View source for Behavioral neuroscience

{{Short description|Study of biological and neural mechanisma in behaviour}}
{{Redirect|Biological psychology|the journals|Behavioral Neuroscience (journal)|and|Biological Psychology (journal)|and|Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience}}
{{For|related topics|Affective neuroscience|Behavioral neurology|Cognitive neuroscience|Neuropsychiatry|Neuropsychology|Social neuroscience}}
{{Psychology sidebar|basic}}'''Behavioral neuroscience''', also known as '''biological psychology''',<ref>[[Marc Breedlove|Breedlove]], Watson, [[Mark Rosenzweig (psychologist)|Rosenzweig]], ''Biological Psychology: An Introduction to Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience'', 6/e, {{ISBN|978-0-87893-705-9}}, p. 2</ref> '''biopsychology''', or '''psychobiology''',<ref name="webby">[http://www.m-w.com/cgi-bin/dictionary?&va=psychobiology Psychobiology], Merriam-Webster's Online Dictionary</ref> is part of the broad, interdisciplinary field of [[neuroscience]], with its primary focus being on the biological and neural substrates underlying human [[Experience|experiences]] and [[Behavior|behaviors]], as in our [[psychology]]. Derived from an earlier field known as [[physiological psychology]],<ref name=":04">{{Citation |last=Thompson |first=R. F. |title=Behavioral Neuroscience |date=2001-01-01 |work=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |pages=1118–1125 |editor-last=Smelser |editor-first=Neil J. |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B0080430767034057 |access-date=2024-10-11 |place=Oxford |publisher=Pergamon |doi=10.1016/b0-08-043076-7/03405-7 |isbn=978-0-08-043076-8 |editor2-last=Baltes |editor2-first=Paul B.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> behavioral neuroscience applies the principles of [[biology]] to study the [[physiological]], [[Genetics|genetic]], and [[Developmental biology|developmental mechanisms]] of behavior in humans and other animals.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Thomas |first=R.K. |year=1993 |title=INTRODUCTION: A Biopsychology Festschrift in Honor of Lelon J. Peacock |journal=Journal of General Psychology |volume=120 |issue=1 |page=5}}</ref> Behavioral neuroscientists examine the [[Biology|biological]] bases of behavior through research that involves [[Neuroanatomy|neuroanatomical]] substrates, environmental and [[Genetics|genetic]] factors, effects of [[Lesion|lesions]] and electrical stimulation, developmental processes, recording electrical activity, [[Neurotransmitter|neurotransmitters]], [[Hormone|hormonal]] influences, chemical components, and the effects of [[Drug|drugs]]. Important topics of consideration for neuroscientific research in behavior include [[learning]] and [[memory]], sensory processes, [[motivation]] and [[emotion]], as well as genetic and molecular substrates concerning the biological bases of behavior. Subdivisions of behavioral neuroscience include the field of [[cognitive neuroscience]], which emphasizes the biological processes underlying human cognition. Behavioral and cognitive neuroscience are both concerned with the [[Neuron|neuronal]] and biological bases of psychology, with a particular emphasis on either [[cognition]] or behavior depending on the field.<ref name=":04" />

==History==
Behavioral neuroscience as a scientific discipline emerged from a variety of scientific and philosophical traditions in the 18th and 19th centuries. [[René Descartes]] proposed physical models to explain animal as well as human behavior. Descartes suggested that the [[pineal gland]], a midline unpaired structure in the brain of many organisms, was the point of contact between mind and body. Descartes also elaborated on a theory in which the [[pneumatics]] of bodily fluids could explain [[reflex]]es and other motor behavior. This theory was inspired by moving statues in a garden in [[Paris]].<ref name="Carlson" >{{cite book |last=Carlson |first=Neil|title=Physiology of Behavior |edition=9th |publisher=Allyn and Bacon |pages=11–14 |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-205-46724-2}}</ref>

