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{{short description|Noble or royal title in some European countries and their colonies}}
{{Redirect|Duchess|other uses|Duchess (disambiguation)|and|Duke (disambiguation)|and|Dukes (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect-distinguish|Titular duke|Partitioned-off duke}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2023}}

{{Royal and noble ranks}}

'''Duke''' is a male title either of a monarch ruling over a [[duchy]], or of a member of [[Royal family|royalty]], or [[nobility]]. As rulers, dukes are ranked below emperors, kings, [[grand prince]]s, [[grand duke]]s, and above sovereign princes. As royalty or nobility, they are ranked below grand dukes and above or below princes, depending on the country or specific title. The title comes from French ''duc'', itself from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''[[dux]]'', 'leader', a term used in [[Roman Republic|republican Rome]] to refer to a military commander without an official rank (particularly one of [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] or [[Celts|Celtic]] origin), and later coming to mean the leading military commander of a province. In most countries, the word '''''duchess''''' is the female equivalent.
[[File:James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos by Michael Dahl.jpg|thumb|A portrait of [[James Brydges, 1st Duke of Chandos]] wearing the [[robes of the British peerage]].]]
Following the reforms of the emperor [[Diocletian]] (which separated the civilian and military administrations of the Roman provinces), a ''dux'' became the military commander in each province. The title ''dux'', Hellenised to ''doux'', survived in the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] where it continued in several contexts, signifying a rank equivalent to a captain or general. Later on, in the 11th century, the title ''[[Megas Doux]]'' was introduced for the post of commander-in-chief of the entire navy.

During the [[Middle Ages]], the title (as ''[[Herzog]]'') signified first among the [[Germanic monarchy|Germanic monarchies]]. Dukes were the rulers of the provinces and the superiors of the [[count]]s in the cities and later, in the [[feudal monarchies]], the highest-ranking peers of the king. A duke may or may not be, ''[[ipso facto]]'', a member of the nation's [[peerage]]: in the United Kingdom and Spain, all dukes are/were also peers of the realm, in France, some were and some were not, while the term is not applicable to dukedoms of other nations, even where an institution similar to the peerage (e.g. [[Grandee]]ship, [[Imperial Diet (Holy Roman Empire)|Imperial Diet]], [[Upper nobility (Kingdom of Hungary)|Hungarian House of Magnates]]) existed.

During the 19th century, many of the smaller German and Italian states were ruled by dukes or grand dukes. But at present, with the exception of the [[Luxembourg|Grand Duchy of Luxembourg]], there are no dukes ruling as monarchs. Duke remains the highest hereditary title (aside from titles borne by a reigning or [[abolished monarchy|formerly reigning]] dynasty) in Portugal (though now a republic), Spain, and the United Kingdom. In Sweden, members of the royal family are given a personal dukedom at birth. The Pope, as a temporal sovereign, has also, though rarely, granted the title of duke or duchess to persons for services to the [[Holy See]]. In some realms the relative status of "duke" and "prince", as titles borne by the [[nobility]] rather than by members of reigning dynasties, varied—e.g., in Italy and Germany.

A woman who holds in her own right the title to such duchy or dukedom, or is married to a duke, is normally styled duchess. [[Elizabeth II|Queen Elizabeth II]], however, was known by tradition as [[Dukes of Normandy|Duke of Normandy]] in the [[Channel Islands]] and [[Duke of Lancaster]] in Lancashire.

== Duchy and dukedom ==
{{main|Duchy}}
A duchy is the territory or geopolitical entity ruled by a duke, whereas his title or area is often called a dukedom. The [[Grand Duchy of Luxembourg]] is a fully independent state and its head, the Grand Duke, is a sovereign monarch reigning over his Luxembourgish subjects.

The [[Duke of Cornwall]] holds both the dukedom (title) and duchy (estate holdings), the latter being the source of his personal income; those living on the ducal estates are subjects of the British sovereign and owe neither fealty nor services to the duke ''per se''.{{citation needed|date=December 2016}} In Scotland, the male heir apparent to the British crown is always the [[Duke of Rothesay]] as well, but this is a dukedom (title) without a duchy. Similarly, the British monarch rules and owns the [[Duchy of Lancaster]] as [[Duke of Lancaster]], but it is held separately from the Crown, with the income of the duchy estates providing the sovereign's [[Privy Purse]].

The Channel Islands are two of the three remaining [[Crown Dependencies]], the last vestiges of the lands of the Duchy of Normandy. The Islanders in their loyal toast will say "Le Roi, notre Duc" (The King, Our Duke). Though the title was apparently renounced under the [[Treaty of Paris (1259)|Treaty of Paris]] in 1259, the Crown still maintains that the title is retained: "In 1106, William's youngest son Henry I seized the Duchy of Normandy from his brother Robert; since that time, the English sovereign has always held the title [[Duke of Normandy]]", and that "By 1205, England had lost most of its French lands, including Normandy. However, the Channel Islands, part of the lost Duchy, remained a self-governing possession of the English Crown. While the islands today retain autonomy in government, they owe allegiance to The King in his role as Duke of Normandy."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/QueenandCrowndependencies/ChannelIslands.aspx|title=Channel Islands|date=2009|website=The Official Website of the British Monarchy|publisher=The Royal Household|access-date=16 August 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921052748/http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/QueenandCrowndependencies/ChannelIslands.aspx|archive-date=21 September 2012}}</ref>

== Middle Ages ==
During the [[Middle Ages]], after Roman power in Western Europe collapsed, the title was still employed in the Germanic kingdoms, usually to refer to the rulers of old Roman provinces.

=== Albania ===
The Venetians installed a "Duke of Durazzo"  (today [[Durrës]]) during their [[Duchy of Durazzo (Republic of Venice)|brief rule]] over the city and its environs in 1205–1213.

In 1332, [[Robert of Taranto]] succeeded his father, [[Philip I of Taranto|Philip]]. Robert's uncle, [[John, Duke of Durazzo|John]], did not wish to do him homage for the [[Principality of Achaea]], so Robert received Achaea from John in exchange for 5,000&nbsp;ounces of gold and the rights to the diminished [[Kingdom of Albania (medieval)|Kingdom of Albania]]. John took the style of [[Duchy of Durazzo (Angevin)|Duke of Durazzo]].

