View source for Sultan

{{short description|Noble title with several historical meanings}}
{{other uses|Sultan (disambiguation)}}
{{More citations needed|date=June 2021}}
[[File:EmperorSuleiman.jpg|thumb|[[Suleiman the Magnificent]], the longest-reigning [[sultan of the Ottoman Empire]]|281x281px]]
{{Royal and noble ranks of West, Central, and Southern Asia}}

'''Sultan''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|ʌ|l|t|ən}}; {{langx|ar|سلطان}} ''{{Transliteration|ar|ALA|sulṭān}}'', {{IPA|ar|sʊlˈtˤɑːn, solˈtˤɑːn|pron}}) is a [[Royal and noble ranks|position]] with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic [[abstract noun]] meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the [[verbal noun]] {{lang|ar|سلطة}} ''{{Transliteration|ar|ALA|sulṭah}}'', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be used as the title of certain rulers who claimed almost full sovereignty (i.e., not having dependence on any higher ruler) without claiming the overall [[caliphate]], or to refer to a powerful [[governor]] of a province within the caliphate. The adjectival form of the word is "sultanic",<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=sultan |encyclopedia=Dictionary.com |access-date=2023-02-08 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230208012050/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/sultan |archive-date=2023-02-08 |url=https://www.dictionary.com/browse/sultan |url-status=live}}</ref> and the [[State (polity)|state]] and territories ruled by a sultan, as well as his office, are referred to as a '''sultanate''' ({{lang|ar|سلطنة}} ''{{Transliteration|ar|ALA|salṭanah}}''<span style="margin-left:2px">)</span>.<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Sultanate |encyclopedia=Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary |access-date=2022-06-22 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622151856/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sultanate |archive-date=2022-06-22 |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sultanate |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Sultanate |encyclopedia=Britannica Dictionary |access-date=2022-06-22 |language=en-US |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622151856/https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/sultanate |archive-date=2022-06-22 |url=https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/sultanate |url-status=live}}</ref>

The term is distinct from king ({{lang|ar|ملك}} ''{{Transliteration|ar|ALA|[[malik]]}}''), though both refer to a sovereign ruler. The use of "sultan" is restricted to Muslim countries, where the title carries religious significance,<ref name="Montgomery2004">{{Cite book |last=Montgomery |first=James Edward |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VHZXeOs_xYsC&pg=PA83 |title=ʻAbbasid Studies: Occasional Papers of the School of ʻAbbasid Studies, Cambridge, 6–10 July 2002 |publisher=Peeters Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=978-90-429-1433-9 |pages=83 |access-date=16 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127105529/https://books.google.com/books?id=VHZXeOs_xYsC&pg=PA83#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=27 January 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Kassis1999">{{Cite book |last=Riad Aziz Kassis |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_zvXrQ7W7PEC&pg=PA65 |title=The Book of Proverbs and Arabic Proverbial Works |publisher=Brill |year=1999 |isbn=90-04-11305-3 |pages=65 |access-date=2018-01-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240127105608/https://books.google.com/books?id=_zvXrQ7W7PEC&pg=PA65#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=2024-01-27 |url-status=live}}</ref> contrasting the more secular ''king'', which is used in both Muslim and non-Muslim countries.

[[Brunei]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Oman]] are the only [[sovereign state]]s which retain the title "sultan" for their monarchs. In recent years, the title has been gradually replaced by "king" by contemporary hereditary rulers who wish to emphasize their secular authority under the rule of law. A notable example is [[Morocco]], whose monarch changed his title from sultan to king in 1957.

== History of the term ==
{{See also|Timeline of 11th-century Muslim history}}

The word derives from the Arabic and Semitic root ''salaṭa'' "to be hard, strong". The noun ''sulṭān'' initially designated a kind of moral authority or spiritual power (as opposed to political power), and it is used in this sense several times in the [[Quran|Qur'an]].<ref name=":052">{{Cite book|last1=Kramers|first1=J.H.|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|last2=Bosworth|first2=C.E.|last3=Schumann|first3=O.|last4=Kane|first4=Ousmane|publisher=Brill|year=2012|editor-last=Bearman|editor-first=P.|chapter=Sulṭān|editor-last2=Bianquis|editor-first2=Th.|editor-last3=Bosworth|editor-first3=C.E.|editor-last4=van Donzel|editor-first4=E.|editor-last5=Heinrichs|editor-first5=W.P.}}</ref>

