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{{Short description|Political philosophy based on tradition and social order}}
{{Redirect|Conservatives|specific political parties|Conservative Party (disambiguation){{!}}Conservative Party}}
{{About|conservatism as a political and social philosophy|other uses of conservatism and conservative}}
{{Distinguish|Conservation movement}}
{{Use American English|date=November 2024}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2025}}
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'''Conservatism''' is a [[Philosophy of culture|cultural]], [[Social philosophy|social]], and [[political philosophy]] and [[ideology]] that seeks to promote and preserve traditional [[institution]]s, [[Convention (norm)|customs]], and [[Value (ethics and social sciences)|values]].<ref name=":1">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Hamilton |first1=Andrew |title=Conservatism |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/conservatism/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |date=2019}}</ref><ref>{{harvnb |Encyclopædia Britannica}}: "Conservatism, political doctrine that emphasizes the value of traditional institutions and practices."</ref><ref>{{harvnb |Heywood|2004|pp=166–167}}: "In particular, conservatives have emphasized that society is held together by the maintenance of traditional institutions such as the family and by respect for an established culture, based upon religion, tradition and custom."</ref> The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the [[culture]] and [[civilization]] in which it appears.<ref name=":6">{{Cite book |last=O'Hara |first=Kieron |title=Conservatism |date=2011 |publisher=Reaktion |isbn=978-1-86189-812-8 |location=London |quote=It is clear that conservatives are influenced not only by their ideology, but also by the political context – no surprise there – but contexts vary and so, therefore, do conservatives.}}</ref> In [[Western culture]], depending on the particular nation, conservatives seek to promote and preserve a range of institutions, such as the [[nuclear family]], [[organized religion]], the [[military]], the [[nation-state]], [[property rights]], [[rule of law]], [[aristocracy]], and [[monarchy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Neill|2021|p=2}}: "[C]onservatives favour the importance of ‘natural’ forms of authority, such as the monarchy, the church, the nation and the family."</ref><ref>{{harvnb |Giubilei|2019|p=37}}: "Conservatives aim to conserve the natural and fundamental elements of society, which are: private property, family, the homeland, and even religion […] the right-wing conservative is such not because he wants to conserve any regime and any institutions, but rather specific institutions and particular values."</ref> Conservatives tend to favor institutions and practices that enhance [[social order]] and historical continuity.{{sfn|Encyclopædia Britannica}}

The 18th-century Anglo-Irish statesman [[Edmund Burke]], who opposed the [[French Revolution]] but supported the [[American Revolution]], is credited as one of the forefathers of conservative thought in the 1790s along with Savoyard statesman [[Joseph de Maistre]].{{sfn|Fawcett|2020|pp=3–18}} The first established use of the term in a political context originated in 1818 with [[François-René de Chateaubriand]] during the period of [[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon Restoration]] that sought to roll back the policies of the French Revolution and establish social order.{{sfn|Muller|1997|p=26}}

Conservatism has varied considerably as it has adapted itself to existing traditions and national cultures.{{sfn|Heywood|2017|p=63}} Thus, conservatives from different parts of the world, each upholding their respective traditions, may disagree on a wide range of issues.<ref>{{cite book |last=Vincent |first=Andrew |year=2009 |title=Modern Political Ideologies |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-1105-1 |page=79}}</ref> One of the three major ideologies along with [[liberalism]] and [[socialism]],{{sfn|Nisbet|2002|p=15}} conservatism is the dominant ideology in many nations across the world, including [[#Hungary|Hungary]], [[Conservatism in India|India]], [[#Iran|Iran]], [[Conservatism in Israel|Israel]],<ref name=":13" /> [[#Italy|Italy]], [[Conservatism in Japan|Japan]], [[#Poland|Poland]], [[Conservatism in Russia|Russia]], [[#Singapore|Singapore]], and [[Conservatism in South Korea|South Korea]]. Historically associated with [[right-wing politics]], the term has been used to describe [[#Ideological variants|a wide range of views]]. Conservatism may be either [[Libertarian conservatism|libertarian]] or [[Authoritarian conservatism|authoritarian]],<ref>{{harvnb|Heywood|2017|p=74}}: "While contemporary conservatives are keen to demonstrate their commitment to democratic, particularly liberal-democratic, principles, there is a tradition within conservatism that has favoured authoritarian rule, especially in continental Europe."</ref> [[Right-wing populism|populist]] or [[Traditionalist conservatism|elitist]],<ref>{{cite book |author1-last=Micklethwait |author1-first=John |author2-last=Wooldridge |author2-first=Adrian |title=The Right Nation: Conservative Power in America |year=2004 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=1594200203 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rDd5tKWT4D4C |quote=Americans who describe themselves as 'conservatives' nevertheless disagree on almost all the most fundamental questions of life. […] The [[Leo Strauss|Straussians]] at the ''Weekly Standard'' are philosophical elitists who believe that the masses need to be steered by an educated intelligentsia. The antitax crusaders who march behind [[Grover Norquist]] are populists who believe that pointy-headed intellectuals need to be given a good ducking.}}</ref> [[Progressive conservatism|progressive]] or [[reactionary]],<ref>{{harvnb|Heywood|2017|p=63}}: "The Canadian Conservative Party adopted the title Progressive Conservative precisely to distance itself from reactionary ideas."</ref> [[Moderate conservatism|moderate]] or [[Ultraconservatism|extreme]].<ref>{{harvnb|Fawcett|2020|p=59}}: "Conservatives can be radical or moderate. It depends on the state of the contest, on the stakes in the contest, and on which party is attacking, which defending."</ref>

==Beliefs and principles==
[[File:Kirk 1962.jpg|thumb|[[Russell Kirk]], whose 1953 book ''[[The Conservative Mind]]'' identified five canons of conservatism]]
Scholars have tried to define conservatism as a set of beliefs or principles. Political scientist [[Andrew Heywood]] argues that the five central beliefs of conservatism are tradition, human imperfection, organic society, authority/hierarchy, and property.{{sfn|Heywood|2017|pp=65–73}} Historian [[Russell Kirk]] developed five canons of conservatism in ''[[The Conservative Mind]]'', published in 1953, which include:
* A belief in a transcendent order, which Kirk described variously as based in tradition, [[divine revelation]], or [[natural law]];
* An affection for the "variety and mystery" of human existence;
* A conviction that society requires orders and classes that emphasize natural distinctions;
* A belief that [[property]] and [[freedom]] are closely linked;
* A faith in custom, [[Convention (norm)|convention]], and prescription, and a recognition that innovation must be tied to existing traditions and customs, which entails a respect for the political value of [[prudence]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Conservatism: Ideas in Profile |author-last=Scruton |author-first=Roger |year=2017 |isbn=9781782833109 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UwH0DQAAQBAJ |publisher=Profile |pages=137–138}}</ref>

Some political scientists, such as [[Samuel P. Huntington]], a government professor at [[Harvard University]], have seen conservatism as situational. Under this definition, conservatives are seen as defending the established institutions of their time.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Winthrop |author-first=Norman |title=Liberal Democratic Theory and Its Critics |publisher=Croom Helm |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-7099-2766-2 |pages=163–166}}</ref> According to [[Quintin Hogg, Baron Hailsham of St Marylebone|Quintin Hogg]], the chairman of the British [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] in 1959: "Conservatism is not so much a philosophy as an attitude, a constant force, performing a timeless function in the development of a free society, and corresponding to a deep and permanent requirement of human nature itself."<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Hogg Baron Hailsham of St. Marylebone |author-first=Quintin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dKjpjgEACAAJ |title=The Conservative Case |publisher=Penguin Books |year=1959}}</ref> Conservatism is often used as a generic term to describe a "right-wing viewpoint occupying the political spectrum between [classical] [[liberalism]] and [[fascism]]".<ref name=":1" />

Conservatism has been called a "philosophy of human imperfection" by political scientist [[Noël O'Sullivan]], reflecting among its adherents a negative view of [[human nature]] and pessimism of the potential to improve it through 'utopian' schemes.{{sfn|Heywood|2017|p=67}} [[Thomas Hobbes]], the "intellectual godfather of the realist right", argued that the [[state of nature]] for humans was "poor, nasty, brutish, and short", requiring centralized authority with royal [[sovereignty]] to guarantee [[Law and order (politics)|law and order]].{{sfn|Fawcett|2020|p=48}} [[Edmund Burke]], often called the father of modern conservatism, believed that human beings are steeped in [[original sin]] and that society therefore needs traditional institutions, such as an [[established church]] and a landed [[aristocracy]], in order to function.{{sfn|Encyclopædia Britannica}}

===Tradition===
Despite the lack of a universal definition, certain themes can be recognized as common across conservative thought. According to [[Michael Oakeshott]]:

{{blockquote|To be conservative […] is to prefer the familiar to the unknown, to prefer the tried to the untried, fact to mystery, the actual to the possible, the limited to the unbounded, the near to the distant, the sufficient to the superabundant, the convenient to the perfect, present laughter to utopian bliss.{{sfn|Heywood|2004|p=346}}}}

Such traditionalism may be a reflection of trust in time-tested methods of social organization, giving 'votes to the dead'.{{sfn|Heywood|2017|p=66}} Traditions may also be steeped in a sense of [[Identity (social science)|identity]].{{sfn|Heywood|2017|p=66}}

=== Hierarchy===
In contrast to the tradition-based definition of conservatism, some left-wing political theorists like [[Corey Robin]] define conservatism primarily in terms of a general defense of [[Social inequality|social]] and [[economic inequality]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Robin |first=Corey |date=January 8, 2012 |title=The Conservative Reaction |newspaper=The Chronicle of Higher Education |url=http://www.chronicle.com/article/The-Conservative-Mind/130199/ |access-date=December 23, 2016}}</ref> From this perspective, conservatism is less an attempt to uphold old institutions and more "a meditation on—and theoretical rendition of—the felt experience of having power, seeing it threatened, and trying to win it back".<ref>{{cite journal |author-last=Finseraas |author-first=Henning |title=What if Robin Hood is a social conservative? : How the political response to increasing inequality depends on party polarization |journal=Socio-Economic Review |volume=8 |issue=2 |year=2010 |pages=283–306 |doi=10.1093/ser/mwp012 |issn=1475-1461}}</ref> On another occasion, Robin argues for a more complex relation:

{{blockquote|Conservatism is a defense of established hierarchies, but it is also fearful of those established hierarchies. It sees in their assuredness of power the source of corruption, decadence and decline. Ruling regimes require some kind of irritant, a grain of sand in the oyster, to reactivate their latent powers, to exercise their atrophied muscles, to make their pearls.<ref>{{cite news |last=Farrell |first=Henry |date=February 1, 2018 |title=Trump is a typical conservative |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2018/02/01/trump-is-a-typical-conservative-that-says-a-lot-about-the-conservative-tradition/ |access-date=August 29, 2023}}</ref>}}

In ''[[Conservatism: A Rediscovery]]'' (2022), political philosopher [[Yoram Hazony]] argues that, in a traditional conservative community, members have importance and influence to the degree they are [[honor]]ed within the social hierarchy, which includes factors such as age, experience, and wisdom.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Hazony |author-first=Yoram |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uhx1EAAAQBAJ |title=Conservatism: A Rediscovery |publisher=Swift |year=2022 |pages=125–133 |isbn=9781800752344}}</ref> Conservatives often glorify hierarchies, as demonstrated in an aphorism by conservative philosopher [[Nicolás Gómez Dávila]]: "Hierarchies are celestial. In hell all are equal."<ref>{{cite web |title=Escolios a un Texto Implicito |author-last=Gómez Dávila |author-first=Nicolás |year=2004 |orig-date=1977 |url=http://mgilleland.com/ngd.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061117093720/http://mgilleland.com/ngd.htm |archive-date=November 17, 2006}}</ref> The word hierarchy has religious roots and translates to 'rule of a high priest.'<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/hierarchy |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |title=hierarchy}}</ref>

=== Authority ===
Authority is a core tenet of conservatism.{{sfn|Giubilei|2019|pp=18–19}}<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Ashford |editor1-first=Nigel |editor2-last=Davies |editor2-first=Stephen |title=A Dictionary of Conservative and Libertarian Thought |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-415-67046-3 |pages=14–17 |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>{{sfn|Heywood|2017|p=72}} More specifically, conservatives tend to believe in [[traditional authority]]. According to sociologist [[Max Weber]], this form of authority is "resting on an established belief in the [[Sacredness|sanctity]] of immemorial traditions and the legitimacy of those exercising authority under them".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Weber |first1=Max |title=[[Economy and Society]] |date=1922 |pages=215}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-last=Reinhard |author-first=Bendix |title=Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait |publisher=University of California Press |year=1977 |page=295 |isbn=978-0-520-03194-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=65IUL-VaFGsC}}</ref> Philosopher [[Alexandre Kojève]] distinguishes between two different forms of traditional authority:

* The Authority of the Father—represented by actual fathers as well as conceptual fathers such as priests and monarchs.
* The Authority of the Master—represented by aristocrats and military commanders.{{sfn|Kojève|2020|pp=14–28}}

Sociologist [[Robert Nisbet]] acknowledges that the decline of traditional authority in the modern world is partly linked with the retreat of old institutions such as [[guild]], [[Fraternal order|order]], [[parish]], and [[family]]—institutions that formerly acted as intermediaries between the state and the individual.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nisbet |first=Robert A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RwjesgEACAAJ |title=The Sociological Tradition |date=1993 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-56000-667-1 |location=New York |orig-date=1966}}</ref>{{sfn|Kojève|2020|p=xvii}} Philosopher [[Hannah Arendt]] argues that the modern world suffers an existential crisis with a "dramatic breakdown of all traditional authorities," which are needed for the continuity of an established civilization.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Arendt |author-first=Hannah |title=Between Past and Future: Six Exercises in Political Thought |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RPw6VjmddrkC |year=1954 |publisher=Viking |pages=91–92}}</ref>{{sfn|Kojève|2020|pp=xviii–xix}}

== Historical background ==
Anglo-Irish statesman [[Edmund Burke]] has been widely regarded as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Heywood |author-first=Andrew |title=Political Ideologies: An Introduction |edition=3 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2003 |page=74 |isbn=978-0-333-96178-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DtSlJAAACAAJ}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-last=Lock |author-first=F. P. |title=Edmund Burke. Volume II: 1784–1797 |publisher=Clarendon |year=2006 |page=585}}</ref> He served as the private secretary to the [[Charles Watson-Wentworth, 2nd Marquess of Rockingham|Marquis of Rockingham]] and as official pamphleteer to the [[Rockingham Whigs|Rockingham branch of the Whig party]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Edmund Burke: Selected Writings and Speeches |last=Stanlis |first=Peter J. |publisher=Transaction |year=2009 |page=18}}</ref> Together with the Tories, they were the conservatives in the late 18th century United Kingdom.{{sfn|Auerbach|1959|p=33}}

[[File:Edmund Burke by James Northcote.JPG|thumb|[[Edmund Burke]], widely regarded as the philosophical founder of modern conservatism]]

Burke's views were a mixture of conservatism and republicanism. He supported the [[American Revolution]] of 1775–1783 but abhorred the violence of the [[French Revolution]] of 1789–1799. He accepted the conservative ideals of [[private property]] and the economics of [[Adam Smith]], but he thought that [[capitalism]] should remain subordinate to the conservative social ethic and that the business class should be subordinate to aristocracy.<ref>{{cite book |title=In Defense of Edmund Burke's Aristocratic Order |author-last=Kopalyan |author-first=Nerses |isbn=9783843375436 |publisher=Lambert Academic Publishing |year=2010}}</ref> He insisted on standards of [[honor]] derived from the medieval aristocratic tradition and saw the aristocracy as the nation's natural leaders.{{sfn|Auerbach|1959|pp=37–40}} That meant limits on the powers of the Crown, since he found the institutions of Parliament to be better informed than commissions appointed by the executive. He favored an established church, but allowed for a degree of [[religious toleration]].{{sfn|Auerbach|1959|pp=52–54}} Burke ultimately justified the social order on the basis of tradition: tradition represented the wisdom of the species, and he valued community and social harmony over social reforms.{{sfn|Auerbach|1959|p=41}}

[[File:Cogordan - Joseph de Maistre, 1894 (page 12 crop).jpg|thumb|[[Joseph de Maistre]], a French philosopher and proponent of the [[Counter-Enlightenment]]]]

Another form of conservatism developed in France in parallel to conservatism in Britain. It was influenced by [[Counter-Enlightenment]] works by philosophers such as [[Joseph de Maistre]] and [[Louis de Bonald]].{{sfn|Neill|2021|pp=38–43}} Many continental conservatives do not support [[separation of church and state]], with most supporting state cooperation with the [[Catholic Church in France|Catholic Church]], such as had existed in France before the Revolution. Conservatives were also early to embrace [[nationalism]], which was previously associated with liberalism and the Revolution in France.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Adams |author-first=Ian |title=Political Ideology Today |edition=2 |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=2002 |page=46}}</ref> Another early French conservative, [[François-René de Chateaubriand]], espoused a [[Romanticism|romantic]] opposition to modernity, contrasting its emptiness with the 'full heart' of traditional faith and loyalty.{{sfn|Fawcett|2020|p=20}} Elsewhere on the continent, German thinkers [[Justus Möser]] and [[Friedrich von Gentz]] criticized the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] that came of the Revolution. Opposition was also expressed by [[German idealism|German idealists]] such as [[Adam Müller]] and [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]], the latter inspiring both leftist and rightist followers.{{sfn|Fawcett|2020|pp=25–30}}

Both Burke and Maistre were critical of [[democracy]] in general, though their reasons differed. Maistre was pessimistic about humans being able to follow rules, while Burke was skeptical about humans' innate ability to make rules. For Maistre, rules had a divine origin, while Burke believed they arose from custom. The lack of custom for Burke, and the lack of divine guidance for Maistre, meant that people would act in terrible ways. Both also believed that liberty of the wrong kind led to bewilderment and political breakdown. Their ideas would together flow into a stream of anti-rationalist, romantic conservatism, but would still stay separate. Burke was more open to argumentation and disagreement, while Maistre sought faith and authority, leading to a more illiberal strain of thought.{{sfn|Fawcett|2020|pp=5–7}}

== Ideological variants ==
=== Authoritarian conservatism ===
{{main|Authoritarian conservatism}}
{{see also|Far-right politics|Ultraconservatism}}
Authoritarian conservatism refers to [[autocratic]] regimes that portray authority as absolute and unquestionable.{{sfn|Heywood|2017|p=72}}<ref>{{cite book |last1=Pinto |first1=António |last2=Kallis |first2=A. |title=Rethinking Fascism and Dictatorship in Europe |date=2014 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-7190-2354-5}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=David |title=Illusions of Grandeur: Mosley, Fascism, and British Society, 1931-81 |publisher=Manchester University Press |page=218}}</ref> Authoritarian conservative movements show strong devotion towards religion, tradition, and culture while also expressing fervent nationalism akin to other far-right nationalist movements.{{sfn|Freeden|Sargent|Stears|2013|pp=294–297}}<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Kater |author-first=Michael H. |title=Never Sang for Hitler: The Life and Times of Lotte Lehmann, 1888–1976 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |page=167 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n5XHEAxEEtgC |isbn=978-0521873925}}</ref> Examples of authoritarian conservative dictators include Marshal [[Philippe Pétain]] in France,<ref name=":10">{{cite book |author-last=Hoffmann |author-first=Stanley |chapter=The Vichy Circle of French Conservatives |title=Decline or Renewal? : France since 1930s |year=1974 |pages=3–25 |publisher=Viking |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RdFnAAAAMAAJ |isbn=0670262358}}</ref> Regent [[Miklós Horthy]] in Hungary,<ref name=":8">{{cite book |author-last=Lojkó |author-first=Miklós |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q-IOJWicco8C&pg=PA180 |title=Meddling in Middle Europe: Britain and the 'Lands Between, 1919–1925 |publisher=Central European University Press |year=2005 |page=180 |isbn=9637326235}}</ref> General [[Ioannis Metaxas]] in Greece,<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Sørensen |first1=Gert |title=International Fascism,1919-45 |last2=Mallett |first2=Robert |publisher=Routledge |year=2002 |isbn=978-0714682624 |page=159}}</ref> King [[Alexander I of Yugoslavia|Alexander I]] in Yugoslavia,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Graham |first=Malbone W. |date=1929 |title=The "Dictatorship" in Yugoslavia |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/product/identifier/S0003055400113097/type/journal_article |journal=American Political Science Review |volume=23 |issue=2 |pages=449–459 |doi=10.2307/1945227 |jstor=1945227}}</ref> Prime Minister [[António de Oliveira Salazar]] in Portugal,<ref>Howard J. Wiarda, Margaret MacLeish Mott. ''Catholic Roots and Democratic Flowers: Political Systems in Spain and Portugal.'' Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001. p. 49</ref> Chancellor [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] in Austria,{{sfn|Bischof|2003|p=26}} ''Generalissimo'' [[Francisco Franco]] in Spain,<ref>Stanley G. Payne. ''Fascism in Spain, 1923–1977''. Madison: Wisconsin University Press, 1999. pp. 77–102.</ref> King [[Carol II of Romania|Carol II]] in Romania,<ref name=":11">{{cite book |author-last=Blamires |author-first=Cyprian |title=World Fascism: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |page=21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nvD2rZSVau4C |isbn=1576079406}}</ref> and Tsar [[Boris III of Bulgaria|Boris III]] in Bulgaria.<ref>{{cite book |title= King of Mercy: Boris III of Bulgaria, 1894–1943 |author-last=Pashanko |author-first=Dimitroff |year=1993 |page=243 |publisher=Wexford & Barrow |isbn=9781879593695 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mYMvAQAAMAAJ}}</ref>

{{Multiple image
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|image2 = Engelbert Dollfuss.png
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|footer = King [[Alexander I of Yugoslavia]] and Chancellor [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] of Austria, authoritarian conservative dictators who were assassinated by fascist and Nazi political enemies
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Authoritarian conservative movements were prominent in the same era as [[fascism]], with which they sometimes clashed.{{sfn|Blinkhorn|1990|p=10}} Although both ideologies shared core values such as nationalism and had common enemies such as [[communism]], there was nonetheless a contrast between the traditionalist and elitist nature of authoritarian conservatism and the revolutionary and populist nature of fascism—thus it was common for authoritarian conservative regimes to suppress rising fascist and [[Nazism|Nazi]] movements.<ref name=":11" /> The hostility between the two ideologies is highlighted by the struggle for power in Austria, which was marked by the assassination of the ultra-Catholic dictator [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] by [[Austrian Nazism|Austrian Nazis]]. Likewise, [[Ustaše|Croatian fascists]] assassinated King [[Alexander I of Yugoslavia]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Tomasevich |first=Jozo |year=2001 |title=War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-3615-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fqUSGevFe5MC |pages=33–34}}</ref> In Romania, as the fascist [[Iron Guard]] was gaining popularity and [[Nazi Germany]] was making advances on the European political stage, King [[Carol II of Romania|Carol II]] ordered the execution of [[Corneliu Zelea Codreanu]] and other top-ranking Romanian fascists.<ref>Butnaru, Ion C., ''The Silent Holocaust: Romania and Its Jews'' (1992), Praeger/Greenwood: Westport, pp. 62–63</ref> The exiled German Emperor [[Wilhelm II]] was an enemy of [[Adolf Hitler]] and stated that Nazism made him ashamed to be a German for the first time in his life.<ref name=":7">{{cite book |first=Michael |last=Balfour |title=The Kaiser and his Times |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |year=1964 |page=409}}</ref> The Catholic seminarian [[António de Oliveira Salazar]], who was Portugal's dictator for 40 years, denounced fascism and Nazism as a "pagan [[Caesarism]]" that did not recognize legal, religious, or moral limits.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Kay |author-first=Hugh |year=1970 |title=Salazar and Modern Portugal |publisher=Hawthorn Books |isbn= 0413267008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=62WXswEACAAJ |page=68}}</ref>

Political scientist [[Seymour Martin Lipset]] has examined the class basis of right-wing extremist politics in the 1920–1960 era. He reports:
{{blockquote|Conservative or rightist extremist movements have arisen at different periods in modern history, ranging from the [[Miklós Horthy|Horthyites]] in Hungary, the [[Christian Social Party (Austria)|Christian Social Party]] of Dollfuss in Austria, ''[[Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten|Der Stahlhelm]]'' and other nationalists in pre-Hitler Germany, and [[António de Oliveira Salazar|Salazar]] in Portugal, to the pre-1966 [[Gaullism|Gaullist]] movements and the monarchists in contemporary France and Italy. The right extremists are conservative, not revolutionary. They seek to change political institutions in order to preserve or restore cultural and economic ones, while [[Extremism of the centre|extremists of the centre]] [fascists/Nazis] and left [communists/anarchists] seek to use political means for cultural and social revolution. The ideal of the right extremist is not a [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] ruler, but a monarch, or a traditionalist who acts like one. Many such movements in Spain, Austria, Hungary, Germany, and Italy have been explicitly monarchist […] The supporters of these movements differ from those of the centrists, tending to be wealthier, and more religious, which is more important in terms of a potential for mass support.<ref>Seymour M. Lipset, "Social Stratification and 'Right-Wing Extremism{{' "}} ''British Journal of Sociology'' 10#4 (1959), pp. 346–382 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/587800 on-line] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220422185441/https://www.jstor.org/stable/587800 |date=April 22, 2022 }}</ref>}}

[[Edmund Fawcett]] states that fascism is totalitarian, populist, and anti-[[Pluralism (political theory)|pluralist]], whereas authoritarian conservatism is somewhat pluralist but most of all elitist and anti-populist. He concludes: "The fascist is a nonconservative who takes [[anti-liberalism]] to extremes. The right-wing authoritarian is a conservative who takes fear of democracy to extremes."{{sfn|Fawcett|2020|p=263}}

During the [[Cold War]], right-wing military dictatorships were prominent in Latin America, with most nations being under military rule by the middle of the 1970s.{{sfn|Remmer|1989|p=10}} One example of this was General [[Augusto Pinochet]], who ruled over Chile from 1973 to 1990.{{sfn|Remmer|1989|pp=5–6}} According to [[Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn]], military dictatorships arise in democratic systems in order to stop leftist parties from becoming totalitarian.<ref name=":12">{{Cite web |last=von Kuehnelt-Leddihn |first=Erik |date=April 1, 1968 |title=Latin America In Perspective |url=https://fee.org/articles/latin-america-in-perspective/ |website=Foundation for Economic Education}}</ref> The most recent instance occurred in Bolivia in 2024, when General [[Juan José Zúñiga]] staged a coup in order to overthrow the far-left president [[Luis Arce]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Vock |first=Ido |title=Bolivia: Soldiers storm presidential palace in apparent coup attempt |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c288eewr1wko  |access-date=June 29, 2024 |website=BBC |date=June 27, 2024 |archive-date=June 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240627000701/https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c288eewr1wko  |url-status=live}}</ref>

In the 21st century, the authoritarian style of government experienced a worldwide renaissance with conservative statesmen such as President [[Vladimir Putin]] in Russia, President [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]] in Turkey, Prime Minister [[Viktor Orbán]] in Hungary, Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] in India, and President [[Donald Trump]] in the United States.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rachman |first1=Gideon |title=The Age of The Strongman |date=2022 |publisher=Vintage |isbn=9781847926418}}</ref>

=== Liberal conservatism ===
{{main|Liberal conservatism}}
{{Distinguish|Conservative liberalism}}
Liberal conservatism is a variant of conservatism that is strongly influenced by liberal stances.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xGNRRwkZFysC&pg=PA109 |title=Analyzing Politics |last=Grigsby |first=Ellen |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-495-50112-1 |pages=108–109, 112, 347}}</ref> It incorporates the [[classical liberal]] view of minimal [[economic interventionism]], meaning that individuals should be free to participate in the market and generate wealth without government interference.<ref name=":2">{{cite book |last=McAnulla |first=Stuart |year=2006 |title=British Politics: A Critical Introduction |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-8264-6155-1 |page=71}}</ref> However, individuals cannot be thoroughly depended on to act responsibly in other spheres of life; therefore, liberal conservatives believe that a strong state is necessary to ensure law and order, and social institutions are needed to nurture a sense of [[duty]] and responsibility to the nation.<ref name=":2" /> Originally opposed to capitalism and the [[industrial revolution]],{{sfn|Giubilei|2019|p=21}}{{sfn|Nisbet|2002|pp=28–31}} the conservative ideology in many countries adopted [[economic liberalism]], especially in the United States where this ideology is known as [[fiscal conservatism]].<ref name=":4">{{cite journal |last1=Ribuffo |first1=Leo P. |title=Twenty Suggestions for Studying the Right Now that Studying the Right Is Trendy |journal=Historically Speaking |date=January 14, 2011 |volume=12 |issue=1 |page=6 |doi=10.1353/hsp.2011.0013 |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/409734/summary#info_wrap}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B10JkvO82x8C&pg=PA109 |title=Correctional Organization and Management: Public Policy Challenges, Behavior, and Structure |first=Robert M. |last=Freeman |publisher=Elsevier |year=1999 |page=109 |isbn=978-0-7506-9897-9}}</ref>