In 1368, Durazzo fell to [[Karl Thopia]], who was recognized by [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] as ''Prince of Albania''.

=== Visigoths ===
The [[Visigoths]] retained the Roman divisions of their kingdom in the [[Iberian Peninsula]] and it seems that dukes ruled over these areas.{{citation needed|date=June 2008}} They were the most powerful landowners and, along with the bishops, elected the king, usually from their own midst. They were the military commanders and in this capacity often acted independently from the king, most notably in the latter period before the Muslim invasions.

The army was structured decimally with the highest unit, the [[thiufa]], probably corresponding to about 1,000 people from each ''civitas'' (city district). The cities were commanded by counts, who were in turn answerable to the dukes, who called up the ''thiufae'' when necessary.

=== Lombards ===
{{main|Duke (Lombard)}}
When the [[Lombards]] entered Italy, the Latin chroniclers called their war leaders ''duces'' in the old fashion. These leaders eventually became the provincial rulers, each with a recognized seat of government. Though nominally loyal to the king, the concept of kingship was new to the Lombards and the dukes were highly independent, especially in central and southern Italy, where the [[Duke of Spoleto]] and the [[Duke of Benevento]] were ''de facto'' sovereigns. In 575, when [[Cleph]] died, a period known as the [[Rule of the Dukes]], in which the dukes governed without a king, commenced. It lasted only a decade before the disunited magnates, to defend the kingdom from external attacks, elected a new king and even diminished their own duchies to provide him with a handsome royal [[demesne]].

The Lombard kings were usually drawn from the duke pool when the title was not hereditary. The dukes tried to make their own offices hereditary. Beneath them in the internal structure were the counts and [[gastald]]s, a uniquely Lombard title initially referring to judicial functions, similar to a count's, in provincial regions.

=== Franks ===
The Franks employed dukes as the governors of Roman provinces, though they also led military expeditions far from their duchies. The dukes were the highest-ranking officials in the realm, typically Frankish (whereas the counts were often Gallo-Roman), and formed the class from which the kings' generals were chosen in times of war. The dukes met with the king every May to discuss policy for the upcoming year, the so-called [[May field|Mayfield]].

In [[Duchy of Burgundy|Burgundy]] and [[Duchy of Provence|Provence]], the titles of [[Patrician (post-Roman Europe)|patrician]] and [[prefect]] were commonly employed instead of duke, probably for historical reasons relating to the greater Romanization of those provinces. But the titles were basically equivalent.

In late [[Merovingian]] Gaul, the [[mayors of the palace]] of the [[Arnulfing]] clan began to use the title [[Duke of the Franks|''dux et princeps Francorum'']]: 'duke and prince of the Franks'. In this title, ''duke'' implied supreme military control of the entire nation (''Francorum'', the Franks) and it was thus used until the end of the [[Carolingian]] dynasty in France in 987.

=== Holy Roman Empire ===

==== Stem duchies ====
The stem duchies were the constituent duchies of the kingdom of Germany at the time of the extinction of the Carolingian dynasty (the death of Louis the Child in 911) and the transitional period leading to the formation of the Holy Roman Empire later in the 10th century.
{{Further|Stem duchy}}

=== England ===
{{main|Dukes in the United Kingdom}}
{{Peerage |Ranks}}

==== Anglo-Saxon times ====
In Anglo-Saxon England, where the Roman political divisions were largely abandoned, the highest political rank beneath that of king was [[ealdorman]], and the first ealdormen were referred to as ''duces'' (the plural of the original Latin ''dux'') in the chronicles. The title ealdorman was replaced by the [[Danish language|Danish]] ''eorl'' (later [[earl]]) over time. After the [[Norman conquest of England|Norman conquest]], their power and regional jurisdiction was limited to that of the Norman [[count]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Normans: The History of a Dynasty|last=Crouch|first=David|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|year=2002|isbn=978-1852855956|pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781852855956/page/108 108]|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9781852855956/page/108}}</ref>

==== Late medieval times ====
{{see also|Duke of Lancaster}}
[[Edward III of England]] created the first English dukedom by naming his eldest son [[Edward, the Black Prince]], as [[Duke of Cornwall]] in 1337. Upon the death of the Black Prince, the duchy of Cornwall passed to his nine-year-old son, who would eventually succeed his grandfather as [[Richard II of England|Richard II]].

The title of [[Duke of Lancaster]] was created by Edward III in 1351 for [[Henry of Grosmont, 1st Duke of Lancaster|Henry of Grosmont]], but became extinct upon the duke's death in 1361. The following year, Edward III bestowed the title (2nd creation) on his fourth son, [[John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster|John of Gaunt]], who was also married to the first duke's daughter. On the same day Edward III also created his second son, [[Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence|Lionel of Antwerp]], as [[Duke of Clarence]].

All five of Edward III's surviving sons eventually became dukes. In 1385, ten years after their father's death, his heir Richard II created dukedoms for his last two uncles on the same day. [[Thomas of Woodstock, 1st Duke of Gloucester|Thomas of Woodstock]] was named [[Duke of Gloucester]] and [[Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York|Edmund of Langley]] became [[Duke of York]], thereby founding the [[House of York]], which later fought for the throne with John of Gaunt's [[House of Lancaster|Lancastrian]] descendants during the [[Wars of the Roses]].

By 1483, a total of 16 ducal titles had been created: Cornwall, Lancaster, Clarence, Gloucester, York, [[Duke of Ireland|Ireland]], [[Duke of Hereford|Hereford]], [[Duke of Aumale|Aumale]], [[Duke of Exeter|Exeter]], [[Duke of Surrey|Surrey]], [[Duke of Norfolk|Norfolk]], [[Duke of Bedford|Bedford]], [[Duke of Somerset|Somerset]], [[Duke of Buckingham|Buckingham]], [[Duke of Warwick|Warwick]] and [[Duke of Suffolk|Suffolk]]. Some became extinct, others had multiple creations, and some had merged with the crown upon the holder's accession to the throne. When the [[Plantagenet]] dynasty came to an end at the [[Battle of Bosworth Field]] on 22 August 1485, only four ducal titles remained extant, of which two were now permanently associated with the crown. [[John de la Pole, 2nd Duke of Suffolk|John de la Pole]] was Duke of Suffolk and [[John Howard, 1st Duke of Norfolk|John Howard]] was Duke of Norfolk (2nd creation), while the duchy of Cornwall was reserved as a title and source of income for the eldest son of the sovereign, and the duchy of Lancaster was now held by the monarch.