In the [[History of Islam|early Muslim world]], ultimate power and authority was theoretically held by the caliph, who was considered the leader of the caliphate. The increasing political fragmentation of the Muslim world after the 8th century, however, challenged this consensus. Local governors with administrative authority held the title of ''amīr'' ({{lang|ar|أمير}}, traditionally "commander" or "[[emir]]", later also "prince") and were appointed by the caliph, but in the 9th century some of these became ''[[de facto]]'' independent rulers who founded their own dynasties, such as the [[Aghlabids]] and [[Tulunids]].<ref name=":0522">{{Cite book|last=Duri|first=A.A.|title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|publisher=Brill|year=2012|editor-last=Bearman|editor-first=P.|chapter=Amīr|editor-last2=Bianquis|editor-first2=Th.|editor-last3=Bosworth|editor-first3=C.E.|editor-last4=van Donzel|editor-first4=E.|editor-last5=Heinrichs|editor-first5=W.P.}}</ref> Towards the late 10th century, the term "sultan" begins to be used to denote an individual ruler with practically sovereign authority,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=The Islamic World: Past and Present|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|editor-last=Esposito|editor-first=John L.|chapter=Sultan}}</ref> although the early evolution of the term is complicated and difficult to establish.<ref name=":052" />

The first major figure to clearly grant himself this title was the [[Ghaznavids|Ghaznavid]] ruler [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud]] (r. 998–1030 CE) who controlled an empire over present-day [[Afghanistan]] and the surrounding region.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":052" /> Soon after, the [[Great Seljuks]] adopted this title after defeating the Ghaznavid Empire and taking control of an even larger territory which included [[Baghdad]], the capital of the [[Abbasid caliphs]]. The early Seljuk leader [[Tughril Bey]] was the first leader to adopt the epithet "sultan" on his [[coin]]age.<ref name=":052" /> While the Seljuks acknowledged the caliphs in Baghdad formally as the universal leader of the [[Muslim community]], their own political power clearly overshadowed the latter. This led to various Muslim scholars – notably [[Al-Juwayni]] and [[Al-Ghazali]] – attempting to develop theoretical justifications for the political authority of the Seljuk sultans within the framework of the formal supreme authority of the recognized caliphs. In general, the theories maintained that all legitimate authority derived from the caliph, but that it was delegated to sovereign rulers whom the caliph recognized. Al-Ghazali, for example, argued that while the caliph was the guarantor of Islamic law (''[[Sharia|shari'a]]''), coercive power was required to enforce the law in practice and the leader who exercised that power directly was the sultan.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|last=Turan|first=Ebru|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2009|editor-last=Esposito|editor-first=John L.|chapter=Sultan}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

The position of sultan continued to grow in importance during the period of the [[crusades]], when leaders who held the title of "sultan" (such as [[Saladin|Salah ad-Din]] and the [[Ayyubid dynasty]]) led the confrontation against the [[crusader states]] in the [[Levant]].<ref name=":052" /> Views about the office of the sultan further developed during the crisis that followed the [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|destruction of Baghdad]] by the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] in 1258, which eliminated the remnants of Abbasid political power. Henceforth, the surviving descendants of the Abbasid caliphs lived in [[Cairo]] under the protection of the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluks]] and were still nominally recognized by the latter. However, from this time on they effectively had no authority and were not universally recognized across the Sunni Muslim world.<ref name=":1" /> As protectors of the line of the Abbasid caliphs, the Mamluks recognized themselves as sultans and the Muslim scholar Khalil al-Zahiri argued that only they could hold that title.<ref name=":052" /> Nonetheless, in practice, many Muslim rulers of this period were now using the title as well. Mongol rulers (who had since converted to Islam) and other Turkish rulers were among those who did so.<ref name=":052" />

The position of sultan and caliph began to blend together in the 16th century when the [[Ottoman Empire]] conquered the Mamluk Empire and became the indisputable leading Sunni Muslim power across most of the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], and [[Eastern Europe]]. The 16th-century Ottoman scholar and jurist, [[Ebüssuûd Mehmet Efendi]], recognized the [[Ottoman sultan]] ([[Suleiman the Magnificent]] at the time) as the caliph and universal leader of all Muslims.<ref name=":1" /> This conflation of sultan and caliph became more clearly emphasized in the 19th century during the Ottoman Empire's territorial decline, when Ottoman authorities sought to cast the sultan as the leader of the entire Muslim community in the face of European ([[Christianity|Christian]]) [[History of colonialism|colonial expansion]].<ref name=":2" /> As part of this narrative, it was claimed that when Sultan [[Selim I]] captured Cairo in 1517, the last descendant of the Abbasids in Cairo formally passed on the position of caliph to him.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|last=Finkel|first=Caroline|title=Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire 1300–1923|publisher=John Murray Press|year=2012|isbn=978-1848547858}}</ref> This combination thus elevated the sultan's religious or spiritual authority, in addition to his formal political authority.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2" />

