the eastern pearlshell, and the triangle floater.<ref name="fish-report" /> Many other aquatic organisms are thought to have once entered the watershed due to the low salinity of the water.<ref name="other-species">{{cite web |url=http://www.petitcodiacwatershed.org/invasive_species |title=Invasive Species |publisher=Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance |access-date=16 October 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727172514/http://petitcodiacwatershed.org/invasive_species |archive-date=27 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Six species have disappeared from the river since the mid-1980s.<ref name="fish-report" /> The Petitcodiac River was the only known Canadian habitat of the dwarf wedgemussel, and was later isolated to just nine [[United States|American]] watersheds after its elimination from the Petitcodiac.<ref name="fish-list" /> The Atlantic salmon is no longer present in the watershed, and has since been listed as an [[endangered species]] in Canada.<ref name="fish-report" /> The American shad was a favourite with fishermen, and represented two-thirds of the entire Canadian shad landings from 1870 to 1900; catches peaked at {{convert|2|to|6|lb|kg|disp=output number only}}&nbsp;million kilograms (two to six&nbsp;million pounds) per year.<ref name="american-shad">{{cite web |url=http://petitcodiac.org/index.php?page=american-shad |title=American Shad (''Alosa sapidissima'') |publisher=Petitcodiac Riverkeeper Inc |year=2008 |access-date=9 July 2010 |archive-date=24 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110824085641/http://petitcodiac.org/index.php?page=american-shad |url-status=dead }}</ref> Three other species have been eliminated from the river: the striped bass, the Atlantic sturgeon, and the Atlantic tomcod.<ref name="fish-report" /> However, a project of the Petitcodiac Riverkeeper, funded by the Government of Canada's Environmental Damage Fund in 2005, noted that the removal of the causeway would result in a "good" chance of bringing back the eliminated species, and an "excellent" chance of increasing the numbers of species deemed to have been reduced in numbers. No data has been released for the Atlantic salmon or the striped bass.<ref name="fish-report" />

Various insects and arachnids reside around the Petitcodiac River. Among them is the [[stonefly]], the mayfly, the [[caddisfly]], the ''[[simulium]]'', the subfamily of [[tanypodinae]], and the [[Hydracarina]].<ref name="rivers-na" /> Non-native species, such as the black-footed spider, the beech scale, the white-marked tussock moth, and the mountain ash sawfly have also made their home in the Petitcodiac River watershed.<ref name="other-species" /> At the southern extremities of the watershed, 50 to 90&nbsp;percent of the world's [[semipalmated sandpiper]]s feed on the mud shrimp at Shepody Bay. Around 269,445 stop there before migrating to South America, a number which accounts for at least 7.7&nbsp;percent of the total population. Among others, the [[semipalmated plover]] (around 2&nbsp;percent of the North American population), the [[short-billed dowitcher]], the [[red knot]], the [[sanderling]], and the [[least sandpiper]] are also known for migrating through the [[Important Bird Area]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibacanada.com/site.jsp?siteID=NB009&lang=EN |title=Shepody Bay West |publisher=[[Important Bird Area|IBA Canada]] |year=2009 |access-date=13 November 2010}}</ref>

A diverse number of plant species reside in the watershed as well. Red, white, and black spruce, red maple, white birch, and trembling aspen are the most common. Jack pine is commonly found in regions that fires have repeatedly ravished, while cedar is found in bogs and areas where gypsum and limestone are present. Higher altitude slopes and ridgetops house sugar maple, beech, and yellow birch trees. Zelazny et al. note that "[the] high frequency of disturbed sites dominated by aspen stands reveals the degree of historical and recent human disturbance along the Petitcodiac River."<ref name="nb-wildlife-5" /> The Petitcodiac River's [[riparian zone]] houses a number of trees, including [[willows]], white spruce, white pine, and [[speckled alder]].<ref name="rivers-na">{{Harvnb| Cunjak|Newbury|2005|p=978}}</ref> Other trees, such as the [[tamarack]] and white pine, can also be found in the watershed. Plants such as the [[Scirpus pendulus|rufous bulrush]] tend to grow near calcareous areas, and [[Cicuta|hemlock]] can be found in small, pure stands.<ref name="nb-wildlife-5">{{Harvnb|Zelazny et al.|2007|pp=306–307}}</ref> Alien plant species include the mother-of-thyme, the Japanese barberry, the Scotch broom, the yellow flag, and Canada bluegrass.<ref name="other-species" />

In 1937, the 37,000-year-old skeleton of a [[mastodon]] was discovered by workers near [[Hillsborough, New Brunswick|Hillsborough]]. It was in near perfect condition and was transported to the [[New Brunswick Museum]] in [[Saint John, New Brunswick|Saint John]], where it has been displayed ever since.<ref name="petitcodiac-natural-values" />

==Geology==
The Petitcodiac River watershed covers an area north and east of the Caledonian Highlands; a low-elevation (on average 67 m; {{convert|67|m|ft|disp=output only}}) region with rolling hills, valleys, and ridges.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zelazny et al.|2007|pp=304, 309}}</ref> In fact, most of the region was below sea level, beneath the former DeGeer and Goldthwait seas, during the [[quaternary]] period.<ref name="water-quality-2001">[[#Reference-PWMG-2001|PWMG 2001]], p. 22</ref> Non-[[calcareous]] [[Pennsylvanian (geology)|Pennsylvanian]] (and younger) sandstones, [[Conglomerate (geology)|conglomerate]]s, silt, and red- to grey-tinted [[mudstone]] now compose the majority of the bedrock.<ref name="water-quality-2001" /><ref name="nb-geo">{{Harvnb|Zelazny et al.|2007|p=304}}</ref> The northern shore of the Petitcodiac River, including the Anagance and North rivers, is primarily made up of shale with volcanic rocks, mixed igneous rocks, and [[felsic]] pebble conglomerates. The southern shore, including the Little and Pollett rivers, is composed of [[Precambrian]] or Lower-[[Palaeozoic]] sedimentary, igneous, and volcanic rocks, and limestone. Both shores include red to grey [[Mississippian age|Mississippian]] sandstone.<ref name="water-quality-2001" /> [[Red beds]], or red-tinted sedimentary rocks, have a higher occurrence around [[Strait Shores]].<ref name="nb-geo" /> Other significant Mississippian-era rock patches appear in two areas around the watershed. The first is located near the north-western border of the watershed, near Lutes Mountain and Cornhill. The second ranges from the east of the Memramcook River to the west of Hillsborough, in Beech Hill<!-- Which is a community, not a hill -->.<ref name="nb-geo" /> The Petitcodiac River watershed also features [[karst topography]], where [[gypsum]] and limestone around Mississippian rocks dilute into the circulating groundwater. This creates [[sinkhole]]s, [[Depression (geology)|depressions]], and caves. Examples of rare karst occurrences appear west of the village of Three Rivers, where large sinkholes alternate between small ridges to form honeycomb-shaped patterns. Hillsborough is the home of one of the longest gypsum cave networks in eastern Canada, and is a key habitat for bats in hibernation.<ref name="nb-land-cli">{{Harvnb|Zelazny et al.|2007|p=305}}</ref>

The majority of the watershed's [[topsoil]] is composed of sand, clay, and silt, under which normally lies a layer of ablation [[moraine]]s.<ref name="water-quality-2001" /> Fairly rich soils made of [[alluvium]] and tidal deposits are found along the Petitcodiac and Memramcook rivers, and have often been exploited for agricultural purposes. A publication by the New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources notes that the soils in Salisbury, made from calcareous sandstone and mudstone, are fine-textured and, when properly drained, "are the most fertile glacial tills" in the watershed. In contrast, they note, soils deriving from local conglomerates are more coarse and sandy, and are less fertile.<ref>{{Harvnb|Zelazny et al.|2007|p=306}}</ref>

[[Albertite]], a type of asphalt, was first found in Albert County in 1849 by the Canadian geologist [[Abraham Gesner]], inventor of [[kerosene]]. Over 200,000&nbsp;[[tonne]]s of the mineral were shipped to [[Boston]] within 30 years. Large deposits of gypsum found eight kilometres (five miles)<!-- Per the MOS, the result of a convert template here would be unacceptable --> from the mining site were shipped around the globe as well. The Petitcodiac River was used as the primary means for transporting the minerals at the time.<ref name="petitcodiac-natural-values" />