=== National conservatism ===
{{main|National conservatism}}
[[File:Giorgia Meloni Official 2023.jpg|thumb|[[Giorgia Meloni]], leader of [[Brothers of Italy]], a national conservative party, the first female [[Prime Minister of Italy]], and president of the [[European Conservatives and Reformists Party]]]]
National conservatism prioritizes the defense of [[National identity|national]] and [[cultural identity]], often based on a theory of the [[family as a model for the state]].{{sfn|Heywood|2017|p=92}} National conservatism is oriented towards upholding national [[sovereignty]], which includes limited immigration and a strong national defense.{{sfn|Freeden|Sargent|Stears|2013|pp=465–469}} In Europe, national conservatives are usually [[Euroscepticism|eurosceptics]].{{sfn|Heywood|2017|p=90}}<ref>{{cite book |title=Dictionary of Public Administration |last=Mandal |first=V. C. |year=2007 |publisher=Sarup & Sons |isbn=978-81-7625-784-8 |page=306 |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_Hs0xJORVIHwC}}</ref> Political philosopher [[Yoram Hazony]] has argued for national conservatism in his work ''[[The Virtue of Nationalism]]'' (2018).<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nationalreview.com/magazine/2018/10/01/in-defense-of-nations-book-review/ |title=In Defense of Nations |work=National Review |date=September 13, 2018 |access-date=October 29, 2018 |archive-date=June 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622004148/https://www.nationalreview.com/magazine/2018/10/01/in-defense-of-nations-book-review/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Paternalistic conservatism ===
{{main|Paternalistic conservatism}}
Paternalistic conservatism is a strand in conservatism which reflects the belief that societies exist and develop organically and that members within them have obligations towards each other.<ref>{{cite book |last=Heywood |first=Andrew |year=2013 |title=Politics |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-27244-7 |page=34}}</ref> There is particular emphasis on the paternalistic obligation ({{lang|fr|[[noblesse oblige]]}}) of those who are privileged and wealthy to the poorer parts of society, which is consistent with principles such as [[duty]], [[Organic unity|organicism]], and [[hierarchy]].{{sfn|Heywood|2017|pp=76–77}} Its proponents often stress the importance of a [[social safety net]] to deal with poverty, supporting limited [[redistribution of wealth]] along with government regulation of markets in the interests of both consumers and producers.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Dunleavy |author-first=Patrick |display-authors=etal |title=British Political Science: Fifty Years of Political Studies |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2000 |pages=107–108}}</ref>

{{One-nation conservatism}}
Paternalistic conservatism first arose as a distinct ideology in the [[United Kingdom]] under Prime Minister [[Benjamin Disraeli]]'s "[[One nation conservatism|One Nation]]" [[Toryism]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Robert Blake |title=Disraeli |edition=2 |publisher=Eyre & Spottiswoode |year=1967 |page=524 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JH_-3gcYzecC}}</ref> There have been a variety of one-nation conservative governments in the United Kingdom with exponents such as Prime Ministers Disraeli, [[Stanley Baldwin]], [[Neville Chamberlain]], [[Winston Churchill]], and [[Harold Macmillan]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Russel, Trevor |title=The Tory Party: Its Policies, Divisions and Future |publisher=Penguin |year=1978 |page=167}}</ref>

In 19th-century [[Germany]], Chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]] adopted a set of social programs, known as [[State Socialism (Germany)|state socialism]], which included insurance for workers against sickness, accident, incapacity, and old age. The goal of this conservative state-building strategy was to make ordinary Germans, not just the [[Junker (Prussia)|Junker]] aristocracy, more loyal to state and [[German Emperor|Emperor]].{{sfn|Encyclopædia Britannica}} Chancellor [[Leo von Caprivi]] promoted a conservative agenda called the "New Course".<ref>John Alden Nichols. ''Germany after Bismarck, the Caprivi era, 1890–1894: Issue 5''. Harvard University Press, 1958. p. 260</ref>

=== Progressive conservatism ===
{{main|Progressive conservatism}}
In the United States, President [[Theodore Roosevelt]] has been identified as the main exponent of progressive conservatism. Roosevelt stated that he had "always believed that wise progressivism and wise conservatism go hand in hand".<ref name=":0" /> The [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] administration of President [[William Howard Taft]] was progressive conservative, and he described himself as a believer in progressive conservatism.<ref name=":0">Jonathan Lurie. William Howard Taft: The Travails of a Progressive Conservative. New York, New York, US: Cambridge University Press, 2012. p.196</ref> President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] also declared himself an advocate of progressive conservatism.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last=Bischof |editor-first=Günter |title=Eisenhower: A Centenary Assessment |page=98 |isbn=9780807119426 |year=1995 |publisher=LSU Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n-GN_zwHe1wC}}</ref>

In [[Canada]], a variety of conservative governments have been part of the [[Red Tory]] tradition, with Canada's former major conservative party being named the [[Progressive Conservative Party of Canada]] from 1942 to 2003.<ref name="Hugh Segal 2011. pp. 113–148">Hugh Segal. The Right Balance. Victoria, British Columbia, Canada: Douglas & McIntyre, 2011. pp. 113–148</ref> Prime Ministers [[Arthur Meighen]], [[R. B. Bennett]], [[John Diefenbaker]], [[Joe Clark]], [[Brian Mulroney]], and [[Kim Campbell]] led Red Tory federal governments.<ref name="Hugh Segal 2011. pp. 113–148"/>

=== Reactionary conservatism ===
{{main|Reactionary conservatism}}
{{Multiple image
|total_width = 300
|image1 = Evola.jpg
|alt1 = 
|image2 = Nicolás Gómez Dávila.jpg
|alt2 = 
|footer = Italian esotericist [[Julius Evola]] and Colombian aphorist [[Nicolás Gómez Dávila]]—prominent reactionary critics of modernity
}}
Reactionary conservatism, also known as reactionism, opposes policies for the [[social transformation]] of society.<ref>{{cite book |title=The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought |edition=3 |year=1999 |page=729 |isbn=978-0-00-255871-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cthOAAAAMAAJ |last1=Bullock |first1=Alan |last2=Trombley |first2=Stephen |last3=Lawrie |first3=Alf |publisher=HarperCollins}}</ref> In popular usage, reactionism refers to a staunch [[traditionalist conservative]] political perspective of a person who supports the status quo and opposes social, political, and economic change.<ref>{{cite dictionary |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/reactionary |title=reactionary |dictionary=Merriam-Webster |date=May 9, 2023}}</ref> Some adherents of conservatism, rather than opposing change, seek to return to the {{lang|la|[[status quo|status quo ante]]}} and tend to view the modern world in a negative light, especially concerning [[mass culture]] and [[secularism]], although different groups of reactionaries may choose different traditional values to revive.{{sfn|Encyclopædia Britannica}}{{sfn|McLean|McMillan|2009}}

Some political scientists, such as [[Corey Robin]], treat the words reactionary and conservative as synonyms.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robin |first=Corey |title=The Reactionary Mind: Conservatism from Edmund Burke to Donald Trump |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0190692001 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7YY0DwAAQBAJ |quote=This book is about the second half of the story, the demarche, and the political ideas – variously called conservative, reactionary, revanchist, counterrevolutionary – that grow out of and give rise to it.}}</ref> Others, such as [[Mark Lilla]], argue that reactionism and conservatism are distinct worldviews.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Lilla |first=Mark |title=The Shipwrecked Mind: On Political Reaction |publisher=New York Review of Books |year=2016 |isbn=978-1590179024 |pages=xii |chapter=Introduction |quote=Reactionaries are not conservatives. This is the first thing to be understood about them. They are, in their way, just as radical as revolutionaries and just as firmly in the grip of historical imaginings.}}</ref> [[Francis Wilson (political scientist)|Francis Wilson]] defines conservatism as "a philosophy of social evolution, in which certain lasting values are defended within the framework of the tension of political conflict".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Francis |title=The Case for Conservatism |date=1951 |isbn=978-1412842341 |page=2 |publisher=Transaction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vKG30tSqDr8C}}</ref>

Some reactionaries favor a return to the ''status quo ante'', the previous political state of society, which that person believes possessed positive characteristics absent from contemporary society. An early example of a powerful reactionary movement was [[German Romanticism]], which centred around concepts of organicism, [[medievalism]], and traditionalism against the forces of rationalism, secularism, and individualism that were unleashed in the [[French Revolution]].<ref name=":3">{{cite book |author1-last=Siegfried |author1-first=Heit |author2-last=Johnston |author2-first=Otto W. |chapter=German Romanticism: An Ideological Response to Napoleon |title=Consortium on Revolutionary Europe 1750–1850: Proceedings |year=1980 |volume=9 |pages=187–197}}</ref>

In political discourse, being a reactionary is generally regarded as negative; Peter King observed that it is "an unsought-for label, used as a torment rather than a badge of honor".<ref>{{cite book |author-last=King |author-first=Peter |title=Reaction: Against the Modern World |publisher=Andrews UK Limited |year=2012}}</ref> Despite this, the descriptor has been adopted by intellectuals such as Italian esoteric traditionalist [[Julius Evola]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ferraresi |first=Franco |date=1987 |title=Julius Evola: Tradition, Reaction, and the Radical Right |journal=European Journal of Sociology |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=107–151 |doi=10.1017/S0003975600005415}}</ref> Austrian monarchist [[Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn]],<ref>{{cite journal |title=Credo of a Reactionary |author-last=Campbell |author-first=Francis Stuart |journal=The American Mercury}}</ref> Colombian [[political theology|political theologian]] [[Nicolás Gómez Dávila]], and American historian [[John Lukacs]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=Confessions of an Original Sinner |isbn=9781890318123 |last1=Lukacs |first1=John |year=2000 |publisher=St. Augustine's Press}}</ref>

=== Religious conservatism {{anchor|Religious conservatism}} ===
{{see also|Christian right|Hindutva|Integralism|Islamism|Religious Zionism}}
Religious conservatism principally applies the teachings of particular religions to politics—sometimes by merely proclaiming the value of those teachings, at other times by having those teachings influence laws.<ref>Andersen, Margaret L., Taylor, Howard Francis. [https://books.google.com/books?id=LP9bIrZ9xacC&pg=PA469 ''Sociology: Understanding a Diverse Society''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205101215/https://books.google.com/books?id=LP9bIrZ9xacC&pg=PA469 |date=December 5, 2022 }} Cengage Learning, 4th Ed. (2005), pp. 469–470. {{ISBN|978-0-534-61716-5}}</ref> In most democracies, political conservatism seeks to uphold traditional family structures and social values. Religious conservatives typically oppose abortion, [[LGBT]] behavior (or, in certain cases, identity), drug use,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/rs/sanctity/chdrugsrev2.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020142532/http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/rs/sanctity/chdrugsrev2.shtml |url-status=dead |title=So Christians do not approve of the taking of illegal drugs, including most recreational drugs, especially those which can alter the mind and make people incapable of praying or being alert to God. |archive-date=October 20, 2017}}</ref> and sexual activity outside of marriage. In some cases, conservative values are grounded in religious beliefs, and conservatives seek to increase the role of religion in public life.<ref>Petersen, David L. (2005). "Genesis and Family Values". ''Journal of Biblical Literature''. '''124''' (1).</ref>
{{Christian democracy sidebar}}
[[Christian democracy]] is a moderately conservative [[Centre-right politics|center-right]] ideology inspired by [[Christian ethics#Politics|Christian social teaching]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Caciagli |first1=Mario |title=The Cambridge History of Twentieth-Century Political Thought |last2=Robeck |first2=Cecil M |last3=Yong |first3=Amos |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2008 |isbn=9781139053600 |pages=165–180 |chapter=Christian democracy |url=}}</ref> It originated as a reaction against the industrialization and urbanization associated with [[Laissez-faire|''laissez-faire''-capitalism]].<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Riff |author-first=Michael |title=Dictionary of Modern Political Ideologies |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1987 |isbn=0-7190-3289-X |page=34 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=scxRAQAAIAAJ}}</ref> In post-war Europe, Christian-democratic parties dominated politics in several nations—the [[Christian Democratic and Flemish|Christian People's Party]] in Belgium, [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|CDU]] and [[Christian Social Union in Bavaria|CSU]] in Germany, [[Fine Gael]] and [[Fianna Fáil]] in Ireland, and [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democracy]] in Italy.<ref name=":9">{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/europeanchristia0000unse |title=European Christian Democracy: Historical Legacies and Comparative Perspectives |publisher=University of Notre Dame Press |year=2003 |editor-last=Kselman |editor-first=Thomas |editor-last2=Buttigieg |editor-first2=Thomas |page=122}}</ref> Many post-war Europeans saw Christian democracy as a moderate alternative to the extremes of right-wing nationalism and left-wing communism.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/conservativepoli0000unse/mode/2up |title=Conservative Politics in Western Europe |publisher=St. Martin's |year=1982 |editor-last=Layton-Henry |editor-first=Zig |isbn=9780312164188 |pages=131–133}}</ref> Christian-democratic parties were especially popular among European women, who often voted for these parties to a large extent due to their pro-family policies.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/christiandemocra0000unse_p1x7/mode/2up |title=Christian Democracy in Europe: A Comparative Perspective |publisher=Pinter Publishers |year=1994 |editor-last=Hanley |editor-first=David |isbn=9781855670860 |pages=56–57}}</ref>

=== Social conservatism ===
{{main|Social conservatism}}
[[File:Marche pour la vie 2012 - 6.jpg|thumb|A [[March for Life (Paris)|March for Life]] rally in [[Paris]] in 2012]]
Social conservatives believe that society is built upon a fragile network of relationships which need to be upheld through duty, traditional values, and established institutions; and that the government has a role in encouraging or enforcing traditional values or practices. A social conservative wants to preserve traditional morality and social [[mores]], often by opposing what they consider radical policies or [[social engineering (political science)|social engineering]].{{sfn|Heywood|2017|p=69}} Some social-conservative stances are the following:
* Support of a [[culture of life]] and opposition to the destruction of human life at any stage, including [[abortion]], [[embryonic stem cells]] research, and [[euthanasia]].
* Support of [[bioconservatism]] and opposition to both [[eugenics]] and [[transhumanism]].<ref>[http://www.utne.com/2005-01-01/TheNextDigitalDivide.aspx?page=2 The Next Digital Divide] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606100135/http://www.utne.com/2005-01-01/TheNextDigitalDivide.aspx?page=2 |date=June 6, 2011 }} (utne article)</ref>
* Support of traditional [[family values]], viewing the [[nuclear family]] model as society's foundational unit.
* Support of a traditional definition of marriage as being one man and one woman, and opposition to expansion of [[civil marriage]] and [[child adoption]] to couples in [[same-sex relationship]]s.
* Support of [[public morality]] with prohibition of [[Prohibition (drugs)|drugs]] and [[prostitution]] and censorship of [[pornography]].
* Support of [[organized religion]] and opposition to [[atheism]] and [[secularism]], especially when militant.<ref name="MA1">{{cite magazine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VayGAAAAIAAJ&q=%22conservatism%22+%22militant+atheism%22 |magazine=The World & I |title=The World & I |quote=militant atheism was incompatible with conservatism |volume=1 |issue=5 |publisher=Washington Times Corp. |access-date=August 19, 2011 |year=1986}}</ref><ref name = "MA2">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9dgvDn9hoe0C&q=social%20conservatism%20militant%20atheism&pg=PA264 |title=The Routledge Companion to Fascism and the Far Right |quote=In addition, conservative Christians often endorsed far-right regimes as the lesser of two evils, especially when confronted with militant atheism in the USSR. |first1=Peter |last1=Davies |first2=Derek |last2=Lynch |publisher=Psychology |isbn=978-0-415-21494-0 |year=2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SRrwirez3fQC&pg=PA57 |title=Religious America, Secular Europe?: A Theme and Variations |quote=If anything the reverse is true: moral conservatives continue to oppose secular liberals on a wide range of issues. |first1=Peter L. |last1=Berger |first2=Grace |last2=Davie |first3=Effie |last3=Fokas |publisher=Ashgate |access-date=August 19, 2011 |isbn=978-0-7546-6011-8 |year=2008}}</ref>

=== Traditionalist conservatism ===
{{main|Traditionalist conservatism}}
Traditionalist conservatism, also known as classical conservatism, emphasises the need for the principles of [[natural law]], transcendent moral order, [[tradition]], [[hierarchy]], [[Organicism#In politics and sociology|organicism]], [[agrarianism]], [[classicism]], and [[high culture]] as well as the intersecting spheres of [[loyalty]].{{sfn|Frohnen|2006|pp=870–875}} Some traditionalists have embraced the labels [[reactionary]] and [[counter-revolution]]ary, defying the stigma that has attached to these terms since the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]]. Having a hierarchical view of society, many traditionalist conservatives, including a few notable Americans such as [[Ralph Adams Cram]],<ref>{{cite web |last=Cram |first=Ralph Adams |title=Invitation to Monarchy |url=https://archive.org/details/invitation-to-monarchy-by-ralph-adams-cram |date=1936}}</ref> [[William S. Lind]],<ref>{{cite journal |last=Lind |first=William S. |title=The Prussian Monarchy Stuff |url=http://archive.lewrockwell.com/lind/lind103.html |website=LewRockwell.com |publisher=Center for Libertarian Studies |year=2006}}</ref> and [[Charles A. Coulombe]],<ref>{{cite news |title=What's the Cure for Ailing Nations? More Kings and Queens, Monarchists Say |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/01/06/world/europe/monarchy-us-advantage.html |date=January 6, 2018 |author=Leslie Wayne}}</ref> defend the monarchical political structure as the most natural and beneficial social arrangement.

== National variants ==
Conservative parties vary widely from country to country in the goals they wish to achieve.<ref name=":6" /> Both conservative and [[Classical liberalism|classical liberal]] parties tend to favor private ownership of property, in opposition to [[Communism|communist]], [[Socialism|socialist]], and [[Green politics|green]] parties, which favor communal ownership or laws regulating responsibility on the part of property owners. Where conservatives and liberals differ is primarily on social issues, where conservatives tend to reject behavior that does not conform to some [[social norm]]. Modern conservative parties often define themselves by their opposition to liberal or socialist parties. The United States usage of the term conservative is unique to that country, where its first modern usage was for pro-free enterprise opponents of the [[New Deal]].{{sfn|Ware|1996|pp=25–26}}

=== Asia ===
{{Conservatism in East Asia}}
Conservatism in Asia differs according to regions. [[East Asia]] and some [[Southeast Asian]] regions are deeply linked to [[Confucian]] traditions.

[[Asian values]] is a [[political ideology]] that attempts to define elements of society, culture and history common to the nations of Southeast and East Asia, particularly values of [[Sense of community|commonality]] and [[Social organization|collectivism]] for social unity and economic good — contrasting with perceived [[European values|European ideals]] of the [[universal rights]] of all individuals.
{{clear}}
==== China ====
{{Main|Conservatism in China}}
{{Conservatism in China}}
Chinese conservatism can be traced back to [[Confucius]], whose [[Confucianism|philosophy]] is based on the values of loyalty, duty, and respect. He believed in a hierarchically organized society, [[Family as a model for the state#Confucian thought|modeled after the patriarchal family]] and headed by an [[Absolute monarchy|absolute sovereign]]. However, Confucius also believed that the state should employ a [[Meritocracy|meritocratic]] class of administrators and advisers, recruited by [[Imperial examination|civil service exams]]. An alternative school of thought called [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]] argued that administrative discipline, not Confucian virtue, was crucial for the governance of the state.<ref>{{Cite book |author-last=Kelly |author-first=P. J. |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/828097386 |title=The Politics Book |date=2013 |publisher=DK |isbn=978-1-4093-6445-0 |pages=23–24|oclc=828097386 }}</ref>

For thousands of years, China was ruled by monarchs of various imperial dynasties. The [[Mandate of Heaven]] theory was invoked in order to legitimize the absolute authority of the Emperor.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Harari |first=Yuval Noah |title=Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind |publisher=Penguin Random House |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-09-959008-8 |page=219}}</ref> The [[1911 Revolution|Xinhai Revolution]] of 1911 overthrew [[Puyi]], the last Chinese Emperor, and ushered in the [[Republic of China (1912–1949)|Republic of China]]. Between 1927 and 1949, China was ruled by the nationalist party [[Kuomintang]], which became right-wing after General [[Chiang Kai-shek]] purged communists from his party. Following his defeat in the [[Chinese Civil War]] by the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP), Chiang continued ruling the island of [[Taiwan]] until his death in 1975.<ref>{{cite web |last=Reilly |first=Michael |date=October 17, 2021 |url=https://island.lk/taiwan-will-it-retain-independence-or-be-taken-over/ |title=Taiwan: Will it retain independence or be taken over? |work=The Island Online |access-date=May 30, 2024 |archive-date=November 12, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112235026/https://island.lk/taiwan-will-it-retain-independence-or-be-taken-over/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

On the mainland, Chinese conservatism was vehemently opposed and suppressed by the CCP, especially during the [[Cultural Revolution]]. Members of the "[[Five Black Categories]]"—landlords, rich farmers, counter-revolutionaries, bad influencers, and right-wingers—were violently persecuted. Young people formed cadres of [[Red Guards]] throughout the country and sought to destroy the [[Four Olds]]: old ideas, old culture, old customs, and old habits—leading to the destruction of a large part of China's [[cultural heritage]], including historical artifacts and religious sites.<ref>{{cite book |last=Lu |first=Xing |title=Rhetoric of the Chinese Cultural Revolution: The Impact on Chinese Thought |date=2004 |page=2}}</ref> Among them, some Red Guards who embraced local officials were pejoratively called "[[Conservative Faction (Cultural Revolution)|conservatives]]".<ref>{{cite journal |first1=Hongbiao |last1=Yin |title=Ideological and political tendencies of factions in the red guard movement |journal=[[Journal of Contemporary China]] |date=November 1996 |volume=5 |issue=13 |pages=269–280 |doi=10.1080/10670569608724255 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10670569608724255 |access-date=June 11, 2023}}</ref>

In recent decades, Chinese conservatism has experienced a national revival.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/china/2017/08/17/the-communist-party-is-redefining-what-it-means-to-be-chinese |title=The Communist Party is redefining what it means to be Chinese |date=August 17, 2017 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=May 30, 2024}}</ref> The ancient schools of Confucianism and Legalism have made a return into mainstream Chinese thought.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schneider |first1=David K. |title=China's New Legalism |journal=The National Interest |date=2016 |issue=143 |pages=19–25 |jstor=26557304}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Johnson |first=Ian |date=October 18, 2017 |title=Forget Marx and Mao. Chinese City Honors Once-Banned Confucian. |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/18/world/asia/china-guiyang-wang-yangming-confucian.html |access-date=May 30, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Melvin |first=Sheila |title=Yu Dan and China's Return to Confucius |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/29/arts/29iht-melvin.1.7298367.html |access-date=August 18, 2024 |newspaper=The New York Times |date=August 29, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140908124354/http://www.nytimes.com/2007/08/29/arts/29iht-melvin.1.7298367.html |archive-date=September 8, 2014 |url-status=live}}</ref> [[Wang Huning]], widely regarded as the [[Éminence grise|grey eminence]] and chief ideologue of the CCP, has criticized aspects of [[Marxism]] and recommended that China combine its historical and modern values.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lyons |first=N.S. |date=October 11, 2021 |title=The Triumph and Terror of Wang Huning |url=https://palladiummag.com/2021/10/11/the-triumph-and-terror-of-wang-huning/ |access-date=June 19, 2024 |website=Palladium}}</ref> General Secretary [[Xi Jinping]] has called traditional [[Chinese culture]] the "soul" of the nation and the "foundation" of the CCP.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zi |first=Yang |date=July 6, 2016 |title=Xi Jinping and China's Traditionalist Restoration |work=The Jamestown Foundation |url=https://jamestown.org/program/xi-jinping-chinas-traditionalist-restoration/ |access-date=June 22, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Cai |first=Jane |date=June 12, 2023 |title=How China's Xi Jinping promotes mix of Marxism and traditional culture to further Communist Party and 'Chinese dream' |work=South China Morning Post |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3223805/how-chinas-xi-jinping-promotes-mix-marxism-and-traditional-culture-further-communist-party-and  |access-date=June 22, 2024 |archive-date=June 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612111635/http://www.scmp.com/news/china/politics/article/3223805/how-chinas-xi-jinping-promotes-mix-marxism-and-traditional-culture-further-communist-party-and  |url-status=live}}</ref> China has also developed a form of [[Authoritarian capitalism#China|authoritarian capitalism]] in recent years, further breaking with the orthodox communism of its past.<ref>{{cite book |date=2013 |chapter=China: Authoritarian Capitalism |title=The Oxford Handbook of Asian Business Systems |isbn=9780199654925 |last1=Witt |first1=Michael A. |last2=Redding |first2=Gordon |publisher=OUP Oxford}}</ref>  [[Neoauthoritarianism (China)|Neoauthoritarianism]] is a current of political thought that advocates a powerful state to facilitate [[Chinese economic reform|market reforms]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bramall |first=Chris |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9Rr-M8MXAEC&pg=PA475 |title=Chinese Economic Development |date=2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-19051-5}}</ref> A major concern of modern Chinese conservatism is the preservation of traditional culture.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Xu |first=Aymeric |date=2020 |title=What Made Chinese Conservatism a Cultural Movement: A Case Study of the Southern Society |url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/765149 |journal=Twentieth-Century China |volume=45 |issue=3 |pages=331–350 |doi=10.1353/tcc.2020.0028 |issn=1940-5065}}</ref>
{{clear}}

==== India ====
{{Main|Conservatism in India}}
Indian politics has long been dominated by aristocratic and religious elites in one of the most hierarchically stratified nations in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://origins.osu.edu/article/right-wing-politics-india-Modi-Kashmir-election |title=Right wing politics in India, by Archana Venkatesh |publisher=osu.edu |date=October 1, 2019 |access-date=March 14, 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author-last=Rao |author-first=Jaithirth |title=The Indian Conservative : A History of Indian Right-Wing Thought |year=2019 |publisher=Juggernaut |isbn=978-9353450625 |page=280 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0hJLzQEACAAJ}}</ref> In modern times, the [[Bharatiya Janata Party]] (BJP), led by [[Narendra Modi]], represents conservative politics. With over 170 million members as of October 2022, the BJP is by far the world's [[List of largest political parties|largest political party]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=October 16, 2022 |title=BJP v CCP: The rise of the world's biggest political party |work=Sydney Morning Herald |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/asia/bjp-v-ccp-the-rise-of-the-world-s-biggest-political-party-20220916-p5bise.html |url-status=live |access-date=July 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701075444/https://www.smh.com.au/world/asia/bjp-v-ccp-the-rise-of-the-world-s-biggest-political-party-20220916-p5bise.html |archive-date=July 1, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=April 16, 2022 |title=How BJP became world's largest political party in 4 decades |work=[[The Times of India]] |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-10-charts-how-bjp-became-a-political-juggernaut-in-4-decades/articleshow/90680606.cms |url-status=live |access-date=July 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230628205517/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-10-charts-how-bjp-became-a-political-juggernaut-in-4-decades/articleshow/90680606.cms |archive-date=June 28, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=June 23, 2022 |title=Narendra Modi's Message to America |work=National Review |url=https://www.nationalreview.com/the-morning-jolt/narendra-modis-message-to-america/ |url-status=live |access-date=July 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230701084716/https://www.nationalreview.com/the-morning-jolt/narendra-modis-message-to-america/ |archive-date=July 1, 2023 |quote="His Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP, or “Indian People’s Party”) is on the right of the Indian political spectrum. It is the largest political party in the world, with more members than the Chinese Communist Party, and supports Hindu nationalist ideology and economic development."}}</ref> It promotes [[Hindu nationalism]], quasi-fascist [[Hindutva]], a hostile foreign policy against Pakistan, and a conservative social and fiscal policy.<ref>{{cite book |first1=Abhilasha |last1=Kumari |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=urvvwXU_ZQkC&pg=PA83 |title=Crossing the Sacred Line: Women's Search for Political Power |first2=Sabina |last2=Kidwai |publisher=Orient Blackswan |year=1998 |isbn=978-81-250-1434-8 |page=83}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Chatterji |first1=Angana P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zcObDwAAQBAJ&q=BJP%27s+Hindutva+ideology |title=Majoritarian State: How Hindu Nationalism Is Changing India |last2=Hansen |first2=Thomas Blom |last3=Jaffrelot |first3=Christophe |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-007817-1 |pages=100–130 |access-date=June 22, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230414061226/https://books.google.com/books?id=zcObDwAAQBAJ&q=BJP%27s+Hindutva+ideology |archive-date=April 14, 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref> The BJP movement is both elitist and populist, attracting privileged groups that fear encroachment on their dominant positions as well as "plebeian" groups that seek recognition around a majoritarian rhetoric of cultural pride, social order, and national strength.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Hansen |author-first=Thomas Blom |title=The Saffron Wave: Democracy and Hindu Nationalism in Modern India |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2001 |isbn=9781400803422}}</ref>
{{clear}}