During this later period, the title of sultan was still used outside the Ottoman Empire as well, as with the examples of the [[Somali aristocrats]], [[Malay styles and titles|Malay nobles]] and the [[sultans of Morocco]] (such as the [[Alaouite dynasty]] founded in the 17th century).<ref name=":052" /> It was, however, not used as a sovereign title by [[Shia Islam|Shi'a]] Muslim rulers. The [[Safavid dynasty]] of [[Iran]], who controlled the largest Shi'a Muslim state of this era, mainly used the [[Persian language|Persian]] title ''[[shah]]'', a tradition which continued under subsequent dynasties. The term ''sultan'', by contrast, was mainly given to provincial governors within their realm.<ref name=":052" />

==Feminine forms==
A feminine form of ''sultan'', used by Westerners, is '''[[Sultana (title)|sultana]]''' or '''sultanah''' and this title has been used legally for some (not all) [[Muslim women]] monarchs and sultan's mothers and chief consorts. However, [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and [[Ottoman Turkish language|Ottoman Turkish]] also uses ''sultan'' for imperial lady, as [[Turkish grammar]] uses the same words for both women and men (such as [[Hurrem Sultan]] and Sultan Suleiman Han ([[Suleiman the Magnificent]])). The female leaders in [[Muslim history]] are correctly known as "sultanas". However, the wife of the sultan in the [[Sultanate of Sulu]] is styled as the "panguian" while the sultan's chief wife in many sultanates of [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]] are known as "permaisuri", "Tunku Ampuan", "Raja Perempuan", or "Tengku Ampuan". The [[queen consort]] in [[Brunei]] especially is known as ''Raja Isteri'' with the title of ''Pengiran Anak'' suffixed, should the queen consort also be a royal princess.

==Compound ruler titles==
[[File:Ralamb-2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Ottoman Sultan [[Mehmed IV]] attended by a eunuch and two pages]]
These are generally secondary titles, either lofty 'poetry' or with a message, e.g.:
*''Mani Sultan'' – ''Manney Sultan'' (meaning the "Pearl of Rulers" or "Honoured Monarch") – a subsidiary title, part of the full style of the [[Maharaja]] of [[Travancore]]
* ''[[Sultan of Sultans]]'' – the sultanic equivalent of the style [[King of Kings]]
* Certain secondary titles have a devout Islamic connotation; e.g., [[Sultan ul-Mujahidin]] as champion of [[jihad]] (to strive and to struggle in the name of Allah).
* ''Sultanic Highness'' – a rare, hybrid western-Islamic honorific style exclusively used by the son, daughter-in-law and daughters of Sultan [[Hussein Kamel of Egypt]] (a [[History of Egypt under the British|British protectorate]] since 1914), who bore it with their primary titles of [[Prince]] (''{{Transliteration|ar|[[Amir]]}}''; {{Langx|tr|[[Prens]]}}) or [[Princess]], after 11 October 1917. They enjoyed these titles for life, even after the Royal Rescript regulating the styles and titles of the Royal House following Egypt's [[Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence|independence in 1922]], when the sons and daughters of the newly styled king (''{{Transliteration|ar|[[malik]] Misr}}'', considered a promotion) were granted the title {{Transliteration|ar|Sahib(at) us-Sumuw al-Malaki}}, or [[Royal Highness]].
*''Sultan-ul-Qaum'' – a title meaning King of the Nation, given to 18th-century [[Sikh]] leader [[Jassa Singh Ahluwalia]] by his supporters

==Princely and aristocratic titles==
[[File:Nicolas de Nicolay- La grande dame turcque.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|The [[valide sultan]] (sultana mother) of the [[Ottoman Empire]] ]]
By the beginning of the 16th century, the title sultan was carried by both men and women of the Ottoman dynasty and was replacing other titles by which prominent members of the imperial family had been known (notably ''khatun'' for women and ''bey'' for men). This usage underlines the Ottoman conception of sovereign power as family prerogative.

Western tradition knows the Ottoman ruler as "sultan", but Ottomans themselves used "padişah" (emperor) or "hünkar" to refer to their ruler. The emperor's formal title consisted of "sultan" together with "khan" (for example, Sultan Suleiman Khan). In formal address, the sultan's children were also entitled "sultan", with imperial princes (Şehzade) carrying the title before their given name, and imperial princesses carrying it after. For example: [[Şehzade Mehmed|Şehzade Sultan Mehmed]] and [[Mihrimah Sultan (daughter of Suleiman I)|Mihrimah Sultan]], son and daughter of Suleiman the Magnificent. Like imperial princesses, the living mother and main consort of the reigning sultan also carried the title after their given names, for example: [[Hafsa Sultan]], Suleiman's mother and first [[valide sultan]], and [[Hürrem Sultan]], Suleiman's chief consort and first [[haseki sultan]]. The evolving usage of this title reflected power shifts among imperial women, especially between the [[Sultanate of Women]], as the position of main consort eroded over the course of the 17th century, with the main consort losing the title of "sultan", which was replaced by "kadin", a title related to the earlier "khatun". Henceforth, the mother of the reigning sultan was the only person of non imperial blood to carry the title "sultan".<ref>{{cite book |title=The Imperial Harem: Women and Sovereignty in the Ottoman Empire |last=Peirce |first=Leslie P. |publication-place=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1993 |isbn=0-19-507673-7 }}</ref>