Norfolk perished alongside [[Richard III of England|Richard III]] at Bosworth field, and the title was forfeit. It was restored to his son [[Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk|Thomas]] thirty years later by [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], as one of a number of dukes created or recreated by the [[Tudor dynasty]] over the ensuing century. England's premier ducal title, Norfolk, remains in the Howard family to this day.

== Modern age ==
[[File:Coronet of a British Duke.svg|thumb|right|A Duke's [[coronet]] (United Kingdom), as used in [[heraldry]]]]
In the 19th century, the sovereign dukes of [[Parma, Italy|Parma]] and [[Modena]] in Italy, and of [[Anhalt]], [[Brunswick-Lüneburg]], [[Nassau (state)|Nassau]], [[Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]], [[Saxe-Meiningen]] and [[Saxe-Altenburg]] in Germany survived Napoleon's reorganization.

Since the unification of Italy in 1870 and the end of monarchy in Germany in 1918, there have no longer been any [[reign]]ing dukes in Europe; [[Luxembourg]] is ruled by a [[Grand Duchy|grand duke]], a higher title, just below king.

In the United Kingdom, the inherited position of a duke along with its dignities, privileges, and rights is a [[List of dukedoms in the peerages of the British Isles|dukedom]]. However, the title of ''duke'' has never been associated with independent rule in the British Isles: they hold dukedoms, not duchies (excepting the [[Duchy of Cornwall]] and the [[Duchy of Lancaster]]). Dukes in the United Kingdom are addressed as "Your Grace" and referred to as "His Grace". Currently, there are thirty-five dukedoms in the [[Peerage of England]], [[Peerage of Scotland]], [[Peerage of Great Britain]], [[Peerage of Ireland]] and [[Peerage of the United Kingdom]], held by thirty different people, as three people hold two dukedoms and two hold three (see [[List of dukes in the peerages of Britain and Ireland]]).

All dukedoms in the UK apart from the Duchy of Lancaster are inherited through the male line only, although dukedoms such as Marlborough and Fife (second creation) have passed through the female line for one generation under terms of a [[special remainder]] for lack of male heirs of the initial grantee.  Henrietta, 2nd Duchess of Marlborough and Her Highness Princess Alexandra (HRH Princess Arthur of Connaught), 2nd Duchess of Fife were duchesses in their own right.  Both were succeeded in their titles by nephews born by younger sisters of the duchesses. The word ''duchess'' is normally only used for the wife of a duke.

Dukes of Lancaster are called dukes even when they are female, and by tradition the monarch of the UK, whether male or female, is known in the Channel Islands as the Duke of Normandy.

== Royal dukes<!--'Royal duke' and 'Royal dukes' redirect here--> ==
{{redirect|Royal duke|the South Korean car|Daewoo Royale Duke}}
Various royal houses traditionally awarded (mainly) dukedoms to the sons and in some cases, the daughters, of their respective sovereigns; others include at least one dukedom in a wider list of similarly granted titles, nominal dukedoms without any actual authority, often even without an estate. Such titles are still conferred on royal princes or princesses in the current European monarchies of Belgium, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom.

Other historical cases occurred for example in Denmark, Finland (as a part of Sweden) and France, Portugal and some former colonial possessions such as Brazil and Haiti.

=== United Kingdom ===
{{main|Royal dukedoms in the United Kingdom|Dukes in the United Kingdom|List of dukes in the peerages of Britain and Ireland|List of dukedoms in the peerages of Britain and Ireland}}

In the United Kingdom, a '''royal duke'''<!--boldface per WP:R#PLA--> is a duke who is a member of the [[British royal family]], entitled to the [[royal and noble styles|style]] of "[[His Royal Highness]]". Ducal titles which have been given within the royal family include [[Duke of Cornwall]], [[Duke of Lancaster]], [[Duke of Clarence]], [[Duke of York]], [[Duke of Gloucester]], [[Duke of Bedford]], [[Duke of Cumberland]], [[Duke of Cambridge]], [[Duke of Rothesay]], [[Duke of Albany]], [[Duke of Ross]], [[Duke of Edinburgh]], [[Duke of Kent]], [[Duke of Sussex]], and [[Duke of Connaught and Strathearn]]. Following his [[Edward VIII abdication crisis|abdication]] in 1936 the former [[King Edward VIII]] was given the title [[Duke of Windsor]].

There are also [[non-royal dukes]] in the United Kingdom.

=== Belgium ===
In [[Belgium]], the title of [[Duke of Brabant]] (historically the most prestigious in the [[Low Countries]], and containing the federal capital [[Brussels]]) is awarded to the [[heir apparent]] of the monarch, other dynasts receiving various lower historical titles (much older than Belgium, and in principle never fallen to the Belgian crown), such as [[Count of Flanders]] ([[King Leopold III]]'s so-titled brother [[Prince Charles, Count of Flanders|Charles]] held the title when he became the realm's temporary head of state as [[prince-regent]]) and Prince of Liège (a secularised version of the historical [[prince-bishop]]ric; e.g. [[Albert II of Belgium|King Albert II]] until he succeeded his older brother [[Baudouin I]]).

=== Iberian peninsula ===
When the [[Christians|Christian]] [[Reconquista]], sweeping the [[Moors]] from the former [[Caliph of Cordoba|Caliphate of Córdoba]] and its [[Taifa|taifa-remnants]], transformed the territory of former [[Suebi|Suevic]] and [[Visigoths|Visigothic]] realms into [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] [[Feudalism|feudal]] principalities, none of these warlords was exactly styled duke. A few (as Portugal [[County of Portugal|itself]]) started as count (even if the title of ''dux'' was sometimes added), but soon all politically relevant princes were to use the royal style of king.