==History==

===Colonisation (1604–1698)===
[[File:No53p253 micmacs-e02-tribus indigene du labrador.jpg|thumb|alt=A drawing of three First Nations people in front of two tipis. There are two canoes on the shore and several larger ships in the water beyond.|A Mi'kmaq tribe in [[Labrador]]]]
The Petitcodiac River region was first settled by the Mi'kmaq, who used the river's upstream current as part of a portage route between Shubenacadie and a winter camp at the confluence of the Anagance and North rivers.<ref name="pt-battle-his-7">{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|p=36}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|p=40}}</ref> The first Europeans arrived in early 1604, when a French expedition to [[Acadia]] (now [[Nova Scotia]] and New Brunswick), led by the explorer [[Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons|Pierre Dugua de Mons]] and accompanied by cartographer [[Samuel de Champlain]] and future Acadian governor [[Jean de Biencourt de Poutrincourt et de Saint-Just|Jean de Biencourt]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Armstrong|1988|pp=72–73}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Arsenault|2004|p=20}}</ref> sailed into the Bay of Fundy. Hoping to find an ideal site for a settlement, they passed [[Advocate Harbour, Nova Scotia|Advocate Harbour]] and the Saint John River before Dugua chose to settle on [[Saint Croix Island, Maine|Saint Croix Island]] in present-day [[Maine]].<ref name="de-champlain-1">{{Harvnb|Armstrong|1988|p=76}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Armstrong|1988|pp=78–79}}</ref> Although they did not explore the Petitcodiac region, they returned to the coasts of eastern Nova Scotia, where they founded [[Port-Royal (Acadia)|Port Royal]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1970|p=290}}</ref> In 1676, Jacques Bourgeois, a colonist from the Nova Scotian settlement, settled in the area of [[Beaubassin]] (now the [[Tantramar Marshes]]). By 1685, its population had grown to 129, with 19 out of the 22 families living permanently in the region.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|p=21}}</ref> Pierre Thibodeau, also from Port Royal, founded Chipody (Chipoudie) near Shepody Bay in 1698.<ref name="pt-10" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Wright|1945|pp=6–7}}</ref> At this time, the inhabitants often referred to the Petitcodiac, Memramcook, and Shepody River area as "''Trois-Rivières''" (Three Rivers) (not to be confused with [[Trois-Rivières, Quebec]]).<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|p=25}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Griffiths|1992|pp=72–73}}</ref>

===Acadian History (1698–1763)===
{{see also|History of the Acadians|Expulsion of the Acadians}}
[[File:A View of the Plundering and Burning of the City of Grymross, by Thomas Davies, 1758.JPG|thumb|alt=A drawing shows ships on a river with a town on fire on the left bank.|The [[St. John River Campaign]], part of [[Expulsion of the Acadians|expulsion]]]]
The [[French and Indian War]] erupted in 1754 amid tensions between the British and the French over control of the [[Ohio Valley]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hurt|1998|pp=34–35}}</ref> Initially, the inhabitants of Acadia were uninvolved in the conflict because the French had already ceded the land to Britain under the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] (1713).<ref>{{Harvnb|Griffiths|1997|pp=32–33}}</ref> The Acadians were asked to take an oath declaring complete fidelity toward the [[British monarch]] on several occasions, but they refused.<ref name="history-acadia" /> At first, they were not punished for doing so.<ref name="oath-2">{{Harvnb|Brebner|1965|p=190}}</ref> A declaration of neutrality was signed in 1730 and was accepted by Nova Scotia governor [[Richard Philipps]].<ref name="history-acadia">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Chiasson|first1=Anselme |last2=Landry |first2=Nicolas |url=https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/history-of-acadia |title=Acadia, History of |encyclopedia=[[The Canadian Encyclopedia]] |year=2010|access-date=1 September 2010}}</ref> This earned the Acadians the nickname the "neutral French".<ref name="oath">{{Harvnb|Francis|Jones|Smith|2009|p=117}}</ref> At the outbreak of war in 1754, the British again demanded unconditional oaths of fealty, perceiving the Acadians as a possible threat.<ref name="history-acadia" /><ref name="acadia-timeline">{{cite news |url=http://www.cbc.ca/acadian/timeline.html |title=The Acadians – Timeline |publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation |year=2010 |access-date=1 September 2010}}</ref> In spite of resistance led by [[Jean-Louis Le Loutre]], representatives eventually agreed to sign,<ref name="history-acadia" /> but their reluctance persuaded [[Charles Lawrence (British Army officer)|Governor Charles Lawrence]] to order the Acadian population [[Expulsion of the Acadians|expelled from British territory]].<ref name="history-acadia" /><ref name="deportation">{{Harvnb|Bankcroft|1902|pp=333–343}}</ref>

About 1,100 Acadians living around the Petitcodiac River were affected by this decision.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|p=9}}</ref> Two hundred British troops led by Major Joseph Frye were sent to destroy the settlements of the Three Rivers, beginning with Shepody and Village-des-Blanchard (now Hillsborough).<ref name="pt-battle-his" /> French resistance commander [[Charles Deschamps de Boishébert et de Raffetot|Charles Deschamps de Boishébert]], hoping to evacuate as many Acadians as possible, was unable to march the distance between [[Nerepis, New Brunswick|Nerepis]] and the Shepody settlement in time, but [[Battle of Petitcodiac|fought at the second threatened village]] on 28 August 1755.<ref name="pt-battle-his">{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|p=26}}</ref><ref name="charles-boishebert-bio">{{cite DCB |title=Deschamps de Boishébert et de Raffetot, Charles |first=Phyllis E. |last=Leblanc |volume=4 |url=http://www.biographi.ca/en/bio/deschamps_de_boishebert_et_de_raffetot_charles_4E.html}}</ref> Boishébert's troops, composed of inhabitants from the area and from Shepody,<ref name="pt-battle-his" /> counter-attacked, suffering only one loss to twenty-three British casualties.<ref name="charles-boishebert-bio" /><ref name="pt-battle-his-2">{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|p=27}}</ref> This defeat is thought to have been the reason for the British abandonment of the campaign at the Three Rivers.<ref name="pt-battle-his-2" /> The commander and the evacuated Acadians, whom Edward Larracey estimated to total around 700,<ref name="pt-battle-his"/> suffered a massive famine from 1756 to 1758, largely caused by the scarce resources following the battle.<ref name="charles-boishebert-bio" />

[[File:Marquis de Boishébert - Charles Deschamps de Boishébert et de Raffetot (1753) McCord Museum McGill.jpg|thumb|left|alt=A slightly degraded painting of a smiling, middle-aged man with grey hair in a black armoured suit.|Charles Deschamps de Boishébert]]
In 1758, [[Joseph Broussard]], also known as Beausoleil by the locals, led raids against British vessels sailing in the Bay of Fundy and the Cumberland Basin.<ref name="pt-battle-his-2" /> This provoked the British into initiating two raids of their own. The first took place in February in [[Shediac]], where Lieutenant Colonel George Scott tried to find Boishébert. When they were returning, Boishébert ambushed them, killing two of Scott's gunmen.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|p=31}}</ref> The second raid took place at the settlement of Shepody in March, where the British were shocked to find that the Acadians had already begun rebuilding their homes.<ref name="pt-battle-his-1" /> On 28 June, Scott learned of reports that cattle were stolen outside of Fort Beausejour; the British issued an order for [[Benoni Danks|Captain Beloni Danks]] to [[Petitcodiac River Campaign|send 75 men up the Petitcodiac River]].<ref name="pt-battle-his-1">{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|p=28}}</ref> They arrived in Moncton the following night, and about 30 Acadians began firing at their vessel. However, Danks held his offensive position, and the British killed 19 Acadians, taking nine others prisoner.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|pp=28–29}}</ref> He and his troops continued to sail up the river the next day; they sent 60 men to burn a settlement {{convert|6|mi|km|disp=flip|abbr=on}} west of Moncton. Historians presume that the area had already been deserted.<ref name="Larracey 1985 30">{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|p=30}}</ref>

Acadians continued to survive in the region, overcoming the results of the raids. Scott sailed back to the region to search for Beausoleil and to weaken the Acadians before the winter.<ref name="Larracey 1985 30"/> He arrived in Moncton near midnight on 12 November, but the tide of the Petitcodiac River prevented him from sending more than twelve men. They came back the next morning with 16 prisoners.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|pp=31–32}}</ref> Scott was told that the area was virtually defenceless, so he sent three parties to La Chapelle (now Bore Park in Moncton), Silvabro (now Lewisville), and Jagersome (now Dieppe). Scott recorded no deaths or prisoners, but all buildings in sight were burned, and cattle were brought back onto the vessel.<ref name="former-names">{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|p=32}}</ref> Additional raids by Scott between 14 and 17 November captured a dozen Acadian prisoners, burned settlements, and uncovered Beausoleil's own [[schooner]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|pp=33–34}}</ref> The crew sent an Acadian prisoner on the 17th to request the surrender of the remaining residents, but when he returned, he reported that they had all begun to flee to [[Cocagne, New Brunswick|Cocagne]], Shediac, and the settlements around the [[Miramichi River]].<ref name="pt-battle-his-4">{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|p=34}}</ref> This prompted Scott to return to Fort Frederick in Saint John.<ref name="pt-battle-his-5">{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|p=35}}</ref>