In [[Kazakh Khanate]] a Sultan was a lord from the ruling dynasty (a direct descendants of [[Genghis Khan]]) elected by clans, i.e. a kind of prince. The best of sultans was elected as [[khan (title)|khan]] by people at [[Kurultai]].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}

==Military rank==
In a number of post-caliphal states under [[Mongol]] or [[Turkic peoples|Turkic]] rule, there was a [[Feudalism|feudal]] type of military hierarchy. These administrations were often decimal (mainly in larger empires), using originally princely titles such as [[Khan (title)|khan]], [[malik]], [[amir]] as mere rank denominations.

In the [[Persian empire]], the rank of sultan was roughly equivalent to that of a modern-day [[Captain (OF-2)|captain]] in the West; socially in the fifth-rank class, styled '[[Ali Jah]].

==Former sultans and sultanates==
{{Unreferenced section|date=August 2023}}

===Sultanates in the Balkans, Anatolia and Central Asia===
* [[Ghaznavid Empire]]; its ruler, [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], was the first [[Muslim]] sovereign to be known as sultan.
* [[Great Seljuk Empire]]
* [[Sultanate of Rum]]
* [[Ottoman Empire]]
* [[Timurid Empire]]
* [[Kazakh Khanate]]

===Caucasus===
*[[Elisu Sultanate]] and a few others. A sultan ranked below a khan.

===West Asia and North Africa===
*in [[Iran]]:
**Sultans of [[Baneh]] (In [[Safavid Kurdistan|Kurdistan]], members of the Ekhtiyar al-Din family governed Baneh as Sultans defending against the Ottoman frontier)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Mardūḵ |first='A. |date=December 15, 1988 |title=Bāna|url=https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bana-a-sahrestan-in-the-province-of-kurdistan-located-in-a-mountainous-well-forested-region-of-western-iran-at-35-59- |website=[[Encyclopaedia Iranica]]}}</ref>
**[[Ghaznavid Empire]]
*in [[Syria]]:
**[[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid Sultans]]
[[File:Tumanbay II (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Tuman Bay II]], last of the Mamluk Sultans]]
**[[Mameluks|Mamluk Sultans]]
*in [[Jordan]]:
**[[Ayyubid dynasty]]
**[[Mamluk Sultanate]]
**[[Ottoman Empire]]
*in present-day [[Yemen]], various small sultanates of the defunct [[Aden Protectorate]] and [[Federation of South Arabia|South Arabia]]:
*:[[Audhali]], [[Fadhli Sultanate|Fadhli]], [[Haushabi]], [[Kathiri]], [[Sultanate of Lahej|Lahej]], [[Lower Aulaqi]], [[Lower Yafa]], [[Mahra Sultanate|Mahra]], [[Qu'aiti]], [[Subeihi]], [[Upper Aulaqi Sultanate|Upper Aulaqi]], [[Upper Yafa]] and the [[Wahidi]] sultanates
*in present-day [[Saudi Arabia]]:
**[[Nejd|Sultans of Nejd]]
**[[Hejaz|Sultans of the Hejaz]]
*[[Oman]] – [[List of rulers of Oman|Sultan of Oman]] (authentically referred to as ''Hami''), on the southern coast of the Arabian peninsula, still an independent sultanate, since 1744 (assumed the formal title of Sultan in 1861)
*in [[Algeria]]: [[Sultanate of Tuggurt (Touggourt)|Sultanate of Tuggurt]], [[Zayyanid dynasty|Sultans of Tlemcen]]
*in [[Egypt]]:
**[[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid Sultans]]
**[[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Mamluk Sultans]]
**[[Sultanate of Egypt|Sultans of the Muhammad Ali dynasty]]
[[File:السلطان عبد الحفيظ.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|Sultan [[Abd al-Hafid of Morocco]]]]
*in [[Morocco]], until [[Mohammed V of Morocco|Mohammed V]] changed the style to [[Malik]] (king) on August 14, 1957, maintaining the subsidiary style [[Amir al-Mu'minin]] (Commander of the Faithful)
*in [[Sudan]]:
**[[Sultanate of Darfur|Darfur]]
**Dar al-Masalit
**Dar Qimr
**[[Funj Sultanate]] of [[Sinnar]] (Sennar)
**[[Kordofan]]
*in [[Iraq]]:
**[[Abbasid Caliphate]] (autonomous provinces)
**[[Ottoman Empire]]