==== Iran ====
{{Conservatism in Iran}}
The [[Pahlavi dynasty]] replaced the [[Qajar dynasty]] in 1925 after a ''[[1921 Persian coup d'état|coup d'état]]'', ruling Iran as a [[constitutional monarchy]] from 1925 until 1953 and then as an autocratic monarchy from the U.S.-instigated [[1953 Iranian coup d'état|1953 ''coup d'état'']] until 1979.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Cyrus Ghani |author2=Sīrūs Ghanī |title=Iran and the Rise of the Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VGZItY9kL0AC&pg=PA147 |date=January 6, 2001 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=978-1-86064-629-4 |pages=147–}}</ref> In an attempt to introduce reform from above while preserving traditional relations of hierarchy, the [[Shah]], [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], launched the [[White Revolution]] in 1963 as a series of reforms of aggressive modernization, resulting in a great [[redistribution of wealth]] from the aristocratic landlord class to Iran's working class and explosive economic growth in subsequent decades.<ref>{{cite news |title=1979: Iran and America |newspaper=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/White-Revolution}}</ref> The [[Iranian Revolution]] of 1979, supported by the clergy and the aristocracy, overthrew the monarchy and transformed the [[Imperial State of Iran]] to the [[Islamic Republic of Iran]], thus replacing the [[progressive conservatism]] of the Shah monarchy with the [[reactionary conservatism]] of Islamic theocracy.<ref>{{cite book |last=Afkhami |first=Gholam-Reza |title=The Life and Times of the Shah |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pTVSPmyvtkAC |isbn=978-0-520-94216-5 |date=2009 |publisher=University of California Press |access-date=July 2, 2024 |archive-date=January 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230119152458/https://books.google.com/books?id=pTVSPmyvtkAC |url-status=live}}</ref> The two main political camps in today's Iran are the [[Iranian Principlists|Principlists]] and the [[Iranian reform movement|Reformists]].<ref>{{Citation |first=Masoud |last=Kazemzadeh |title=Intra-Elite Factionalism and the 2004 Majles Elections in Iran |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |year=2008 |volume=44 |number=2 |doi=10.1080/00263200701874867 |pages=189–214}}</ref>
{{clear}}

==== Israel ====
{{main|Conservatism in Israel}}
{{Conservatism in Israel}}
After the declaration of the [[State of Israel]], politics was initially dominated by left-wing parties, but overtime right-wing parties became increasingly powerful with conservatism now being the dominant ideology.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Shindler |first=Colin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vjAZCgAAQBAJ |title=The Rise of the Israeli Right: from Odessa to Hebron |date=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780521193788}}</ref> In the [[2022 Israeli legislative election|2022 election]], right-wing parties received 75 percent of the popular vote, a centrist party 17 percent and left-wing parties 7 percent, and the subsequent government has been variously described as the most right-wing, as well as the most religious, in Israeli history.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Kershner |first1=Isabel |last2=Kingsley |first2=Patrick |date=November 1, 2022 |title=Israel Election: Exit Polls Show Netanyahu With Edge in Israel's Election |newspaper=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/live/2022/11/01/world/israel-election |access-date=November 6, 2022 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Maltz |first=Judy |date=November 3, 2022 |title=Will Israel Become a Theocracy? Religious Parties Are Election's Biggest Winners |work=[[Haaretz]] |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/elections/2022-11-03/ty-article/.premium/will-israel-become-a-theocracy-religious-parties-are-elections-biggest-winners/00000184-3db9-dc3c-a1ac-bfbb83b40000 |access-date=November 6, 2022}}</ref>

Israeli conservatism is based around upholding [[Jewish culture]], promotion of forms of [[Zionism]] that tend to be more [[List of irredentist claims or disputes#Israel and Palestine|irredentist]] in nature (i.e. [[Revisionist Zionism|Revisionist]] and [[Neo-Zionism]], which promote the idea of [[Greater Israel]], as compared to [[Zionism#Liberal Zionism|Liberal]] or [[Labor Zionism]], which are supportive of a [[two-state solution]]), promoting Israeli [[national security]], maintaining [[Halachic state|the role of religion and the Rabbinate in the public sphere]], support for the [[free market]], and [[Israel-United States relations|closer ties with the United States]].<ref name=":13">{{cite web |first1=Seth D. |last1=Kaplan |first2=Yitzhak |last2=Klein |title=The Rise of Conservatism in Israel |url=https://americanaffairsjournal.org/2020/08/the-rise-of-conservatism-in-israel/ |website=American Affairs Journal |date=August 20, 2020}}</ref>
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==== Japan ====
{{Main|Conservatism in Japan}}
{{Conservatism in Japan}}
Conservatism has been the dominant political ideology throughout modern Japanese history.<ref>{{cite book |title=How the Conservatives Rule Japan |author-last=Thayer |author-first=N. B. |isbn=9781400871414 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DZh9BgAAQBAJ |year=2015 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Pempel |first=T. J. |title=Policy and Politics in Japan: Creative Conservatism |date=1982 |publisher=Temple University Press |isbn=978-0-87722-250-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vwBhQgAACAAJ}}</ref> The right-wing conservative [[Liberal Democratic Party (Japan)|Liberal Democratic Party]] has been the dominant ruling party since 1955, often referred to as the [[1955 System]].{{sfn|Heywood|2017|pp=63–64}} Therefore, some experts consider Japan a democratically elected [[one-party state]] since the populace always votes for the same conservative party.<ref>{{Cite web |date=February 15, 2021 |title=Japan as a One-Party State: The Future for Koizumi and Beyond |publisher=Wilson Center |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/japan-one-party-state-the-future-for-koizumi-and-beyond |access-date=April 19, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210215044435/https://www.wilsoncenter.org/event/japan-one-party-state-the-future-for-koizumi-and-beyond |archive-date=February 15, 2021}}</ref>

Up until 1868, Japan was largely a [[Feudalism|feudal]] state ruled by members of the aristocratic [[Samurai]] order with its ''[[bushido]]'' code of honor. In the [[Meiji era]], a process of modernization, industrialization, and nationalization was initiated.<ref name=":14">{{Cite encyclopedia |date=June 26, 2024 |title=Conservatism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/conservatism/Conservatism-since-the-turn-of-the-20th-century |access-date=August 18, 2024 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Vritannica}}</ref> Power struggles between the old decentralized Samurai aristocracy and the new centralized imperial monarchy culminated in the [[Satsuma Rebellion]] in 1877 with imperial victory.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mounsey |first=Augustus |title=The Satsuma Rebellion: An Episode of Modern Japanese History |year=1879}}</ref> During the era of [[World War II]], Japan was transformed into an ultranationalist, imperialist state that conquered much of east and southeast Asia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1930s Japan: A Time of Turmoil and Transformation |url=https://wrightwood659.org/resources/1930s-japan-a-time-of-turmoil-and-transformation/ |access-date=May 27, 2024 |website=Wrightwood 659}}</ref> Contemporary conservatives, notably during the second premiership of [[Shinzo Abe]] from 2012 to 2020, advocate for revising the country's constitution, particularly [[Article 9 of the Japanese Constitution|Article 9]] which renounces war and prohibits Japan from maintaining a military.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Sieg |first=Linda |date=November 19, 2019 |title=Mission unaccomplished — Abe's drive to revise pacifist Constitution |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2019/11/19/national/politics-diplomacy/shinzo-abe-revise-constitution/ |access-date=April 18, 2024 |website=The Japan Times}}</ref>

Japan is the oldest continuing monarchy in the history of mankind, with [[Naruhito]] currently serving as [[Emperor of Japan]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=August 8, 2016 |title=5 Things to know about Japan's emperor and imperial family |url=https://www.seattletimes.com/nation-world/5-things-to-know-about-japans-emperor-and-imperial-family/ |access-date=April 19, 2024 |website=The Seattle Times}}</ref> In accordance with the principle of monarchy, Japanese society has an authoritarian family structure with a traditionalist fatherly authority that is primarily transferred to the oldest son.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Todd |author-first=Emmanuel |title=The Explanation of Ideology: Family Structures and Social Systems |publisher=Blackwell |year=1985 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xk-EzQEACAAJ}}</ref>

[[Anti-communism#Japan and Manchukuo|Anti-communist]] and [[Anti-Chinese sentiment in Japan|anti-Chinese sentiment]] is widespread in Japan.<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 2017 |title=Overview of the Public Opinion Survey on Diplomacy (page 4) |url=https://survey.gov-online.go.jp/h29/h29-gaiko/summary.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301153811/https://survey.gov-online.go.jp/h29/h29-gaiko/summary.pdf |archive-date=March 1, 2021 |website=Public Relations Office, Government of Japan}}</ref> In 1925 the [[Peace Preservation Law]] was enacted with the aim of allowing the [[Tokubetsu Kōtō Keisatsu|Special Higher Police]] to suppress socialists and communists more effectively.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=McClain |author-first=James L. |title=Japan: A Modern History |date=2002 |publisher=W. W. Norton & Company |isbn=0393041565 |page=390 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YvuDPwAACAAJ}}</ref> In 1936 the [[Empire of Japan]] and [[Nazi Germany]] opposed the [[Communist International]] by signing the [[Anti-Comintern Pact]]—a pact later joined by the [[Kingdom of Italy]], [[Francoist Spain]], and the [[Kingdom of Hungary]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Waddington |first=Lorna L. |date=2007 |title=The Anti-Komintern and Nazi Anti-Bolshevik Propaganda in the 1930s |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=573–594 |doi=10.1177/0022009407081488}}</ref> The Japanese term ''[[tenkō]]'' refers to the coerced ideological conversions of Japanese socialists who were induced to renounce leftist ideology and enthusiastically embrace the monarchist, capitalist, and imperialist ideology favored by the state.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Kapur |first=Nick |date=2018 |title=The Empire Strikes Back? : The 1968 Meiji Centennial Celebrations and the Revival of Japanese Nationalism |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/10371397.2018.1543533 |journal=Japanese Studies |volume=38 |issue=3 |pages=307 |doi=10.1080/10371397.2018.1543533}}</ref> In the late 1940s and early 1950s, during the [[Red Purge]], tens of thousands of supporters of left-wing groups, especially those affiliated with the [[Japanese Communist Party]], were removed from their jobs in government, schools, and universities.<ref>{{cite book |last=Kapur |first=Nick |year=2018 |title=Japan at the Crossroads: Conflict and Compromise after Anpo |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0674984424 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Re5hDwAAQBAJ |page=10}}</ref>

''[[Nippon Kaigi]]'' is an ultraconservative and ultranationalist organization that exerts a significant influence over contemporary Japanese politics. In 2014, a majority of [[National Diet]] members were part of the group. Many ministers and a few prime ministers, including [[Fumio Kishida]], [[Tarō Asō]], [[Shinzō Abe]], and [[Yoshihide Suga]], have been members.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 4, 2014 |title=Abe's reshuffle promotes right-wingers |url=https://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/2014/09/04/politics/Abes-reshuffle-promotes-rightwingers/2994558.html |access-date=April 19, 2024 |website=koreajoongangdaily.joins.com}}</ref>

A highly developed and industrialized nation, Japan is more capitalistic and Western-oriented than other Asian nations. Therefore, some experts consider Japan part of the [[Western world]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=April 26, 2021 |title=The Western World |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/list-of-western-countries.html |website=WorldAtlas}}</ref> In 1960 [[Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between the United States and Japan|a treaty]] was signed that established [[U.S.–Japan Alliance|a military alliance between the United States and Japan]]. However, the ultraconservative reactionary traditionalist [[Yukio Mishima]] feared that his fellow Japanese were too enamored of modernization and Western-style capitalism to protect traditional [[Japanese culture]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Inose |first1=Naoki |title=Persona: A Biography of Yukio Mishima. |last2=Sato |first2=Hiroaki |publisher=Stone Bridge Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-61172-524-7 |pages=521–522}}</ref>
{{clear}}

==== Singapore ====
{{Conservatism in Singapore}}
Singapore's conservative party is the [[People's Action Party]] (PAP), which promotes conservative values in the form of Asian democracy and [[Asian values]].<ref>{{cite book |first=Hussin |last=Mutalib |year=2004 |title=Parties and Politics. A Study of Opposition Parties and the PAP in Singapore |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=981-210-408-9 |page=20}}</ref> These values include: nation before community and society above self; family as the basic unit of society; regard and community support for the individual; consensus instead of contention, and racial and religious harmony. They are a contrast against the "more Westernised, individualistic, and self-centred outlook on life" and uphold the "traditional Asian ideas of morality, duty and society".<ref name="SV">{{cite web |last1=Tin Seng |first1=Lim |title=Shared Values |url=https://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/article-detail?cmsuuid=194d7f99-c8b6-408e-86cf-8ebfb8547d28 |website=www.nlb.gov.sg |publisher=[[National Library Board]] |access-date=January 8, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240108063620/https://www.nlb.gov.sg/main/article-detail?cmsuuid=194d7f99-c8b6-408e-86cf-8ebfb8547d28 |archive-date=January 8, 2024}}</ref>

The PAP is currently in [[Government of Singapore|government]] and has been since independence in 1965. Having governed for over six decades, the PAP is the longest uninterrupted governing party among modern multiparty parliamentary democracies.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Oliver |first1=Steven |last2=Ostwald |first2=Kai |date=2018 |title=Explaining Elections in Singapore: Dominant Party Resilience and Valence Politics |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-east-asian-studies/article/explaining-elections-in-singapore-dominant-party-resilience-and-valence-politics/B4313DB214400AF11ED31DC80F673611 |journal=Journal of East Asian Studies |volume=18 |issue=2 |pages=129–156 |doi=10.1017/jea.2018.15}}</ref> [[Singapore]] is a [[city state]] and has a reputation as a [[nanny state]], owing to the considerable number of government [[Law of Singapore|regulations and restrictions]] on its citizens' lives.<ref>[http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2015-03-29/after-lee-kuan-yew-singapore-should-relax-laws Time for Singapore to Grow Up], [[Bloomberg News]], March 29, 2015</ref> Former [[Prime Minister of Singapore|Prime Minister]] [[Lee Kuan Yew]], the architect of the modern Singapore, observed: "If Singapore is a nanny state, then I am proud to have fostered one".<ref>[https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/lee-kuan-yew-singapores-founding-5383631 Lee Kuan Yew: Singapore's 'founding father' dies in hospital aged 91 after suffering with pneumonia], ''[[Daily Mirror]]'', March 22, 2015</ref> In an interview in the ''[[Straits Times]]'' in 1987, Lee said:

<blockquote>I am often accused of interfering in the private lives of citizens. Yes, if I did not, had I not done that, we wouldn't be here today. And I say without the slightest remorse, that we wouldn't be here, we would not have made economic progress, if we had not intervened on very personal matters–who your neighbour is, how you live, the noise you make, how you spit, or what language you use. We decide what is right. Never mind what the people think.<ref>[https://blogs.wsj.com/briefly/2015/03/23/5-quotes-from-lee-kuan-yew/ 5 Quotes From Singapore's Lee Kuan Yew], 23 March 2015</ref></blockquote>
{{clear}}

==== South Korea ====
{{Main|Conservatism in South Korea}}
{{Conservatism in South Korea}}
South Korean army general [[Park Chung Hee]] seized power in the [[May 16 coup]] of 1961, after which he was elected as the third [[President of South Korea]]. He introduced the highly authoritarian [[Yushin Constitution]], ushering in the [[Fourth Republic of Korea|Fourth Republic]]. He ruled the country as a dictator until [[Assassination of Park Chung Hee|his assassination]] by a fellow army general in 1979.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Byung-Kook |last2=Vogel |first2=E. F. |year=2013 |title=The Park Chung Hee Era: The Transformation of South Korea |publisher=Harvard University Press |pages=200–205 |isbn=978-0-674-06106-4}}</ref>

Right-wing conservative parties have dominated South Korean politics for most of its modern history, while the main opposition parties have been moderate centrist and not left-wing. South Korea's major conservative party, the [[People Power Party (South Korea)|People Power Party]], has changed its form throughout its history. First it was the [[New Korea Party|Democratic-Liberal Party]] and its first head was [[Roh Tae-woo]], who was the first President of the [[Sixth Republic of South Korea]]. Democratic-Liberal Party was founded by the merging of [[Roh Tae-woo]]'s [[Democratic Justice Party]], [[Kim Young Sam]]'s [[Reunification Democratic Party]] and [[Kim Jong-pil]]'s [[New Democratic Republican Party]]. [[Kim Young-sam]] became the fourteenth President of Korea.

When the conservative party was beaten by the opposition party in the general election, it changed its form again to follow the party members' demand for reforms. It became the [[New Korea Party]], but it changed again one year later since the President Kim Young-sam was blamed by the citizen for the [[International Monetary Fund]].{{clarify|date=March 2014}} It changed its name to [[Liberty Korea Party|Grand National Party]] (GNP). Since the late [[Kim Dae-jung]] assumed the presidency in 1998, GNP had been the opposition party until [[Lee Myung-bak]] won the presidential election of [[2007 South Korean presidential election|2007]].
{{clear}}

=== Europe===
{{Conservatism in Europe}}
European conservatism has taken many different expressions. Early forms were often [[reactionary]] and [[Romanticism|romantic]], idealizing the [[Middle Ages]] and its [[Feudalism|feudal social order]] with aristocratic rule and an established church.{{sfn|von Kuehnelt-Leddihn|1943|p=124}}{{sfn|Nisbet|2002|pp=34–36}} In the late 19th century, conservatism became increasingly [[Progressive conservatism|progressive]], adopting capitalism and espousing nationalism—which up until now had been anti-traditionalist and anti-imperialist forces.{{sfn|Neill|2021|pp=70–76}} During the first half of the 20th century, as socialist movements were becoming more powerful and the [[Tsar]]ist regime was overthrown in the [[Russian Revolution]], conservatism in Austria, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Romania transformed into the [[Far-right politics|far-right]], becoming more [[Authoritarian conservatism|authoritarian]] and [[Ultraconservatism|extreme]].{{sfn|Blinkhorn|1990|p=7}} In the post-war era, conservatism assumed a more [[Moderate conservatism|moderate]] form with center-right Christian-democratic parties dominating politics across [[Western Europe]] throughout the rest of the century,<ref name=":9" /> although the authoritarian regimes of [[Francoist Spain]] and [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Salazarian Portugal]] survived for a few more decades.{{sfn|Heywood|2017|p=82}} Towards the end of the century, after [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|the collapse of the Soviet Union]], conservatism took on a more [[Liberal conservatism|liberal]] form. In recent decades, [[National conservatism|nationalist]] parties have been on the rise across Europe in opposition to [[globalism]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Nationalism and Europe's Turn to the Right |url=https://www.iwm.at/Nationalism-and-Europes-turn-to-the-right |access-date=June 23, 2024 |website=IWM WEBSITE}}</ref>

European nations, with the exception of [[Switzerland]], have had a long monarchical tradition throughout history. Today, existing monarchies are [[Co-Princes of Andorra|Andorra]], [[Monarchy of Belgium|Belgium]], [[Monarchy of Denmark|Denmark]], [[Monarchy of Liechtenstein|Liechtenstein]], [[Monarchy of Luxembourg|Luxembourg]], [[Monarchy of Monaco|Monaco]], the [[Monarchy of the Netherlands|Netherlands]], [[Monarchy of Norway|Norway]], [[Monarchy of Spain|Spain]], [[Monarchy of Sweden|Sweden]], and the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]]. Some reactionary movements in republican nations, such as {{lang|fr|[[Action Française]]}} in France, the [[Monarchist National Party]] in Italy, and the [[Black-Yellow Alliance]] in Austria, have advocated a restoration of the monarchy.
{{clear}}

==== Austria ====
{{Conservatism in Austria}}
Austrian conservatism originated with Prince [[Klemens von Metternich]], who was the architect behind the monarchist and imperialist [[Conservative Order]] that was enacted at the [[Congress of Vienna]] in the aftermath of the [[French Revolution]] and the [[Napoleonic Wars]].{{sfn|Encyclopædia Britannica}} The goal was to establish a [[European balance of power]] that could guarantee peace and suppress republican and nationalist movements.<ref>Gordon Craig, "The System of Alliances and the Balance of Power." in J.P.T. Bury, ed., ''The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. 10: The Zenith of European Power, 1830–70'' (1960), p. 266.</ref> During its existence, the [[Austrian Empire]] was the third most populous monarchy in Europe after the [[Russian Empire]] and the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]]. Following its defeat in the [[Austro-Prussian War]], it transformed into the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]], which was the most diverse state in Europe with twelve nationalities living under a unifying monarch.{{sfn|von Kuehnelt-Leddihn|1943|pp=139–140}} The Empire was fragmented in the aftermath of [[World War I]], ushering in the democratic [[First Austrian Republic]].

The [[Austrian Civil War]] in 1934 saw a series of skirmishes between the right-wing government and socialist forces. When the insurgents were defeated, the government declared [[martial law]] and held mass trials, forcing leading socialist politicians, such as [[Otto Bauer]], into exile.<ref>{{cite book |last=Brook-Shepherd |first=Gordon |year=1996 |title=The Austrians: A Thousand-Year Odyssey |publisher=HarperCollins |isbn=0-00-638255-X |page=283}}</ref> The conservatives banned the [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|Social Democratic Party]] and replaced [[parliamentary democracy]] with a [[Conservative corporatism|corporatist]] and [[Clericalism|clerical]] constitution. The [[Patriotic Front (Austria)|Patriotic Front]], into which the paramilitary {{lang|de|[[Heimwehr]]}} and the [[Christian Social Party (Austria)|Christian Social Party]] were merged, became the only legal political party in the resulting authoritarian regime, the [[Federal State of Austria]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pyrah |first=Robert |date=2007 |title=Enacting Encyclicals? Cultural Politics and 'Clerical Fascism' in Austria, 1933–1938 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14690760701321338?journalCode=ftmp20 |journal=[[Totalitarian Movements and Political Religions]] |volume=8 |issue=2 |pages=369–382 |doi=10.1080/14690760701321338 |via=Taylor & Francis Online}}</ref>

While having close ties to [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]], which was still a [[Kingdom of Italy|monarchy]] as well as a fellow Catholic nation, Austrian conservatives harbored strong anti-Prussian and anti-Nazi sentiment. Austria's most prominent conservative intellectual, the Catholic aristocrat [[Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn]], published several books in which he interpreted [[Nazism]] as a [[Left-wing politics|leftist]], [[Mob rule|ochlocratic]], and [[Demagogy|demagogic]] ideology opposed to the traditional rightist ideals of aristocracy, monarchy, and Christianity.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.crisismagazine.com/2012/kuehnelt-leddihn-and-american-conservatism |title=Kuehnelt-Leddihn and American Conservatism |last=Congdon |first=Lee |date=March 26, 2012 |website=Crisis Magazine |access-date=December 23, 2023}}</ref> Austria's dictator [[Engelbert Dollfuss]] saw Nazism as another form of totalitarian [[communism]], and he saw [[Adolf Hitler]] as the German version of [[Joseph Stalin]]. The conservatives banned the [[Austrian Nazi Party]] and arrested many of its activists, causing tens of thousands of Nazi sympathisers to flee to [[Nazi Germany]] in order to avoid persecution.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Binder |first=Dieter A. |title=The Christian Corporatist State |publisher=Routledge |year=2009 |isbn=9781351315203 |pages=73}}</ref> A few months later, Nazi forces initiated the [[July Putsch]] and managed to assassinate Chancellor Dollfuss in an attempt to overthrow the conservative government.{{sfn|Bischof|2003}} In response, [[Benito Mussolini]] mobilized a part of the Italian army on the Austrian border and threatened Hitler with war in the event of a German invasion of Austria. In 1938, when Nazi Germany annexed Austria in the {{lang|de|[[Anschluss]]}}, conservative groups were suppressed: members of the [[Austrian nobility]] and the [[Catholic clergy]] were arrested and their properties were confiscated.{{sfn|von Kuehnelt-Leddihn|1943|p=210}}<ref>{{cite news |last=Zoch |first=Irene |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/1455082/Habsburgs-demand-return-of-estates-seized-by-Nazis-in-1938.html  |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/germany/1455082/Habsburgs-demand-return-of-estates-seized-by-Nazis-in-1938.html  |archive-date=January 12, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Habsburgs demand return of estates seized by Nazis in 1938 |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=February 22, 2004 |access-date=August 18, 2024}}</ref> [[Otto von Hapsburg]], the last [[List of heirs to the Austrian throne|Crown Prince]] of Austria-Hungary, was a fervent anti-Nazi, for which reason the Nazi regime ordered that he was to be executed immediately if caught.<ref>{{cite news |author=Dan van der Vat |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/04/otto-von-habsburg-obituary |title=Otto von Habsburg obituary |work=The Guardian |date=July 4, 2011 |access-date=August 18, 2024 |archive-date=September 30, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930132055/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/04/otto-von-habsburg-obituary |url-status=live}}</ref>

Following [[World War II]] and the return to democracy, Austrian conservatives and socialists alike abandoned their extremism, believing in political compromise and seeking consensus in the middle.<ref>{{cite book |author=Jelavich, Barbara |year=1989 |title=Modern Austria: Empire & Republic 1815–1986 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-31625-1}}</ref> The conservatives formed the [[Austrian People's Party]], which has been the major conservative party in Austria ever since. In contemporary politics, the party was led by [[Sebastian Kurz]], whom the {{lang|de|[[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]]}} nicknamed the "young [[Klemens von Metternich|Metternich]]".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://kurier.at/politik/inland/aussenminister-in-deutschen-medien-sebastian-kurz-der-junge-metternich/46.313.665 |website=kurier.at |title=Sebastian Kurz, der "junge Metternich" |date=January 16, 2014 |language=de |access-date=December 15, 2023 |archive-date=May 18, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518092627/https://kurier.at/politik/inland/aussenminister-in-deutschen-medien-sebastian-kurz-der-junge-metternich/46.313.665 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==== Belgium ====
Having its roots in the conservative [[Catholic Party (Belgium)|Catholic Party]], the [[Christen-Democratisch en Vlaams|Christian People's Party]] retained a conservative edge through the 20th century, supporting the King in the [[Royal Question]], supporting nuclear family as the cornerstone of society, defending Christian education, and opposing [[euthanasia]]. The Christian People's Party dominated politics in post-war Belgium. In 1999, the party's support collapsed, and it became the country's fifth-largest party.{{sfn|Annesley|2005|p=124}}<ref>Zig Layton-Henry, ed. ''Conservative Politics in Western Europe'' (St. Martin's Press, 1982)</ref><ref>Paul Lucardie and Hans-Martien Ten Napel, "[https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/15171/pu1994Christian%20Democracy%20in%20Europe%20.pdf?sequence=2 Between confessionalism and liberal conservatism: the Christian Democratic parties of Belgium and the Netherlands] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200623075553/https://openaccess.leidenuniv.nl/bitstream/handle/1887/15171/pu1994Christian%20Democracy%20in%20Europe%20.pdf?sequence=2 |date=June 23, 2020 }}." in David Hanley, ed. ''Christian Democracy in Europe: A Comparative Perspective'' (London: Pinter 1994) pp. 51–70</ref> Since 2014, the [[Flemish Movement|Flemish nationalist]] and conservative [[New Flemish Alliance]] is the largest party in Belgium.<ref>{{cite news |author=Philippe Siuberski |title=Belgium gets new government with Michel as PM |agency=AFP |url=https://news.yahoo.com/belgium-parties-agree-form-govt-michel-pm-190206709.html |newspaper=Yahoo News |date=October 7, 2014 |access-date=November 7, 2014}}</ref>

==== Denmark ====
{{Conservatism in Denmark}}
Danish conservatism emerged with the political grouping ''[[Højre]]'' (literally "Right"), which due to its alliance with King [[Christian IX of Denmark]] dominated Danish politics and formed all governments from 1865 to 1901. When a constitutional reform in 1915 stripped the landed [[gentry]] of political power, Højre was succeeded by the [[Conservative People's Party (Denmark)|Conservative People's Party of Denmark]], which has since then been the main Danish conservative party.<ref name=Egander>{{cite web |last1=Skov |first1=Christian Egander |title=Konservatisme |url=https://danmarkshistorien.dk/vis/materiale/konservatisme |website=danmarkshistorien.dk |access-date=July 17, 2023 |language=da}}</ref> Another Danish conservative party was the [[Free Conservatives]], who were active between 1902 and 1920. Traditionally and historically, conservatism in Denmark has been more [[Right-wing populism#Denmark|populist]] and [[Agrarianism|agrarian]] than in Sweden and Norway, where conservatism has been more [[Elitism|elitist]] and [[Urbanization|urban]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=euconedit |date=September 17, 2023 |title=Nordic Conservative Homecoming |url=https://europeanconservative.com/articles/essay/nordic-conservative-homecoming/ |access-date=December 3, 2023 |website=europeanconservative.com}}</ref>

The Conservative People's Party led the government coalition from 1982 to 1993. The party had previously been member of various governments from 1916 to 1917, 1940 to 1945, 1950 to 1953, and 1968 to 1971. The party was a junior partner in governments led by the [[Venstre (Denmark)|Liberals]] from 2001 to 2011{{sfn|Annesley|2005|p=68}} and again from 2016 to 2019. The party is preceded by 11 years by the [[Young Conservatives (Denmark)|Young Conservatives (KU)]], today the youth movement of the party.