A few of the Acadians migrating to the Miramichi River probably died of [[hypothermia]] during the trip due to the 1758–59 winter.<ref name="pt-battle-his-4" /> Those who survived joined the refugees already present, who had been persuaded by Boishébert to seek refuge there. Inadequate housing and supplies, among other reasons, led to the deterioration of the reputation of the French commander, and only 700 Acadians remained there by late 1759.<ref name="pt-battle-his-5" /> Meanwhile, the raiding rapidly took its toll on the residents who stayed around the Three Rivers, as food supplies became scarce and reconstruction became impossible. The [[Battle of the Plains of Abraham|fall of Quebec City]] in September 1759 also eliminated the possibility of assistance from that area. On 16 November 1759, the 190 Acadians in the region sent a delegate to Fort Beauséjour (which had been renamed Fort Cumberland) to announce their surrender to the newly promoted Colonel Frye. The settlements of [[Miramichi, New Brunswick|Miramichi]], [[Richibucto, New Brunswick|Richibucto]], and [[Bouctouche, New Brunswick|Bouctouche]] surrendered the next day, with a delegate sent to the fort to represent their 700 refugees. Frye requested and received permission from Governor Lawrence to take them in for the winter.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|p=37}}</ref> The Acadian refugees were offered land on the [[Isthmus of Chignecto]] in early 1760, but most requested their original lands around the Three Rivers, which the governor granted.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|p=38}}</ref>
[[File:The Petitcodiac River at High Water.jpg|thumb|alt=A large vessel floats beside a dock.|A sailing ship on the Petitcodiac River in 1910.]]

===Resettlement and Modern History (1763–present)===
After the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)]], exiled Acadians began to return to the area,<ref>{{Harvnb|Sarich|2002|p=18}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Griffiths|1997|p=120}}</ref> but their numbers around the Three Rivers remained under 200 by 1769.<ref name="pt-battle-his" /> Settlers from [[Philadelphia]] began to migrate to the Petitcodiac River area in 1766: the Trites, Jones and Stieff families moved to present-day Moncton, but the Stieff family (now [[Steeves]]), later moved south-east to Hillsborough.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1970|p=273}}</ref> Nine families bought land up to {{convert|13|mi|km|abbr=on|disp=flip}} west from the bend of the river, ranging from {{convert|1718|to(-)|2193|acre|ha}} per grant.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1970|pp=82–83}}</ref> In 1829, the population of Moncton reached 100, composed mainly of descendants of these settlers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1970|p=114}}</ref>

Moncton's [[shipbuilding]] era began in 1840 with the arrival of Stewart Russell, a shipbuilder from Hopewell.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1970|p=131}}</ref> Russell built the ''Aginora'', which sailed down the Petitcodiac River to trade at the ports in Saint John and [[New England]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1970|pp=131, 133}}</ref> The ship and its crew sank in a storm on 24 December 1850, during a trip to Boston for Christmas.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1970|pp=133&nbsp;134}}</ref> A ferry service on the Petitcodiac River was launched around 1841, thanks to a license obtained by Simon Outhouse.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1970|p=272}}</ref> The ''Larch'', built by [[Stephen Binney]] in 1845, was another important vessel, becoming the largest to sail on the river.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1970|p=142}}</ref> But it was not until the arrival of Joseph Salter in 1846 that the shipbuilding boom began: a shipyard founded by Binney and Salter produced 24 vessels from 1847 to 1859, and employed almost 500 of the 1,000 inhabitants in Moncton.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1970|pp=146&nbsp;147}}</ref> Salter would become the first mayor of Moncton in April 1855,<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1970|p=174}}</ref> the year the town was incorporated.<ref name="moncton-history" />

The [[European and North American Railway]] was extended to link [[Pointe-du-Chene, New Brunswick|Pointe-du-Chene]] to Moncton in 1857, with an eventual goal of reaching Saint John in 1860.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1970|pp=186, 194–195}}</ref> The move, according to Larracey, caused the town to become "but a station stop along a railway line".<ref name="petitcodiac-history-2" /> This coincided with the failure of Moncton's shipbuilding industry and a population drop from a peak of 2,000 to about 500.<ref name="petitcodiac-history-2">{{Harvnb|Larracey|1970|p=194}}</ref> The town declared bankruptcy and was unincorporated in 1862,<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1970|pp=198, 201}}</ref> but it later regained its status in 1875, after it became the [[Intercolonial Railway]]'s headquarters for its shops in 1871.<ref name="moncton-history" /> While the Petitcodiac River continued to aid in the shipping of goods into the 20th&nbsp;century, shipbuilding essentially ended in the 1890s.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1970|p=208}}</ref> The final vessel built in Moncton was the ''Woolastook II'' on 14 May 1980,<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1991|p=413}}</ref> while the final ship to sail up the Petitcodiac River was the ''Inox'' from France, which arrived on 12 July 1986, (and was, ironically, stranded in Moncton until 3 November due to the river's tidal fluctuations).<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1991|p=427}}</ref>

In 1924, the Petitcodiac Tidal Power Company proposed a [[tidal power]] project. This called for a dam to be built between [[Hopewell Cape]] and Fort Folly Point. The company sold shares to raise funds for the project and a series of on-site and airborne studies were conducted by the federal government, but the project fell through by 1928.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1991|pp=238–240}}</ref> As rail transport became more common, it displaced river transportation around the [[Great Depression]].<ref name="pt-his">{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|p=5}}</ref> In addition, the [[Greater Moncton International Airport]] offered an [[Airmail|airmail service]] from Moncton to [[Montreal]] by 29 December 1929. These factors further marginalised the Petitcodiac.<ref name="pt-his" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1991|p=267}}</ref>

The [[Gunningsville Bridge]], which crosses the Petitcodiac River to link Moncton and Riverview, was built in 1867.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://timestranscript.canadaeast.com/rss/article/966918 |title=Moncton's street names offer glimpse into past |work=[[Times & Transcript]] |date=26 February 2010 |first=P. |last=Winans |access-date=12 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307121246/http://timestranscript.canadaeast.com/rss/article/966918 |archive-date=7 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> It was damaged and rebuilt on four different occasions. The first was following the [[1869 Saxby Gale|Saxby Gale of 1869]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1991|p=229}}</ref> which forced the town to rebuild the bridge in 1872.<ref name="gunn-1">{{Harvnb|Larracey|1991|p=158}}</ref> It went under "extensive repairs" mid-1892,<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1991|p=39}}</ref> but ice build-up from the Petitcodiac continued to pose a threat for the wooden structure, leading to the construction of a new steel version from 1915 to 1919.<ref name="gunn-1" /><ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1991|p=197}}</ref> This fourth bridge would suffer through many collisions, including one with the ''Mayflower'' in September 1929, which caused the ship to capsize and drown two men. The Gunningsville Bridge would last 86 years before it would be demolished a final time, making way for a {{convert|425|m|ft|abbr=out|adj=mid|-long}} four-lane bridge crossing.<ref>{{Cite press release |url=http://www.gnb.ca/cnb/news/tran/2005e1581tr.htm |title=Gunningsville Bridge opens to traffic (05/11/19) |publisher=Communications New Brunswick |date=19 November 2005 |access-date=12 November 2010 |archive-date=14 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110514164213/http://www.gnb.ca/cnb/news/tran/2005e1581tr.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Covered bridges were also built over the Petitcodiac River, the final extant one being "Hasty", built in 1929.<ref name="covered-bridges" />

[[File:Petitcodiac-causeway.jpg|thumb|alt=A concrete and steel structure crosses the river. The water is brown on the near side of the structure, and blue on the far side|A view of the Petitcodiac River Causeway from the east (downstream) side, featuring the former causeway gates.]]
[[File:Riverview Causeway 2008.jpg|thumb|alt=A concrete and steel structure holds a mildly busy highway crossing the river seen to the left. There are marshes and a city in the background.|A view of Route 114 from Riverview, held up by the Petitcodiac River Causeway.]]