===Horn of Africa===
[[File:Sultan Mohamoud Ali Shire 2.jpg|thumb|366x366px|Portrait of [[Mohamoud Ali Shire]], the 20th Sultan of the [[Somali people|Somali]] [[Warsangali Sultanate|Sultanate of Warsangali]]]]
{{main|Somali aristocratic and court titles|Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles}}
*[[Ajuran Sultanate]], in southern Somalia and eastern Ethiopia
*[[Adal Sultanate]], in western [[Somaliland]], southern [[Djibouti]], and the [[Somali Region|Somali]], [[Harari Region|Harari]] and [[Afar Region|Afar]] regions of [[Ethiopia]]
*[[Isaaq Sultanate]], in Somaliland and the [[Somali Region|Somali region]] of Ethiopia
*[[Habr Yunis Sultanate]], in Somaliland and [[Somali Region|Somali region]] of Ethiopia
*[[Majeerteen Sultanate]] (Migiurtinia), in northern Somalia
*[[Warsangali Sultanate]], in northern Somalia
*[[Sultanate of the Geledi]], in southern Somalia
*[[Sultanate of Aussa]], in northeastern Ethiopia
*[[Sultanate of Harar]], in eastern Ethiopia
*Jarso Sultanate 
*[[Sultanate of Hobyo]], in central Somalia
*[[Sultanate of Ifat]], in Somaliland, Djibouti and eastern Ethiopia
*[[Sultanate of Mogadishu]], in south-central Somalia
*[[Sultanate of Showa]], in central Ethiopia
*[[Bimaal#Bimaal Sultanate|Bimaal Sultanate]]{{Broken anchor|date=2024-09-03|bot=User:Cewbot/log/20201008/configuration|target_link=Bimaal#Bimaal Sultanate|reason= }}, in south eastern Somalia centred in [[Merka]]

===Southeast Africa and Indian Ocean===
*[[Angoche Sultanate]], on the [[Mozambique|Mozambiquan]] coast (also several neighbouring sheikdoms)
*various [[sultans on the Comoros]]; however on the [[Comoros]], the normally used styles were alternative native titles, including [[Mfalme]], [[Phany]] or ''Jambé'' and the 'hegemonic' title [[Sultani tibe]]
*the Maore (or Mawuti) sultanate on [[Mayotte]] (separated from the Comoros)

====''Maliki''====
Apparently derived from the Arabic ''[[malik]]'', this was the alternative native style of the sultans of the [[Kilwa Sultanate]] in [[Tanzania Mainland|Tanganyika]] (presently the continental part of Tanzania).

====Swahili Coast====
[[File:Zanz-Ali II.jpg|thumb|The eighth [[List of sultans of Zanzibar|Sultan]] of [[Sultanate of Zanzibar|Zanzibar]], [[Ali bin Hamud of Zanzibar|Ali bin Hamud]]. Photograph taken between 1902 and 1911]]
* [[List of sultans of Zanzibar|Sultanate of Zanzibar]]: two incumbents (from the Omani dynasty) since the de facto separation from Oman in 1806, the last assumed the title Sultan in 1861 at the formal separation under British auspices;{{citation needed|date=February 2021}} since 1964 union with Tanganyika (part of [[Tanzania]])
''Mfalume'' is the {{Transliteration|sw|italic=no|(Ki)[[Swahili language|Swahili]]}} title of various native Muslim rulers, generally rendered in Arabic and in western languages as Sultan:
*in [[Kenya]]:
**[[Rulers of Pate|Pate]] on part of [[Pate island]] (capital also named Pate), in the [[Lamu Archipelago]]
**[[Wituland]], became a  German, then [[British protectorate]]
*in [[Tanganyika (territory)|Tanganyika]] (presently part of [[Tanzania]]): of Hadimu, on the island of that name; also styled ''Jembe''

====''Sultani''====
This was the native ruler's title in the Tanzanian state of Uhehe.