==== Portugal ====
{{main|List of dukedoms in Portugal}}

In Portugal, the title of duke was granted for the first time in 1415 to [[Pedro, Duke of Coimbra|infante Peter]] and [[Henry the Navigator|infante Henry]], the second and third sons of king [[John I of Portugal|John I]], following their participation in the successful [[Conquest of Ceuta]]. Pedro became the first [[Duke of Coimbra]] and Henry the first [[Duke of Viseu]].

From the reign of king [[Manuel I of Portugal|Manuel I]], the title of [[Duke of Beja]] was given to the second son of the monarch. This was changed during the Liberal regime in the 19th century (with [[Maria II of Portugal|Queen Maria II]]), when the first infante (second son of the monarch) got the title of [[Duke of Porto]] and the second infante (third son) was known as Duke of Beja.

There are examples of duke as a subsidiary title, granted to the most powerful noble houses:
* [[Duke of Barcelos]], to be used by the heir of the [[Duke of Braganza]];
* [[Duke of Torres Novas]], to be used by the heir of the [[Duke of Aveiro]];
* [[Duke of Miranda do Corvo]], to be used by the heir of the [[Duke of Lafões]].

Usually, the title of duke was granted to relatives of the royal family, such as the infantes or natural sons of the monarch. There are exceptions, such as [[António José de Ávila, 1st Duke of Ávila and Bolama|António José de Ávila]], who, although not having any relation to the royal family, was given the title of [[Duke of Ávila and Bolama]] in the 19th century.

==== Spain ====
{{main|List of dukedoms in Spain}}
Spanish infantes and infantas are usually given a royal dukedom upon marriage, excepting the heir apparent who is the [[Prince of Asturias]]. Those titles are nowadays not hereditary but carry a [[Grandee|grandeeship of Spain]]. The current royal duchesses are [[Infanta Margarita, Duchess of Soria]] (although she inherited the title of [[Duke of Hernani|Duchess of Hernani]] from her cousin and is the second holder of the title), and [[Infanta Elena, Duchess of Lugo]]. In Spain all dukes hold the court rank of grandee, which has precedence over all other noble titles.

The last non-royal hereditary dukedom created was the title of [[Duke of Suárez]] in favour of former primer minister [[Adolfo Suárez]] in 1981. Since the accession of [[Felipe VI|King Felipe VI]] to the [[Monarchy of Spain|throne]] in 2014, no new noble title has been created.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Confidencial |first=Monarquía |date=4 November 2020 |title=Felipe VI no ha concedido un solo título nobiliario en todo su reinado |url=https://monarquia.elconfidencialdigital.com/articulo/espana/felipe-vi-ha-concedido-solo-titulo-nobiliario-todo-reinado/20201103200251043776.html |access-date=2023-03-23 |website=Monarquía Confidencial |language=es}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ejerique |first=Raúl Sánchez, Raquel |date=17 September 2016 |title=Felipe VI cierra el grifo de los condes, duques y marqueses |url=https://www.eldiario.es/sociedad/felipe-vi-nobles-primeros-reinado_1_3846049.html |access-date=2023-03-23 |website=elDiario.es |language=es}}</ref>

=== Nordic countries ===
[[File:Birger jarl (Forssén).jpg|thumb|In the 1260s [[Birger Jarl]] bore a ducal coronet and used the [[Latin]] title of ''Dux Sweorum'' (Latin for "Duke of the Swedes"); the design of his coronet combined those used by continental European and English dukes.<ref>Prof. Jan Svanberg in ''Furstebilder från folkungatid'' {{ISBN|91-85884-52-9}} pp. 104–106</ref>]]
[[File:Bengt Birgersson.JPG|thumb|Bishop [[Bengt Birgersson]] (1254–1291) was the first [[Duke of Finland]]<ref>{{cite book| author=Heikinheimo, Ilmari| year= 1955 | title= Suomen elämäkerrasto| publisher = [[Werner Söderström Osakeyhtiö]]}}</ref>]]
The Northern European duchies of [[Halland]], [[Jutland]], [[Lolland]], [[Osilia]] and [[Reval]] existed in the Middle Ages. The longest-surviving duchy was [[Schleswig]], i.e., ''Sonderjylland'' (a portion of which later became part of Germany). Its southern neighbor, the duchy of [[Holstein]], in personal union with the Danish crown, was nonetheless always a German principality. The two duchies jointly became a member of the German [[States of Germany|''Bundesland'']] as "[[Schleswig-Holstein]]" in the 19th century.

==== Denmark ====
Beginning in the 11th century, Danish kings frequently awarded the title of ''jarl'' (earl) or duke of [[Duchy of Schleswig|Schleswig]] to a younger son of the monarch. Short-lived dukedoms were created for the same purpose in [[Lolland]] and [[Halland]].

After the accession to the throne of [[Christian I of Denmark|Christian I]], a complex system of appanages were created for male-line descendants of the king, being granted non-sovereign ducal titles in both Schleswig and [[Duchy of Holstein|Holstein]], e.g. [[Duke of Gottorp]], Duke of Sønderborg, [[Duke of Augustenborg]], Duke of Franzhagen, Duke of Beck, [[Duke of Glücksburg]] and Duke of Nordborg. This arrangement occurred in both territories despite Schleswig being a fief of Denmark and Holstein being a fief of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].

==== Finland ====
Key parts of Finland were sometimes under a Duke of Finland during the Swedish reign (until 1809). Some of the provinces are still considered duchies for the purposes of heraldry.

==== Norway ====
In Norway, [[Skule Bårdsson]] was first ''jarl'' in 1217, and as such got responsibility for the army, and then in 1237, as another attempt at compromise, Skule was given the first Norwegian title of duke (''hertug''). There is no indication that those two titles meant the same thing, or was mixed. He was first ''jarl'', and then also ''hertug'', but after he became ''hertug'' he kept the title ''jarl''.

==== Sweden ====
{{further|Duchies in Sweden}}
Sweden has a history of making the sons of its kings ruling princes of vast duchies, but this ceased in 1622. Only one non-royal person was ever given a dukedom.