The Conservative People's Party had a stable electoral support close to 15 to 20% at almost all general elections from 1918 to 1971. In the 1970s it declined to around 5%, but then under the leadership of [[Poul Schlüter]] reached its highest popularity level ever in [[1984 Danish general election|1984]], receiving 23% of the votes. Since the late 1990s the party has obtained around 5 to 10% of the vote. In [[2022 Danish general election|2022]], the party received 5.5% of the vote.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Kosiara-Pedersen |first1=Karina |title=Det Konservative Folkeparti |url=https://denstoredanske.lex.dk/Det_Konservative_Folkeparti |website=Den Store Danske |access-date=July 17, 2023 |language=da |date=July 10, 2023}}</ref>

Conservative thinking has also influenced other Danish political parties. In 1995, the [[Danish People's Party]] was founded, based on a mixture of conservative, nationalist, and social-democratic ideas.<ref name=Egander/> In 2015, the party [[New Right (Denmark)|New Right]] was established, professing a national-conservative attitude.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Abildlund |first1=Andreas |title=Den konservative højrefløj er gået i udbrud |url=https://www.information.dk/moti/2015/10/konservative-hoejrefloej-gaaet-udbrud |work=Information |date=October 9, 2015 |language=da}}</ref>

The conservative parties in Denmark have always considered the [[Monarchy of Denmark|monarchy]] a central institution in Denmark.<ref>''[[Folketinget]]'': [https://www.ft.dk/da/partier/om-politiske-partier/partiernes-historie "Partiernes historie"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313003717/https://www.ft.dk/da/partier/om-politiske-partier/partiernes-historie |date=March 13, 2020 }}</ref><ref>''[[The Conservative People's Party (Denmark)|Det Konservative Folkeparti]]'': [https://konservative.dk/politik/is/vi-elsker-kongehuset/ "Vi elsker Kongehuset"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220319072551/https://konservative.dk/politik/is/vi-elsker-kongehuset/ |date=March 19, 2022 }}</ref>

==== Finland ====
The conservative party in Finland is the [[National Coalition Party]]. The party was founded in 1918, when several monarchist parties united. Although right-wing in the past, today it is a moderate liberal-conservative party. While advocating economic liberalism, it is committed to the [[social market economy]].{{sfn|Siaroff|2000|p=243}}

There has been strong [[Anti-Russian sentiment|anti-Russian]] and [[Anti-communism|anti-communist]] sentiment in Finland due to its long history of being invaded and conquered by Russia and the Soviet Union.<ref>''[[Helsingin Sanomat]]'', October 11, 2004, [https://web.archive.org/web/20070311034013/http://www.hs.fi/english/article/International%2Bpoll%2BAnti-Russian%2Bsentiment%2Bruns%2Bvery%2Bstrong%2Bin%2BFinland/1076154202275 International poll: Anti-Russian sentiment runs very strong in Finland. Only Kosovo has more negative attitude]</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=Jussi M. Hanhimäki |title=Containing Coexistence: America, Russia, and the "Finnish Solution" |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OWfudYWUOt0C&pg=PA4 |year=1997 |page=4 |isbn=9780873385589 |publisher=Kent State UP}}</ref> In the [[Finnish Civil War]] of 1918, [[Whites (Finland)|White Finland]] defeated the leftist [[Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic|Red Finland]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2xCJBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA166 |title=The Finnish Civil War 1918: History, Memory, Legacy |date=2014 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-28071-7 |page=166}}</ref> The [[Finnish Defence Forces]] and the paramilitary [[White Guard (Finland)|White Guard]], led by Baron [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim]], were assisted by the [[German Army (German Empire)|German Imperial Army]] at the request of the Finnish civil government. The far-right [[Lapua movement]] continued to terrorize communists in post-war Finland, but it was banned after [[Mäntsälä rebellion|a failed ''coup d'etat'' attempt]] in 1932.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Levitsky |first1=Steven |title=How Democracies Die |last2=Ziblatt |first2=Daniel |publisher=Crown |year=2018 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TwtFDwAAQBAJ |isbn=9781524762933}}</ref>

==== France ====
{{main|Conservatism in France}}
{{Conservatism in France}}
Early conservatism in France focused on the rejection of the secularism of the French Revolution, support for the role of the Catholic Church, and the restoration of the monarchy.<ref>{{cite book |title=Three Studies In European Conservatism: Metternich, Guizot, The Catholic Church In The Nineteenth Century |author-last=Woodwards |author-first=E. L. |isbn=9780714615295 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MPUkAQAAMAAJ |year=1963 |publisher=Archon Books}}</ref> After the first fall of [[Napoleon]] in 1814, the [[House of Bourbon]] returned to power in the [[Bourbon Restoration in France|Bourbon Restoration]]. [[Louis XVIII]] and [[Charles X of France|Charles X]], brothers of the executed King [[Louis XVI]], successively mounted the throne and instituted a conservative government intended to restore the proprieties, if not all the institutions, of the {{lang|fr|[[Ancien Régime]]}}.{{sfn|Fawcett|2020|pp=20–21}}

After the [[July Revolution]] of 1830, [[Louis Philippe I]], a member of the more liberal [[House of Orléans|Orléans branch]] of the House of Bourbon, proclaimed himself as King of the French. The [[Second French Empire]] saw an Imperial [[Bonapartist]] regime of [[Napoleon III]] from 1852 to 1870.{{sfn|Heywood|2017|p=75}} The Bourbon monarchist cause was on the verge of victory in the 1870s, but then collapsed because the proposed king, [[Henri, Count of Chambord]], refused to fly the tri-colored flag.<ref>{{cite book |author=Roger Price |title=A Concise History of France |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AYjB2-RnWUwC&pg=PA225 |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge UP |page=225 |isbn=978-0-521-84480-2}}</ref> The turn of the century saw the rise of {{lang|fr|[[Action Française]]}}—an ultraconservative, reactionary, nationalist, and royalist movement that advocated a restoration of the monarchy.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Judaken |first=Jonathan |editor=Richard S. Levy |encyclopedia=Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution |title=Action Française |year=2005 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-85109-439-4 |page=1}}</ref>

Tensions between Christian rightists and secular leftists heightened in the 1890–1910 era, but moderated after the spirit of unity in fighting World War I.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Larkin |author-first=Maurice |title=Religion, Politics and Preferment in France since 1890: La Belle Epoque and its Legacy |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2002 |isbn=0521522706 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7rPaeTm4lm4C}}</ref> An authoritarian form of conservatism characterized the [[Vichy France|Vichy regime]] of 1940–1944 under Marshal [[Philippe Pétain]] with heightened antisemitism, opposition to individualism, emphasis on family life, and national direction of the economy.<ref name=":10" />

Conservatism has been the major political force in France since World War II,<ref>{{cite book |author=Viereck, Peter |title=Conservatism Revisited: The Revolt Against Ideology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gvxCmgEACAAJ |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7658-0576-8 |page=205}}</ref> although the number of conservative groups and their lack of stability defy simple categorization.<ref name=":14" /> Following the war, conservatives supported [[Gaullism|Gaullist]] groups and parties, espoused [[French nationalism|nationalism]], and emphasised tradition, social order, and the regeneration of France.<ref>Richard Vinen, "The Parti républicain de la Liberté and the Reconstruction of French Conservatism, 1944–1951", ''French History'' (1993) 7#2 pp. 183–204</ref> Unusually, post-war conservatism in France was formed around the personality of a leader—army general and aristocrat [[Charles de Gaulle]] who led the [[Free France|Free French Forces]] against Nazi Germany—and it did not draw on traditional French conservatism, but on the [[Bonapartism|Bonapartist]] tradition.{{sfn|Ware|1996|p=32}} Gaullism in France continues under [[The Republicans (France)|The Republicans]] (formerly [[Union for a Popular Movement]]), a party previously led by [[Nicolas Sarkozy]], who served as President of France from 2007 to 2012 and whose ideology is known as [[Sarkozysm]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Hauss, Charles |title=Comparative Politics: Domestic Responses to Global Challenges |publisher=Cengage Learning |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-495-50109-1 |page=116 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7XkIAAAAQBAJ}}</ref>

In 2021, the French intellectual [[Éric Zemmour]] founded the nationalist party [[Reconquête]], which has been described as a more rightist version of [[Marine Le Pen]]'s [[National Rally]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 13, 2021 |title=Eric Zemmour: Meet the right-wing TV pundit set to shake up France's presidential race |url=https://www.euronews.com/2021/10/13/eric-zemmour-meet-the-right-wing-tv-pundit-set-to-shake-up-france-s-presidential-race |access-date=October 30, 2021 |website=euronews.com}}</ref>

==== Germany ====
{{main|Conservatism in Germany}}
{{Conservatism in Germany}}
Germany was the heart of the reactionary [[Romanticism|Romantic]] movement that swept Europe in the aftermath of the progressive [[Age of Enlightenment]] and its culmination in the anti-conservative French Revolution.<ref name=":3" /> [[German Romanticism]] was deeply [[Organicism#In politics and sociology|organicist]] and [[Medievalism|medievalist]], finding expression philosophically among the [[Right Hegelians|Old Hegelians]] and judicially in the [[German historical school]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Liedke |first=Herbert R. |date=1958 |title=The German Romanticists and Karl Ludwig von Haller's Doctrines of European Restoration |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/27707117 |journal=The Journal of English and Germanic Philology |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=371–393 |jstor=27707117 |issn=0363-6941}}</ref> Prominent conservative exponents were [[Friedrich Schlegel]], [[Novalis]], [[Wilhelm Heinrich Wackenroder]], [[Friedrich Carl von Savigny]], and [[Adam Müller]].<ref>{{cite book |title=De konservativa idéerna |chapter=De kontrarevolutionära idéerna i Tyskland |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1166587654 |publisher=Aldus/Bonniers |year=1966 |access-date=August 29, 2023 |oclc=1166587654 |first=Herbert |last=Tingsten |pages=42–73}}</ref>

During the second half of the 19th century, German conservatism developed alongside [[German nationalism|nationalism]], culminating in Germany's victory over France in the [[Franco-Prussian War]], the creation of the unified [[German Empire]] in 1871, and the simultaneous rise of ”Iron Chancellor” [[Otto von Bismarck]] on the European political stage. Bismarck's [[Balance of power (international relations)|balance of power]] model maintained peace in Europe for decades at the end of the 19th century.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Eyck |author-first=Erich |title=Bismarck and the German Empire |year=1964 |pages=58–68}}</ref> His "revolutionary conservatism" was a conservative state-building strategy, based on [[class collaboration]] and designed to make ordinary Germans—not just the [[Junker (Prussia)|Junker]] aristocracy—more loyal to state and [[German Emperor|Emperor]].{{sfn|Encyclopædia Britannica}} He created the modern [[welfare state]] in Germany in the 1880s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Steinberg |first=Jonathan |title=Bismarck: A Life |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-978252-9 |pages=416–417}}</ref> According to scholars, his strategy was: {{Blockquote|granting social rights to enhance the integration of a hierarchical society, to forge a bond between workers and the state so as to strengthen the latter, to maintain traditional relations of authority between social and status groups, and to provide a countervailing power against the modernist forces of liberalism and socialism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kersbergen |first1=Kees van |last2=Vis |first2=Barbara |title=Comparative Welfare State Politics: Development, Opportunities, and Reform |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQL3AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 |year=2013 |publisher=Cambridge UP |page=38 |isbn=978-1-107-65247-7}}</ref>|sign=|source=}}

Bismarck also enacted [[universal manhood suffrage]] in the new German Empire in 1871.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Robert Laurence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PeoqKSxiOu4C&pg=PA226 |title=The American Century in Europe |last2=Vaudagna |first2=Maurizio |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8014-4075-5 |page=226}}</ref> He became a great hero to German conservatives, who erected many monuments to his memory after he left office in 1890.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Frankel |first=Richard |year=2003 |title=From the Beer Halls to the Halls of Power: The Cult of Bismarck and the Legitimization of a New German Right, 1898–1945 |journal=German Studies Review |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=543–560 |doi=10.2307/1432746 |jstor=1432746}}</ref>

During the [[interwar period]]—after Germany's defeat in World War I, the abdication of Emperor [[Wilhelm II]], and the introduction of parliamentary democracy—German conservatives experienced a cultural crisis and felt uprooted by a progressively modernist world.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Stern |first=Fritz |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofcultur00ster |title=The Politics of Cultural Despair: A Study in the Rise of the Germanic Ideology |publisher=University of California Press |year=1961 |isbn=978-0520026261}}</ref> This angst was expressed philosophically in the [[Conservative Revolution]] movement with prominent exponents such as historian [[Oswald Spengler]], jurist [[Carl Schmitt]], and author [[Ernst Jünger]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Woods |first=Roger |title=The Conservative Revolution in the Weimar Republic |year=1996 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=0-333-65014-X |page=29}}</ref> The major conservative party of this era was the reactionary [[German National People's Party]], who advocated a restored monarchy.<ref>{{cite book |first=Fritz K. |last=Ringer |title=The Decline of the German Mandarins: The German Academic Community, 1890–1933 |publisher=University Press of New England |year=1990 |page=201}}</ref>

With the rise of [[Nazism]] in 1933, [[Agrarian conservatism in Germany|traditional agrarian movements]] faded and were supplanted by a more command-based economy and forced social integration. [[Adolf Hitler]] succeeded in garnering the support of many German industrialists; but prominent traditionalists, including military officers [[Claus von Stauffenberg]] and [[Henning von Tresckow]], pastor [[Dietrich Bonhoeffer]], Bishop [[Clemens August Graf von Galen]], and monarchist [[Carl Friedrich Goerdeler]], openly and secretly opposed his policies of euthanasia, genocide, and attacks on organized religion.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shirer |first=William L. |date=1960 |title=[[The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich]] |location=New York City |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=0671624202 |page=372}}</ref> The former German Emperor [[Wilhelm II]] was highly critical of Hitler, writing in 1938:

{{blockquote|There's a man alone, without family, without children, without God&nbsp;... He builds legions, but he doesn't build a nation. A nation is created by families, a religion, traditions: it is made up out of the hearts of mothers, the wisdom of fathers, the joy and the exuberance of children&nbsp;... This man could bring home victories to our people each year, without bringing them either glory or danger. But of our Germany, which was a nation of poets and musicians, of artists and soldiers, he has made a nation of hysterics and hermits, engulfed in a mob and led by a thousand liars or fanatics.<ref name=":7" />}}

Post-[[World War II]] Germany developed a special form of conservatism called [[ordoliberalism]], which is centred around the concept of [[ordered liberty]].<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Sally |author-first=Razeen |year=2002 |title=Classical Liberalism and International Economic Order |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-16493-1 |page=106}}</ref> Neither socialist nor capitalist, it promotes a compromise between state and market, and argues that the national culture of a country must be taken into account when implementing economic policies.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Gregg |author-first=Samuel |title=Wilhelm Röpke's Political Economy |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing Limited |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-84844-222-1 |page=29}}</ref> [[Alexander Rüstow]] and [[Wilhelm Röpke]] were two prominent exponents of this economic theory, and its implementation is largely credited as a reason behind the [[Wirtschaftswunder|German miracle]]—the rapid reconstruction and development of the war-wrecked economies of [[West Germany]] and [[Austria]] after World War II.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 23, 2007 |title=The Maturing of a Humane Economist Modern Age |url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0354/is_3_45/ai_n6140123 |access-date=July 11, 2021 |archive-date=March 23, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070323094516/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0354/is_3_45/ai_n6140123 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

More recently, the work of conservative [[Christian Democratic Union of Germany|Christian Democratic Union]] leader and Chancellor [[Helmut Kohl]] helped bring about [[German reunification]], along with the closer [[European integration]] in the form of the [[Maastricht Treaty]]. Today, German conservatism is often associated with politicians such as Chancellor [[Angela Merkel]], whose tenure was marked by attempts to save the common European currency ([[Euro]]) from demise. The German conservatives were divided under Merkel due to the refugee crisis in Germany, and many conservatives in the [[CDU/CSU]] opposed the immigration policies developed under Merkel.<ref>{{cite web |author=Michael John Williams |date=February 12, 2020 |title=The German Center Does Not Hold |url=https://atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/the-german-center-does-not-hold/ |work=New Atlanticist |access-date=March 7, 2020 |archive-date=June 20, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620010611/https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/new-atlanticist/the-german-center-does-not-hold/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> The 2020s also saw the rise of the right-wing populist [[Alternative for Germany]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=October 3, 2023 |title=Germany bewildered about how to halt the rise of the AfD |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/germany-bewildered-about-how-to-halt-the-rise-of-the-afd/ |access-date=March 14, 2024 |website=POLITICO}}</ref>

==== Greece ====
{{Conservatism in Greece sidebar}}
The main inter-war conservative party was called the [[People's Party (Greece)|People's Party]] (PP), which supported [[Greek monarchy|constitutional monarchy]] and opposed the [[Second Hellenic Republic|republican]] [[Liberal Party (Greece)|Liberal Party]]. Both parties were suppressed by the authoritarian, arch-conservative, and royalist [[4th of August Regime]] of General [[Ioannis Metaxas]] in 1936–1941. The PP was able to re-group after World War II as part of a United Nationalist Front which achieved power campaigning on a simple anti-communist, nationalist platform during the [[Greek Civil War]] in 1946–1949. However, the vote received by the PP declined during the so-called "Centrist Interlude" in 1950–1952.

In 1952, Marshal [[Alexandros Papagos]] created the [[Greek Rally]] as an umbrella for the right-wing forces. The Greek Rally came to power in 1952 and remained the leading party in Greece until 1963. After Papagos' death in 1955, it was reformed as the [[National Radical Union]] under [[Konstantinos Karamanlis]]. Right-wing governments backed by the palace and the army overthrew the [[Centre Union]] government in 1965 and governed the country until the establishment of the far-right [[Greek junta]] (1967–1974). After the [[metapolitefsi|regime's collapse]] in August 1974, Karamanlis returned from exile to lead the government and founded the [[New Democracy (Greece)|New Democracy]] party. The new conservative party had four objectives: to confront [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus|Turkish expansionism in Cyprus]], to reestablish and solidify democratic rule, to give the country a strong government, and to make a powerful moderate party a force in Greek politics.<ref>Penniman, Howard Rae. ''Greece at the polls: the national elections of 1974 and 1977''. Washington: American Enterprise Institute, 1981. {{ISBN|978-0-8447-3434-7}} pp. 49–59</ref>

The [[Independent Greeks]], a newly formed political party in [[Greece]], has also supported conservatism, particularly [[National conservatism|national]] and [[religious conservatism]]. The Founding Declaration of the Independent Greeks strongly emphasises the preservation of the Greek state and its sovereignty, the [[Greek people]], and the [[Greek Orthodox Church]].{{citation needed|date=May 2025}}

====Hungary====
{{Conservatism in Hungary}}
The dominance of the political right of [[Hungary between the two world wars|inter-war Hungary]], after the collapse of a short-lived communist regime, was described by historian [[István Deák]]:

{{blockquote|Between 1919 and 1944 Hungary was a rightist country. Forged out of a counter-revolutionary heritage, its governments advocated a "[[Christian nationalism|nationalist Christian]]" policy; they extolled heroism, faith, and unity; they despised the French Revolution, and they spurned the liberal and socialist ideologies of the 19th century. The governments saw Hungary as a bulwark against [[bolshevism]] and bolshevism's instruments: [[socialism]], [[cosmopolitanism]], and [[Freemasonry]]. They perpetrated the rule of a small clique of aristocrats, civil servants, and army officers, and surrounded with adulation the head of the state, the counterrevolutionary [[Miklós Horthy|Admiral Horthy]].<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Deák |author-first=István |chapter=Hungary |editor-last=Roger |editor-first=Hans |title=The European Right: A Historical Profile |year=1963 |page=364}}</ref>}}

Horthy's authoritarian conservative regime suppressed communists and fascists alike, banning the [[Hungarian Communist Party]] as well as the fascist [[Arrow Cross Party]]. The fascist leader [[Ferenc Szálasi]] was repeatedly imprisoned at Horthy's command.<ref name=":8" />

Since 2010, [[Viktor Orbán]] of the [[Fidesz]] party has been [[Prime Minister of Hungary]]. Orbán's positions are a blend of [[soft Euroscepticism]], [[right-wing populism]], and [[national conservatism]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/jan/05/hungary-one-party-rule |location=London |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |title=Hungary: One-party rule |type=editorial |date=January 5, 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/populist-premier-set-for-defeat-in-hungarian-election-9161938.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220817/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/populist-premier-set-for-defeat-in-hungarian-election-9161938.html |archive-date=August 17, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |location=London |newspaper=[[The Independent]] |first=Stephen |last=Castle |title=Populist premier set for defeat in Hungarian election |date=April 22, 2002}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=A populist's lament: Viktor Orbán has made Hungary a ripe target for doubters |date=November 22, 2011 |url=http://www.politics.hu/20111122/a-populists-lament-viktor-orban-has-made-hungary-a-ripe-target-for-doubters |newspaper=Politics.hu |place=Hungary |access-date=September 3, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116131138/http://www.politics.hu/20111122/a-populists-lament-viktor-orban-has-made-hungary-a-ripe-target-for-doubters/ |archive-date=November 16, 2017 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Iceland ====
{{main|Conservatism in Iceland}}
{{Conservatism in Iceland}}
Founded in 1924 as the [[Conservative Party (Iceland)|Conservative Party]], Iceland's [[Independence Party (Iceland)|Independence Party]] adopted its current name in 1929 after the merger with the [[Liberal Party (Iceland, historical)|Liberal Party]]. From the beginning, they have been the largest vote-winning party, averaging around 40%. They combined liberalism and conservatism, supported nationalization of infrastructure, and advocated [[class collaboration]]. While mostly in opposition during the 1930s, they embraced economic liberalism, but accepted the welfare state after the war and participated in governments supportive of state intervention and protectionism. Unlike other Scandanivian conservative (and liberal) parties, it has always had a large working-class following.<ref>Grofman, Bernard and Lijpart, Arend, editors. ''The evolution of electoral and party systems in the Nordic countries''. New York: Agathon Press, 2002. "The Icelandic electoral system 1844–1999" by Olafur Th. Hardarson {{ISBN|978-0-87586-138-8}}, pp. 107–108</ref> After the financial crisis in 2008, the support level has dropped to 20–25%.

==== Ireland ====
Conservatism in Ireland historically revolved around social policies relating to the [[Catholic Church in Ireland|Catholic Church]] as well as a commitment to [[Irish republicanism]], [[Irish neutrality]], [[anti-abortion movements#Ireland|anti-abortion]], [[anti-communism]], [[pro-Europeanism]], and, more recently, [[Opposition to immigration#Ireland|anti-immigration]].

During the presidency of [[Éamon de Valera]], a broad array of [[Éamon de Valera#Catholic social policy|Catholic social policies]] were enacted, mostly with the goals of winning devout, rural, conservative voters, most of whom welcomed these policies.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Oireachtas |first1=Houses of the |title=Orders of the Day. – Local Government Bill, 1931—Second Stage. – Dáil Éireann (6th Dáil) – Wednesday, 17 Jun 1931 – Houses of the Oireachtas |url=https://www.oireachtas.ie/en/debates/debate/dail/1931-06-17/21/#spk_405 |website=www.oireachtas.ie |language=en-ie |date=June 17, 1931}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kissane |first1=Bill |title=Éamon de Valéra and the Survival of Democracy in Inter-War Ireland |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022009407075554 |journal=Journal of Contemporary History |pages=213–226 |language=en |doi=10.1177/0022009407075554 |date=April 1, 2007|volume=42 |issue=2 }}</ref> Such policies included writing into the [[Constitution of Ireland]] that a woman's place was in the home, prohibiting the [[importation]] or [[sales|sale]] of [[contraceptives]], and enactment of strict censorship laws.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ryan |first1=Louise |title=Constructing 'Irishwoman': Modern girls and comely maidens |journal=Irish Studies Review |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/09670889808455611 |doi=10.1080/09670889808455611 |date=December 1, 1998|volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=263–272 }}</ref>

[[Fianna Fáil]] and its historic rival, [[Fine Gael]], are both considered historically to be conservative parties. However, there are some differences: mainly, Fianna Fáil is usually considered more republican,<ref>{{cite news |title=Micheál Martin: Fianna Fáil has more to offer than simplistic and divisive right-left politics |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/2023/06/22/fianna-fail-has-more-to-offer-than-simplistic-and-divisive-rightleft-politics/ |newspaper=The Irish Times |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=NYC Department of Records – Notable New Yorkers – Eamon De Valera |url=http://www.nyc.gov/html/records/html/features/devalera.shtml |date=February 8, 2004|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040208005923/http://www.nyc.gov/html/records/html/features/devalera.shtml |archive-date=February 8, 2004 }}</ref> while Fine Gael tends to be more classically liberal.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Viola |first1=Donatella M. |title=Routledge Handbook of European Elections |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7stgCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA247 |publisher=Routledge |language=en |date=August 14, 2015|isbn=978-1-317-50363-7 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Prat |first1=Cesáreo R. Aguilera de |title=Political Parties and European Integration |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ctGllqdyg7oC&pg=PA64 |publisher=Peter Lang |language=en |date=2009|isbn=978-90-5201-535-4 }}</ref>

Starting in 2022, a [[Irish anti-immigration protests|series of protests calling for a reduction in illegal immigration]] have become more commonplace in Ireland, mostly over the status of [[Transitional shelter|temporary asylum seeker shelters]] were unable to accommodate the more than 65,000 refugees.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Malekmian |first1=Shamim |title=How the Government Created an Opening for Anti-Immigration Activists to Exploit in East Wall |url=https://dublininquirer.com/2022/11/30/how-the-government-created-an-opening-for-anti-immigration-activists-to-exploit-in-east-wall/ |website=Dublin Inquirer |date=January 1, 1970}}</ref>

==== Italy ====
{{main|Conservatism in Italy}}
{{Conservatism in Italy}}
After the [[unification of Italy]], the country was governed successively by the [[Historical Right]], which represented conservative, liberal-conservative, and conservative-liberal positions, and the [[Historical Left]]. After [[World War I]], the country saw the emergence of its first mass parties, notably including the [[Italian People's Party (1919)|Italian People's Party]] (PPI), a Christian-democratic party that sought to represent the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] majority, which had long refrained from politics. The PPI and the [[Italian Socialist Party]] decisively contributed to the loss of strength and authority of the old liberal ruling class, which had not been able to structure itself into a proper party: the [[Liberal Union (Italy)|Liberal Union]] was not coherent and the [[Italian Liberal Party]] came too late.

In 1921, [[Benito Mussolini]] founded the [[National Fascist Party]] (PNF), and the next year, through the [[March on Rome]], he was appointed [[Prime Minister of Italy|Prime Minister]] by King [[Victor Emmanuel III]]. Fascism originated as a populist, revolutionary, anti-royalist, anti-clerical, anti-capitalist, and anti-conservative ideology,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Parlato |first=Giuseppe |title=La sinistra fascista: storia di un progetto mancato |publisher=Il Mulino Ricerca |year=2008 |isbn=978-8815127051 |language=it |trans-title=Fascist left: history of a failed project.}}</ref> viewed by many socialists as a leftist heresy rather than a rightist opponent, but it transformed and became distinctly right-wing when it made compromises with the conservative establishment in order to consolidate authority and suppress communist movements.<ref>{{cite book |last=De Grand |first=Alexander |title=Italian Fascism: its Origins and Development |edition=3rd |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |year=2000 |page=145}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=Griffin |editor-first1=Roger |chapter=Fascism |author-last=Sternhill |author-first=Zeev |title=International Fascism: Theories, Causes, and the New Consensus |location=London, England; New York |publisher=Arnold Publishers |date=1998 |pages=32}}</ref> Mussolini commented on the dynamic pragmatism of fascism:

{{blockquote|We do not believe in dogmatic programs. ... We permit ourselves the luxury of being aristocratic and democratic, conservative and progressive, reactionary and revolutionary, legalists and illegalists, according to the circumstances of the moment, the place and the environment.<ref>{{cite book |title=Political Protest and Social Change: Analyzing Politics |author1-first=Charles |author1-last=Andrain |author2-first=David |author2-last=Apter |publisher=Springer |year=1994 |isbn=9780230377004 |page=53 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eDuJDAAAQBAJ}}</ref>}}

In 1926, all parties were dissolved except the PNF, which remained the only legal party in the [[Kingdom of Italy]] until the fall of the regime in July 1943. By 1945, fascists were discredited, disbanded, and outlawed, while Mussolini was executed in April that year.<ref>{{cite book |author1-first=Stefano |author1-last=Fella |author2-first=Carlo |author2-last=Ruzza |title=Re-inventing the Italian Right: Territorial Politics, Populism and 'Post-Fascism' |publisher=Routledge |year=2009}}</ref> The [[1946 Italian institutional referendum]] concerned the fate of the monarchy. While southern Italy and parts of northern Italy were royalist, other parts, especially in central Italy, were predominantly republican. The outcome was 54–46% in favor of a republic, leading to a collapse of the monarchy.<ref>{{cite book |language=it |first=Giorgio |last=Bocca |title=Storia della Repubblica italiana |publisher=Rizzoli |year=1981 |pages=14–16}}</ref>

After [[World War II]], the center-right was dominated by the centrist party [[Christian Democracy (Italy)|Christian Democracy]] (DC), which included both conservative and center-left elements.<ref>Pepijn Corduwener, ''The Problem of Democracy in Postwar Europe: Political Actors and the Formation of the Postwar Model of Democracy in France, West Germany and Italy'' (Taylor & Francis, 2016), pp. 15, 17, 27, 40, 42.</ref> With its landslide victory over the [[Italian Socialist Party]] and the [[Italian Communist Party]] in 1948, the political center was in power. In [[Denis Mack Smith]]'s words, it was "moderately conservative, reasonably tolerant of everything which did not touch religion or property, but above all Catholic and sometimes [[Clericalism|clerical]]".<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Mack Smith |author-first=Denis |author-link=Denis Mack Smith |title=Modern Italy: A Political History |year=1997 |pages=491––496}}</ref> DC dominated politics until its dissolution in 1994, having governed for 47 out of 52 years.<ref name=":9" /> Among DC's frequent allies there was the conservative-liberal [[Italian Liberal Party]]. At the right of DC stood parties like the royalist [[Monarchist National Party]] and the post-fascist [[Italian Social Movement]].