===Causeway Controversy (1968–present)===
In 1968, the provincial and federal governments completed the construction of a causeway between the communities of Moncton and Riverview, to provide a crossing over the river, and to keep water levels from impeding agricultural production.<ref name="david-suzuki">{{Cite news |last1=Suzuki |first1=David |author1-link=David Suzuki |last2=Moola |first2=Faisal |date=20 April 2010 |url=http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Environment/Suzuki/2010/04/20/13657621.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20110622013129/http://cnews.canoe.ca/CNEWS/Environment/Suzuki/2010/04/20/13657621.html |url-status=usurped |archive-date=22 June 2011 |title=Watching the Petitcodiac River flow – once again |work=[[Canadian Online Explorer|CNews]] |access-date=5 July 2010 }}</ref><ref name="petitcodiac-fish">{{cite web |url=http://www.mar.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/communications/maritimes/back01e/B-MAR-01-02.htm |title=Backgrounder –Petitcodiac River Causeway |publisher=[[Fisheries and Oceans Canada]] |date=1 March 2002 |access-date=6 July 2010 |archive-date=6 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706181635/http://www2.mar.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/communications/maritimes/back01e/B-MAR-01-02.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> This was a benefit for the federal government at the time, which had constantly maintained the dykes in the area. It also benefited the provincial government, as the federal government was willing to fund the $3&nbsp;million project, but not a bridge.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1991|pp=381–382}}</ref> Although the causeway was equipped with a fishway, problems arose when fish were unable to cross it freely due to sedimentation build-up; some 82&nbsp;percent of the salmon were prevented from travelling upstream by the structure.<ref name="causeway-effects">{{cite web |url=http://petitcodiac.org/index.php?page=impacts-on-the-ecosystem&hl=en_US |title=Impacts of the Petitcodiac Causeway |publisher=Petitcodiac Riverkeeper Inc |year=2008 |access-date=6 July 2010 |archive-date=1 May 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501164422/http://petitcodiac.org/index.php?page=impacts-on-the-ecosystem&hl=en_US |url-status=dead }}</ref> The sediment accumulated in the {{convert|4.7|km|mi|abbr=on}} of river downstream from the causeway, with over 10&nbsp;million cubic metres (13&nbsp;million cubic yards) of silt deposited in the first three years following construction.<ref name="causeway-effects" /> Several reports from 1969 to 1971 described its impact on the aquatic ecosystem, and proposals for amendments to the causeway gates were released, but no action was taken. In 1976 and 1977, reports pointed out several problems related to the gates' function due to erosion, winter ice jams, and "unsatisfactory fishway operation".<ref name="petitcodiac-fish" />

It was not until 1978 that New Brunswick's Department of Transportation commissioned a study of the problems. The final report recommended three alternatives for action: to continue operation "as-is", to continue operation without the gates, or to eliminate gate leakage and amend the operation protocol. The third alternative was chosen two years later, but did not substantially improve fish migration as expected.<ref name="petitcodiac-fish" /> The provincial government decided to open the gates between 15 April and 7 July 1988, to allow fish to migrate up the stream. This was repeated from 26 September to 31 October 1988, and in the spring of 1989 and 1990 during low tides. In 1991, New Brunswick's Department of Oceans and Fisheries recommended opening the gates from April to December each year. A provincial government committee report recommended an additional seven options for the modification of the causeway in May 1992, but the government did not act upon any of these options due to the low "cost-benefit" factor.<ref name="petitcodiac-fish" /> More reports documented problems related to the passage of fish in the river until 1995, when the Department of Transportation agreed to open one gate from April to December, as suggested four years earlier. A project was then organized in December 1996 to begin a trial for the systematic opening of the gates during the year, but conditions could not be physically met, and it was terminated on 1 June 1999.<ref name="petitcodiac-fish" />

In February 2001, the ''Niles Report'' proposed an additional four modifications to the causeway project: to either replace the fishway, open the gates during peak fish migration, open the gates permanently, or replace the entire causeway with a bridge.<ref name="EIA-begin">[[#Reference-Environ-2002|New Brunswick Department of the Environment 2002]], p. 3</ref> An Environmental Impact Assessment study was commissioned in 2003 to develop and summarise these options, and on its completion in 2005, it announced the recognition of "Option 3" and "Option 4" as possible solutions. The first option had been ruled out following the evaluation of other fish passage models, which were deemed inapplicable to the river. The second, suggesting systematic gate-opening periods, was ruled out because of the inability to cater to every marine species' migration periods.<ref name="petitcodiac-timeline">{{Cite report |url=http://www.gnb.ca/0099/petit/docs/Peticodiac%20Timeline%20English%20and%20French.pdf |title=Petitcodiac Timeline |publisher=[[Government of New Brunswick]] |access-date=14 July 2010 |archive-date=11 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611063125/http://www.gnb.ca/0099/petit/docs/Peticodiac%20Timeline%20English%20and%20French.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="EIA-end">[[#Reference-Environ-2005|New Brunswick Department of the Environment 2005]], pp. 13–16</ref> Option 4 was split into three sub-options, mainly to list possible bridge lengths: 170, 280, and 315&nbsp;metres (190, 310, and 344&nbsp;yards).<ref>[[#Reference-Environ-2005|New Brunswick Department of the Environment 2005]], p. 16</ref> The provincial government later accepted the proposal on 6 December 2006,<ref name="EIA-accept">{{Cite press release |url=http://www.gnb.ca/cnb/news/env/2006e1509ev.htm |title=Petitcodiac River causeway modification project receives EIA approval |publisher=Communications New Brunswick |date=6 December 2006 |access-date=14 July 2010 |archive-date=11 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611063134/http://www.gnb.ca/cnb/news/env/2006e1509ev.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> and selected "Option 4B" on 7 August 2007, which called for a {{convert|280|m|yd|abbr=on}} bridge in the place of the causeway.<ref name="EIA-option">{{Cite press release |url=http://www.gnb.ca/cnb/news/ss/2007e1005ss.htm |title=Option selected for restoration of Petitcodiac River |publisher=Communications New Brunswick |date=7 August 2008 |access-date=14 July 2010 |archive-date=11 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611063150/http://www.gnb.ca/cnb/news/ss/2007e1005ss.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The project was divided into three phases, expected to cost a total of $68&nbsp;million.<ref name="causeway-opens" /><ref name="restoration-project">{{cite web |url=http://petitcodiac.org/index.php?page=the-partial-bridge-project&hl=en_US |title=Petitcodiac River Restoration Project |publisher=Petitcodiac Riverkeeper Inc |year=2008 |access-date=24 July 2010 |archive-date=28 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828203920/http://petitcodiac.org/index.php?page=the-partial-bridge-project&hl=en_US |url-status=dead }}</ref> Phase&nbsp;1 consisted of the prevention of erosion along the shorelines, improvements to the nearby drainage system, and the construction of dikes and ''aboiteaux''; the work was carried out from 7 July 2008, to 14 April 2010.<ref name="restoration-project" /><ref name="nb-68-mil">{{Cite press release |url=http://www.gnb.ca/cnb/news/ss/2008e0999ss.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090820052122/http://www.gnb.ca/cnb/news/ss/2008e0999ss.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=20 August 2009 |title=Province invests $20 million for Phase 1 of Petitcodiac River restoration |publisher=Communications New Brunswick |date=7 July 2008 |access-date=24 July 2010 }}</ref><ref name="gates-open">{{Cite press release |url=http://www.gnb.ca/cnb/news/ss/2010e0555ss.htm |title=Greater Moncton celebrates next phase of Petitcodiac restoration |publisher=Communications New Brunswick |date=17 April 2010 |access-date=24 July 2010 |archive-date=11 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611063346/http://www.gnb.ca/cnb/news/ss/2010e0555ss.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> Phase&nbsp;2 consisted of opening the gates to monitor river flow, both upstream and downstream, for two years.<ref name="restoration-project" /><ref name="gates-open" /> Phase&nbsp;3 commenced in 2012 and consisted of the bridge's development and the removal of the causeway, which was completed on 17 September 2021.<ref>{{cite web |title=New Petitcodiac River bridge opens |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/petitcodiac-river-bridge-causeway-opening-1.6176493 |website=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] |date=2021-09-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220923211301/https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/petitcodiac-river-bridge-causeway-opening-1.6176493 |archive-date=2022-09-23 |url-status=live |last1=Magee |first1=Shane}}</ref><ref name="restoration-project" /><ref name="gates-open" /><ref name="phase-fact-sheet">{{Cite report |url=http://petitcodiac.org/uploads/Campaigns/fact%20sheet/Factsheet_River_restoration.doc |title=Petitcodiac River Restoration Project |publisher=Petitcodiac Riverkeeper Inc |year=2008 |access-date=24 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829005855/http://petitcodiac.org/uploads/Campaigns/fact%20sheet/Factsheet_River_restoration.doc |archive-date=29 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/limited-future-erosion-petitcodiac-1.5166555|title=Engineers predict limited future erosion from Petitcodiac River bridge project}}</ref> Confusion arose as to whether or not the project would be funded by the federal government. They refused, in spite of an earlier comment from the Department of Fisheries and Oceans, which had hinted at a possible negotiation.<ref name="negotiations">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/river-restoration-funds-from-ottawa-not-guaranteed-minister-says-1.650126 |title=River restoration funds from Ottawa not guaranteed, minister says |work=[[CBC News]] |date=15 August 2007|access-date=24 July 2010}}</ref><ref name="nego-refuse">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/federal-government-won-t-fund-causeway-restoration-1.669295 |title=Federal government won't fund causeway restoration|work=[[CBC News]] |date=9 November 2007 |access-date=24 July 2010}}</ref> Unwilling to wait, the provincial government came forward with an initial $20&nbsp;million on 7 July 2008, to begin the first phase.<ref name="nb-68-mil" /><ref name="cbc-68-mil">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/n-b-to-spend-20m-on-petitcodiac-river-restoration-1.729525 |title=N.B. to spend $20M on Petitcodiac River restoration |work=[[CBC News]] |date=8 July 2008 |access-date=24 July 2010}}</ref>