===West and Central Africa===
*In [[Cameroon]]:
**[[Kingdom of Bamum|Bamoun]] (Bamun, 17th century, founded uniting 17 chieftaincies) 1918 becomes a sultanate, but in 1923 re-divided into the 17 original chieftaincies.
**[[Bibemi]], founded in 1770 – initially styled ''[[lamido]]''
**[[Mandara Kingdom|Mandara]] Sultanate, since 1715 (replacing [[Wandala]] kingdom); 1902 part of Cameroon
**[[Rey Bouba]] Sultanate founded 1804
*in the [[Central African Republic]]:
**[[Bangassou]] created {{Circa|1878}}; 14 June 1890 under [[Congo Free State]] [[protectorate]], 1894 under French protectorate; 1917 Sultanate suppressed by the French.
**Dar al-Kuti – French protectorate since December 12, 1897
**[[Rafai]] {{circa|1875}} Sultanate, April 8, 1892, under Congo Free State protectorate, March 31, 1909, under French protectorate; 1939 Sultanate suppressed
**[[Zemio]] {{circa|1872}} established; December 11, 1894, under Congo Free State protectorate, April 12, 1909, under French protectorate; 1923 Sultanate suppressed
*in [[Chad]]:
**[[Baguirmi Kingdom|Baguirmi]] (main native title: [[List of rulers of Baguirmi|Mbang]])
**[[Ouaddai Kingdom|Wada'i]] (main native title: [[List of rulers of Wadai|Kolak]]), successor state to Birgu
**[[Dar Sila]] (actually a wandering group of tribes)
*in [[Niger]]: [[Arabic]] alternative title of the following autochthonous rulers:
** the [[Amenokal]] of the [[Aïr]] confederation of [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]]
** the Sarkin Damagaram since the 1731 founding of the [[Sultanate of Damagaram]] ([[Zinder]])
*in [[Nigeria]] most monarchies previously had native titles, but when most in the north converted to Islam, Muslim titles were adopted, such as ''[[emir]]'' and sometimes ''sultan''.
** in [[Sayfawa dynasty|Borno]] (alongside the native title ''Mai'')
** since 1817 in [[Sokoto (city)|Sokoto]], the suzerain (also styled [[Amir al-Mu´minin]] and Sarkin Musulmi) of all [[Fulbe jihad state]]s and premier traditional Muslim leader in the [[Sahel]] (according to some once a caliph)

===South Asia===
*[[Kingdom of Afghanistan|Afghan Kingdom]]: Sultan had a different meaning. It was a high title of honour, superior to Amir and Sardar, but ranking below Shah.{{Citation needed|date=October 2022}}
*[[Bahmani Sultanate]]: Bahmani Shahs
*[[Bengal Sultanate|Sultanate of Bengal]]: [[Ilyas Shahi dynasty|Ilyas Shahi]], [[Ganesha dynasty|Ganesha]], Habshi, [[Hussain Shahi dynasty|Hussain Shahi]], Muhammad Shah and [[Karrani dynasty|Karranis]]
*[[Deccan sultanates|Sultanates of the Deccan]]:
**[[Adil Shahi dynasty|Adil Shahi of Bijapur]]
**[[Bidar Sultanate|Barid Shahi of Bidar]]
**[[Berar sultanate|Imad Shahi of Berar]]
**[[Ahmadnagar Sultanate|Nizam Shahi of Ahmednagar]]
**[[Qutb Shahi dynasty|Qutb Shahi of Golconda]]
*[[Delhi Sultanate|Sultanate of Delhi]]: [[Mamluk dynasty (Delhi)|Mamluks]], [[Khalji dynasty|Khiljis]], [[Tughlaq dynasty|Tughlaqs]], [[Sayyid dynasty|Sayyids]] and [[Lodi dynasty|Lodis]]
*[[Gujarat Sultanate|Sultanate of Gujarat]]: [[Muzaffarids (Gujarat)|Muzaffarids]] 
*[[Jaunpur Sultanate|Sultanate of Jaunpur]]: Sharqi dynasty
*[[Farooqui dynasty|Sultanate of Kandesh]]: Faruqi dynasty
*[[Malwa Sultanate|Sultanate of Malwa]]: three dynasties
*[[Madurai Sultanate|Sultanate of Madurai]]
*Sultanate of Laccadive and Cannanore: [[Arakkal Kingdom]]
*[[History of Kashmir|Sultanate of Kashmir]]: [[Shah Mir dynasty|Shahmirids]] and [[Chak dynasty|Chaks]]
*[[Sultanate of Maldives]]
*[[Nawayath Sultanate|Sultanate of Hunnur]]

===Southeast and East Asia===
[[File:Hamengkubuwono x.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Hamengkubuwono X]], the incumbent Sultan of Yogyakarta]]
[[File:COLLECTIE TROPENMUSEUM Pakoe Boewono XII de Susuhunan van Solo in de kraton TMnr 60052129.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Pakubuwono XII]], last undisputed Susuhunan of Surakarta]]
[[File:Saifuddin of Tidore.JPG|thumb|upright=0.7|Sultan Saifuddin of [[Sultanate of Tidore|Tidore]]]]
[[File:Sulu Sultan Mohammed Mahakuttah Abdullah Kiram.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Mohammed Mahakuttah Abdullah Kiram]], last recognised Sultan of Sulu]]