In 1772, King [[Gustav III of Sweden|Gustav III]] reinstated the appointment of titular dukes but as a non-hereditary title for his brothers. Since then, all Swedish princes have been created dukes of a province at birth. When the [[Act of Succession (1810)|1810 Act of Succession]] was amended to allow female succession to the throne, King [[Carl XVI Gustaf]]'s eldest daughter [[Crown Princess Victoria|Victoria]] became Crown Princess (displacing her younger brother [[Prince Carl Philip, Duke of Värmland|Carl Philip]]) and received the title of Duchess of Västergötland. The practice of conferring ducal titles has since extended to Swedish princesses as well as princes. Currently, there are five dukes and four duchesses in their own right. The territorial designations of these dukedoms refer to ten of the [[Provinces of Sweden]].

== France ==
{{main|Dukes in France}}
{{see also|Appanage#Original appanage: in France}}

The highest precedence in the realm, attached to a feudal territory, was given to the twelve original [[pairie]]s (en: ''peers''), who also had a traditional function in the royal coronation, comparable to the German imperial archoffices.

Half of them were ducal: three ecclesiastical (the six prelates all ranked above the six secular peers of the realm) and three temporal, each time above three counts of the same social estate.

The ''[[Prince-Bishop]]s'' with ducal territories among them were:
* The [[Archbishop of Reims]], styled ''archevêque-duc pair de France'' (in Champagne; who crowns and anoints the king, traditionally in his cathedral)
* Two [[suffragan bishop]]s, styled ''evêque-duc pair de France'' :
** the bishop-duke of [[Laon]] (in Picardy; bears the 'Sainte Ampoule' containing the sacred ointment)
** the bishop-duc de [[Langres]] (in Burgundy; bears the scepter)
Later, the [[Archbishop of Paris]] was given the title of ''[[duc de Saint-Cloud]]'' with the dignity of peerage, but it was debated if he was an ecclesiastical peer or merely a bishop holding a lay peerage.

The secular dukes in the peerage of the realm were, again in order of precedence:
* The [[Duke of Burgundy]] or ''duc de Bourgogne'' (known as ''Grand duc''; not a separate title at that time; just a description of the wealth and real clout of the 15th-century dukes, cousins of the kings of France) (bears the crown, fastens the belt)
* The [[Duke of Normandy]] or ''duc de Normandie ''(holds the first square banner)
* The [[Duke of Aquitaine]] or ''duc d'Aquitaine'' or ''de Guyenne'' (holds the second square banner)

The theory of the participation of the peers in the coronation was laid down in the late 13th century, when some of the peerage (the Duchy of Normandy and the County of Toulouse) had already been merged in the crown.

At the end of this same century, the king elevated some counties into duchies, a practice that increased up until the Revolution. Many of these duchies were also peerages (the so-called 'new peerages').

== Italy, Germany and Austria ==
{{main|Dukes in Italy, Germany and Austria}}

In Northern Italy, Germany and Austria the title of "duke" (''duca'' in Italian, and ''Herzog'' in German) was quite common. As the [[Holy Roman Empire]] (HRE) was until its dissolution a feudal structure, most of its Dukes were actually reigning in their lands. As the titles from the HRE were taken over after its dissolution, or in Northern Italy after their territories became independent of the Empire, both countries also had a share of fully sovereign dukes. Also, in Germany in many ducal families every agnate would bear the ducal title of the family as a [[courtesy title]].

In Northern Italy some important sovereign ducal families were the [[Visconti of Milan|Visconti]] and the [[Sforza]], who ruled [[Duchy of Milan|Milan]]; the [[House of Savoy|Savoy]] in Piedmont; the [[Medici]] of [[Florence]]; the [[House of Farnese|Farnese]] of [[Duchy of Parma|Parma and Piacenza]]; the [[Cybo|Cybo-Malaspina]] of [[Massa, Tuscany|Massa]]; the [[House of Gonzaga|Gonzaga]] of [[Duchy of Mantua|Mantua]]; the [[House of Este|Este]] of [[Duchy of Modena and Reggio|Modena]] and [[Duchy of Ferrara|Ferrara]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Simon|first=Kate|title=A Renaissance Tapestry: The Gonzaga of Mantua|publisher=Harper & Row}}</ref>

In Germany, important ducal families were the [[House of Wittelsbach|Wittelsbachs]] in [[Duchy of Bavaria|Bavaria]], the [[Welfs]] in [[Electorate of Hanover|Hannover]], the ducal family of [[Duchy of Cleves|Cleves]], the [[House of Wettin|Wettins]] in [[Duchy of Saxony|Saxony]] (with its [[Ernestine duchies|Ernestine branch]] divided into several duchies), the [[List of rulers of Württemberg|Württembergs]] and the [[House of Mecklenburg|Mecklenburgs]].   In the German Confederation the [[House of Nassau|Nassaus]], the [[House of Ascania|Ascanians]] of [[Anhalt]], the Welf branch of [[Duchy of Brunswick|Brunswick]] and the Ernestine lines of the Saxon duchies were the sovereign ducal families.

In Austria, "[[Archduke]]" was the title borne from 1358 by the [[House of Habsburg|Habsburg]] rulers of the [[Archduchy of Austria]], and later by all senior members of that dynasty.

== Elsewhere in Europe ==

=== Hungary ===
{{main|Duchy (Kingdom of Hungary)}}
In the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] no ducal principalities existed but duchies were often formed for members of the dynasty as [[appanage]]s. During the rule of the [[Arpads|Árpád dynasty]] dukes held territorial powers, some of them even minted coins, but later this title became more often nominal.
These duchies usually were
* the Duchy of Nitra
* the Duchy of Bihar
* the Duchy of [[Transylvania]] (consisting of the [[voivodship]] of Transylvania and some other counties)

In the Jagiellonian era (1490–1526) only two dukes did not belong to the royal dynasty: [[John Corvin]] (the illegitimate son of [[Matthias Corvinus]]) and [[Lawrence of Ilok|Lőrinc Újlaki]] (whose father was the titular king of [[Bosnia (region)|Bosnia]]), and both bore the title as royal dukes.

After the [[Battle of Mohács]] the Habsburg kings rewarded Hungarian aristocrats (like the [[House of Esterházy|Esterházys]]) with princely titles, but they created these titles as Holy Roman Emperors, not as kings of Hungary.