The approach of Phase&nbsp;2 was met with various complaints. A biology professor at the [[Université de Moncton]] noted that $200,000–$250,000 worth of pesticide would be required to keep the mosquito population around the city of Moncton from doubling once the gates open.<ref name="mosquitoes">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/mosquitoes-may-double-in-moncton-after-causeway-opened-1.810842 |title=Mosquitoes may double in Moncton after causeway opened |work=[[CBC News]] |date=17 December 2009 |access-date=24 July 2010}}</ref> Flood warnings were issued by the provincial Department of Supply and Services for the town of Riverview, warning that high river tides could lead to the flooding of over {{convert|3|ha|acre}} of sport fields and structures built in low-lying areas; however, they added that the causeway's flood gates were able to descend if required, eliminating the chances of such repercussions from a possible inundation.<ref name="flood-warning">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/fears-of-flooding-in-riverview-1.865510 |title=Fears of flooding in Riverview |work=[[CBC News]] |date=10 February 2010 |access-date=24 July 2010}}</ref> Residents near the headpond west of the causeway criticized the project, citing the decrease in property values of about 480 homes (by approximately 30&nbsp;percent, according to the EIA report),<ref name="criticism-1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/province-to-replace-moncton-riverview-causeway-with-bridge-1.644394 |title=Group upset over Petitcodiac River consultation |work=[[CBC News]] |date=7 August 2007|access-date=24 July 2010}}</ref> the $68&nbsp;million price tag,<ref name="criticism-2">{{cite web |url=http://lappa.ca/content/238689 |title=Where are gov't priorities? |publisher=Lake Petitcodiac Preservation Association |year=2010 |access-date=24 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706184130/http://lappa.ca/content/238689 |archive-date=6 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> unstable ice conditions,<ref name="criticism-3">{{cite web |url=http://lappa.ca/content/230045 |title=Unsafe Ice Conditions Throughout Winter |publisher=Lake Petitcodiac Preservation Association |year=2010 |access-date=24 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706185957/http://lappa.ca/content/230045 |archive-date=6 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and a lower water quality.<ref name="criticism-4">{{cite web |url=http://lappa.ca/content/230499 |title=Sewage and Toxic Contaminant Downstream of Causeway |publisher=Lake Petitcodiac Preservation Association |year=2010 |access-date=24 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706190021/http://lappa.ca/content/230499 |archive-date=6 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In spite of legal threats by the Lake Petitcodiac Preservation Association (LAPPA) and various residents, the causeway opened its gates on 14 April 2010, coinciding with the beginning of various studies.<ref name="causeway-opens">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/petitcodiac-river-causeway-opening-still-divisive-1.878309 |title=Petitcodiac River causeway opening still divisive |work=[[CBC News]] |location=Moncton|date=14 April 2010 |access-date=6 June 2010}}</ref><ref name="causeway-opens-2">{{Cite press release |url=http://www.gnb.ca/cnb/news/ss/2010e0535ss.htm |title=Petitcodiac Causeway gates officially open |publisher=Communications New Brunswick |date=14 April 2010 |access-date=24 July 2010 |archive-date=25 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825143557/http://www.gnb.ca/cnb/news/ss/2010e0535ss.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Since the opening, the river improved significantly, surpassing original expectations for the project. An [[AMEC]] engineer participating in the firm's studies, Jacques Paynter, said that the banks of the river had begun widening "at a noticeable pace", with the tidal bore growing closer to its pre-1968 levels: "We were actually anticipating a fairly modest increase in height. It seems to be already exceeding what we might have expected." He noted that an estimated 40,000 gaspereau had returned to the river, and called for more studies to determine the impact of the causeway's opening.<ref name="river-progress">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/petitcodiac-river-changing-faster-than-expected-1.944296 |title=Petitcodiac River changing faster than expected |work=[[CBC News]] |date=7 June 2010 |access-date=4 August 2010}}</ref>

==Recreation==
[[File:Surfing the Tidal Bore.jpg|thumb|Surfing the Tidal Bore]]
Residents around the Petitcodiac have used the river for various recreational purposes. Trips were made annually via the river from Moncton to Beaumont for Feast of Saint-Anne celebrations with the locals. The ''Blakeson'', a towboat owned by Blakeny and Sons, offered "moonlight cruises" in the early 1930s for 50&nbsp;cents (approximately $6.50 in 2010 values).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/rates/inflation_calc.html |title=Inflation Calculator – Rates and Statistics |publisher=[[Bank of Canada]] |year=2010 |access-date=17 November 2010 |archive-date=10 May 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070510124111/http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/rates/inflation_calc.html |url-status=dead }} (Note: Used values from 1930.)</ref> The service was popular until the towboat capsized in front of embarking passengers, causing them to lose interest.<ref>{{Harvnb|Larracey|1985|pp=95–96}}</ref> During their Environmental Impact Assessment in September 2005, AMEC cited recreational fishing and [[birdwatching]] as major pre-causeway activities. A fishery for Atlantic salmon existed downstream from the causeway for several years post-1968.<ref name="EIA-rec-1" /> The Moncton Naturalists' Club also publishes their ''Birding in the Moncton Area'', a birdwatching guide covering sites from [[Sackville, New Brunswick|Sackville]] to [[Mary's Point]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IR_GMr-cVm8C |title=Adventure Guide to New Brunswick and Prince Edward Island |page=212 |last1=Rogers |last2=Rogers |first1=B. R. |first2=S. |publisher=Hunter Publishing Inc |year=2001 |location=Montreal |isbn=1-58843-118-5 |access-date=17 November 2010}}</ref> Other activities downstream from the causeway include boating, canoeing, kayaking, seal and harbour-porpoise viewing, and tour boating.<ref name="EIA-rec-2" /> On 24 July 2013, the North American record for surfing a single river wave was set by Wessels and Whitbread of California, who [[River surfing|rode]] the Petitcodiac River's tidal bore {{Convert|29|km|mi|abbr = on}}.<ref>{{cite news |publisher=[[CBC News]] |title=Surfers set record after 29&nbsp;km ride on Moncton tidal bore |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/surfers-set-record-after-29-km-ride-on-moncton-tidal-bore-1.1327888 |date=25 July 2013 |access-date=26 July 2013}}</ref>

Before the opening of the causeway gates on 14 April 2010, the Petitcodiac River's {{convert|21|km|mi|abbr=on}} headpond (west of the causeway), colloquially known as Lake Petitcodiac, was promoted by LAPPA as a recreational haven for residents in the area.<ref name="tt-lake-quality">{{Cite news |url=http://timestranscript.canadaeast.com/rss/article/948478 |title=Testing shows stagnant headpond is unfit for recreation |newspaper=[[Times & Transcript]] |date=9 February 2010 |last=Leblanc |first=Daniel |access-date=14 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120307121250/http://timestranscript.canadaeast.com/rss/article/948478 |archive-date=7 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="lappa-rec">{{cite web |title=Recreation Associated with Lake Petitcodiac |url=http://www.lakepetitcodiac.mybusinessadmin.com/content/230489 |publisher=Lake Petitcodiac Preservation Association |year=2010 |access-date=14 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110714142013/http://www.lakepetitcodiac.mybusinessadmin.com/content/230489 |archive-date=14 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> According to the association, over 10,000 estimated hours of boating took place on the lake, in addition to canoeing, kayaking, motor boating, water skiing, jet skiing, sailing, and swimming. Fishing tournaments, [[Dragon boat|dragon boat regattas]], [[Sled dog|dog sledding]], and snowmobiling were popular at the time as well.<ref name="EIA-rec-2">{{Harvnb|AMEC|2005|p=98}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=January 2025}}<!--If the "Environmental Impact Assessment Report for Modifications to the Petitcodiac River Causeway" is the full citation, it appears to have only 42 pages, not 97+. --><ref name="lappa-rec" /> However, a study by the PWMG showed that fecal coliform levels in the headpond from June, July, and September 2009 exceeded 2,419 parts per 100&nbsp;millilitres; more than 12 times the 200/100 ml<!-- Parts per hundred millilitres --> recommended by the Canadian Water Quality Guidelines for recreational purposes.<ref name="tt-lake-quality" />