In 1994, entrepreneur and media tycoon [[Silvio Berlusconi]] founded the liberal-conservative party {{lang|it|[[Forza Italia]]|italic=no}} (FI). He won three elections in [[1994 Italian general election|1994]], [[2001 Italian general election|2001]], and [[2008 Italian general election|2008]], governing the country for almost ten years as prime minister. FI formed a coalitions with several parties, including the national-conservative [[National Alliance (Italy)|National Alliance]] (AN), heir of the MSI, and the regionalist [[Lega Nord]] (LN). FI was briefly incorporated, along with AN, in [[The People of Freedom]] party and later revived in the new [[Forza Italia (2013)|Forza Italia]].<ref>Daniele Albertazzi, et al., eds. ''Resisting the tide: cultures of opposition under Berlusconi (2001–06)'' (Bloomsbury Publishing USA, 2009).</ref> After the [[2018 Italian general election|2018 general election]], the LN and the [[Five Star Movement]] formed a populist government, which lasted about a year.<ref>Antonino Castaldo, and Luca Verzichelli. "Technocratic populism in Italy after Berlusconi: The trendsetter and his disciples." ''Politics and Governance'' 8.4 (2020): 485–495.</ref> In the [[2022 Italian general election|2022 general election]], a [[Centre-right coalition (Italy)|center-right coalition]] came to power, this time dominated by [[Brothers of Italy]] (FdI), a new national-conservative party born on the ashes of AN. Consequently, FdI, the re-branded [[Lega (political party)|Lega]], and FI formed a government under FdI leader [[Giorgia Meloni]].

==== Luxembourg ====
Luxembourg's major conservative party, the [[Christian Social People's Party]], was formed as the Party of the Right in 1914 and adopted its present name in 1945. It was consistently the largest political party in Luxembourg and dominated politics throughout the 20th century.<ref>Urwin, Derek W. ''A Dictionary of European History and Politics, 1945–1995''. London: Pearson, 1996. {{ISBN|978-0-582-25874-7}} p. 76</ref>

==== Netherlands ====
Liberalism has been strong in the Netherlands. Therefore, rightist parties are often liberal-conservative or conservative-liberal. One example is the [[People's Party for Freedom and Democracy]]. Even the right-wing populist and far-right [[Party for Freedom]], which dominated the [[2023 Dutch general election|2023 election]], supports liberal positions such as gay rights, abortion, and euthanasia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=March 21, 2013 |title=Netherlands: Geert Wilders, the Dutch "Cricket" |url=https://www.ispionline.it/it/pubblicazione/netherlands-geert-wilders-dutch-cricket-7644 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126021928/https://www.ispionline.it/it/pubblicazione/netherlands-geert-wilders-dutch-cricket-7644 |archive-date=January 26, 2022 |access-date=December 23, 2023}}</ref>

==== Norway ====
The [[Conservative Party (Norway)|Conservative Party of Norway]] (Norwegian: {{lang|no|Høyre}}, literally "Right") was formed by the old upper-class of state officials and wealthy merchants to fight the populist democracy of the [[Liberal Party (Norway)|Liberal Party]], but it lost power in 1884, when parliamentarian government was first practiced. It formed its first government under parliamentarism in 1889 and continued to alternate in power with the Liberals until the 1930s, when [[Labour Party (Norway)|Labour]] became the dominant party. It has elements both of [[paternalism]], stressing the responsibilities of the state, and of [[economic liberalism]]. It first returned to power in the 1960s.<ref>{{cite book |author=Heidar, Knut |title=Norway: Elites on Trial |publisher=Boulder Westview Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-8133-3200-0 |pages=66–67}}</ref> During [[Kåre Willoch#Premiership|Kåre Willoch's premiership]] in the 1980s, much emphasis was laid on liberalizing the credit and housing market and abolishing the [[NRK]] TV and radio monopoly, while supporting [[Law and order (politics)|law and order]] in criminal justice and traditional norms in education.<ref>Francis Sejersted [http://snl.no/H%C3%B8yreb%C3%B8lgen Høyrebølgen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131219002028/http://snl.no/H%C3%B8yreb%C3%B8lgen |date=December 19, 2013 }} Store norske leksikon. Retrieved December 18, 2013 {{in lang|no}}</ref>

==== Poland ====
{{Conservatism in Poland}}
The dominant conservative party in Poland is [[Law and Justice]] (PiS). Polish conservatism is characterized by social and cultural conservatism, patriotism, adherence to [[Catholic social teaching]], and cooperation with the [[Catholic Church in Poland|Catholic Church]].<ref name=Dudek>{{cite book |last=Dudek |first=Antoni |date=2023 |title=Historia polityczna Polski 1989–2023 |trans-title=Polish political history 1989–2023 |url=https://scholar.com.pl/pl/glowna/8768-historia-polityczna-polski-19892023.html |location=Warsaw |language=Polish |publisher=Wydawnictwo Naukowe Scholar |isbn=978-83-67450-66-9}}</ref> Contemporary Polish conservatives believe in [[Atlanticism]] and strong relations with the United States, meanwhile taking a stand against Russia.<ref name=Kaczyński>{{cite book |last=Kaczyński |first=Jarosław |date=September 30, 2011 |title=Polska naszych marzeń |url=https://lubimyczytac.pl/ksiazka/115668/polska-naszych-marzen |publisher=Drukarnia Akapit |isbn=9788378250005}}</ref>

PiS has taken a populist and statist approach to economics, expanding regulations, state control over industries and media, greatly expanding social welfare and applying [[Keynesian]]-esque "anti-crisis shields",<ref name=Dudek/> differentiating itself from previous conservative political parties and movements like [[Solidarity Electoral Action|AWS]] or [[National Democracy (Poland)|Endecja]]<ref name=Mackiewicz>{{cite book |last=Cat-Mackiewicz |first=Stanisław |date=2012 |title=Historia Polski od 11 listopada 1918 do 17 września 1939 |publisher=Universitas |isbn=97883-242-3740-1}}</ref> which believed in economic liberalism. Another difference to AWS is PiS' euroscepticism.<ref name=Dudek/> Though not opposing European Union membership, PiS pursues an assertive policy of conflict with the [[European Commission]],<ref name=Kaczyński/> which, in reaction, took a hostile stance against PiS. In the European Parliament, PiS belongs to the [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|European Conservatives and Reformists]] group. Liberal media in Poland is vehemently biased against PiS and opposed to its rule, often calling it authoritarian.<ref name=Dudek/> Liberal scholar Antoni Dudek rejects giving PiS the authoritarian label, suggesting that PiS rejects the ideals of [[liberal democracy]] and instead embraces a "national democratic" or [[illiberal democracy|illiberal democratic]] form of governance.<ref name=Dudek/>

In the preceding [[interwar period]], Poland's conservative movement was split between the "Old" Galician and Kresy conservatives, usually landowners, which formed minor parties like the [[State Unity in the Kresy]], and the "New Conservative" movement of [[National Democracy (Poland)|National Democracy]] (Endecja) under [[Roman Dmowski]], which was oriented around the urban [[intelligentsia]] and [[petite bourgeoise]]. The latter sometimes cooperated with the right-wing factions of the [[Peasant movement#Poland|Polish peasant movement]], affiliated under the [[Polish People's Party "Piast" (1913–1931)|PSL "Piast"]] that cooperated with Endecja, creating a [[Chjeno-Piast|common government]] under the [[Lanckorona Pact]], although the peasant movement was still not a part of the conservative movement. Endecja espoused [[Russophilia]] and believed in cooperation with the [[Russian Empire]] and later the [[White Army]]. They also advocated maintenance of democracy, [[civic nationalism]], and [[parliamentarism]], opposing [[Józef Piłsudski]]'s [[Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government|BBWR]]'s attempts at [[presidential republic|empowering the presidency]] and later its absolute seizure of power.<ref name=Mackiewicz/> In contrast, many Old Conservatives, such as [[Stanisław Cat-Mackiewicz]], found themselves as allies of Marshal Piłsudski.<ref name=Mackiewicz/> Endecja rejected [[Romanticism in Poland|Romanticism]] and [[Christ of Europe|Messianism]], concepts which were important to the Old Conservatives.<ref name=rd>{{cite book |last=Dmowski |first=Roman |date=1903 |title=Myśli Nowoczesnego Polaka |publisher=Capital |trans-title=The Notions of a Modern Pole |url=https://capitalbook.com.pl/pl/p/Mysli-nowoczesnego-Polaka-Roman-Dmowski/1347 |language=Polish |isbn=978-83-64037-04-7}}</ref>

==== Russia ====
{{main|Conservatism in Russia}}
{{Conservatism in Russia}}
Russian conservatism has experienced a revival in recent decades.<ref>{{Cite web |title='Retraditionalization' and Sacralization of 'Worldview Matters': The Politics of Values in Eastern Europe |url=https://ecpr.eu/Events/Event/PaperDetails/38493 |access-date=May 27, 2024 |website=ecpr.eu}}</ref> Under [[Vladimir Putin]], the dominant leader since 1999, Russia has promoted explicitly conservative policies in social, cultural, and political matters, both at home and abroad.<ref>Sergei Prozorov, "Russian conservatism in the Putin presidency: The dispersion of a hegemonic discourse." ''Journal of Political Ideologies'' 10.2 (2005): 121–143 [https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/84604/1/DIIS2004-20.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210606061501/https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/84604/1/DIIS2004-20.pdf |date=June 6, 2021 }}.</ref> Putin has criticized globalism and economic liberalism, claiming that "liberalism has become obsolete" and that the vast majority of people in the world oppose [[multiculturalism]], [[free immigration]], and [[LGBT rights by country or territory|rights for LGBT people]].<ref>{{Cite news |date=June 27, 2019 |editor1-last=Tiounine |editor1-first=Margot |editor2-last=Hannen |editor2-first=Tom |work=[[Financial Times]] |title=Liberalism 'has outlived its purpose' — President Putin speaks exclusively to the Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/video/a49cfa25-610e-438c-b11d-5dac19619e08 |access-date=October 14, 2023}}</ref> Russian conservatism is special in some respects as it supports a [[mixed economy]] with [[Economic interventionism|economic intervention]], combined with a strong nationalist sentiment and [[social conservatism]] which is largely [[Right-wing populism|populist]]. As a result, Russian conservatism opposes [[Right-libertarianism|right-libertarian]] ideals such as the aforementioned concept of economic liberalism found in other conservative movements around the world.

Putin has also promoted new [[think tank]]s that bring together like-minded intellectuals and writers. For example, the [[Izborsky Club]], founded in 2012 by [[Alexander Prokhanov]], stresses [[Russian nationalism]], the restoration of Russia's historical greatness, and systematic opposition to liberal ideas and policies.<ref>Marlene Laruelle, "The Izborsky Club, or the new conservative avant‐garde in Russia." ''The Russian Review'' 75.4 (2016): 626–644.</ref> [[Vladislav Surkov]], a senior government official, has been one of the key ideologues during Putin's presidency.<ref>Sirke Mäkinen, "Surkovian narrative on the future of Russia: making Russia a world leader." ''Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics'' 27#2 (2011): 143–165.</ref>

In cultural and social affairs, Putin has collaborated closely with the [[Russian Orthodox Church]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=Michel |first=Casey |date=February 9, 2017 |title=How Russia Became the Leader of the Global Christian Right |work=[[Politico]] |url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/02/how-russia-became-a-leader-of-the-worldwide-christian-right-214755/}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Paterson |first=Tom |date=November 9, 2021 |title=Why Putin Goes to Church |url=https://www.thecambridgelanguagecollective.com/politics-and-society/why-putin-goes-to-church  |website=The Cambridge Language Collective}}</ref> Under [[Patriarch Kirill of Moscow]], the Church has backed the expansion of Russian power into Crimea and eastern Ukraine.<ref>Mark Woods, "How the Russian Orthodox Church is backing Vladimir Putin's new world order" [http://www.christiantoday.com/article/how.the.russian.orthodox.church.is.backing.vladimir.putins.new.world.order/81108.htm ''Christian Today'' March 3, 2016] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304015051/http://www.christiantoday.com/article/how.the.russian.orthodox.church.is.backing.vladimir.putins.new.world.order/81108.htm |date=March 4, 2016 }}</ref> More broadly, ''[[The New York Times]]'' reports in September 2016 how the Church's policy prescriptions support the Kremlin's appeal to social conservatives:

{{blockquote|A fervent foe of homosexuality and any attempt to put individual rights above those of family, community, or nation, the Russian Orthodox Church helps project Russia as the natural ally of all those who pine for a more secure, illiberal world free from the tradition-crushing rush of globalization, multiculturalism, and women's and gay rights.<ref>Andrew Higgins, "In Expanding Russian Influence, Faith Combines With Firepower", [https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/14/world/europe/russia-orthodox-church.html ''New York Times'' Sept 13, 2016] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110031305/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/14/world/europe/russia-orthodox-church.html |date=November 10, 2019 }}</ref>}}

==== Spain ====
{{Conservatism in Spain}}
Conservatism in Spain is represented by the center-right [[People's Party (Spain)|People's Party]] and ultra-right [[Vox (political party)|Vox party]]. The People's Party has its roots in the People's Alliance founded on 9 October 1976 by former [[Francoist Spain|Francoist]] minister [[Manuel Fraga]]. Although Fraga was a member of the reformist faction of the Franco regime, he supported an extremely gradual transition to democracy. However, he badly underestimated the public's distaste for Francoism. Additionally, while he attempted to convey a reformist image, the large number of former Francoists in the party led the public to perceive it as both [[reactionary]] and [[Authoritarianism|authoritarian]]. In the June [[1977 Spanish general election|1977 general election]], the AP garnered only 8.3 percent of the vote, putting it in fourth place.

The PP joined the [[European People's Party]] in 1991.<ref name="JansenHecke2011">{{cite book|author1=Thomas Jansen|author2=Steven Van Hecke|title=At Europe's Service: The Origins and Evolution of the European People's Party|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kXEA8XGdEb8C&pg=PA51|year= 2011|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-3-642-19414-6|page=51}}</ref>

The PP became the largest party for the first time in 1996, and [[José María Aznar]] became Prime Minister with the support of the [[Basque Nationalist Party]], the [[Catalonia|Catalan]] [[Convergence and Union]] and the [[Canarian Coalition]]. In the 2000 elections, the PP gained an [[absolute majority]].

In August 2003, [[Mariano Rajoy]] was appointed Secretary General by Aznar. Thus, Rajoy became the party's candidate for Prime Minister in the [[2004 Spanish general election|2004 general election]], held three days after the [[11 March 2004 Madrid train bombings]], and which Rajoy lost by a big margin to [[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party]] (PSOE) leader [[José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero]].

The PP under [[Mariano Rajoy]] opposed the PSOE government after the PP lost the [[2004 Spanish general election|general election in 2004]], arguing that this victory was influenced by the [[2004 Madrid train bombings|Madrid bombings]] of 11 March 2004. At a national level, its political strategy has followed two main axes, both linked to Spain's delicate regional politics: first, opposing further administrative devolution to Catalonia by means of the newly approved "Estatut" or Statute of Catalonia that lays out the powers of the Catalan regional government. Second, it remains opposed to political negotiations with the Basque separatist organisation [[ETA (separatist group)|ETA]].

The prospect of increased demands for autonomy in the programs of Catalan and Basque parties, and Zapatero's alleged favouring of them, became a focus for the party's campaign for the [[2008 Spanish general election|March 2008 general election]]. [[Lehendakari|Basque President]] [[Juan José Ibarretxe]]'s proposal for a unilateral referendum for the solution of the [[Basque Conflict]] was another important issue.

The People's Party under Rajoy has an increasingly patriotic, or [[nationalism|nationalist]],{{citation needed|date=August 2019}} element to it, appealing to the sense of "Spanishness" and making strong use of national symbols such as the [[Flag of Spain|Spanish flag]]. Prior to the national celebrations of Spanish Heritage Day, Rajoy made a speech asking Spaniards to "privately or publicly" display their pride in their nation and to honor their flag, an action which received some criticism from many political groups of the Congress.

Vox was founded in December 2013, splitting from the [[People's Party (Spain)|People's Party]] (PP).<ref name="Reuters1">{{cite news|last=O'Leary|first=Elisabeth|date=16 January 2014|title=Spanish ruling party rebels launch new conservative party|work=[[Reuters]]|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-spain-politics-idUSBREA0F1HM20140116|access-date=18 April 2018}}</ref> The [[party platform]] called for the rewriting of the [[Spanish constitution]] so as to curb regional autonomy and abolish regional parliaments.<ref name="Reuters1" /> Several founding members of the party (for example, [[Alejo Vidal-Quadras Roca|Alejo Vidal-Quadras]], [[José Antonio Ortega Lara]], and [[Santiago Abascal]]) had been members of the platform "reconversion.es", which had issued a manifesto in 2012 calling for a [[Political unitarism|recentralization]] of the State.<ref name="casals2019pp">{{Cite journal|url=https://www.politicaprosa.com/catalunya-i-la-espana-viva-de-vox/ |journal=Política & Prosa|date=1 April 2019|first=Xavier|last=Casals|issue=5|author-link=Xavier Casals i Meseguer |title=Catalunya i 'la España viva' de Vox}}</ref> Vidal-Quadras was proclaimed as the first chairman in March 2014.<ref>{{Cite web |work=Crónica Global |url=https://cronicaglobal.elespanol.com/politica/vox-elige-a-vidal-quadras-como-su-primer-presidente_5576_102.html|title=Vox elige a Vidal-Quadras como su primer presidente|date=8 March 2014}}</ref>

==== Sweden ====
{{main|Conservatism in Sweden}}
{{Conservatism in Sweden}}
In the early 19th century, Swedish conservatism developed alongside [[Swedish Romantic literature|Swedish Romanticism]]. The historian [[Erik Gustaf Geijer]], an exponent of [[Gothicism]], glorified the [[Viking Age]] and the [[Swedish Empire]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Geijer och samhället : en studie i svensk tradition |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/873899895 |date=1942 |access-date=December 17, 2023 |oclc=873899895 |first=Edvard |last=Rodhe |page=131}}</ref> and the idealist philosopher [[Christopher Jacob Boström]] became the chief ideologue of the official state doctrine, which dominated Swedish politics for almost a century.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/2217786 |jstor=2217786 |last1=Smart |first1=Ninian |title=Reviewed work: Philosophy of Religion, Christopher Jacob Boström, Victor E. Beck, Robert N. Beck |journal=The Philosophical Quarterly |date=1964 |volume=14 |issue=57 |page=381 |doi=10.2307/2217786}}</ref> Other influential Swedish conservative Romantics were [[Esaias Tegnér]] and [[Per Daniel Amadeus Atterbom]].

Early parliamentary conservatism in Sweden was explicitly elitist. The [[Moderate Party|Conservative Party]] was formed in 1904 with one major goal in mind: to stop the advent of [[universal suffrage]], which they feared would result in socialism. Yet, it was a Swedish admiral, the conservative politician [[Arvid Lindman]], who first extended democracy by enacting [[male suffrage]], despite the protests of more traditionalist voices, such as the later prime minister, the arch-conservative and authoritarian statesman [[Ernst Trygger]], who railed at progressive policies such as the abolition of the [[death penalty]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Söderbaum |first=Jakob E:son |title=Modern konservatism |date=2020 |publisher=Recito |isbn=978-91-7765-497-1 |location=Borås |pages=289}}</ref>

Once a democratic system was in place, Swedish conservatives sought to combine traditional elitism with modern populism. Sweden's most renowned political scientist, the conservative politician [[Rudolf Kjellén]], coined the terms [[geopolitics]] and [[biopolitics]] in relation to his [[Organicism#In politics and sociology|organic theory of the state]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Radikalkonservatismens rötter – Rudolf Kjellén och 1914 års idéer |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1241263181 |access-date=December 17, 2023 |isbn=978-91-7703-243-4 |oclc=1241263181 |first=Christian |last=Abrahamsson |pages=43–56 |chapter=Den organiska statsteorin |date=December 18, 2023 |publisher=Timbro}}</ref> He also developed the [[Conservative corporatism|corporatist]]-nationalist concept of {{lang|sv|[[Folkhemmet]]}} ('the people's home'), which became the single most powerful political concept in Sweden throughout the 20th century, although it was adopted by the [[Swedish Social Democratic Party|Social Democratic Party]] who gave it a more socialist interpretation.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Isaksson |first=Anders |title=Per Albin |date=1985 |publisher=Wahlström & Widstrand |isbn=978-91-46-15026-8 |location=Stockholm |pages=184}}</ref>

After a brief [[grand coalition]] between Left and Right during World War II, the center-right parties struggled to cooperate due to their ideological differences: the agrarian populism of the [[Centre Party (Sweden)|Centre Party]], the urban liberalism of the [[Liberals (Sweden)|Liberal People's Party]], and the liberal-conservative elitism of the [[Moderate Party]] (the old Conservative Party). However, in [[Fälldin I cabinet|1976]] and in [[Fälldin II cabinet|1979]], the three parties managed to form a government under [[Thorbjörn Fälldin]]—and again in [[Carl Bildt cabinet|1991]] under aristocrat [[Carl Bildt]] and with support from the newly founded [[Christian Democrats (Sweden)|Christian Democrats]], the most conservative party in contemporary Sweden.<ref>{{Cite news |title=KD är det mest konservativa partiet |url=https://strengnastidning.se/insandare/artikel/kd-ar-det-mest-konservativa-partiet/lyd0p99l |work=strengnastidning.se |date=October 4, 2022 |access-date=December 17, 2023 |first=Jakob E:son |last=Söderbaum}}</ref>

In modern times, [[mass immigration]] from distant cultures caused a large populist dissatisfaction, which was not channeled through any of the established parties, who generally espoused [[multiculturalism]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Uvell |first=Markus |title=Bakslaget: radikalt etablissemang, konservativa medborgare |date=2018 |publisher=Timbro förlag |isbn=978-91-7703-129-1 |location=Stockholm}}</ref> Instead, the 2010s saw the rise of the right-wing populist [[Sweden Democrats]], who were surging as the largest party in the polls on several occasions.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Cornucopia |date=June 21, 2018 |title=Yougov: SD största parti med 28.5% av väljarstödet |url=https://cornucopia.se/2018/06/yougov-sd-storsta-parti-med-285-av/ |access-date=December 23, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Majlard |first=Jan |date=November 15, 2019 |title=SD största parti i ny mätning |language=sv |work=Svenska Dagbladet |url=https://www.svd.se/a/JoXm3R/sverigedemokraterna-storsta-parti-i-ny-matning |access-date=December 23, 2023 |issn=1101-2412}}</ref> Due to its fascist roots, the party was ostracized by the other parties until 2019 when Christian Democrat leader [[Ebba Busch]] reached out for collaboration, after which the Moderate Party followed suit.<ref>{{Cite news |last=SVT Nyheter |first= |date=March 21, 2019 |title=KD-ledaren öppnar för SD-samarbete |language=sv |work=SVT Nyheter |url=https://www.svt.se/nyheter/inrikes/kd-ledaren-oppnar-for-sd-samarbete |access-date=December 17, 2023}}</ref> In [[2022 Swedish general election|2022]], the center-right parties formed a [[Kristersson cabinet|government]] with support from the Sweden Democrats as the largest party.<ref>{{Cite news |last=SVT Nyheter |date=October 14, 2022 |title=L, KD och M ska ingå i regeringen – SD får stort inflytande |language=sv |work=SVT Nyheter |url=https://www.svt.se/nyheter/inrikes/l-kd-och-m-ska-inga-i-regeringen-sd-far-stort-inflytande |access-date=December 17, 2023}}</ref> The subsequent [[Tidö Agreement]], negotiated in [[Tidö Castle]], incorporated authoritarian policies such as a stricter stance on immigration and a harsher stance on law and order.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Oscarsson |first=Tea |date=October 14, 2022 |title='Tidöavtalet' – här är viktigaste punkterna |language=sv |work=Svenska Dagbladet |url=https://www.svd.se/a/2BB3pB/det-viktigaste-i-tidoavtalet-mellan-moderaterna-kd-l-och-sd |access-date=December 17, 2023 |issn=1101-2412}}</ref>

==== Switzerland ====
{{Conservatism in Switzerland}}
In some aspects, Swiss conservatism is unique, as Switzerland is an old federal republic born from historically sovereign [[Cantons of Switzerland|cantons]], comprising three major nationalities and adhering to the principle of [[Swiss neutrality]].

There are a number of conservative parties in Switzerland's parliament, the [[Federal Assembly (Switzerland)|Federal Assembly]]. These include the largest ones: the [[Swiss People's Party]] (SVP),<ref name="Hans-Georg">{{cite book |last=Ziebertz |first=Hans-Georg |title=How Teachers in Europe Teach Religion: An International Empirical Study: An International Empirical Study in 16 Countries |year=2011 |publisher=Lit Verlag |isbn=978-3-643-10043-6 |page=237}}</ref> the [[Christian Democratic People's Party of Switzerland|Christian Democratic People's Party]] (CVP),<ref name=Juravich>{{cite book |last=Juravich |first=Tom |title=Ravenswood: The Steelworkers' Victory and the Revival of American Labor |year=2000 |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=978-0-8014-8666-1 |page=133}}</ref> and the [[Conservative Democratic Party of Switzerland]] (BDP),<ref name=Schwok>{{cite book |last=Schwok |first=René |title=Switzerland – European Union: An Impossible Membership? |year=2009 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-90-5201-576-7 |page=143}}</ref> which is a splinter of the SVP created in the aftermath to the election of [[Eveline Widmer-Schlumpf]] as Federal Council.<ref name="Schwok"/>

The SVP was formed from the 1971 merger of the [[Party of Farmers, Traders and Independents|Party of Farmers, Traders and Citizens]], formed in 1917, and the smaller Democratic Party, formed in 1942. The SVP emphasised agricultural policy and was strong among farmers in German-speaking Protestant areas. As Switzerland considered closer relations with the European Union in the 1990s, the SVP adopted a more militant [[Protectionism|protectionist]] and [[Isolationism|isolationist]] stance. This stance has allowed it to expand into German-speaking Catholic mountainous areas.{{sfn|Siaroff|2000|p=446}} The [[Anti-Defamation League]], a non-Swiss lobby group based in the United States has accused them of manipulating issues such as immigration, Swiss neutrality, and welfare benefits, awakening antisemitism and racism.<ref>The Stephen Roth Institute. ''Anti-semitism worldwide'' Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2002 {{ISBN|0-8032-5943-3}} p. 120</ref> The [[Council of Europe]] has called the SVP "[[Far-right politics|extreme right]]", although some scholars dispute this classification. For instance, [[Hans-Georg Betz]] describes it as "populist radical right".<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Hainsworth |author-first=Paul |title=The Extreme Right in Western Europe |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-415-39682-0 |pages=44 and 74 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jCtm2UeUQFIC}}</ref> The SVP has been the largest party since 2003.

==== Ukraine ====
The authoritarian [[Ukrainian State]] was headed by Cossack aristocrat [[Pavlo Skoropadskyi]] and represented the conservative movement. The 1918 [[Hetman of Ukraine|Hetman]] government, which appealed to the tradition of the 17th–18th century [[Cossack Hetmanate|Cossack Hetman state]], represented the conservative strand in Ukraine's struggle for independence. It had the support of the proprietary classes and of conservative and moderate political groups. [[Vyacheslav Lypynsky]] was a main ideologue of Ukrainian conservatism.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.encyclopediaofukraine.com/display.asp?linkpath=pages%5CC%5CO%5CConservatism.htm |title=Conservatism |website=encyclopediaofukraine.com |access-date=February 15, 2022}}</ref>

==== United Kingdom ====
{{main|Conservatism in the United Kingdom}}
{{Conservatism UK}}
{{Toryism |expanded=related}}
Modern English conservatives celebrate Anglo-Irish statesman [[Edmund Burke]] as their intellectual father. Burke was affiliated with the [[Whigs (British political party)|Whig Party]], which eventually split among the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]] and the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], but the modern Conservative Party is generally thought to derive primarily from the [[Tories (British political party)|Tories]], and the MPs of the modern conservative party are still frequently referred to as Tories.<ref name=":5">{{Cite journal |last=Sack |first=J. J. |year=1987 |title=The Memory of Burke and the Memory of Pitt: English Conservatism Confronts Its Past, 1806–1829 |journal=The Historical Journal |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=623–640 |doi=10.1017/S0018246X00020914}}</ref>

Shortly after Burke's death in 1797, conservatism was revived as a mainstream political force as the Whigs suffered a series of internal divisions. This new generation of conservatives derived their politics not from Burke, but from his predecessor, the [[Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke|Viscount Bolingbroke]], who was a [[Jacobitism|Jacobite]] and traditional Tory, lacking Burke's sympathies for Whiggish policies such as [[Catholic emancipation]] and [[American Revolution|American independence]] (famously attacked by [[Samuel Johnson]] in "Taxation No Tyranny").<ref name=":5" />

In the first half of the 19th century, many newspapers, magazines, and journals promoted [[Loyalism|loyalist]] or right-wing attitudes in religion, politics, and international affairs. Burke was seldom mentioned, but [[William Pitt the Younger]] became a conspicuous hero. The most prominent journals included ''The [[Quarterly Review]]'', founded in 1809 as a counterweight to the Whigs' ''[[Edinburgh Review]]'', and the even more conservative ''[[Blackwood's Magazine]]''. The ''Quarterly Review'' promoted a balanced Canningite Toryism, as it was neutral on Catholic emancipation and only mildly critical of [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|Nonconformist dissent]]; it opposed slavery and supported the current poor laws; and it was "aggressively [[British imperialism|imperialist]]". The [[high-church]] clergy of the Church of England read the ''[[Orthodox Churchman's Magazine]]'', which was equally hostile to Jewish, Catholic, [[Jacobin]], [[Methodist]] and [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] spokesmen. Anchoring the [[ultra-Tories]], ''Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine'' stood firmly against Catholic emancipation and favored slavery, cheap money, [[mercantilism]], the [[Navigation Acts]], and the [[Holy Alliance]].<ref name=":5" />

Conservatism evolved after 1820, embracing [[free trade]] in 1846 and a commitment to democracy, especially under [[Benjamin Disraeli]]. The effect was to significantly strengthen conservatism as a grassroots political force. Conservatism no longer was the philosophical defense of the landed aristocracy, but had been refreshed into redefining its commitment to the ideals of order, both secular and religious, expanding imperialism, strengthened [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|monarchy]], and a more generous vision of the welfare state as opposed to the punitive vision of the Whigs and liberals.<ref>Gregory Claeys, "Political Thought", in Chris Williams, ed., ''A Companion to 19th-Century Britain'' (2006). p. 195</ref> As early as 1835, Disraeli attacked the Whigs and utilitarians as slavishly devoted to an industrial [[oligarchy]], while he described his fellow Tories as the only "really democratic party of England", devoted to the interests of the whole people.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Charles Richmond |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jnF3IRJbKR8C&pg=PA162 |title=The Self-Fashioning of Disraeli, 1818–1851 |author2=Paul Smith |author2-link=Paul Smith (historian) |publisher=Cambridge UP |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-521-49729-9 |page=162}}</ref> Nevertheless, inside the party there was a tension between the growing numbers of wealthy businessmen on the one side and the aristocracy and rural gentry on the other.{{sfn|Auerbach|1959|pp=39–40}} The aristocracy gained strength as businessmen discovered they could use their wealth to buy a peerage and a country estate.