=== Greece ===
The Byzantines retained the title ''dux'', transcribed as δούξ (''doux'') in [[Medieval Greek]]. As in the later Roman Empire, it remained a military office and was not a feudal or hereditary rank. In the 10th century, it was given to the military commanders over several ''[[Theme (Byzantine district)|themata]]'' (also known as ''[[katepano]]''), and in the late 11th century it became used for the governor of a ''thema''.

When the Catholic crusaders overran the Byzantine Empire in the [[Fourth Crusade]], they installed several [[crusader state]]s (see [[Frankokratia]]), some of which were of ducal rank:
* the [[Duchy of Athens]], to which the [[Duchy of Neopatras]] was later linked
* the Aegean insular [[Duchy of Naxos]], officially the "Duchy of the Archipelago"
* the [[Venetian Crete|Venetian colony of Crete]] (Candia) was initially ruled by the [[Duke of Candia]]

In Italy and other western countries, the later Byzantine [[appanage]]s of the [[Palaiologan period]] were sometimes translated as duchies: the [[Despotate of the Morea|Morea]], [[Mesembria]], [[Selymbria]] and [[Thessaloniki]]. The Greek rank of their holders, however, was that of ''[[despotes]]''.

In the independent [[Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg)|Kingdom of Greece]], the style of [[Duke of Sparta]] was instituted in 1868 upon the birth of the future [[Constantine I of Greece|Constantine I]] as a distinct title for the [[Crown Prince of Greece]].

=== Slavic and nearby countries ===
Generally, confusion reigns whether to translate the usual ruler titles, ''[[knyaz]]/ knez/ książe'' etc. as Prince (analogous to the German Fürst) or as Duke;
* In splintered [[Poland]] petty principalities generally ruled by branches of the earlier Polish [[Piast dynasty]] are regarded as duchies in translated titulary. Examples of such: [[Kujavia]], [[Masovia]], [[Sandomierz|Sandomir]], [[Greater Poland]] and [[Kalisz]] as well as various minor duchies, often short-lived or in personal union or merger, named after their capitals, mainly in the regions known as [[Lesser Poland|Little Poland]] and [[Greater Poland]], including (there are often also important Latin or German forms) [[Kraków]], [[Łęczyca]] and [[Sieradz]].
* In [[Pomerelia]] and [[Pomerania]] (inhabited by the Kashubians, different Slavic people from the Poles proper), branches of native ruling dynasties were usually recognized as dukes, quite similarly to the pattern in Poland.
* In Russia, before the imperial unification from [[Grand Duchy of Moscow|Muscovy]]; sometimes even as vassal, tributary to a Tartar [[Khan (title)|Khan]]; later, in Peter the Great's autocratic empire, the russification '''gertsog''' was used as the Russian rendering of the German ducal title ''Herzog'', especially as (the last) part of the full official style of the Russian Emperor: ''Gertsog Shlesvig-Golstinskiy, Stormarnskiy, Ditmarsenskiy I Oldenburgskiy I prochaya, I prochaya, i prochaya'' "Duke of Schleswig-Holstein [see above], [[Stormarn (gau)|Stormarn]], [[Dithmarschen]] and Oldenburg, and of other lands", in chief of German and Danish territories to which the Tsar was dynastically linked.
* In Bohemia was [[Duchy of Krumlov]], and short-lived [[Napoleon II of France|Duchy of Reichstadt]] and [[Duchy of Friedland]].
* In [[Silesia]] were many petty duchies as [[Duchy of Brzeg]], [[Duchy of Legnica]], [[Duchy of Zator]] and [[Duchy of Racibórz]]. They were vassals of [[List of rulers of Bohemia|King of Bohemia]].
*In [[Lithuania]], the approximate equivalent of a duke or prince was called ''kunigaikštis'' in the Lithuanian language.  Latin translation was ''dux'' meaning "duke" in the Middle Ages, whereas Latin for "prince" is ''princeps''.  The overall leader of the Lithuanian dukes ([[Lithuanian language|Lith.]] plural: ''kunigaikščiai'') was the [[grand duke]] ([[Lithuanian language|Lith.]]: ''didysis kunigaikštis'', [[Latin language|Latin]]: ''magnus dux''), who acted as the monarch of the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]] until 1795 when Russians took over the land.

=== Netherlands ===
After Belgium and the Netherlands separated in 1830, the title of duke no longer existed in the Netherlands. There is, however, one exception; the title ''Hertog van Limburg'' (''Duke of Limburg'') still exists. This title, however, is an exclusive title for the head of state (the monarch, i.e., the king or queen of the Netherlands).

=== Georgia ===
{{Unreferenced section|date=September 2023}}
In Georgia, the title of ''[[eristavi]]'' is equivalent to duke. The word means "head of the nation" or "head of the army".  A duke ruled a duchy ([[saeristavo]]); a duke of two or more duchies was called ''[[eristavt-eristavi]]'', duke of dukes.

In the 6th to 9th centuries, [[Iberia]] was ruled by [[Erismtavari]], a title similar to [[grand duke]]. Erismtavari was the first among equal dukes.

Georgians use the title ''eristavi'' only for Georgian dukes. When talking about foreign dukes, they use the German word ''Herzog'', which is the German equivalent of "duke".

In the late 15th and early 16th century, the kingdom of Georgia collapsed and most of the western Georgian dukes became princes. In the 19th century the title of ''eristavi'' was abolished by the Russian conquerors and the former dukes took the word ''Eristavi'' as their last names.

== Post-colonial non-European states ==

=== Empire of Brazil ===
In the [[Empire of Brazil]] duke was the highest rank for people born outside the imperial house and only three dukedoms were created. Two of these titles were for relatives of [[Pedro I of Brazil|Emperor Pedro I]]: an illegitimate daughter and a [[Auguste de Beauharnais, 2nd Duke of Leuchtenberg|brother-in-law]] who received the title when married to Pedro I's daughter [[Maria II of Portugal|Maria II]]. The third, given to [[Luís Alves de Lima e Silva, Duke of Caxias|Luís Alves de Lima e Silva]], was the only dukedom created during the reign of [[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro II]]. None of these titles were hereditary, just like every other title in the Brazilian nobility system.

=== Haiti ===
The royal [[Henri Christophe|Christophe]] dynasty created eight hereditary dukedoms, in rank directly below the nominal princes. They were short-lived and only recognized in the country.