Bore Park, located in the area formerly known as La Chapelle,<ref name="former-names" /> became a popular tourist location by 1907 for watching the Petitcodiac's tidal bore move up the river twice a day.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.moncton.ca/Government/Media_Room/News_Releases/Bore_Park_Presentations_Have_Begun.htm |title=Bore Park Presentations Have Begun |publisher=City of Moncton |date=7 July 2008 |access-date=14 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719031627/http://www.moncton.ca/Government/Media_Room/News_Releases/Bore_Park_Presentations_Have_Begun.htm |archive-date=19 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The area features information about the wave, as well as a clock indicating the time of its next appearance.<ref name="tourism-bore">{{Cite book|last=Hempstead |first=Andrew |title=Nova Scotia, New Brunswick & Prince Edward Island for Dummies |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3yic23LHFmEC |page=188 |publisher=For Dummies |isbn=978-0-470-15334-5 |access-date=14 November 2010|date=3 July 2012 }}</ref> Bore Park is a part of Riverfront Park, Greater Moncton's {{convert|5|km|mi|abbr=on}} section of the [[Trans Canada Trail]], where tourists may walk, bike, or skate along the riverfront.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.moncton.ca/Residents/Recreation_Parks_and_Culture/Parks/Riverfront_Park.htm |title=Riverfront Park |publisher=City of Moncton |year=2010 |access-date=14 November 2010 |archive-date=19 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719031618/http://www.moncton.ca/Residents/Recreation_Parks_and_Culture/Parks/Riverfront_Park.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref> The trail continues west to Hillsborough and [[Fundy National Park]], and east to Sackville, Nova Scotia, and [[Prince Edward Island]].<ref name="EIA-rec-1" /> Jonathan Creek, Fox Creek, Halls Creek, and Mills Creek also offer trails that run along their streams.<ref name="EIA-rec-1">{{Harvnb|AMEC|2005|p=97}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=January 2025}}<!--If the "Environmental Impact Assessment Report for Modifications to the Petitcodiac River Causeway" is the full citation, it appears to have only 42 pages, not 97+. -->

==Lists==
The following lists are ordered from the mouth of the river to its source.

===Crossings===
The river is crossed by 11 bridges.

{| class="wikitable" style="width:35%;"
|-
! style="width:20%;" | Route
! style="width:70%;" | Description
! style="width:10%;" | Sources
|-
|
| [[Gunningsville Bridge]]
|<ref name="gunningville-bridge">{{Cite news|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/gunningsville-bridge-boulders-will-have-second-life-1.629147 |title=Gunningsville bridge boulders will have second life |work=[[CBC News]] |date=10 July 2006 |access-date=3 August 2010}}</ref>
|-
| {{jct|state=NB|NB|114}}
| The Honorable Brenda Robertson Bridge (Findlay Boulevard)
|<ref>{{cite web |last1=Rudderham |first1=Hannah |title=Bridge connecting Moncton and Riverview named after political trailblazer |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/petitcodiac-river-bridge-brenda-robertson-1.6988087 |website=CBC News |access-date=18 October 2023 |date=5 October 2023}}</ref>
|-
|
| [[Salem and Hillsborough Railroad]] bridge, Salisbury
|<ref name="salisbury-map-1">{{Cite map |url=http://www.salisburynb.ca/images/SALISBURY%20MAP%202006.jpg |title=Salem & Hillsborough Railroad bridge, Salisbury |publisher=[[Salisbury, New Brunswick|Village of Salisbury]] |cartography=Chris Bschaden |year=2006 |section=C5 |inset=Parkin Street |access-date=3 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706202825/http://www.salisburynb.ca/images/SALISBURY%20MAP%202006.jpg |archive-date=6 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
| {{jct|state=NB|NB|112}}
| Coverdale River Road bridge, Salisbury
|<ref name="salisbury-map-2">{{Cite map |url=http://www.salisburynb.ca/images/SALISBURY%20MAP%202006.jpg |title=Village of Salisbury |publisher=[[Salisbury, New Brunswick|Village of Salisbury]] |cartography=Chris Bschaden |year=2006 |section=B5 |inset=River Road |access-date=3 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706202825/http://www.salisburynb.ca/images/SALISBURY%20MAP%202006.jpg |archive-date=6 July 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="route-112">{{cite web|last=Kirby |first=J. P. |url=http://the506.com/roads/NB/112.html |title=Route 112 |publisher=New Brunswick Roads |year=2007 |access-date=3 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527112103/http://www.the506.com/roads/NB/112.html <!--Added by H3llBot--> |archive-date=27 May 2010}}</ref>
|-
|
| "Hasty" covered bridge, River Glade
|<ref name="covered-bridges">{{cite web |url=http://www.gnb.ca/0113/coveredbridges/cb-westmor-e.asp#PETITCODIAC_RIVER_#3_(Hasty) |title=Covered Bridges, Westmorland County |publisher=[[Department of Transportation (New Brunswick)|New Brunswick Department of Transportation]] |access-date=3 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825144705/http://www.gnb.ca/0113/coveredbridges/cb-westmor-e.asp#PETITCODIAC_RIVER_ |archive-date=25 August 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
|-
|
| Sanatorium Road bridge, River Glade
|<ref name="google-map-2">{{Cite map|url=https://maps.google.com/?ie=UTF8&ll=45.980256,-65.109175&spn=0.00621,0.016512&z=17 |title=Sanatorium Road bridge |publisher=[[Google Maps]] |year=2010 |access-date=3 August 2010}}</ref>
|-
|
| [[Canadian National Railway]] bridge, River Glade
|<ref name="google-map" />
|-
| {{jct|state=NB|NB|1}}
| Route 1 expressway crossing, River Glade
|<ref name="google-map">{{Cite map|url=https://maps.google.com/?ie=UTF8&ll=45.973151,-65.126749&spn=0.006211,0.016512&z=17 |title=Route 1 and train crossing |publisher=[[Google Maps]] |year=2010 |access-date=3 August 2010}}</ref><ref name="route-1">{{cite web|last=Kirby |first=J. P. |url=http://the506.com/roads/NB/001.html |title=Route 1 |publisher=New Brunswick Roads |year=2007 |access-date=3 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527111915/http://www.the506.com/roads/NB/001.html <!--Added by H3llBot--> |archive-date=27 May 2010}}</ref>
|-
|
| Plantation Road bridge
|<ref name="petitcodiac-map-2" />
|-
|
| [[Canadian National Railway]] bridge, Three Rivers
|<ref name="google-map-3">{{Cite map|url=https://maps.google.com/?ie=UTF8&ll=45.93399,-65.176536&spn=0.003108,0.008256&z=18 |title=CN railway bridge, Petitcodiac |publisher=Google Maps |year=2010 |access-date=4 August 2010}}</ref>
|-
| {{jct|state=NB|NB|106}}
| Old Post Road bridge, Three Rivers
|<ref name="petitcodiac-map-2">{{Cite map |url=http://www.villageofpetitcodiac.com/vopMap.html |title=Village of Petitcodiac: Map |publisher=[[Petitcodiac, New Brunswick|Village of Petitcodiac]] |year=2009 |access-date=3 August 2010 |archive-date=17 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717203008/http://www.villageofpetitcodiac.com/vopMap.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="route-106">{{cite web|last=Kirby |first=J. P. |url=http://the506.com/roads/NB/106.html |title=Route 106 |publisher=New Brunswick Roads |year=2007 |access-date=3 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527111352/http://www.the506.com/roads/NB/106.html <!--Added by H3llBot--> |archive-date=27 May 2010}}</ref>
|}