In [[Indonesia]] (formerly in the [[Dutch East Indies]]):

*On [[Kalimantan]]
**[[Sultanate of Banjar]] 
**Sultanate of Berau
**[[Sultanate of Bulungan]] 
**Sultanate of Gunung Tabur 
**Sultanate of Kubu
**[[Kutai|Kutai Kartanegara Sultanate]] 
**[[Mempawah Kingdom|Sultanate of Mempawah]]
**Sultanate of Paser
**[[Sultanate of Pontianak]]
**Sultanate of Sambaliung
**[[Sultanate of Sambas]]
*On [[Sulawesi]]
**[[Sultanate of Buton]]
**[[Bone state|Sultanate of Bone]]
**[[Sultanate of Gowa]]
**[[Luwu|Sultanate of Luwu]]
**{{ill|Sultanate of Soppeng|id|Kesultanan Soppeng}}
**[[Wajoq|Sultanate of Wajoq]]
*On [[Java]]
**[[Sultanate of Banten]]
**[[Sultanate of Cirebon]] – the rulers in three of the four palaces (''kraton''), from which divided [[Cirebon]] was ruled: [[Kraton Kasepuhan]], [[Kraton Kanoman]] and Kraton Kacirebonan (only in Kraton Kaprabonan was the ruler's title Panembahan)
**[[Sultanate of Demak]]
**[[Pajang|Sultanate of Pajang]]
**[[Sumedang Larang Kingdom|Sumedang Larang Sultanate]]
**[[Sultanate of Mataram]] (was divided into two kingdoms: the Sultanate of Yogyakarta and Sunanan Surakarta)
*** [[Sultanate of Yogyakarta]]
*** [[Surakarta Sunanate|Sunanate of Surakarta]] (''[[susuhunan]]'', a high-ranked monarch, equivalent to emperor)
*In the [[Maluku Islands]]
**[[Kingdom of Iha|Sultanate of Iha]] (Saparua)
**Sultanate of Honimoa/ Siri Sori (Saparua)
**{{ill|Sultanate of Huamual|id|Kerajaan Huamual}} (West Seram)
**{{ill|Sultanate of Negeri Soya|id|Negeri Soya}} (Ambon)
**{{ill|Sultanate of Tanah Hitu|id|Kerajaan Tanah Hitu}} (Ambon)
**[[Sultanate of Ternate]]
**[[Sultanate of Tidore]]
**[[Sultanate of Bacan]]
**[[Sultanate of Jailolo]]
**{{ill|Sultanate of Loloda|id|Kerajaan Loloda}} (North Halmahera)
*In the [[Nusa Tenggara]]
**[[Bima Sultanate]] on Sumbawa island
*In the [[Riau Archipelago]]: [[Riau-Lingga Sultanate|Sultanate of Riau-Lingga]] by secession in 1818 under the expelled sultan of [[Johore]] (on Malaya) Sultan Abdul Rahman Muadzam Syah ibni al-Marhum Sultan Mahmud
*In [[Sumatra]]
**[[Aceh Sultanate]] (full style ''Sultan Berdaulat Zillullah fil-Alam'')
**[[Sultanate of Asahan]]
** Awak Sungai, established 17th century at the split in four of [[Minangkabau people|Minangkabau]], in 1816 extinguished by Netherlands East Indies colonial government
**[[Sultanate of Deli]] 
**Sultanate of Indragiri
**[[Sultanate of Langkat]] (previous style Raja)
**[[Palembang Sultanate]] (Darussalam), also holding the higher title of [[Susuhunan]]
**[[Pagaruyung Kingdom|Sultanate of Pagaruyung]]
**[[Peureulak|Sultanate of Perleuak]]
**[[Riau-Lingga Sultanate]]
**[[Samudera Pasai Sultanate]]
**[[Sultanate of Serdang]]
**[[Sultanate of Siak]]

In [[Malaysia]]:
* In [[Peninsular Malaysia]], where all seven of the country's present sultanates are located:
** [[Sultanate of Perlis]]
** [[Sultanate of Johor]]
** [[Sultanate of Kedah]]
** [[Sultan of Kelantan|Sultanate of Kelantan]]
** [[Sultan of Pahang|Sultanate of Pahang]]
** [[Sultan of Perak|Sultanate of Perak]]
** [[Sultan of Selangor|Sultanate of Selangor]]
** [[Sultan of Terengganu|Sultanate of Terengganu]]
* Furthermore, the ruler of [[Luak Jelebu]], one of the constitutive states of the [[Negeri Sembilan]] confederation, had the style Sultan in addition to his principal title ''Undang Luak Jelebu''.
*[[Sultanate of Malacca]] 
*[[Sultanate of Sarawak]]