== Analogues ==
{{main|Equivalents of Duke outside Europe|Ethiopian aristocratic and court titles}}
Like other major Western noble titles, Duke is sometimes used to render (translate) certain titles in non-western languages. "Duke" is used even though those titles are generally etymologically and often historically unrelated and thus hard to compare. However, they are considered roughly equivalent, especially in hierarchic aristocracies such as feudal Japan, useful as an indication of relative rank.

=== Indian Subcontinent ===
The [[Indian feudalism|Indian feudal system]] cannot be fully translated to its European counterparts. The closest equivalent to the title of Sovereign Duke is [[Rao (title)|Rao]] and [[Nawab]] to a feudal [[duchy]], a large [[jagir]]. Thus, a Rao (in the ruling system) or a Jagirdar, Deshmukh, Patil, and Zamindar (in a feudal way) are closely equivalent to a Duke.

=== Turkey, Afghanistan and Iran ===
''Duke'' in Turkey, Afghanistan, and Iran after Mongolian war against them, was added as generals and kings of districts or states. In the Kingdom of Persians and Ottomans, the systems cannot be fully translated to its European counterparts so they called those generals and kings as [[Khan (title)|Khan]], a Mongolian royal and noble rank from the Turco-Mongol word for "lord", analogous to Duke. After revolutions and the falling Empire system in those countries (changing the ruling system to democratic and republic systems), those Khans and the other equal ranks titles added to the titleholder's surnames, and the ranking system, as usual, was disqualified as an official ranking.

=== China ===
During the era of ''[[fengjian]]'' in [[History of China#Ancient China|Ancient China]] ([[Western Zhou]], [[Spring and Autumn period]] and the [[Warring States period]]), the [[Zhou dynasty nobility|title]] of ''[[Gong (title)|gōng]]'' ([[wikt:公|公]]; sometimes translated as "Duke", sometimes as "Lord") was sparingly granted.  Under the principle of "Three Deferences and Two Royal Descendants" (三恪二王後), the three former royal houses were granted the title of ''gōng''; however, not all scholars recognize such a tradition in the Western Zhou dynasty.  For that dynasty, this would be the descendants of the [[Xia dynasty]] and [[Shang dynasty]]; their dukedoms were respectively [[Qi (Henan)|Qi]] (杞) and [[Song (state)|Song]] (宋).  According to tradition, these states were considered the king's guests rather than subjects.  However, recent scholarship has identified multiple other meanings for ''gōng'', including the patriarch of a lineage,  a non-inheritable title signifying a very broad and senior position within the court, or a respectful appellation for any regional ruler or deceased ancestor.<ref>{{ cite journal
| last = Pines | first=Yuri
| title= Names and Titles in Eastern Zhou Texts
| journal= T'oung Pao| year = 2020
| volume= 106 | issue=5–6
| page = 716
| publisher= Brill | doi=10.1163/15685322-10656P06
| s2cid=234449375
| place = Leiden
}}</ref>

In works like ''[[Mencius (book)|Mencius]]''<ref name="Li-2008">{{ cite book
| author= Li Feng | year = 2008
| title= Perceptions of Antiquity in Chinese Civilization
| editor1 = Dieter Kuhn
| editor2 = Helga Stahl
| chapter= Transmitting Antiquity: The Origin and Paradigmization of the “Five Ranks”
| pages = 103–134
| publisher= Würzburger Sinologische Schriften
| place = Würzberg
| ref = {{sfnref|Li|2008}}
}}</ref>{{rp|106}} and others that date to the [[Warring States period]], ''gōng'' was interpreted as the highest in the "five ranks of nobles" ([[:zh:五等爵|五等爵]]) attributed to the Western Zhou dynasty.<ref>{{ cite journal
| last = Falkenhausen| first =Lothar von
| title=The Concept of Wen in the Ancient Chinese Ancestral Cult
| journal=Chinese Literature: Essays, Articles, Reviews
| volume= 18 | year = 1996 | page = 7
| doi = 10.2307/495623
| jstor = 495623
}}</ref> However, the title was not in use until the end of the Western Han,<ref name="Li-2008" />{{rp|126}} granted to the descendants of the [[Shang dynasty|Shang]] and Zhou royal houses and the eventual usurper [[Wang Mang]].  It was also granted to [[Cao Cao]].<ref>{{cite book
| title= [[Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms]]
| script-title= zh:三國志注
| author= Chen Shou | author-link= Chen Shou
| editor=Pei Songzhi | editor-link=Pei Songzhi
| year = 1977 | orig-year=429
| publisher= Dingwen Printing
| place=Taipei
| ref={{sfnref|Chen and Pei|429}}
| chapter=[[:s:zh:三國志/卷01|1: 武帝紀]]
| page = 37
}}</ref> The title during the Han was inferior to that of prince (諸侯王), which was only available to imperial princes.  The "five ranks of nobles" were implemented as such during the [[Jin dynasty (266–420)|Jin dynasty]] (晉朝).<ref name="Li-2008" />{{rp|127}}  During the [[Southern dynasties]], usurpers typically sought the title of duke, then prince, before compelling the monarch to abdicate.

The [[Duke of Yansheng]] noble title was granted to the descendants of [[Confucius]]. In 1935, the [[Kuomintang|Nationalist]] Government changed the title to Sacrificial Official to Confucius (大成至聖先師奉祀官), which still exists as a hereditary office of the [[Republic of China]].