===Tributaries===
<!-- Will create red-linked articles later -->

The Petitcodiac River features ten named tributaries, which drain a total of 28 additional streams.<ref name="tributaries-list">[[#Reference-PWMG-2001|PWMG 2001]], p. 27</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="width: 52%;"
|-
! Name
! Watershed area
! Source
! River bank
! Mouth coordinates
! Sources
|-
| [[Weldon Creek (New Brunswick)|Weldon Creek]]
| {{convert|89|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| Area near [[Weldon, New Brunswick|Weldon]] and [[Salem, Albert County|Salem]]
| Right
| {{coord|45|56|59|N|64|40|0|W|display=inline|type:landmark_region:CA-NB}}
|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/search/getFAPMapURL?feature_na=Weldon%20Creek&entity=RIV&location1=13&unique_key=0c79f09e849c20c3dabea5594be58a28&lat=45.9499999994&long=-64.6667000008&origsearchstring=Weldon%20Creek |title=The Atlas of Canada – Weldon Creek, New Brunswick |publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]] |access-date=12 November 2010 }} {{Dead link|date=May 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>[[#Reference-PWMG-2001|PWMG 2001]], p. 50</ref>
|-
| [[Fox Creek (New Brunswick)|Fox Creek]]
| {{convert|29|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| Area near [[Dieppe, New Brunswick|Dieppe]] and [[Chartersville, New Brunswick|Chartersville]]
| Left
| {{coord|46|4|0|N|64|40|59|W|display=inline|type:landmark_region:CA-NB}}
|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/search/getFAPMapURL?feature_na=Fox%20Creek&entity=RIV&location1=13&unique_key=0c790fb1849c20c38031b9be8ca22547&lat=46.066700001&long=-64.6832999986&origsearchstring=Fox%20Creek |title=The Atlas of Canada – Fox Creek, New Brunswick |publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]] |access-date=12 November 2010 }} {{Dead link|date=May 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>[[#Reference-PWMG-2001|PWMG 2001]], p. 66</ref>
|-
| [[Mill Creek (New Brunswick)|Mill Creek]]
| {{convert|51|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| Town of [[Riverview, New Brunswick|Riverview]]
| Left
| {{coord|46|4|0|N|64|43|59|W|display=inline|type:landmark_region:CA-NB}}
|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/search/getFAPMapURL?feature_na=Mill%20Creek&entity=RIV&location1=13&unique_key=0c813d8e849c20c3844f9e6a7c2022fd&lat=46.066700001&long=-64.7332999998&origsearchstring=Mill%20Creek |title=The Atlas of Canada – Mill Creek, New Brunswick |publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]] |access-date=12 November 2010 }} {{Dead link|date=May 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>[[#Reference-PWMG-2001|PWMG 2001]], p. 47</ref>
|-
| [[Halls Creek (New Brunswick)|Halls Creek]]
| {{convert|125|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| City of Moncton ([[Sunny Brae, New Brunswick|Sunny Brae]] and [[Tankville, New Brunswick|Tankville]])
| Left
| {{coord|46|5|42|N|64|46|4|W|display=inline|type:landmark_region:CA-NB}}
|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/search/getFAPMapURL?feature_na=Halls%20Creek&entity=RIV&location1=13&unique_key=bc331861c6cd11d892e2080020a0f4c9&lat=46.09505506&long=-64.76783292&origsearchstring=Halls%20Creek |title=The Atlas of Canada – Halls Creek, New Brunswick |publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]] |access-date=12 November 2010 }} {{Dead link|date=May 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="coord-8">[[#Reference-PWMG-2001|PWMG 2001]], p. 52</ref>
|-
| [[Jonathan Creek (New Brunswick)|Jonathan Creek]]
| {{convert|50|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| City of Moncton ([[Centennial Park (Moncton)|Centennial Park]])
| Left
| {{coord|46|4|0|N|64|46|59|W|display=inline|type:landmark_region:CA-NB}}
|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/search/getFAPMapURL?feature_na=Jonathan%20Creek&entity=RIV&location1=13&unique_key=0c791a25849c20c3463ecb00748a022a&lat=46.066700001&long=-64.783300001&origsearchstring=Jonathan%20Creek |title=The Atlas of Canada – Jonathan Creek, New Brunswick |publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]] |access-date=12 November 2010 }} {{Dead link|date=May 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="coord-9">[[#Reference-PWMG-2001|PWMG 2001]], p. 62</ref>
|-
| [[Turtle Creek (New Brunswick)|Turtle Creek]]
| {{convert|192|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| Area near [[Turtle Creek, New Brunswick|Turtle Creek]] and [[Berryton, New Brunswick|Berryton]]
| Right
| {{coord|46|3|0|N|64|52|59|W|display=inline|type:landmark_region:CA-NB}}
|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/search/getFAPMapURL?feature_na=Turtle%20Creek&entity=RIV&location1=13&unique_key=0c79af7d849c20c3b573f8fcb51592e6&lat=46.0500000019&long=-64.8832999982&origsearchstring=Turtle%20Creek |title=The Atlas of Canada – Turtle Creek, New Brunswick |publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]] |access-date=12 November 2010 }} {{Dead link|date=May 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="coord-5">[[#Reference-PWMG-2001|PWMG 2001]], p. 42</ref>
|-
| [[Little River (Petitcodiac River)|Little River]]
| {{convert|275|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| Area near [[Colpitts Settlement, New Brunswick|Colpitts Settlement]]
| Right
| {{coord|46|1|59|N|65|1|0|W|display=inline|type:landmark_region:CA-NB}}
|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/search/getFAPMapURL?feature_na=Little%20River&entity=RIV&location1=13&unique_key=b8b9f57cd05211d892e2080020a0f4c9&lat=46.0332999975&long=-65.0166999988&origsearchstring=Little%20River |title=The Atlas of Canada – Little River, New Brunswick |publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]] |access-date=12 November 2010 }} {{Dead link|date=May 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="coord-4">[[#Reference-PWMG-2001|PWMG 2001]], p. 39</ref>
|-
| [[Pollett River (New Brunswick)|Pollett River]]
| {{convert|314|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| Area near [[Kay Settlement, New Brunswick|Kay Settlement]]
| Right
| {{coord|45|59|13|N|65|5|27|W|display=inline|type:landmark_region:CA-NB}}
|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/search/getFAPMapURL?feature_na=Pollett%20River&entity=RIV&location1=13&unique_key=ac05dc8fc6cd11d892e2080020a0f4c9&lat=45.98708133&long=-65.09105867&origsearchstring=Pollett%20River |title=The Atlas of Canada – Pollett River, New Brunswick |publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]] |access-date=12 November 2010 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="coord-3">[[#Reference-PWMG-2001|PWMG 2001]], p. 36</ref>
|-
| [[Anagance River (New Brunswick)|Anagance River]]
| {{convert|81|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| [[Hayward Brook (New Brunswick)|Hayward Brook]], [[Holmes Brook (New Brunswick)|Holmes Brook]]
| Right
| {{coord|45|55|37|N|65|11|20|W|display=inline|type:landmark_region:CA-NB}}
|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/search/getFAPMapURL?feature_na=Anagance%20River&entity=RIV&location1=13&unique_key=0c79d3b3849c20c30cd7b92f536e548a&lat=45.92710161&long=-65.189045&origsearchstring=Anagance%20River |title=The Atlas of Canada – Anagance River, New Brunswick |publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]] |access-date=12 November 2010 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="coord-2">[[#Reference-PWMG-2001|PWMG 2001]], p. 34</ref>
|-
| [[North River (New Brunswick)|North River]]
| {{convert|264|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| Area around [[Intervale, New Brunswick|Intervale]]
| Left
| {{coord|45|55|59|N|65|10|59|W|display=inline|type:landmark_region:CA-NB}}
|<ref>{{cite web |url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/search/getFAPMapURL?feature_na=North%20River&entity=RIV&location1=13&unique_key=0c7972b6849c20c3b7bd486f4dd415ab&lat=45.9333000003&long=-65.1833000002&origsearchstring=North%20River |title=The Atlas of Canada – North River, New Brunswick |publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada]] |access-date=12 November 2010 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="coord-1">[[#Reference-PWMG-2001|PWMG 2001]], p. 28</ref>
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Canada}}
*[[List of rivers of New Brunswick]]
*[[Petitcodiac Riverkeeper]]
*[[Riverfront Trail, Greater Moncton]]
{{-}}