In [[Brunei]]:
* [[Sultan of Brunei]], Brunei (on Borneo island)

In [[China]]:
* [[Dali, Yunnan]], capital of the short-lived [[Panthay Rebellion]]
** Furthermore, the ''Qa´id Jami al-Muslimin'' (Leader of the Community of Muslims) of [[Pingnan Guo]] ("Pacified South State", a major Islamic rebellious polity in western Yunnan province) is usually referred to in foreign sources as Sultan.
* {{ill|Ili Sultanate|lt=|zh|伊犁苏丹国}}

In the [[Philippines]]:
* [[Sultanate of Buayan]]
* [[Sultanate of Maguindanao]]
* [[Sultanate of Sulu]] (Sulu, Basilan, Palawan and Tawi-Tawi islands and part of eastern Sabah on North Borneo)

In [[Thailand]]:
* [[Pattani Kingdom|Sultanate of Patani]]
* [[Sultanate of Singgora]]

==Current sultans==
'''Sultans of sovereign states'''
* {{flagicon|Brunei}} Sultan [[Hassanal Bolkiah]], Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan Negara of [[Nation of Brunei, the Abode of Peace]]
* {{flagicon|Oman}} Sultan [[Haitham bin Tariq]], Sultan of the [[Oman|Sultanate of Oman]]

'''Sultans in federal monarchies'''
* {{flagicon|Johor}} Sultan [[Ibrahim Ismail of Johor|Ibrahim Ismail]], Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan of [[Johor|Malaysian State of Johor, The Abode of Dignity]] and its occupied territories
* {{flagicon|Kedah}} Sultan [[Sallehuddin of Kedah|Sallehuddin]], Sultan and Yang-di Pertuan of [[Kedah|Malaysian State of Kedah, the Abode of Safety]]
* {{flagicon|Kelantan}} [[Sultan Muhammad V]], Al-Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan of [[Kelantan|Malaysian State of Kelantan, the Abode of Bliss]] and its dependencies
* {{flagicon|Pahang}} Al-Sultan [[Abdullah of Pahang|Abdullah Ri'ayatuddin]], Sultan and Ruler of [[Pahang|Malaysian State of Pahang, the Abode of Tranquility]]
* {{flagicon|Perak}} Sultan [[Nazrin Shah of Perak|Nazrin Shah]], Sultan, Yang di-Pertuan and the Ruler of [[Perak|Malaysian State of Perak, the Abode of Grace]] and its dependencies
* {{flagicon|Selangor}} Sultan [[Sharafuddin of Selangor|Sharafuddin Idris Shah]], Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan of [[Selangor|Malaysian State of Selangor, the Abode of Sincerity]]
* {{flagicon|Terengganu}} Sultan [[Mizan Zainal Abidin of Terengganu|Mizan Zainal Abidin]], Sultan and Yang di-Pertuan of [[Terengganu|Malaysian State of Terengganu, the Abode of Faith]]

'''Sultan with power within republics'''
* {{flagicon|Special Region of Yogyakarta}} Sri Sultan [[Hamengkubuwono X]], Sultan and [[List of governors of Yogyakarta|Governor]] of [[Special Region of Yogyakarta|Indonesian Special Region of Yogyakarta]]

==See also==
{{div col}}
* [[Suratrana]]
* [[Mansa (title)|Mansa]]
* [[Khan (title)]], [[Ilkhan]] and [[Khakhan]]
* [[Emir]] (Amir)
* [[Atabeg]]
* [[Bey]]
* [[Baig]]
* [[Mirza (noble)|Mirza]]
* [[Caliph]]
* [[Datu]]
* [[Maharajah]]
* [[Malik]]
* [[Mir (title)]]
* [[Padishah]]
* [[Pasha]]
* [[Raja]]
* [[Shah]] and [[Shahanshah]]
* [[Vizier]]
* [[Zoltán]]
{{div col end}}

==References==

{{Commons category|Sultans}}
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{List of titles and honours of the Countries Crown}}
{{Authoritarian types of rule}}

[[Category:Sultans| ]]
[[Category:Heads of state]]
[[Category:Islamic honorifics]]
[[Category:Military ranks]]
[[Category:Royal titles]]
[[Category:Noble titles]]
[[Category:Positions of authority]]
[[Category:Titles]]
[[Category:Ottoman titles]]
[[Category:Titles of national or ethnic leadership]]
[[Category:Titles in Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Titles in Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Titles in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Titles in Iran]]
[[Category:Titles in Oman]]
[[Category:Filipino paramount rulers]]
[[Category:Filipino royalty]]