Some conservatives lamented the passing of a pastoral world where the ethos of {{lang|fr|[[noblesse oblige]]}} had promoted respect from the lower classes. They saw the [[Anglican Church]] and the aristocracy as balances against commercial wealth.<ref>{{harvnb|Eccleshall|1990|p=83}}</ref> They worked toward legislation for improved working conditions and urban housing.<ref>{{harvnb|Eccleshall|1990|p=90}}</ref> This viewpoint would later be called [[Tory democracy]].<ref>{{harvnb|Eccleshall|1990|p=121}}</ref> However, since Burke, there has always been tension between traditional aristocratic conservatism and the wealthy liberal business class.<ref>{{harvnb|Eccleshall|1990|pp=6–7}}</ref>

In 1834, Tory [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[Robert Peel]] issued the "[[Tamworth Manifesto]]", in which he pledged to endorse moderate political reform. This marked the beginning of the transformation from [[High Tory]] reactionism towards a more modern form of conservatism. As a result, the party became known as the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]]—a name it has retained to this day. However, Peel would also be the root of a split in the party between the traditional Tories (by the [[Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby|Earl of Derby]] and [[Benjamin Disraeli]]) and the "Peelites" (led first by Peel himself, then by the [[George Hamilton-Gordon, 4th Earl of Aberdeen|Earl of Aberdeen]]). The split occurred in 1846 over the issue of [[free trade]], which Peel supported, versus [[protectionism]], supported by Derby. The majority of the party sided with Derby while about a third split away, eventually merging with the [[Whigs (British political party)|Whigs]] and the [[radicalism (politics)|radicals]] to form the [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal Party]]. Despite the split, the mainstream Conservative Party accepted the doctrine of free trade in 1852.

In the second half of the 19th century, the Liberal Party faced political schisms, especially over [[History of Ireland|Irish]] [[Irish Parliamentary Party|Home Rule]]. Leader [[William Ewart Gladstone|William Gladstone]] (himself a former Peelite) sought to give Ireland a degree of autonomy, a move that elements in both the left and right-wings of his party opposed. These split off to become the [[Liberal Unionist Party|Liberal Unionists]] (led by [[Joseph Chamberlain]]), forming a coalition with the Conservatives before merging with them in 1912. The Liberal Unionist influence dragged the Conservative Party towards the left as Conservative governments passed a number of progressive reforms at the turn of the 20th century. By the late 19th century, the traditional business supporters of the Liberal Party had joined the Conservatives, making them the party of business and commerce as well.

After a period of Liberal dominance before World War I, the Conservatives gradually became more influential in government, regaining full control of the cabinet in 1922. In the inter-war period, conservatism was the major ideology in Britain<ref>Stuart Ball, "Baldwin, Stanley, first Earl Baldwin of Bewdley (1867–1947)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' 2004.</ref><ref>Ross McKibbin, ''Parties and people: England, 1914–1951'' (Oxford, 2010).</ref><ref>Garside, W.R.; Greaves, J.I. (1997). "[https://www.proquest.com/openview/b8a69e791efde94deca750b6521a4046/ Rationalisation and Britain's industrial Malaise: The interwar years revisited]". ''Journal of European Economic History''. '''26''' (1): 37–68.</ref> as the Liberal Party vied with the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] for control of the left. After World War II, the first Labour government (1945–1951) under [[Clement Attlee]] embarked on a program of nationalization of industry and the promotion of social welfare. The Conservatives generally accepted those policies until the 1980s.

In the 1980s, the Conservative government of [[Margaret Thatcher]], guided by [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] economics, reversed many of Labour's social programmes, privatized large parts of the UK economy, and sold state-owned assets.{{sfn|McLean|McMillan|2009|p=364}} The Conservative Party also adopted [[soft euroscepticism|soft eurosceptic]] politics and opposed [[Federal Europe]]. Other conservative political parties, such as the [[Democratic Unionist Party]] (DUP, founded in 1971), and the [[United Kingdom Independence Party]] (UKIP, founded in 1993), began to appear, although they have yet to make any significant impact at Westminster. As of 2014, the DUP is the largest political party in the ruling coalition in the [[Northern Ireland Assembly]], and from 2017 to 2019 the DUP provided support for the Conservative [[Second May ministry|minority government]] under a confidence-and-supply arrangement.

=== Latin America ===
{{main|Conservatism in Latin America}}
Conservative elites have long dominated Latin American nations. Mostly, this has been achieved through control of civil institutions, the Catholic Church, and the military, rather than through party politics. Typically, the Church was exempt from taxes and its employees immune from civil prosecution. Where conservative parties were weak or non-existent, conservatives were more likely to rely on [[military dictatorship]] as a preferred form of government.{{sfn|Remmer|1989}}

However, in some nations where the elites were able to mobilize popular support for conservative parties, longer periods of political stability were achieved. Chile, Colombia, and Venezuela are examples of nations that developed strong conservative parties. Argentina, Brazil, El Salvador, and Peru are examples of nations where this did not occur.<ref>Middlebrook, Kevin J. ''Conservative parties, the right, and democracy in Latin America''. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000 {{ISBN|978-0-8018-6386-8}} pp. 1–52.</ref>

Political scientist [[Louis Hartz]] explained conservatism in Latin American nations as a result of their settlement as feudal societies.<ref>Fierlbeck, Katherine. ''Political thought in Canada: an intellectual history''. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2006. {{ISBN|978-1-55111-711-9}} pp. 87–88</ref>

==== Brazil ====
{{Main|Conservatism in Brazil}}
{{Conservatism in Brazil}}
Conservatism in Brazil originates from the cultural and historical tradition of Brazil, whose cultural roots are [[Portugal|Luso]]-[[Iberian Peninsula|Iberian]] and [[Roman Catholic]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Freyre |first=Gilberto |date=1943 |title=Em Torno Do Problema De Uma Cultura Brasileira |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=167–171 |doi=10.2307/2103064 |jstor=2103064}}</ref> More traditional conservative historical views and features include belief in political [[federalism]] and [[Monarchism in Brazil|monarchism]]. Brazil is the only Latin American nation with a relatively strong royalist sentiment, and throughout modern history a significant minority of the population has always supported a monarchical restoration.<ref name=":12" /><ref>{{Cite news |last=Schipani |first=Andres |date=January 6, 2020 |title=Royalists pine for days of empire in Bolsonaro's Brazil |work=Los Angeles Times |url=https://www.latimes.com/world-nation/story/2020-01-06/royalists-pine-for-days-of-empire-in-bolsonaros-brazil}}</ref>

The [[military dictatorship in Brazil]] was established on April 1, 1964, after a ''coup d'état'' by the [[Brazilian Army]] with support from the United States government, and it lasted for 21 years, until March 15, 1985. The coup received support from almost all high-ranking members of the military along with conservative sectors in society, such as the Catholic Church and anti-communist civilian movements among the Brazilian middle and upper classes. The dictatorship reached the height of its popularity in the 1970s with the so-called [[Brazilian Miracle]]. Brazil's military government provided a model for other military regimes throughout [[Latin America]], being systematized by the "National Security Doctrine", which was used to justify the military's actions as operating in the interest of national security in a time of crisis.<ref>{{cite web |last=Gonzalez |first=Eduardo |url=http://ictj.org/news/brazil-shatters-its-wall-silence-past |title=Brazil Shatters Its Wall of Silence on the Past |publisher=International Center for Transitional Justice |date=December 6, 2011 |access-date=March 18, 2012}}</ref>

In contemporary politics, a [[Conservative wave#Brazil|conservative wave]] began roughly around the [[2014 Brazilian presidential election]].<ref>{{cite news |work=Folha de S. Paulo |last=Boulos |first=Guilherme |title=Onda Conservadora |url=https://m.folha.uol.com.br/colunas/guilhermeboulos/2014/10/1529543-onda-conservadora.shtml |access-date=January 4, 2024}}</ref> According to commentators, the [[National Congress of Brazil]] elected in 2014 may be considered the most conservative since the re-democratisation movement, citing an increase in the number of parliamentarians linked to more conservative segments, such as [[ruralists]], [[Military of Brazil|the military]], [[Police of Brazil|the police]], and [[#Religious_conservatism|religious conservatives]]. The subsequent economic crisis of 2015 and investigations of corruption scandals led to a right-wing movement that sought to rescue ideas from capitalism in opposition to socialism. At the same time, fiscal conservatives such as those that make up the [[Free Brazil Movement]] emerged among many others. Military officer [[Jair Bolsonaro]] of the [[Social Liberal Party (Brazil)|Social Liberal Party]] was the winner of the [[2018 Brazilian presidential election]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www1.folha.uol.com.br/poder/2017/12/1940171-lula-lidera-e-bolsonaro-se-consolida-em-2-aponta-datafolha.shtml |title=Lula lidera, e Bolsonaro se consolida em 2º, aponta Datafolha |date=December 2, 2017 |access-date=December 7, 2017 |agency=Poder}}</ref>

==== Chile ====
Chile's conservative party, the [[National Party (Chile, 1966–1973)|National Party]], disbanded in 1973 following a military coup and did not re-emerge as a political force after the return to democracy.<ref>Oppenheim, Lois Hecht (2007). ''Politics in Chile: Socialism, Authoritarianism, and Market Democracy''. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8133-4227-6}}</ref> During the [[military dictatorship of Chile]], the country was ruled by a [[Government Junta of Chile (1973)|military junta]] headed by General [[Augusto Pinochet]]. His ideology, known as [[Pinochetism]], was anti-communist, militaristic, nationalistic, and ''laissez-faire'' capitalistic.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Guy-Meakin |first=Amelia |date=September 17, 2012 |title=Augusto Pinochet and the Support of Chilean Right-Wing Women |url=https://www.e-ir.info/2012/09/17/augusto-pinochet-and-the-support-of-chilean-right-wing-women/ |website=E-International Relations}}</ref> Under Pinochet, [[Chile's economy]] was placed under the control of a group of economists known collectively as the [[Chicago Boys]], whose [[Liberalization|liberalizing]] policies have been described as [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Valdes |first1=Juan Gabriel |title=Pinochet's Economists: The Chicago School of Economics in Chile |date=August 17, 1995 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-45146-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-oJq_Rpcs_AC |page=81}}</ref>

==== Colombia ====
{{main|Conservatism in Colombia}}
The [[Colombian Conservative Party]], founded in 1849, traces its origins to opponents of General [[Francisco de Paula Santander]]'s 1833–1837 administration. While the term "liberal" had been used to describe all political forces in Colombia, the conservatives began describing themselves as "conservative liberals" and their opponents as "red liberals". From the 1860s until the present, the party has supported strong central government and the Catholic Church, especially its role as protector of the sanctity of the family, and opposed [[separation of church and state]]. Its policies include the legal equality of all men, the citizen's right to own property, and opposition to dictatorship. It has usually been Colombia's second largest party, with the [[Colombian Liberal Party]] being the largest.<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Osterling |author-first=Jorge P. |title=Democracy in Colombia: Clientelist Politics and Guerrilla Warfare |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-88738-229-1 |page=180}}</ref>

=== North America ===
{{main|Conservatism in North America}}
North American conservatism, combining [[traditionalist conservatism]], [[economic liberalism]], and [[right-wing populism]], is different from European conservatism and can be traced back to the [[classical liberalism]] of the 18th and 19th centuries,<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=apstK1qIvvMC&dq=ian%20adams%20political%20ideology%20today&pg=PA32 |title=Political ideology today |year=2001 |author=Ian Adams |page=32|publisher=Manchester University Press |isbn=978-0-7190-6020-5 }}</ref> although Canada developed an American-style conservatism that competed with the older [[Toryism|Tory conservatism]].<ref>[http://www.vivelecanada.ca/article/183745915-ernest-manning-and-george-grant-who-is-the-real-conservative "Ernest Manning and George Grant:  Who is the Real Conservative" (2004), Ron Dart.]</ref> According to political scientist [[Louis Hartz]], French Canada is a fragment of feudal Europe, whereas the United States and English Canada are liberal fragments.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Founding of New Societies: Studies in the History of the United States, Latin America, South Africa, Canada, and Australia |year=1964 |author=Louis Hartz}}</ref> Sociologist [[Reginald Bibby]] asserts that conservatism has been strong and enduring throughout North America because of the propagation of religious values from generation to generation.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Religion and Canadian Society: Traditions, Transitions, and Innovations |author=Lori G. Beaman |publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press |date=2006 |page=230 |isbn=978-1-55130-306-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VP5F2TQKyygC&q=%22Conservatism+in+North+America%22}}</ref>

==== Canada ====
{{main|Conservatism in Canada}}
{{Conservatism in Canada}}
Canada's conservatives had their roots in the Tory [[Loyalism|loyalists]] who left America after the [[American Revolution]].<ref>{{cite book |author-last=Grant |author-first=George |title=Lament for a Nation: The Defeat of Canadian Nationalism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tA6jkih-KuAC |isbn=9780773530102 |publisher=McGill-Queen's Press |year=2005 |orig-date=1965}}</ref> They developed in the socio-economic and political cleavages that existed during the first three decades of the 19th century and had the support of the mercantile, professional, and religious elites in Ontario and to a lesser extent in Quebec. Holding a monopoly over administrative and judicial offices, they were called the [[Family Compact]] in Ontario and the {{lang|fr|[[Chateau Clique]]}} in Quebec. [[John A. Macdonald]]'s successful leadership of the movement to confederate the provinces, and his subsequent tenure as prime minister for most of the late 19th century, rested on his ability to bring together the English-speaking Protestant aristocracy and the [[ultramontane]] Catholic hierarchy of Quebec and to keep them united in a conservative coalition.<ref>Kornberg, Allan and Mishler, William. ''Influence in Parliament, Canada''. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1976. p. 38</ref>

The conservatives combined [[Toryism]] and pro-market liberalism. They generally supported an activist government and state intervention in the marketplace, and their policies were marked by {{lang|fr|[[noblesse oblige]]}}—a paternalistic responsibility of the elites for the less well-off.<ref>Schultze, Rainer-Olaf; Sturm, Roland and Eberle, Dagmar. ''Conservative parties and right-wing politics in North America: reaping the benefits of an ideological victory?''. Germany: VS Verlag, 2003. {{ISBN|978-3-8100-3812-8}} p. 15</ref> The party was known as the Progressive Conservatives from 1942 until 2003, when the party merged with the [[Canadian Alliance]] to form the [[Conservative Party of Canada]].<ref>Panizza, Francisco. ''Populism and the mirror of democracy''. London: Verso, 2005. {{ISBN|978-1-85984-489-2}} p. 180</ref>

The conservative and [[Autonomism in Quebec|autonomist]] [[Union Nationale (Quebec)|Union Nationale]], led by [[Maurice Duplessis]], governed the province of Quebec in periods from 1936 to 1960 and in a close alliance with the Catholic Church, small rural elites, farmers, and business elites. This period, known by liberals as the [[Grande Noirceur|Great Darkness]], ended with the [[Quiet Revolution]] and the party went into terminal decline.<ref>Conway, John Frederick. ''Debts to pay: the future of federalism in Quebec''. Toronto: James Lorimer & Company, 2004. {{ISBN|978-1-55028-814-8}} pp. 57, 77</ref>

By the end of the 1960s, the political debate in Quebec centred around the question of independence, opposing the [[Social democracy|social democratic]] and [[Quebec sovereignty movement|sovereignist]] [[Parti Québécois]] and the [[Centrism|centrist]] and [[Federalism in Quebec|federalist]] [[Quebec Liberal Party]], therefore marginalizing the conservative movement. Most French Canadian conservatives rallied either the [[Quebec Liberal Party]] or the [[Parti Québécois]], while some of them still tried to offer an autonomist third-way with what was left of the [[Union Nationale (Quebec)|Union Nationale]] or the more populists [[Ralliement créditiste du Québec]] and [[Parti national populaire]], but by the [[1981 Quebec general election|1981 provincial election]] politically organized conservatism had been obliterated in Quebec. It slowly started to revive at the [[1994 Quebec general election|1994 provincial election]] with the [[Action démocratique du Québec]], who served as [[Parliamentary opposition|Official opposition]] in the [[National Assembly of Quebec|National Assembly]] from 2007 to 2008, before merging in 2012 with [[François Legault]]'s [[Coalition Avenir Québec]], which took power in 2018. The modern [[Conservative Party of Canada]] has rebranded conservatism and, under the leadership of [[Stephen Harper]], added more conservative policies.

[[Yoram Hazony]], a scholar on the history and ideology of conservatism, identified Canadian psychologist [[Jordan Peterson]] as the most significant conservative thinker to appear in the English-speaking world in a generation.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hazony |first=Yoram |date=June 15, 2018 |title=Jordan Peterson and Conservatism's Rebirth |work=Wall Street Journal |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/jordan-peterson-and-conservatisms-rebirth-1529101961 |access-date=December 23, 2023 |issn=0099-9660}}</ref>

==== United States ====
{{main|Conservatism in the United States}}
{{Conservatism US}}
The meaning of conservatism in the United States is different from the way the word is used elsewhere. Following the [[American Revolution]], Americans rejected the core ideals of European conservatism, which were based on landed nobility, hereditary monarchy, established churches, and powerful armies. However, the prominent American conservative historian [[Russell Kirk]] argued, in his influential work ''[[The Conservative Mind]]'' (1953), that conservatism had been brought to the United States and he interpreted the [[American Revolution]] as a "conservative revolution" against royal innovation.<ref>{{cite book |author=Kirk, Russell |title=The Conservative Mind |publisher=Regnery Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-89526-171-7 |pages=6, 63 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mGBn2fOdp7gC}}</ref> The revolution was also supported by Anglo-Irish statesman [[Edmund Burke]], widely known as the father of conservatism, although Burke and a few [[Founding Fathers]], most notably [[John Adams]], were highly critical of the [[French Revolution]].{{sfn|Neill|2021|p=47}}

American conservatism is a broad system of political beliefs in the [[United States]], which is characterized by respect for American traditions, support for [[Judeo-Christian ethics|Judeo-Christian values]], economic liberalism, anti-communism, and a defense of [[Western culture]]. [[Liberty]] within the bounds of conformity to conservatism is a core value, with a particular emphasis on strengthening the [[free market]], limiting the size and scope of government, and opposing high taxes as well as government or labor union encroachment on the entrepreneur.

The 1830s [[History of the Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] became divided between [[Southern Democrats]], who supported slavery, secession, and later segregation, and the [[Northern Democrats]], who tended to support the abolition of slavery, union, and equality.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.andrewjohnson.com/02KeyPoliticalIssues/RadicalismConservatism.htm |title=Reconstruction: Radicalism versus Conservatism |website=www.andrewjohnson.com}}</ref> Many Democrats were conservative in the sense that they wanted things to be like they were in the past, especially as far as race was concerned. They generally favored poorer farmers and urban workers, and were hostile to banks, industrialization, and high tariffs.<ref>Michael Kazin, ''What It Took to Win: A History of the Democratic Party'' (2022) p xii.</ref>

The post-Civil War [[History of the Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] had conservative factions, but was not uniformly conservative. The Southern Democrats united with pro-segregation Northern Republicans to form the [[Conservative Coalition]], which successfully put an end to Blacks being elected to national political office until 1967, when [[Edward Brooke]] was elected Senator from Massachusetts.<ref>{{cite web |last=Lyman |first=Brian |title=Fact check: Yes, historians do teach that first Black members of Congress were Republicans |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/factcheck/2020/06/18/fact-check-democrats-republicans-and-complicated-history-race/3208378001/ |access-date=May 1, 2022 |website=USA TODAY}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.houstonchronicle.com/opinion/article/How-Democrats-and-Republicans-switched-beliefs-9226115.php |title=How Democrats and Republicans switched beliefs [Opinion] |date=September 15, 2016 |newspaper=Houston Chronicle |last1=Haught |first1=By James A.}}</ref> [[Conservative Democrat]]s influenced US politics until 1994's [[Republican Revolution]], as the American South [[Southern strategy|shifted from solid Democrat to solid Republican]], while maintaining its conservative values.

In late 19th century, the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] split into two factions; the more conservative Eastern business faction (led by [[Grover Cleveland]]) favored gold, while the South and West (led by [[William Jennings Bryan]]) wanted more silver in order to raise prices for their crops.  In 1892, Cleveland won the election on a conservative platform, which supported maintaining the gold standard, reducing tariffs, and taking a {{lang|fr|laissez-faire}} approach to government intervention. A severe nationwide [[Panic of 1893|depression]] ruined his plans.  Many of his supporters in 1896 supported the [[National Democratic Party (United States)|Gold Democrats]] when liberal [[William Jennings Bryan]] won the nomination and campaigned for [[bimetallism]], money backed by both gold and silver. The conservative wing nominated [[Alton B. Parker]] in 1904, but he got very few votes.<ref>See David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito. [http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=22&articleID=261 "Gold Democrats and the Decline of Classical Liberalism, 1896–1900"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140326140336/http://www.independent.org/publications/tir/article.asp?issueID=22&articleID=261 |date=March 26, 2014 }}.</ref><ref>John M. Pafford, ''The Forgotten Conservative: Rediscovering Grover Cleveland'' (Simon and Schuster, 2013).</ref>

The major conservative party in the United States today is the Republican Party, also known as the GOP (Grand Old Party). Modern American conservatives often consider [[Individualism|individual liberty]] as the fundamental trait of democracy, as long as it conforms to conservative values, [[small government]], [[deregulation]] of the government, and economic liberalism—which contrasts with [[Modern Liberalism in the United States|modern American liberals]], who generally place a greater value on [[social equality]] and [[social justice]].<ref>{{harv|Schneider|2009|pp=4–9, 136}}: "The label (conservatism) is in frequent use and has come to stand for a skepticism, at times an outright hostility, toward government social policies; a muscular foreign policy combined with a patriotic nationalism; a defense of traditional Christian religious values; and support for the free market economic system."</ref><ref>Sherwood Thompson, ''Encyclopedia of Diversity and Social Justice'' p. 7: "Historically...social justice became associated with liberalism in which equality is the ideal.", Rowman & Littlefield, 2014, {{ISBN|978-1-4422-1604-4}}.</ref> Other major priorities within American conservatism include support for the nuclear family, law and order, the [[right to bear arms]], [[Christian values]], anti-communism, and a defense of "Western civilization from the challenges of modernist culture and totalitarian governments".{{sfn|Schneider|2009|p=xii}} Economic conservatives and libertarians favor small government, low taxes, limited regulation, and free enterprise. Some social conservatives see traditional social values threatened by secularism; so, they support [[school prayer]], and [[Opposition to the legalization of abortion|oppose abortion]].<ref name="Social">{{cite book |title=Texas Politics: Governing the Lone Star State |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fQFZCrbc9mIC&q=social%20conservatism%20abortion%20marriage&pg=PA87 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |access-date=January 19, 2012 |author=Cal Jillson |date=February 22, 2011 |quote=Social conservatives focus on moral or values issues, such as abortion, marriage, school prayer, and judicial appointments. |isbn=978-0-203-82941-7}}</ref> [[Neoconservatives]] want to expand American ideals throughout the world, and show a strong support for Israel.{{sfn|Frohnen|2006|pp=ix–xiv}} [[Paleoconservatives]] oppose [[multiculturalism]] and press for restrictions on immigration.<ref name="Paleoconservative2">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hqbHa_AJrtMC&q=paleoconservative%20immigration&pg=PA318 |title=American credo: the place of ideas in US politics |author=Michael Foley |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2007 |quote=Against accusations of being pre-modern or even anti-modern in outlook, paleoconservatives press for restrictions on immigration, a rollback of multicultural programmes, the decentralization of the federal polity, the restoration of controls upon free trade, a greater emphasis upon economic nationalism and isolationism in the conduct of American foreign policy, and a generally ''revanchist'' outlook upon a social order in need of recovering old lines of distinction and in particular the assignment of roles in accordance with traditional categories of gender, ethnicity, and race. |access-date=January 18, 2012 |isbn=978-0-19-152833-0}}</ref>

The conservative movement of the 1950s attempted to bring together the divergent conservative strands, stressing the need for unity to prevent the spread of "godless communism", which Reagan later labeled an "[[Evil Empire speech|evil empire]]".<ref>{{cite book |title=Conservatism in America: Making Sense of the American Right |author-last=Gottfried |author-first=Paul E. |isbn=9781403974327 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TsaMEQoeFTIC |year=2007 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |page=9 |quote=Post-war conservatives set about creating their own synthesis of free-market capitalism, Christian morality, and the global struggle against Communism}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Gottfried |first1=Paul Edward |title=Theologies and Moral Concern |date=January 1, 1995 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |page=12}}</ref> During the [[Reagan administration]], conservatives also supported the so-called [[Reagan Doctrine]], under which the US as part of a Cold War strategy provided military and other support to guerrilla insurgencies that were fighting governments identified as socialist or communist. The Reagan administration also adopted [[neoliberalism]] and [[Reaganomics]] (pejoratively referred to as [[trickle-down economics]]), resulting in the 1980s economic growth and trillion-dollar deficits. Other modern conservative positions include [[anti-environmentalism]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jacques |first1=Peter J. |last2=Dunlap |first2=Riley E. |last3=Freeman |first3=Mark |title=The organisation of denial: Conservative think tanks and environmental scepticism |journal=Environmental Politics |date=May 20, 2008 |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=349–385 |doi=10.1080/09644010802055576 |bibcode=2008EnvPo..17..349J}}</ref> On average, American conservatives desire tougher foreign policies than liberals do.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Gries |first1=Peter Hayes |title=The Politics of American Foreign Policy: How Ideology Divides Liberals and Conservatives over Foreign Affairs |date=2014 |publisher=Stanford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wwzqAwAAQBAJ |isbn=9780804790925}}</ref>

The [[Tea Party movement]], founded in 2009, proved a large outlet for populist American conservative ideas. Their stated goals included rigorous adherence to the US constitution, lower taxes, and opposition to a growing role for the federal government in health care. Electorally, it was considered a key force in Republicans reclaiming control of the US House of Representatives in 2010.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Tea Party and the Remaking of Republican Conservatism |author1-last=Williamson |author1-first=Vanessa |author2-last=Skocpol |author2-first=Theda |isbn=9780199832637 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0OAtvU8ottcC |year=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=45–82}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/katie-couric-interviews-tea-party-leaders/ |title=Katie Couric Interviews Tea Party Leaders |website=[[CBS News]] |date=January 25, 2010 |access-date=March 11, 2012 |archive-date=October 4, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004121627/http://www.cbsnews.com/8301-503544_162-12030-503544.html |url-status=live}}</ref>

Long-term shifts in conservative thinking following the election of [[Donald Trump]] have been described as a "new fusionism" of traditional conservative ideology and right-wing populist themes.<ref name="Fusionism"/> These have resulted in shifts towards greater support for [[national conservatism]],<ref>{{cite news |title=The growing peril of national conservatism |url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2024/02/15/the-growing-peril-of-national-conservatism |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=February 15, 2024 |access-date=February 15, 2024 |archive-date=February 15, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215195332/https://www.economist.com/leaders/2024/02/15/the-growing-peril-of-national-conservatism |url-status=live |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[protectionism]],<ref>{{cite news |title=The Republican Party no longer believes America is the essential nation |url=https://www.economist.com/united-states/2023/10/26/the-republican-party-no-longer-believes-america-is-the-essential-nation |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=October 26, 2023 |access-date=February 14, 2024 |archive-date=February 13, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213131705/https://www.economist.com/united-states/2023/10/26/the-republican-party-no-longer-believes-america-is-the-essential-nation |url-status=live |url-access=subscription}}</ref> [[cultural conservatism]], a more [[Realism (international relations)|realist]] foreign policy, a repudiation of [[neoconservatism]], reduced efforts to roll back entitlement programs, and a disdain for traditional checks and balances.<ref name="Fusionism">{{cite journal |last1=Ashbee |first1=Edward |last2=Waddan |first2=Alex |title=US Republicans and the New Fusionism |journal=[[The Political Quarterly]] |date=December 13, 2023 |volume=95 |pages=148–156 |doi=10.1111/1467-923X.13341 |s2cid=266282896 |issn=1467-923X |language=en-us}}</ref>

=== Oceania ===
==== Australia ====
{{main|Conservatism in Australia}}
{{Conservatism in Australia}}
The [[Liberal Party of Australia]] adheres to the principles of [[social conservatism]] and [[liberal conservatism]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Dennis Raphael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zjh4lQAbPrYC&pg=PA66 |title=Tackling Health Inequalities: Lessons from International Experiences |publisher=Canadian Scholars' Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-55130-412-0 |page=66}}</ref> It is liberal in the sense of economics. Commentators explain: "In America, 'liberal' means left-of-center, and it is a pejorative term when used by conservatives in adversarial political debate. In Australia, of course, the conservatives are in the Liberal Party."<ref>{{cite book |author1=David Mosler |url=https://archive.org/details/americaamericans0000mosl |title=America and Americans in Australia |author2=Robert Catley |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-275-96252-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/americaamericans0000mosl/page/83 83] |url-access=registration}}</ref> The [[National Right (Liberal Party of Australia)|National Right]] is the most organized and reactionary of the three factions within the party.<ref>{{cite news |last=Massola |first=James |date=March 21, 2021 |title=Who's who in the Liberals' left, right and centre factions? |url=https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/who-s-who-in-the-liberals-left-right-and-centre-factions-20210303-p577gv.html |work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]}}</ref>

Political scientist [[James Jupp]] writes that "[the] decline in English influences on Australian reformism and radicalism, and appropriation of the symbols of Empire by conservatives continued under the Liberal Party leadership of Sir [[Robert Menzies]], which lasted until 1966".<ref>{{cite book |author=James Jupp |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n63TaXC5TpEC&pg=PA172 |title=The English in Australia |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-54295-1 |page=172 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

Other conservative parties are the [[National Party of Australia]] (a sister party of the Liberals), [[Family First Party]], [[Democratic Labour Party (Australia, 1980)|Democratic Labor Party]], [[Shooters, Fishers and Farmers Party]], [[Australian Conservatives]], and the [[Katter's Australian Party]].