The title ''gōng'' and others were also awarded, sometimes [[posthumous names|posthumously]], during the imperial period of [[Chinese history]] to recognize distinguished civil and military officials. These could include a taxable base for the official, or could be purely honorary. For example, [[Emperor Lizong of Song]] granted the posthumous title Duke of Hui (徽國公) to the [[Neo-Confucian]] thinker [[Zhu Xi]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Chu Hsi New Studies|last=Chan|first=Wing-tsit|publisher=University of Hawai`i Press|year=1989|isbn=978-0-8248-1201-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/chuhsinewstudies0000chan/page/34 34]|url=https://archive.org/details/chuhsinewstudies0000chan/page/34}}</ref>

===Indonesia===
The Javanese kingdom of [[Majapahit]], which dominated eastern Java in the 14th and 15th centuries, was divided into ''nagara'' (provinces). The administration of these ''nagara'' was entrusted to members of the royal family, who bore the title of ''Bhre''—i.e., ''Bhra I'', "lord of" (the word ''bhra'' being akin to the [[Thai language|Thai]] ''[[Thai nobility|Phra]]''), followed by the name of the land they were entrusted with: for example, a sister of the king [[Hayam Wuruk]] ({{reign}} 1350–1389) was "Bhre Lasem", "lady of [[Lasem]]". This system was similar to the [[Apanage]] system in Western Europe.{{citation needed|date=January 2017}}

[[Sultan Agung]], king of [[Mataram Sultanate|Mataram]] in [[Central Java]] ({{reign}} 1613–1645), would entrust the administration of territories he gradually conquered all over the island of Java, to officials bearing the title of ''Adipati'', this title is hereditary. Such territories were called ''Kadipaten''. Prior to the unification of Java by Sultan Agung, independent ''kadipaten''s also exist, e.g. the [[Duchy of Surabaya]] which was [[Mataram conquest of Surabaya|conquered]] by Agung in 1625.

The [[Dutch East India Company|VOC]] (Dutch East Indies Company), while gradually taking control of Javanese territory, would maintain the existing Mataram administrative structure. ''Adipati'' were called "''[[regent]]en''" in Dutch,{{citation needed|date=January 2017}} and the territories they administered, "''[[List of regencies and cities of Indonesia|regentschappen]]''".

In the 19th century, the Javanese term for 'regent' was ''bupati''. French traveller Gérard Louis Domeny de Rienzi mentions ''bapati''.<ref>Grégoire Louis Domeny de Rienzi, ''Océanie ou cinquième partie du monde : revue géographique et ethnographique de la Malaisie, de la Micronésie, de la Polynésie et de la Mélanésie, ainsi que ses nouvelles classifications et divisions de ces contrées'', Firmin Didot Frères, Paris, 1834</ref>

The ''bupati'' have been maintained in the modern Indonesian administrative subdivision structure, heading a ''[[Regency (Indonesia)|kabupaten]]'', the subdivision of a ''[[provinces of Indonesia|provinsi]]'' or province.

The word ''Adipati'' is still found in the official title of the hereditary dukes [[Mangkunegaran Palace|Mangkunegara]] of [[Surakarta]] and [[Pakualaman|Paku Alam]] of [[Yogyakarta]]—i.e., ''Kanjeng Gusti Pangeran Adipati Arya'' (shortened into KGPAA).

===Nigeria===
In the [[Kingdom of Benin]], a [[viceroyal]] [[Nigerian chieftaincy|chieftain]] that is known as an ''Enogie'' in the [[Edo language]] is usually referred to as a duke in English. Often a cadet of the dynasty that produces the [[oba of Benin]], the enogie is expected to rule his domain as he sees fit, subject to the approval of the oba.

In [[Ife]], [[Oyo Empire|Oyo]] and the other kingdoms of Nigerian [[Yorubaland]], a viceroyal chieftain is known as a ''[[Baale (title)|Baale]]'' in the [[Yoruba language]]. He is barred from wearing a crown as a matter of tradition and is generally seen as the reigning representative of his [[Oba (ruler)|oba]], the monarch who has the right to wear one.

=== Myanmar ===

In Myanmar (Burma), since the [[Bagan|Pagan]] era of 11th century, each and every single one of the royal family received the title of ''Myosa'' (also ''Myoza''), literally means chief of town or territory, which is equivalent to the title of Duke. All royals were given the honor to possess at least one territory by the King. They all were mostly called by their possessions. For instance, Burma's last king, [[King Thibaw]] was called by his possession, when he was a prince, of a town Thibaw (Hsipaw in [[Shan State]]).<ref>{{cite book |title=United States Congressional Serial Set |year=1977 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2i08AQAAMAAJ&q=myosa+duke&pg=RA10-PA39 |language=en}}{{pb}}{{cite book |last1=Murdoch |first1=William Gordon Burn |title=From Edinburgh to India & Burmah |year=1908 |publisher=G. Routledge & sons Limited |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wxEPAAAAYAAJ&q=myosa+duke |language=en}}{{pb}}{{cite book |last1=Center |first1=Duke University Commonwealth-Studies |title=Publication |year=1966 |publisher=Duke University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ARM8AAAAIAAJ&q=myosa+duke |language=en}}{{pb}}{{cite book |title=Mranʻ mā samuiṅʻʺ sutesana cā coṅʻ |year=2001 |publisher=Samuiṅʻʺ Sutesana nhaṅʻʹ ʼA myuiʺ sāʺ Cā kraññʻʹ Tuikʻ Ūʺ cīʺ Ṭhāna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=b_HPuuRb20kC&q=myosa+duke |language=en}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Archduke]]
* [[Grand Duke]]
* Other titles derived from [[Dux]]
** [[Doge (disambiguation)|Doge]]
** [[Duce]]
** [[Megas doux]]
* [[Duchy]]
** [[Duchies in Sweden]]
** [[Duchy of Amalfi]]
** [[Duchy of Brittany]]
** [[Duchy of Gaeta]]
** [[Duchy of Naples]]
* [[Grand Duchy]]
* [[Lists of dukes]]
* [[List of fictional dukes and duchesses]]
* {{wiktionary-inline|Duke}}

== References==
{{Reflist}}

===General sources===
* [[Thomas Hodgkin (historian)|Hodgkin, Thomas]]. ''Italy and her Invaders''. Clarendon Press: 1895.
* Lewis, Archibald R. "The Dukes in the Regnum Francorum, A.D. 550–751". ''Speculum'', Vol. 51, No 3 (July 1976), pp.&nbsp;381–410.
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Duke | volume= 8 |last=Phillips|first=Walter Alison |author-link=Walter Alison Phillips| pages = 650–651 |short= 1}}
* [[Frank Stenton|Stenton, Sir Frank M.]] ''Anglo-Saxon England Third Edition''. Oxford University Press: 1971.
* Thompson, E. A. ''The Goths in Spain''. Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1969.

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Dukes| ]]
[[Category:Noble titles]]
[[Category:Peerage]]
[[Category:Feudalism]]
[[Category:Men's social titles]]