==References==
===References===
{{reflist}}

===Bibliography===<!-- Listed by author's last name, date. -->
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{Cite book|last=Armstrong|first=J. C. W.|language=fr|title=Samuel de Champlain|publisher=Éditions de l'Homme|year=1988|isbn=0-7715-9501-8}}
* {{Cite book|last=Arsenault|first=B.|language=fr|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w9vN1chq0i0C|title=Histoire des Acadiens|trans-title=History of the Acadians|publisher=Les Éditions Fides|isbn=2-7621-2613-4|year=2004|access-date=16 September 2010}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Aubé|first1=C. I.|last2=Locke|first2=A.|last3=Klassen|first3=G. J.|title=Zooplankton communities of a dammed estuary in the Bay of Fundy, Canada|publisher=Hydrobiologica, 548: 127–139|year=2005|ref={{Harvid|Aubé et al.|2005}}}}
* {{Cite book|editor-last=Bankcroft|editor-first=H. H.|title=The Great Republic by the Master Historians|url=http://www.humanitiesweb.org/human.php?s=s&p=l&a=c&ID=918&o=|publisher=The R. S. Belcher Co|year=1902|access-date=25 August 2010}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Benke|editor-first=Arthur C.|editor-last2= Cushing|editor-first2=Colbert E.|last1= Cunjak|first1= Richard A.|last2= Newbury|first2= Robert W. |date=2005|chapter=Chapter 21: Atlantic Coast Rivers of Canada|title= Rivers of North America|location=Burlington, Massachusetts|publisher= Elsevier Academic Press| ISBN =0-12-088253-1}}
* {{Cite book|last=Brebner|first=J.|title=New England's Outpost: Acadia before the Conquest of Canada|isbn=0-8337-5107-7|publisher=Archon Books|location=Hamden, Connecticut|year=1965}}
* {{Cite book|last=Caissie|first=D.|url=http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/Library/242759.pdf|title=Hydrology of the Petitcodiac River Basin in New Brunswick|publisher=[[Fisheries and Oceans Canada]]|year=2000|access-date=6 July 2010}}
* {{Cite book|first=P.|last=Fisher|author-link=Peter Fisher (historian)|title=History of New Brunswick|orig-year=1825|year=1921|location=Saint John|url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/27111/27111-h/27111-h.htm|access-date=12 October 2010|publisher=Government of New Brunswick}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Francis|first1=R. D.|last2=Jones|first2=R.|last3=Smith|first3=D. B.|title=Origins: Canadian History to Confederation|edition=6th|isbn=978-0-17-644242-2|publisher=Nelson Education|location=Toronto|year=2009|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/destiniescanadia0000fran_w5v1}}
* {{Cite book|last=Griffiths|first=N. E. S.|title=Contexts of Acadian History, 1686–1784|publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press|year=1992|location=Montreal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zv0nAKyPZvgC|isbn=0-7735-0886-4|access-date=15 September 2010}}
* {{Cite book|last=Griffiths|first=N. E. S.|title=L'Acadie de 1686 à 1784|trans-title=Acadia from 1686 to 1784|language=fr|publisher=Éditions d'Acadie|year=1997|isbn=2-7600-0330-2}}
* {{Cite book|last=Hurt|first=R. D.|title=The Ohio Frontier: Crucible of the Old Northwest, 1720–1830|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=obkP_1V-fyYC|isbn=0-253-21212-X|publisher=Indiana University Press|location=Bloomington|year=1998|access-date=27 August 2010}}
* {{Cite book|last=Larracey|first=E. W.|title=The First Hundred|publisher=Moncton Publishing Company|year=1970}}
* {{Cite book|last=Larracey|first=E. W.|title=Chocolate River: A Story of the Petitcodiac River|publisher=Lancelot Press|year=1985|isbn=0-88999-292-4}}
* {{Cite book|last=Larracey|first=E. W.|title=Resurgo: The History of Moncton|publisher=City of Moncton|year=1991|isbn=0-9694634-2-1}}
* {{Wikicite|id=Environ-2002 |reference={{Cite report |url=http://www.gnb.ca/0009/0377/0002/0006-e.pdf |title=Guidelines for an Environmental Impact Assessment – Modifications to the Petitcodiac River Causeway |publisher=[[Department of Environment (New Brunswick)|New Brunswick Department of Environment]] |date=26 July 2002 |access-date=14 July 2010 |ref=environ2002 |archive-date=11 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611063742/http://www.gnb.ca/0009/0377/0002/0006-e.pdf |url-status=dead }}}}
* {{Wikicite|id=Environ-2005 |reference={{Cite report |url=http://www.gnb.ca/0009/0377/0002/0017-e.pdf |title=Summary of the Environmental Impact Assessment Report for Modifications to the Petitcodiac River Causeway |publisher=[[Department of Environment (New Brunswick)|New Brunswick Department of Environment]] |date=October 2005 |access-date=14 July 2010 |archive-date=11 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611063822/http://www.gnb.ca/0009/0377/0002/0017-e.pdf |url-status=dead }}}}
* {{Wikicite|id=River-2000 |reference={{Cite report |ref=river2000 |url=http://petitcodiac.org/uploads/Reports/No.97%5B1%5D.doc |title=An Overview of 96 Reports on the Petitcodiac River (1961–2000) |publisher=Petitcodiac Riverkeeper Inc |date=29 June 2000 |access-date=5 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308220123/http://petitcodiac.org/uploads/Reports/No.97%5B1%5D.doc |archive-date=8 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}}}
* {{Wikicite|id=River-2002 |reference={{Cite report |url=http://petitcodiac.org/uploads/Reports_en/250_Years_Anecdotes.pdf |title=The Petitcodiac River Tidal Bore – 250 Years of Anecdotes |publisher=Petitcodiac Riverkeeper Inc |date=February 2002 |access-date=8 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308220130/http://petitcodiac.org/uploads/Reports_en/250_Years_Anecdotes.pdf |archive-date=8 March 2012 |url-status=dead }}}}
* {{Wikicite|id=River-2010 |reference={{Cite report |url=http://petitcodiac.org/uploads/Reports/10_worst_pollution_sources_2009.pdf |title=10 Worst Pollution Sources of the Petitcodiac River System in 2009 |publisher=Petitcodiac Riverkeeper Inc |date=January 2010 |access-date=14 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110829011018/http://petitcodiac.org/uploads/Reports/10_worst_pollution_sources_2009.pdf |archive-date=29 August 2011 |url-status=dead }}}}
* {{Wikicite|id=PWMG-2001 |reference={{Cite report |url=http://l.b5z.net/i/u/6058300/f/Petitcodiac_Water_Classification_Report_1997-2001.pdf |last=Arseneau |first=E. R. |title=The Petitcodiac River Watershed Preliminary Water Classification Report |publisher=Petitcodiac Watershed Monitoring Group |year=2001 |access-date=26 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120909011342/http://l.b5z.net/i/u/6058300/f/Petitcodiac_Water_Classification_Report_1997-2001.pdf |archive-date=9 September 2012 |url-status=dead }}}}
* {{Wikicite|id=Alli-2006 |reference={{Cite report |url=http://l.b5z.net/i/u/6058300/i/2006_Petitcodiac_and_Memramcook_Water_Quality_Report.pdf |title=2006 Water Quality Report |publisher=Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance |year=2006 |access-date=6 August 2010 |archive-date=30 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930064600/http://l.b5z.net/i/u/6058300/i/2006_Petitcodiac_and_Memramcook_Water_Quality_Report.pdf |url-status=dead }}}}
* {{Wikicite|id=Alli-2009 |reference={{Cite report |url=http://l.b5z.net/i/u/6058300/i/2009_Water_Quality_Report.pdf |title=2009 Water Quality Report |publisher=Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance |year=2009 |access-date=6 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120909011430/http://l.b5z.net/i/u/6058300/i/2009_Water_Quality_Report.pdf |archive-date=9 September 2012 |url-status=dead }}}}
* {{Cite book|last=Rayburn|first=A.|title=Geographical Names of New Brunswick|publisher=[[Natural Resources Canada|Energy, Mines and Resources Canada]]|location=Ottawa|year=1975}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Roe|first1=A. D.|last2=Roe|first2=W. B.|url=http://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/detail/RUMSEY~8~1~33057~1170420:Counties-of-Westmorland-and-Albert,?sort=Pub_Date,Pub_List_No,Series_No&qvq=q:Westmorland;sort:Pub_Date,Pub_List_No,Series_No;lc:RUMSEY~8~1&mi=2&trs=4|title=Atlas of the Maritime Provinces of the Dominion of Canada, with historical and geological descriptions|publisher=Roe Brothers|location=Saint John|year=1878|access-date=25 August 2010}}
* {{Cite book|last=Sarich|first=L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=44_byDWGzUEC&q=new+brunswick+population&pg=PP1|title=New Brunswick|publisher=[[Weigl Educational Publishers Limited]]|year=2002|location=Calgary|isbn=1-894705-49-1|access-date=20 September 2010}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Surette|first1=P.|last2=LeBlanc|first2=R. G.|title=Petcoudiac: Colonisation et destruction, 1731–1755|language=fr|trans-title=Petcoudiac: Colonisation and Destruction, 1731–1755|isbn=2-7600-0150-4|publisher=Éditions d'Acadie|location=Moncton|year=1988|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/petcoudiaccoloni0000sure}}
* {{Cite book|last=Wright|first=E. C.|title=Petitcodiac: A Study of the Petitcodiac River|publisher=Tribune Press|location=Sackville, New Brunswick|year=1945}}
* {{Cite book|last1=Zelazny|first1=V. F.|title=Our landscape heritage : the story of ecological land classification in New Brunswick|publisher=New Brunswick Department of Natural Resources|location=Fredericton|year=2007|chapter=Chapter 12: Eastern Lowlands Ecoregion|chapter-url=http://www.gnb.ca/0399/OurLandscapeHeritage/Chapter12-e.pdf|isbn=978-1-55396-203-8|access-date=11 November 2010|edition=2nd|ref={{Harvid|Zelazny et al.|2007}}|display-authors=etal|archive-date=17 December 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101217181133/http://gnb.ca/0399/OurLandscapeheritage/Chapter12-e.pdf|url-status=dead}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{commons}}
*[http://petitcodiac.org/ Petitcodiac Riverkeeper]
*[http://petitcodiacwatershed.org/ Petitcodiac Watershed Alliance]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110208011214/http://petitcodiac.com/ Official site for the causeway project]
{{Moncton landmarks || collapsed = 1}}
{{coord|45|51|58|N|64|34|28|W|display=title|type:river_region:CA-NB}}
{{Rivers of New Brunswick}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Landforms of Albert County, New Brunswick]]
[[Category:Landforms of Kings County, New Brunswick]]
[[Category:Rivers of New Brunswick]]
[[Category:Tidal bores]]
[[Category:Landforms of Westmorland County, New Brunswick]]
[[Category:Surfing locations in Canada]]
[[Category:River surfing]]