The largest party in the country is the [[Australian Labor Party]], and its dominant faction is [[Labor Right]], a [[socially conservative]] element. Australia undertook significant economic reform under the Labor Party in the mid-1980s. Consequently, issues like protectionism, welfare reform, privatization, and deregulation are no longer debated in the political space as they are in Europe or North America.

==== New Zealand ====
{{conservatism New Zealand}}
[[Historic conservatism in New Zealand]] traces its roots to the unorganized conservative opposition to the [[New Zealand Liberal Party]] in the late 19th century. In 1909 this ideological strand found a more organized expression in the [[Reform Party (New Zealand)|Reform Party]], a forerunner to the contemporary [[New Zealand National Party]], which absorbed historic conservative elements.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=James |first1=Colin |author1-link=Colin James (journalist) |title=National Party – Formation and rise |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/national-party/page-1 |encyclopedia=[[Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand]] |access-date=December 9, 2023 |date=June 20, 2012}}</ref> The National Party, established in 1936, embodies a spectrum of tendencies, including conservative and liberal. Throughout its history, the party has oscillated between periods of conservative emphasis and liberal reform. Its stated values include "individual freedom and choice" and "limited government".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last1=James |first1=Colin |title=National Party – Party principles |url=https://teara.govt.nz/en/national-party/page-4 |encyclopedia=Te Ara: The Encyclopedia of New Zealand |access-date=December 9, 2023 |date=June 20, 2012}}</ref>

In the 1980s and 1990s both the National Party and its main opposing party, the traditionally left-wing [[New Zealand Labour Party|Labour Party]], implemented free-market reforms.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Boston |first1=Jonathan |last2=Eichbaum |first2=Chris |title=New Zealand's Neoliberal Reforms: Half a Revolution |journal=Governance |date=July 2014 |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=373–376 |doi=10.1111/gove.12092}}</ref>

The [[New Zealand First]] party, which split from the National Party in 1993, espouses nationalist and conservative principles.<ref>{{cite book |author=David Hall |title=Climate Governance across the Globe: Pioneers, Leaders and Followers |publisher=Routledge |year=2021 |isbn=978-1-000-320381 |editor1=Rüdiger K.W. Wurzel |page=81 |chapter=Rhetoric and reality in New Zealand’s climate leadership |doi=10.4324/9781003014249-7 |editor2=Mikael Skou Andersen |editor3=Paul Tobin |chapter-url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/oa-edit/10.4324/9781003014249-7/rhetoric-reality-new-zealand-climate-leadership-david-hall}}</ref>

== Psychology ==
{{see also|Biology and political orientation}}

=== Conscientiousness ===
[[Big Five Personality Traits|The Big Five personality model]] has applications in the study of [[political psychology]]. It has been found by several studies that individuals who score high in [[Conscientiousness]] (the quality of working hard and being careful) are more likely to possess a right-wing political identification.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Gerber AS |display-authors=etal |year=2010 |title=Personality and Political Attitudes: Relationships across Issue Domains and Political Contexts |url= |journal=The American Political Science Review |volume=104 |issue= |pages=111–133 |doi=10.1017/S0003055410000031}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Sweetser KD |year=2014 |title=Partisan Personality: The Psychological Differences Between Democrats and Republicans, and Independents Somewhere in Between |url= |journal=American Behavioral Scientist |volume=58 |issue=9 |pages=1183–94 |doi=10.1177/0002764213506215}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Fatke M |year=2017 |title=Personality Traits and Political Ideology: A First Global Assessment |url= |journal=Political Psychology |volume=38 |issue=5 |pages=881–99 |doi=10.1111/pops.12347}}</ref> Since conscientiousness is positively related to job performance,<ref>Brown, T. J., Mowen, J. C., Donavan, D. T., & Licata, J. W. (2002). The customer orientation of service workers: Personality trait effects on self-and supervisor performance ratings. Journal ofMarketing Research, 39, 110–119.</ref><ref>Neal, A., Yeo, G., Koy, A., & Xiao, T. (2012). Predicting the form and direction of work role performance from the Big 5 model of personality traits. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 33, 175–192.</ref> a 2021 study found that conservative service workers earn higher ratings, evaluations, and tips than social liberal ones.<ref>Davidson, A., & Theriault, D. A. (2021). How Consumer Experience Is Shaped by the Political Orientation of Service Providers. Journal of Consumer Psychology.</ref>

=== Disgust sensitivity ===
A number of studies have found that [[disgust]] is tightly linked to political orientation. People who are highly sensitive to disgusting images are more likely to align with the political right and value traditional ideals of bodily and spiritual purity, tending to oppose, for example, [[abortion]] and [[gay marriage]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Inbar, Yoel |display-authors=etal |title=Disgust sensitivity, political conservatism, and voting |journal=Social Psychological and Personality Science |date=2012 |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=537–544 |doi=10.1177/1948550611429024}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Ahn, Woo-Young |display-authors=etal |title=Nonpolitical Images Evoke Neural Predictors of Political Ideology |journal=Current Biology |date=November 2014 |volume=24 |issue=22 |pages=2693–2699 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2014.09.050 |pmid=25447997 |pmc=4245707 |bibcode=2014CBio...24.2693A}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Left or right-wing? Brain's disgust response tells all |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn26481-left-or-right-wing-brains-disgust-response-tells-all/ |journal=New Scientist |access-date=July 18, 2023 |author=Dan Jones}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Conservatives are more easily disgusted than liberals. |url=http://yoelinbar.net/papers/disgust_conservatism.pdf |author=Y. Inbar |journal=Cognition and Emotion |date=2008 |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=714–725 |doi=10.1080/02699930802110007 |display-authors=etal |citeseerx=10.1.1.372.3053 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130203032055/http://yoelinbar.net/papers/disgust_conservatism.pdf |archive-date=February 3, 2013 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Research in the field of [[evolutionary psychology]] has also found that people who are more disgust sensitive tend to favor their own [[in-group]] over [[Outgroup (sociology)|out-group]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=Gordon D. A. |last2=Fincher |first2=Corey L. |last3=Walasek |first3=Lukasz |date=2016 |title=Personality, Parasites, Political Attitudes, and Cooperation: A Model of How Infection Prevalence Influences Openness and Social Group Formation |journal=Topics in Cognitive Science |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=98–117 |doi=10.1111/tops.12175 |pmid=26612490 |pmc=4991276}}</ref> A proposed reason for this phenomenon is that people begin to associate outsiders with disease while associating health with people similar to themselves.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.12.001 |title=Disease avoidance and ethnocentrism: The effects of disease vulnerability and disgust sensitivity on intergroup attitudes |year=2006 |last1=Navarrete |first1=Carlos David |last2=Fessler |first2=Daniel M.T. |journal=Evolution and Human Behavior |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=270–282 |bibcode=2006EHumB..27..270N}}</ref>

The higher one's disgust sensitivity is, the greater the tendency to make more conservative moral judgments. Disgust sensitivity is associated with moral [[hypervigilance]], which means that people who have higher disgust sensitivity are more likely to think that suspects of a crime are guilty. They also tend to view them as evil, if found guilty, and endorse harsher punishment in the setting of a court.<ref>{{cite journal |last=David |first=B. |author2=Olatunji, B.O. |title=The effect of disgust conditioning and disgust sensitivity on appraisals of moral transgressions |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |year=2011 |volume=50 |pages=1142–1146 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2011.02.004 |issue=7}}</ref>

=== Authoritarianism ===
The [[right-wing authoritarian personality]] (RWA) is a [[personality type]] that describes somebody who is highly submissive to their authority figures, acts aggressively in the name of said authorities, and is conformist in thought and behavior.<ref name="APA Dictionary">{{cite web |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=2021 |title=Right-wing authoritarianism (RWA) |url=https://dictionary.apa.org/right-wing-authoritarianism |access-date=October 18, 2021 |website=dictionary.apa.org |publisher=American Psychological Association |location=[[Washington, D.C.]]}}</ref> According to psychologist [[Bob Altemeyer]], individuals who are politically conservative tend to rank high in RWA.<ref>{{cite book |last=Altemeyer |first=Bob |title=Right-Wing Authoritarianism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4preAAAAMAAJ |year=1981 |publisher=University of Manitoba Press |isbn=978-0-88755-124-6}}</ref> This finding was echoed by philosopher [[Theodor W. Adorno]] in ''[[The Authoritarian Personality]]'' (1950) based on the [[F-scale (personality test)|F-scale]] personality test.

A study done on Israeli and Palestinian students in Israel found that RWA scores of right-wing party supporters were significantly higher than those of left-wing party supporters.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rubinstein |first1=G. |doi=10.1177/0022022196272005 |title=Two Peoples in One Land: A Validation Study of Altemeyer's Right-Wing Authoritarianism Scale in the Palestinian and Jewish Societies in Israel |journal=Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology |year=1996 |volume=27 |pages=216–230 |issue=2}}</ref> However, a 2005 study by psychologist H. Michael Crowson and colleagues suggested a moderate gap between RWA and other conservative positions, stating that their "results indicated that conservatism is not synonymous with RWA".<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crowson |first1=H. Michael |last2=Thoma |first2=Stephen J. |last3=Hestevold |first3=Nita |title=Is Political Conservatism Synonymous With Authoritarianism? |journal=The Journal of Social Psychology |date=August 7, 2010 |volume=145 |issue=5 |pages=571–592 |doi=10.3200/SOCP.145.5.571-592 |pmid=16201679}}</ref>

According to political scientist [[Karen Stenner]], who specializes in authoritarianism, conservatives will embrace diversity and civil liberties to the extent that they are institutionalized traditions in the social order, but they tend to be drawn to authoritarianism when public opinion is fractious and there is a loss of confidence in public institutions.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Stenner |first=Karen |author-link=Karen Stenner |title=Three Kinds of 'Conservatism' |journal=Psychological Inquiry |year=2009 |pages=142–159 |doi=10.1080/10478400903028615 |url=http://ussc.edu.au/s/media/docs/publications/1006_Inequality_Stenner.pdf |access-date=June 2, 2012 |volume=20 |issue=2–3 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512090055/http://ussc.edu.au/s/media/docs/publications/1006_Inequality_Stenner.pdf |archive-date=May 12, 2013}}</ref>

=== Ambiguity intolerance ===
In 1973, psychologist [[Glenn Wilson (psychologist)|Glenn Wilson]] published an influential book providing evidence that a general factor underlying conservative beliefs is "fear of uncertainty".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=Glenn D. |title=The Psychology of Conservatism |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781135094454 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7rlTAQAAQBAJ}}</ref> A meta-analysis of research literature found that many factors, such as [[Ambiguity tolerance|intolerance of ambiguity]] and need for [[Cognitive closure (psychology)|cognitive closure]], contribute to the degree of one's political conservatism and its manifestations in decision-making.<ref name="Jost et al. 2003">{{cite journal |last1=Jost |first1=John T. |last2=Glaser |first2=Jack |last3=Kruglanski |first3=Arie W. |last4=Sulloway |first4=Frank J. |date=2003 |title=Political conservatism as motivated social cognition |url=https://www.academia.edu/7598266 |journal=Psychological Bulletin |volume=129 |issue=3 |pages=339–375 |doi=10.1037/0033-2909.129.3.339 |pmid=12784934}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1016/j.ijresmar.2019.04.001 |last1=Chan |first1=EY |last2=Ilicic |first2=J |year=2019 |title=Political ideology and brand attachment |journal=International Journal of Research in Marketing |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=TBD}}</ref> A study by Kathleen Maclay stated that these traits "might be associated with such generally valued characteristics as personal commitment and unwavering loyalty". The research also suggested that while most people are resistant to change, social liberals are more tolerant of it.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2003/07/22_politics.shtml |title=Researchers help define what makes a political conservative |year=2003}}</ref>

=== Social dominance orientation ===
[[Social dominance orientation]] (SDO) is a [[personality trait]] measuring an individual's support for [[social hierarchy]] and the extent to which they desire their [[in-group]] be superior to [[In-group and out-group|out-groups]]. Psychologist [[Felicia Pratto]] and her colleagues have found evidence to support the claim that a high SDO is strongly correlated with conservative views and opposition to [[Social engineering (political science)|social engineering]] to promote equality. Pratto and her colleagues also found that high SDO scores were highly correlated with measures of [[prejudice]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pratto |first1=Felicia |last2=Sidanius |first2=Jim |last3=Stallworth |first3=Lisa M. |last4=Malle |first4=Bertram F. |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741 |title=Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |year=1994 |volume=67 |pages=741–763 |issue=4 |url=http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:3207711}}</ref>

However, psychologist [[David J. Schneider]] argued for a more complex relationships between the three factors, writing that "correlations between prejudice and political conservatism are reduced virtually to zero when controls for SDO are instituted, suggesting that the conservatism–prejudice link is caused by SDO".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Schneider |first1=David J. |title=The Psychology of Stereotyping |date=April 7, 2005 |publisher=Guilfold Press |page=275}}</ref> Political theorist [[Kenneth Minogue]] criticized Pratto's work, saying:

{{blockquote|It is characteristic of the conservative temperament to value established identities, to praise habit and to respect prejudice, not because it is irrational, but because such things anchor the darting impulses of human beings in solidities of custom which we do not often begin to value until we are already losing them. Radicalism often generates youth movements, while conservatism is a condition found among the mature, who have discovered what it is in life they most value.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Kuper |first1=Adam |title=The Social Science Encyclopedia |date=May 13, 2013 |publisher=Routledge |pages=155–156 |edition=2nd}}</ref>}}

A 1996 study by Pratto and her colleagues examined the topic of [[racism]]. Contrary to what these theorists predicted, correlations between conservatism and racism were strongest among the most educated individuals, and weakest among the least educated. They also found that the correlation between racism and conservatism could be accounted for by their mutual relationship with SDO.<ref name="sidanius96">{{cite journal |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.70.3.476 |last1=Sidanius |first1=J |last2=Pratto |first2=F |last3=Bobo |first3=L |year=1996 |title=Racism, conservatism, affirmative action, and intellectual sophistication: A matter of principled conservatism or group dominance? |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=476–490 |url=http://www.scholar.harvard.edu/files/bobo/files/1996_racism_conservatism_affirmative_action_and_journal_of_personality_and_social_psychology.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150417073353/http://www.scholar.harvard.edu/files/bobo/files/1996_racism_conservatism_affirmative_action_and_journal_of_personality_and_social_psychology.pdf |archive-date=April 17, 2015 |url-status=live |citeseerx=10.1.1.474.1114}}</ref>

=== Happiness ===
In his book ''Gross National Happiness'' (2008), [[Arthur C. Brooks]] presents the finding that conservatives are roughly twice as happy as social liberals.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Brooks |first1=Arthur C. |title=Gross National Happiness: Why Happiness Matters for America—and How We Can Get More of It |date=2008 |publisher=Basic Books |location=[[New York City|New York]] |isbn=978-1-5113-9186-3}}</ref> A 2008 study suggested that conservatives tend to be happier than social liberals because of their tendency to justify the current state of affairs and to remain unbothered by inequalities in society.<ref name="napier and jost 2008">{{cite journal |last1=Napier |first1=J.L. |last2=Jost |first2=J.T. |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9280.2008.02124.x |title=Why Are Conservatives Happier Than Liberals? |journal=Psychological Science |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=565–572 |year=2008 |pmid=18578846}}</ref> A 2012 study disputed this hypothesis, demonstrating that conservatives expressed greater personal agency (e.g., personal control, responsibility), more positive outlook (e.g., optimism, self-worth), and more transcendent moral beliefs (e.g., greater religiosity, greater moral clarity).<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schlenker |first1=Barry |last2=Chambers |first2=John |last3=Le |first3=Bonnie |title=Conservatives are happier than liberals, but why? Political ideology, personality and life satisfaction. |journal=Journal of Research in Personality |date=April 2012 |volume=46 |issue=2 |pages=127–146 |doi=10.1016/j.jrp.2011.12.009 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S009265661100170X |access-date=July 31, 2021}}</ref>

== Prominent figures ==
{{Cleanup gallery|date=March 2025}}

=== Statesmen ===
<!-- This section doesn't include living persons. -->
<gallery>
File:Official Presidential portrait of John Adams (by John Trumbull, circa 1792).jpg|link=|President [[John Adams]] of the United States<ref>{{cite book |last=Rossiter |first=Clinton |date=1955 |title=Conservatism in America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4Vs0AAAAIAAJ |page=114 |location=New York|publisher=Knopf |author-link=Clinton Rossiter |oclc=440025153 }}</ref>
File:Prince Metternich by Lawrence.jpeg|link=|Prince [[Klemens von Metternich]] of the Austrian Empire<ref>{{cite web |title=Klemens von Metternich |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Klemens-von-Metternich |quote=Klemens von Metternich was an Austrian statesman, minister of foreign affairs, and a champion of conservatism. |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2025-05-01}}</ref>
File:Benjamin Disraeli by Cornelius Jabez Hughes, 1878.jpg|link=|Prime Minister [[Benjamin Disraeli]] of the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite book |last=Dorey |first=Peter |title=The Conservative Party and the Trade Unions |pages=16–17 |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0415064873}}</ref>
File:Bundesarchiv Bild 146-2005-0057, Otto von Bismarck (cropped).jpg|link=|Chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]] of the German Empire<ref>{{cite book |author1=W. Phillips Shively |author2=David Schultz |title=Power and Choice: An Introduction to Political Science |pages=34 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |year=2022}}</ref>
File:Mannerheim1940.jpg|link=|Marshal [[Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim]] of Finland<ref>{{cite web |title=Carl Gustaf Mannerheim |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carl-Gustaf-Emil-Mannerheim |quote=Carl Gustaf Mannerheim was a Finnish military leader and conservative statesman. |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2025-05-01}}</ref>
File:Horthy the regent.jpg|link=|Regent [[Miklós Horthy]] of the Kingdom of Hungary<ref>{{cite web |title=Miklós Horthy |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Miklos-Nagybanyai-Horthy |quote=Miklós Horthy was a Hungarian naval officer and conservative leader who defeated revolutionary forces in Hungary after World War I and remained the country’s head of state until 1944. |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=2025-05-01}}</ref>
File:Sir Winston Churchill - 19086236948.jpg|link=|Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] of the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite book|author=Andrew Roberts|title=Churchill: Walking with Destiny|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=r4RLDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP125|date=2018|publisher=Penguin|page=127|isbn=9781101981016}}</ref>
File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F078072-0004, Konrad Adenauer.jpg|link=|Chancellor [[Konrad Adenauer]] of Germany<ref>{{cite web |title=Merkel, Kissinger pay tribute to Adenauer |url=https://www.dw.com/en/merkel-kissinger-pay-tribute-to-adenauer-at-anniversary-ceremony/a-38587419 |publisher=Deutsche Welle |access-date=2025-05-01}}</ref>
File:Chiang Kai-shek（蔣中正）.jpg|link=|''Generalissimo'' [[Chiang Kai-shek]] of Republic of China<ref>{{cite book |last = Tsui  |first = Brian |year = 2018 |title = China's Conservative Revolution: The Quest for a New Order, 1927-1949 |publisher = Cambridge University Press| location = Cambridge |isbn = 978-1107196230}}</ref>
File:António de Oliveira Salazar portrait (by Manuel Alves San Payo) – Lisboa.jpg|link=|Prime Minister [[António de Oliveira Salazar]] of Portugal<ref>{{cite book |author=Frank J. Coppa |title=Encyclopedia of Modern Dictators: From Napoleon to the Present |quote=A pragmatic rather than dogmatic executive who understood the limitations in which Portugal found herself during the 1930s, Salazar combined Catholic cultural values and socioeconomic conservatism with the kind of nationalistic evocations that had to take the place of vanished glory. |pages=275 |publisher=Peter Lang |year=2006}}</ref>
File:De Gaulle-OWI (cropped)-(c).jpg|link=|General [[Charles de Gaulle]] of France<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2018/08/20/how-charles-de-gaulle-rescued-france |title=How Charles de Gaulle Rescued France: His life shows that right-wing politics needn't bend toward absolutism. |date=13 August 2018 |access-date=13 April 2025 |magazine=[[The New Yorker]]}}</ref>
File:RETRATO DEL GRAL. FRANCISCO FRANCO BAHAMONDE (adjusted levels).jpg|link=|''Generalissimo'' [[Francisco Franco]] of Spain<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.pbs.org/tpt/dictators-playbook/episodes/francisco-franco/ |title=Francisco Franco <nowiki>|</nowiki> The Dictator's Playbook |quote=With his country torn between left and right, Francisco Franco devoted his life to a deeply conservative vision of Spain. |access-date=13 April 2025 |work=[[PBS]]}}</ref>
File:Official Portrait of President Reagan 1981.jpg|link=|President [[Ronald Reagan]] of the United States<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ronald-Reagan "Ronald Reagan."] ''Encyclopædia Britannica''.  January 22, 2025</ref>
File:Park Chung Hee (박정희) Presidential Portrait.jpg|link=|President [[Park Chung Hee]] of South Korea<ref>[https://www.kjis.org/journal/view.html?uid=212&&vmd=Full Post-War Korean Conservatism, Japanese Statism, and the Legacy of President Park Chung-hee in South Korea]. ''The Korean Journal of International''. Studies 16-1 (April 2018), 57-76.</ref>
File: Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew of Singapore Making a Toast at a State Dinner Held in His Honor, 1975.jpg|link=|Prime Minister [[Lee Kuan Yew]] of Singapore<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.firstpost.com/world/lee-kuan-yew-meritocratic-paternalistic-model-platos-philosopher-king-2170173.html |title=Lee Kuan Yew: A meritocratic, paternalistic model of Plato's philosopher king |date=24 March 2015 |work=[[Firstpost]]}}</ref>
File:Augusto Pinochet foto oficial.jpg|link=|General [[Augusto Pinochet]] of Chile<ref>{{cite book |author1=Martin E. Marty |author2=R. Scott Appleby |author3=American Academy of Arts and Sciences |title=Fundamentalisms Observed |pages=175 |publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences |year=1994}}</ref>
File:Shah fullsize.jpg|link=|Shah [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] of the Imperial State of Iran<ref>{{cite book |author=Amir Yahya Ayatollahi |title=Political Conservatism and Religious Reformation in Iran (1905-1979): Reconsidering the Monarchic Legacy |publisher=Springer Fachmedien, Imprint: Springer VS |year=2022}}</ref>
File:Atal Bihari Vajpayee (crop 2).jpg|link=|Prime Minister [[Atal Bihari Vajpayee]] of India<ref>{{cite book |last=Behrman |first=Greg |title=The Invisible People: How the U.S. Has Slept Through the Global AIDS Pan |pages=193 |publisher=Psychology Press |year=2008}}</ref>
File:Margaret Thatcher stock portrait (cropped).jpg|link=|Prime Minister [[Margaret Thatcher]] of the United Kingdom<ref name="mt">Davies, Stephen, [http://www.ashbrook.org/publicat/onprin/v1n2/davies.html Margaret Thatcher and the Rebirth of Conservatism], Ashbrook Center for Public Affairs, July 1993</ref>
File:Shinzō Abe 20120501.jpg|link=|Prime Minister [[Shinzo Abe]] of Japan<ref>{{cite news |last=Yoshida |first=Reji |date=26 December 2012 |title=Formed in childhood, roots of Abe's conservatism go deep |quote=Those “conservative” and “hawkish” stances include a desire to amend the Constitution, to end the government’s ban on collective defense, to strengthen the Japan-U.S. military alliance and to even “reform” the education system by weeding out “problematic” left-leaning teachers. |url=http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2012/12/26/national/formed-in-childhood-roots-of-abes-conservatism-go-deep |work=The Japan Times |access-date=11 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190608045820/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2012/12/26/national/formed-in-childhood-roots-of-abes-conservatism-go-deep |archive-date=8 June 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref>
</gallery>

=== Intellectuals ===

<gallery>
File:Edmund Burke by James Northcote.JPG|link=|[[Edmund Burke]]<ref>Andrew Heywood, ''Political Ideologies: An Introduction''. Third Edition. (Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 74.</ref>
File:HannahMore.jpg|link=|[[Hannah More]]<ref>Harriet Guest, 2005, "Hannah More and Conservative Feminism", ''British Women's Writing in the Long Eighteenth Century''. London: Palgrave Macmillan.</ref>
File:Cogordan - Joseph de Maistre, 1894 (page 12 crop).jpg|link=|[[Joseph de Maistre]]<ref>Beum, Robert (1997). "Ultra-Royalism Revisited," ''Modern Age'', Vol. 39, No. 3, p. 305.</ref>
File:Anne-Louis Girodet-Trioson 006.jpg|link=|[[François-René de Chateaubriand]]<ref>Peter Gay, "The Complete Romantic," ''Horizon'' (1966) 8#2 pp 12-19.</ref>
File:SamuelTaylorColeridge.jpg|link=|[[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]]<ref>D Daiches ed., ''Companion to Literature 1'' (1963) p. 110</ref>
File:Thomas Carlyle lm.jpg|link=|[[Thomas Carlyle]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Jordan |first=Alexander |date=2019-09-20 |title=The Contribution of Thomas Carlyle to British Idealism, c. 1880–1930 |url=https://www.euppublishing.com/doi/10.3366/shr.2019.0428 |journal=Scottish Historical Review |language=en |volume=98 |pages=439–468 |doi=10.3366/shr.2019.0428 |s2cid=204477593}}</ref>
File:John Henry Newman by Sir John Everett Millais, 1st Bt.jpg|link=|[[John Henry Newman]]<ref name=Dulles>{{cite web | url = http://www.ts.mu.edu/content/51/51.3/51.3.3.pdf | title = Theological Studies – A journal of academic theology | website = Ts.mu.edu | date = 30 November 2016 | access-date = 22 December 2016 | archive-date = 3 March 2011 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110303174908/http://www.ts.mu.edu/content/51/51.3/51.3.3.pdf | url-status = live }}</ref>
File:Alexis de Tocqueville (Théodore Chassériau - Versailles).jpg|link=|[[Alexis de Tocqueville]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jennings |first1=Jeremy |title=Revolution and the Republic: A History of Political Thought in France Since the Eighteenth Century |url=https://archive.org/details/revolutionrepubl00jenn |url-access=limited |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/revolutionrepubl00jenn/page/n198 188]|isbn=978-0-19-820313-1 }}</ref>
File:Vilfredo Pareto 1870s2.jpg|link=|[[Vilfredo Pareto]]<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1080/03085149000000016|author=Bellamy, Richard |year=1990|title=From Ethical to Economic Liberalism – The Sociology of Pareto's Politics|journal=Economy and Society|volume=19|issue=4|pages=431–55}}</ref>
File:George Santayana.jpg|link=|[[George Santayana]]<ref>{{Citation |last1=Saatkamp |first1=Herman |title=George Santayana |date=2023 |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2023/entries/santayana/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |access-date=2023-12-26 |edition=Fall 2023 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |last2=Coleman |first2=Martin |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref>
File:Hu Hanmin3.jpg|link=|[[Hu Hanmin]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Suisheng Zhao |title=Power by Design: Constitution-Making in Nationalist China |date=1995 |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=9780824863982 |pages=116–119}}</ref>
File:PORTRAIT OF VLADIMIR JABOTINSKY TAKEN BY BRITT IN PARIS. פורטרט, זאב ז'בוטינסקי.D850-062 (cropped).jpg|link=|[[Ze'ev Jabotinsky]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|date=  Jan 1, 2025|title=Vladimir Jabotinsky |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Vladimir-Jabotinsky|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|access-date= Jan 1, 2025}}</ref>
File:Ernst Jünger vers 1920 (cropped).jpg|link=|[[Ernst Jünger]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Ernst Jünger|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ernst-Junger|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}</ref>
File:Leo Strauss USA 1939.jpg|link=|[[Leo Strauss]]<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=In0tFsfFhnQC&pg=PA193 ''Faith and Political Philosophy: The Correspondence Between Leo Strauss and Eric Voegelin, 1934–1964''], p. 193</ref>
File:Michael Oakeshott.jpg|link=|[[Michael Oakeshott]]<ref>Mark Garnett (ed.), ''Conservative Moments: Reading Conservative Texts'', Bloomsbury Academic, 2018, [https://www.bloomsburycollections.com/book/conservative-moments-reading-conservative-texts/ch9-michael-oakeshott-on-being-conservative ch. 9].</ref>
File:Portrait of Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre.jpg|link=|[[Marcel Lefebvre]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/did-pope-heal-or-deepen-catholic-schism-78423|title=Did the Pope Heal or Deepen a Catholic Schism?|website=[[Newsweek]]|date=25 January 2009}}</ref>
File:Kirk 1962.jpg|link=|[[Russell Kirk]]<ref>{{cite book |author=Bradley J. Birzer |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j9-OCgAAQBAJ |title=Russell Kirk: American Conservative |date=17 September 2015 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |isbn=978-0-8131-6619-3}}</ref>
File:Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 1974crop.jpg|link=|[[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]]<ref>Joseph Pearce (2011), ''Solzhenitsyn: A Soul in Exile'', [[Ignatius Press]]. pp.  330–331.</ref>
File:Thomas Sowell cropped.jpg|link=|[[Thomas Sowell]]<ref name="Harnden100-812">Harnden, Tom.  [https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/northamerica/usa/6950971/The-most-influential-US-conservatives-100-81.html "The most influential US conservatives: 100-81."] ''The Telegraph''.  11 January 2010.  17 May 2017.</ref>
File:Roger Scruton by Pete Helme.jpg|link=|[[Roger Scruton]]<ref>{{cite news|author=The Stone|date=29 January 2020|title=Roger Scruton Was a Conservative. But What Kind|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/29/opinion/roger-scruton.html|work=[[New York Times]]}}</ref>
</gallery>

=== Artists ===
<gallery>
File:John Constable by Daniel Gardner, 1796.JPG|link=|[[John Constable]]<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Rosenthal|first=John|title=London of John Constable|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Constable/London|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|quote=An economic depression after the Napoleonic Wars had led to agrarian riots, and yet Constable, a loyal Tory, chose to portray an abstracted, well-ordered English society that was untouched by the industrial and social changes surrounding him.}}</ref>
File:CBRichmond.png|link=|[[Charlotte Brontë]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thormählen|first= Marianne|title=Charlotte Brontë: A radical Tory |url=https://portal.research.lu.se/en/publications/charlotte-bront%C3%AB-a-radical-tory |journal=Literature Compass |volume=14 |issue=12 |issn =1741-4113|doi=10.1111/lic3.12428|year=2017}}</ref>
File:Vasily Perov - Портрет Ф.М.Достоевского - Google Art Project.jpg|link=|[[Fyodor Dostoevsky]]<ref>{{cite book | last1=Dostoevsky | first1=Fyodor | title=A Writer's Diary | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=38xQHS4h0yEC | date=20 July 1997 | publisher=Northwestern University Press | isbn=9780810115163 | access-date=3 July 2019}}</ref>
File:Paul-Cezanne.jpg|link=|[[Paul Cézanne]]<ref>{{cite news |date=August 25, 1991|title= CEZANNE; Parting Ways With Zola |work=[[New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/25/arts/l-cezanne-parting-ways-with-zola-736191.html|quote=In John Russell's essay "The Poet Who Kick-Started a Stalled Cezanne", the reference to Cezanne's having been abandoned by Emile Zola, his lifelong friend and supporter, is true as far as it goes. It might have gone a bit further, though, and revealed why the coldness developed between the author of "J'accuse" and the anti-Dreyfusard painter.}}</ref>
File:Edith Newbold Jones Wharton (cropped 02).jpg|link=|[[Edith Wharton]]<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wegener|first= Fredrick |title="Rabid Imperialist"': Edith Wharton and the Obligations of Empire in Modern American Fiction|journal= American Literature |volume=72|issue= 4|pages=783–812|date=December 2000|doi=10.1215/00029831-72-4-783|s2cid= 162758720}}</ref>
File:Yeats Boughton.jpg|link=|[[W. B. Yeats]]<ref>Allison, Jonathan (ed.). 1996. ''Yeats's Political Identities: Selected Essays''. University of Michigan Press</ref>
File:Igor Stravinsky LOC 32392u.jpg|link=|[[Igor Stravinsky]]<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Bratby|first= Richard|date=April 2023|title=Modernists can be monarchists|url=https://thecritic.co.uk/issues/april-2023/modernists-can-be-monarchists/|magazine=[[The Critic (modern magazine)]]}}</ref>
File:Thomas Stearns Eliot by Lady Ottoline Morrell (1934).jpg|link=|[[T. S. Eliot]]<ref>{{cite web | url=https://tseliot.com/preoccupations/politics | title=T. S. Eliot }}</ref>
File:Carl Theodor Dreyer (1965) by Erling Mandelmann.jpg|link=|[[Carl Theodor Dreyer]]<ref name="Bordwell book">{{cite book|title=The Films of Carl Theodor Dreyer|last=Bordwell|first=David|publisher=University of California Press|year=1983|page=191}}</ref>
File:H. P. Lovecraft, June 1934.jpg|link=|[[H. P. Lovecraft]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Joshi |first=Sunand T. |title=A dreamer and a visionary: H. P. Lovecraft in his time |date=2001 |publisher=Liverpool Univ. Press |isbn=978-0-85323-946-8 |edition=1. publ |series=Liverpool science fiction texts and studies |location=Liverpool |pages=8–16}}</ref>
File:John Ford 1946.jpg|link=|[[John Ford]]<ref>{{cite book |title=Searching for John Ford: A Life |year=2003 |publisher=St. Martin's Griffin |isbn=978-0-312-31011-0 |pages=372–373|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2ZrqhjIvYcYC&pg=PA372 |first=Joseph |last=McBride |accessdate=August 10, 2010}}</ref>
File:Frank Capra.jpg|link=|[[Frank Capra]]<ref>{{Cite book |author=LIFE Magazine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BgBSEAAAQBAJ&dq=filmmaker+%22was+a+conservative+republican%22&pg=PT119|title=LIFE It's a Wonderful Life |date=November 19, 2021 |publisher=TI Incorporated Books |isbn=9781547859740 |pages=96}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/weird-story-fbi-and-its-wonderful-life-180967587/| title=The Weird Story of the FBI and 'It's a Wonderful Life'| author=Eschner, Kat|website=Smithsonian Magazine| date=December 20, 2017| access-date=September 3, 2024}}</ref>
File:Jorge Luis Borges 1951, by Grete Stern.jpg|link=|[[Jorge Luis Borges]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Yudin|first=Florence|title=Nightglow: Borges' Poetics of Blindness|publisher=Universidad Pontificia de Salamanca|location=City|year=1997|isbn=84-7299-385-X|page=31}}</ref>
File:Walt Disney 1946.JPG|link=|[[Walt Disney]]<ref name="ceplair">{{cite book |title=The Inquisition in Hollywood: Politics in the Film Community, 1930-1960 |year=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-04886-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HvC3WaGZF3UC/page/n224 210]–214 |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_HvC3WaGZF3UC |first1=Larry |last1=Ceplair |first2=Steven |last2=Englund |accessdate=August 10, 2010}}</ref>
File:Salvador Dalí 1939.jpg|link=|[[Salvador Dalí]]<ref>Gibson, Ian (1997) pp. 525–27</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|last=Jones|first=Jonathan|title=The revolution will not be aestheticised: the top rightwing artists|url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2013/nov/06/top-rightwing-artists|magazine=[[The Guardian]]|date=6 November 2013}}</ref>
File:Bacon by Gray 257.jpg|link=|[[Francis Bacon (artist)|Francis Bacon]]<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Lybarger|first=Jeremy|title=The Turbulent Life of Francis Bacon|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/161956/turbulent-life-francis-bacon-biography-reviewc|magazine=[[The New Republic]]|date=21 April 2021|quote= Bacon was a conservative at heart—when drunk, he’d sometimes lambaste poor people for their supposed weakness—but his art, as channeled through his queerness, cast a critical, if oblique, eye on the prevailing culture.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Brown|first=Neal|title=Francis Bacon|url=https://www.frieze.com/article/francis-bacon-0|journal=[[Frieze (magazine)|Frieze]]|date=5 May 1998|quote=Bacon's often very beautiful, grandee swirlings and sexualised skidmarks of paint are depictive of certain principal categories of subject. These are either other right-wing libertines like himself, or suicides and alcoholics – alcoholics, of course, just being suicides in slow motion. }}</ref>
File:Ingmar Bergman (1966).jpg|link=|[[Ingmar Bergman]]<ref>{{cite news|date=2014|title=Roy Andersson kritiserar Bergman i ny intervju|url=https://www.sverigesradio.se/artikel/5988217|work=[[Sveriges Radio]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Lundström |first=Jacob|date=April 5, 2018 |title=Ingmar Bergman var 68-vänsterns måltavla|url=https://arbetet.se/2018/04/05/ingmar-bergman-var-68-vansterns-maltavla/|work=Arbetet}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|date=22 November 2016 |title=Swedish director Bergman's lost 'masterpiece' to start filming|url=https://news.sky.com/story/swedish-director-bergmans-lost-masterpiece-to-start-filming-10666468 |work= [[Sky News]]|quote=He (Bergman) and Susanne were often enemies and stood on opposite sides in the political and cultural rebellion at the end of the 60s}}</ref>
File:Kerouac by Palumbo 2 (cropped).png|link=|[[Jack Kerouac]]<ref>{{cite web|last=Lurie |first=Robert Dean |date=7 September 2012 |title=The Conservative Kerouac |work=[[The American Conservative]] |url=https://www.theamericanconservative.com/the-conservative-kerouac|quote=My father and my mother and my sister and I have always voted Republican, always.” This had nothing to do with party planks and everything to do with family identity, with holding onto something, no matter how arbitrary, in an otherwise disorienting world. We’re Kerouacs and this is what we do}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine |last= Kauffman|first= Bill|date=July 7, 2022|title= Who was the most right-wing member of the Beat Generation?|url=https://thespectator.com/life/right-wing-abbeys-beats-beat-generation/ |magazine=[[The Spectator]] |quote=The gentle Catholic-Buddhist Jack Kerouac, spontaneous-bop prosody prince of the Old Right, has the strongest claim. In 1952, shortly after finishing the novel that would be published five years later as On the Road, he argued for Robert Taft, “Mr. Republican,” for president, while his pal Allen Ginsberg was puffing up Cold Warrior and son of a robber baron Averell Harriman. }}</ref>
File:Yukio Mishima, 1955 (cropped).jpg|link=|[[Yukio Mishima]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://japantoday.com/category/features/opinions/yukio-mishima-the-lost-samurai |title=Yukio Mishima – 'The Lost Samurai' |website=Japan Today|date=12 January 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/culture/2015/11/21/general/yukio-mishimas-enduring-unexpected-influence/ |title=Yukio Mishima's enduring, unexpected influence |last=Flanagan |first=Damian |date=21 November 2015 |work=The Japan Times}}</ref>
File:Stockhausen 1994 WDR.jpg|link=|[[Karlheinz Stockhausen]]<ref>{{cite book|author1=Robert Sholl|author2=Sander Van Maas|title=Contemporary Music and Spirituality|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5krUDAAAQBAJ&dq=%22+For+Stockhausen,+who+was+a+political+conservative,+these+protests+must+have+been+detestable%22&pg=RA4-PT56|date=2016|publisher=Taylor & Francis|pages=364|isbn=9781317160656}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Dombrowski |first=Ralf |date=7 December 2007 |title=Der konservative Revolutionär|url=https://www.spiegel.de/kultur/musik/zum-tode-karlheinz-stockhausens-der-konservative-revolutionaer-a-522115.html |work= [[Der Spiegel]]}}</ref>
</gallery>

== See also ==
===National variants===
{{cols|colwidth=16em}}
* [[Conservatism in Australia]]
* [[Conservatism in Bangladesh]]
* [[Conservatism in Brazil]]
* [[Conservatism in Canada]]
* [[Conservatism in Colombia]]
* [[Conservatism in Germany]]
* [[Conservatism in Hong Kong]]
* [[Conservatism in India]]
* [[Conservatism in Japan]]
* [[Conservatism in Malaysia]]
* [[Historic conservatism in New Zealand|Conservatism in New Zealand]]
* [[Conservatism in Pakistan]]
* [[Conservatism in Peru]]
* [[Conservatism in Russia]]
* [[Conservatism in Serbia]]
* [[Conservatism in South Korea]]
* [[Conservatism in Turkey]]
* [[Conservatism in the United Kingdom]]
* [[Conservatism in the United States]]
{{colend}}

===Ideological variants===
{{cols|colwidth=16em}}
* [[Authoritarian conservatism]]
* [[Black conservatism]]
* [[Conservative corporatism|Corporatist conservatism]]
* [[Cultural conservatism]]
* [[Conservative variants of feminism|Feminist conservatism]]
* [[Fiscal conservatism]]
* [[Green conservatism]]
* [[LGBT conservatism]]
* [[Liberal conservatism]]
* [[Libertarian conservatism]]
* [[Moderate conservatism]]
* [[National conservatism]]
* [[Neoconservatism]]
* [[Paternalistic conservatism]]
* [[Pragmatic conservatism]]
* [[Progressive conservatism]]
* [[Right-wing populism|Populist conservatism]]
* [[Social conservatism]]
* [[Traditionalist conservatism]]
* [[Ultraconservatism]]
{{colend}}

===Related topics===
{{cols|colwidth=16em}}
* [[Christian democracy]]
* [[Christian right]]
* [[Communitarianism]]
* [[Counter-revolutionary]]
* [[Familialism]]
* [[Historism]]
* [[Neopatriarchy]]
* [[Reactionary]]
* [[Right realism]]
* [[Small-c conservative]]
* [[Toryism]]
* [[Traditionalist Catholicism]]
{{colend}}

== References ==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |author-last=Annesley |author-first=Claire |title=A Political and Economic Dictionary of Western Europe |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-85743-214-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-C9jngEACAAJ}}
* {{cite book |author-last=Auerbach |author-first=M. Morton |title=The Conservative Illusion |publisher=Columbia University Press |year=1959 |isbn=978-0-598-37476-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ko8lAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Bischof |editor-first=Günter J. |title=The Dollfuss/Schuschnigg Era in Austria: A Reassessment |publisher=Transaction Publishers |year=2003 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZbqwaF1jq7sC |isbn=9781412821896}}
* {{cite book |author-last=Blinkhorn |author-first=Martin |title=Fascists and Conservatives: The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe |year=1990 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i_jTBoeMvqsC |publisher=Psychology Press |isbn=978-0-04-940087-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Eccleshall |first=Robert |title=English Conservatism since the Restoration: An Introduction and Anthology |publisher=Unwin Hyman |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-04-445346-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QfX97Gj9x2sC}}
* {{cite web |ref={{harvid|Encyclopædia Britannica}} |title=Conservatism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/conservatism |access-date=May 1, 2022 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}}
* {{Cite book |last=Fawcett |first=Edmund |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TO3eDwAAQBAJ |title=Conservatism: The Fight for a Tradition |date=2020 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-17410-5}}
* {{cite book |display-authors=etal |author1-last=Freeden |author1-first=Michael |author2-last=Sargent |author2-first=Lyman Tower |author3-last=Stears |author3-first=Marc |title=Oxford Handbook of Political Ideologies |isbn=978-0199585977 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IZo2AAAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=OUP Oxford}}
* {{cite book |author-last=Frohnen |author-first=Bruce |display-authors=etal |year=2006 |title=American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia |publisher=ISI Books |isbn=978-1-932236-43-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QyiHQgAACAAJ}}
* {{cite book |title=The History of European Conservative Thought |last=Giubilei |first=Francesco |year=2019 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=9781621579090 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rm5fDwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book |author-last=Heywood |author-first=Andrew |title=Political Theory: An Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OnCFQgAACAAJ |isbn=9780333961803 |year=2004 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |edition=3}}
* {{cite book |last=Heywood |first=Andrew |year=2017 |title=Political Ideologies: An Introduction |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-60604-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=esobMQAACAAJ}}
* {{cite book |last=Kojève |first=Alexandre |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wgCREAAAQBAJ |title=The Notion of Authority: A Brief Presentation |publisher=Verso Books |year=2020 |orig-date=1942 |isbn=9781788739610}}
* {{cite book |title=The Menace of the Herd; or, Procrustes at Large |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/733805752 |publisher=Ludwig von Mises Institute |oclc=733805752 |first=Erik |last=von Kuehnelt-Leddihn |year=1943}}
* {{cite book |author1-last=McLean |author1-first=Iain |author2-last=McMillan |author2-first=Alistair |year=2009 |title=Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics |publisher=Oxford University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ah9CPgAACAAJ |isbn=9780199207800}}
* {{cite book |title=Conservatism: An Anthology of Social and Political Thought from David Hume to the Present |author-last=Muller |author-first=Jerry Z. |isbn=9780691037110 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kOM9DwAAQBAJ |year=1997 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}
* {{Cite book |last=Neill |first=Edmund |title=Conservatism |date=2021 |publisher=Polity |isbn=978-1-5095-2705-2}}
* {{cite book |title=Conservatism: Dream and Reality |author-last=Nisbet |author-first=Robert |isbn=9780765808622 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7HdPmgEACAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=Transaction Publishers}}
* {{Cite book |last=Remmer |first=Karen L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gHMWAAAAYAAJ  |title=Military Rule in Latin America |date=1989 |publisher=Westview |isbn=978-0-8133-8450-4 |page=10}}
* {{Cite book |title=The Conservative Century: From Reaction to Revolution |last=Schneider |first=Gregory |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2009 |isbn=9780742542846 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IVD3z0PuTRQC}}
* {{cite book |author-last=Siaroff |author-first=Alan |title=Comparative European Party Systems |publisher=Garland |year=2000 |isbn=0-8153-2930-X}}
* {{cite book |author-last=Ware |author-first=Alan |title=Political Parties and Party Systems |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-19-878076-2}}
{{refend}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin|40em}}
'''General'''
* {{cite book |title=Ideologies of Conservatism: Conservative Political Ideas in the Twentieth Century |author-last=Green |author-first=E.H.H. |isbn=9780191069031 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CpZJCAAAQBAJ |year=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press}} 
* {{cite book |title=Conservatism: A Rediscovery |author-last=Hazony |author-first=Yoram |isbn=9781800752344 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uhx1EAAAQBAJ |year=2022 |publisher=Forum}}
* {{cite book |title=The Conservative Mind: From Burke to Eliot |author-last=Kirk |author-first=Russell |isbn=9780895261717 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mGBn2fOdp7gC |year=2001 |publisher=Regnery Publishing |edition=7}}
* {{cite book |title=Russell Kirk's Concise Guide to Conservatism |author-last=Kirk |author-first=Russell |isbn=9781621578789 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=11iWDwAAQBAJ |year=2019 |publisher=Simon and Schuster}}
* {{cite book |title=The Meaning of Conservatism |author-last=Scruton |author-first=Roger |isbn=9781890318406 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zmPuAAAAMAAJ |year=2002 |publisher=St. Augustine's Press |edition=3}}
* {{cite book |title=Conservatism Revisited: The Revolt Against Ideology |author-last=Viereck |author-first=Peter |isbn=9781412820233 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TimOWmB4nAkC |year=1949 |publisher=Transaction Publishers}}
* {{cite book |title=The Wisdom of Conservatism |editor-last=Witonski |editor-first=Peter |isbn=9780870001185 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hu2mwQEACAAJ |year=1971 |publisher=Arlington House |edition=4}} [2396 pages; worldwide sources]

'''Conservatism and fascism'''
* {{cite book |title=Facing Fascism: The Conservative Party and the European Dictators, 1935–1940 |author-last=Crowson |author-first=N. J. |isbn=9780415153157 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y4EbRgEw86QC |year=1997 |publisher=Psychology Press}}
* {{cite book |title=Fascism Viewed from the Right |author-last=Evola |author-first=Julius |isbn=9781907166921 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6KUAMK9JdgYC |year=2013 |publisher=Arktos}}

'''Conservatism and liberalism'''
* {{cite encyclopedia |last=Carey |first=George |editor-first=Ronald |editor-last=Hamowy |editor-link=Ronald Hamowy |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yxNgXs3TkJYC |year=2008 |publisher=SAGE Publishing; [[Cato Institute]] |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |isbn=978-1-4129-6580-4 |pages=93–95 |chapter=Conservatism}}
* {{cite book |title=Conservative Liberalism, Ordo-Liberalism, and the State: Disciplining Democracy and the Market |author-last=Dyson |author-first=K. |isbn=9780198854289 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H8oQEAAAQBAJ |year=2021 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}  
* {{cite book |title=Selfish Libertarians and Socialist Conservatives?: The Foundations of the Libertarian-Conservative Debate |author1-last=Schlueter |author1-first=N. |author2-last=Wenzel |author2-first=N. |isbn=9780804792912 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6Jm5jwEACAAJ |year=2016 |publisher=Stanford University Press}}

'''Conservatism and women'''
* {{cite book |title=Right-Wing Women: From Conservatives to Extremists Around the World |author1-last=Bacchetta |author1-first=Paola |author2-last=Power |author2-first=Margaret |isbn=9780415927772 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ag7qRiZqYZoC |year=2002 |publisher=Psychology Press}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Blee |editor1-first=Kathleen M. |editor2-first=Sandra |editor2-last=McGee Deutsch |title=Women of the Right: Comparisons and Interplay Across Borders |isbn=9780271052151 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ek77LBo_1PEC |publisher=Penn State University Press |year=2012}}
* {{cite book |title=Phyllis Schlafly and Grassroots Conservatism: A Woman's Crusade |author-last=Critchlow |author-first=Donald T. |isbn=9780691136240 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2zHcBZ-ynlMC |year=2008 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}
* {{cite book |title=Mothers of Conservatism: Women and the Postwar Right |author-last=Nickerson |author-first=Michelle M. |isbn=9780691163918 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pGuYDwAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}

'''Conservatism in Germany'''
* {{cite book |title=The Genesis of German Conservatism |author-last=Epstein |author-first=K. |isbn=9781400868230 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cWN9BgAAQBAJ |year=2015 |publisher=Princeton University Press}} 
* {{cite book |title=Germany's New Conservatism: Its History and Dilemma in the Twentieth Century |author-last=von Klemperer |author-first=K. |isbn=9781400876372 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-x_WCgAAQBAJ |year=2015 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}
* {{cite book |title=Social Conservatism and the Middle Class in Germany, 1914–1933 |author-last=Lebovics |author-first=H. |isbn=9781400879038 |year=1969 |publisher=Princeton University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xc4_jgEACAAJ}}
* {{cite book |title=The Conservative Revolution in Germany, 1918–1932 |author-last=Mohler |author-first=Armin |isbn=9781593680596 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cMGhuwEACAAJ |year=2018 |orig-date=1949 |publisher=Washington Summit Publishers}}

'''Conservatism in Latin America'''
* {{cite book |title=The Resilience of the Latin American Right |author1-last=Luna |author1-first=J.P. |author2-last=Kaltwasser |author2-first=C.R. |isbn=9781421413914 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pECXBAAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press}}
* {{cite book |title=Conservative Parties, the Right, and Democracy in Latin America |author-last=Middlebrook |author-first=Kevin J. |isbn=9780801863851 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=suoOAAAAYAAJ |year=2000 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press}}

'''Conservatism in Russia'''
* {{cite book |title=Putinism: Russia and Its Future with the West |author-last=Laqueur |author-first=Walter |isbn=9781466871069 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QEfABQAAQBAJ |year=2015 |publisher=Macmillan}}
* {{cite book |title=Russian Conservatism and Its Critics: A Study in Political Culture |author-last=Pipes |author-first=Richard |isbn=9780300122695 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I1yCrMAfg_IC |year=2007 |publisher=Yale University Press}}
* {{cite book |title=Russian Conservatism |author-last=Robinson |author-first=Paul |isbn=9781501747342 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E9mowwEACAAJ |year=2019 |publisher=Cornell University Press}}

'''Conservatism in the United Kingdom'''
* {{cite book |title=Edmund Burke and the Invention of Modern Conservatism, 1830–1914 |author-last=Jones |author-first=Emily |isbn=9780198799429 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ibHSugEACAAJ |year=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}
* {{cite book |title=Writing against Revolution: Literary Conservatism in Britain, 1790–1832 |author-last=Gilmartin |author-first=Kevin |isbn=9780521142199 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E9ge0r2wN4MC |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
* {{cite book |title=The British Right: Conservative and Right Wing Politics in Britain |author-last=Nugent |author-first=Neill |isbn=9780566001567 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o8rmygAACAAJ |year=1977 |publisher=Saxon House}}
* {{cite book |title=History, Historians, and Conservatism in Britain and America: From the Great War to Thatcher and Reagan |author-last=Soffer |author-first=R. |isbn=9780191548956 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JRVREAAAQBAJ |year=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}

'''Conservatism in the United States'''
* {{cite book |title=The Conservatives: Ideas and Personalities Throughout American History |author-last=Allitt |author-first=Patrick N. |isbn=9780300155297 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g3fpmEWubTwC |year=2009 |publisher=Yale University Press}}
* {{cite book |title=The Right: The Hundred-Year War for American Conservatism |author-last=Continetti |author-first=Matthew |isbn=9781541600508 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MpSUzgEACAAJ |year=2022 |publisher=Basic Books}}
* {{cite book |title=The Conscience of a Conservative |author-last=Goldwater |author-first=Barry |isbn=9780691131177 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EUEc9YvmnvoC |year=2007 |orig-date=1960 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}
* {{cite book |title=The Conservative Intellectual Movement in America Since 1945 |author-last=Nash |author-first=George H. |isbn=9781933859125 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ln9cAAAACAAJ |year=2006 |orig-date=1976 |publisher=Regnery Publishing}}
* {{cite book |title=American Conservatism: An Encyclopedia |author-last=Nelson |author-first=Jeffrey O. |display-authors=etal |isbn=9781497651579 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T1yOAwAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Open Road Media}}
* {{cite book |title=Conservatism in America Since 1930: A Reader |editor-last=Schneider |editor-first=Gregory L. |isbn=9780814797990 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U6hzBFw1ky8C |year=2003 |publisher=NYU Press}}
* {{cite book |title=Rightward Bound: Making America Conservative in the 1970s |author=Schulman, B.J. |isbn=9780674267138 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bSEsEAAAQBAJ |year=2008 |publisher=Harvard University Press}}
* {{cite book |title=The Conservative Sensibility |author-last=Will |author-first=George |isbn=9780316480932 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jypwtgEACAAJ |year=2019 |publisher=Hachette Books}}

'''Psychology'''
* {{cite book |last=Haidt |first=Jonathan |title=The Righteous Mind: Why Good People are Divided By Politics and Religion |year=2012 |publisher=Pantheon Books |location=New York |isbn=9780307377906 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y9-GG5gPzgwC}}
* {{cite book |title=Predisposed: Liberals, Conservatives, and the Biology of Political Differences |author1-last=Hibbing |author1-first=John R. |author2-last=Smith |author2-first=Kevin B. |author3-last=Alford |author3-first=John R. |isbn=978-1136281211 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SVL7AAAAQBAJ |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge}}
* {{cite book |title=The Political Mind : A Cognitive Scientist's Guide to your Brain and its Politics |author-last=Lakoff |author-first=George |isbn=978-1440637834 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUd7a9OUgtAC |year=2008 |publisher=Penguin}}
* {{cite book |title=Moral Politics: How Liberals and Conservatives Think |author-last=Lakoff |author-first=George |isbn=9780226411323 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3N_FDAAAQBAJ |year=2016 |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}
* {{cite book |title=Pain: A Political History |author-last=Wailoo |author-first=Keith |isbn=9781421413662 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MCh8AwAAQBAJ |year=2014 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press}}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wikicommons}}
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource}}
* [https://www.britannica.com/topic/conservatism Conservatism] an article by ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''.
* {{cite SEP |url-id=conservatism |title=Conservatism}}

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