Other philosophers also helped give birth to [[psychology]]. One of the earliest textbooks in the new field, ''[[The Principles of Psychology]]'' by [[William James]], argues that the scientific study of psychology should be grounded in an understanding of biology.<ref>{{Cite book |last=James |first=William |url=https://content.apa.org/books/10538-000 |title=The principles of psychology, Vol I. |date=1890 |publisher=Henry Holt and Co |location=New York |language=en |doi=10.1037/10538-000}}</ref>
[[File:1907 image of a brain (Labour and Childhood).png|thumb|1907 image of a brain]]

The emergence of psychology and behavioral neuroscience as legitimate sciences can be traced from the emergence of physiology from [[anatomy]], particularly [[neuroanatomy]]. Physiologists conducted experiments on living organisms, a practice that was distrusted by the dominant anatomists of the 18th and 19th centuries. The influential work of [[Claude Bernard]], [[Charles Bell]], and [[William Harvey]] helped to convince the scientific community that reliable data could be obtained from living subjects.<ref name="Shepherd2">{{cite book |last=Shepherd |first=Gordon M. |title=Foundations of the Neuron Doctrine |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1991 |isbn=0-19-506491-7}}</ref>

Even before the 18th and 19th centuries, behavioral neuroscience was beginning to take form as far back as 1700 B.C.<ref name="History">{{cite web|url=http://www.columbia.edu/cu/psychology/courses/1010/mangels/neuro/history/history.html |title=History of Neuroscience |publisher=Columbia University |access-date=2014-05-04}}</ref> The question that seems to continually arise is: what is the connection between the mind and body? The debate is formally referred to as the [[mind-body problem]]. There are two major schools of thought that attempt to resolve the mind–body problem; [[monism]] and [[mind-body dualism|dualism]].<ref name="Carlson"/> [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]] are two of several philosophers who participated in this debate. Plato believed that the brain was where all mental thought and processes happened.<ref name="History"/> In contrast, Aristotle believed the brain served the purpose of cooling down the emotions derived from the heart.<ref name="Carlson"/> The mind-body problem was a stepping stone toward attempting to understand the connection between the mind and body.
[[File:Wm james.jpg|thumb|[[William James]]]]
Another debate arose about localization of function or [[functional specialization (brain)|functional specialization]] versus [[equipotentiality]] which played a significant role in the development in behavioral neuroscience. As a result of localization of function research, many famous people found within psychology have come to various different conclusions. [[Wilder Penfield]] was able to develop a map of the cerebral cortex through studying epileptic patients along with Rassmussen.<ref name="Carlson"/> Research on localization of function has led behavioral neuroscientists to a better understanding of which parts of the brain control behavior. This is best exemplified through the case study of [[Phineas Gage]].

The term "psychobiology" has been used in a variety of contexts, emphasizing the importance of biology, which is the discipline that studies organic, neural and cellular modifications in behavior, plasticity in neuroscience, and biological diseases in all aspects, in addition, biology focuses and analyzes behavior and all the subjects it is concerned about, from a scientific point of view. In this context, psychology helps as a complementary, but important discipline in the neurobiological sciences. The role of psychology in this questions is that of a social tool that backs up the main or strongest biological science. The term "psychobiology" was first used in its modern sense by [[Knight Dunlap]] in his book ''An Outline of Psychobiology (1914)''.<ref name="Dewsbury">{{cite journal
  |last=Dewsbury
  |first=Donald
  |title=Psychobiology
  |journal=American Psychologist
  |volume=46
  |issue=3
  |pages=198–205
  |year=1991
  |doi=10.1037/0003-066x.46.3.198
  |pmid=2035930
  |s2cid=222054067
 }}</ref> Dunlap also was the founder and editor-in-chief of the journal ''Psychobiology''. In the announcement of that journal, Dunlap writes that the journal will publish research "...bearing on the interconnection of mental and physiological functions", which describes the field of behavioral neuroscience even in its modern sense.<ref name="Dewsbury" />

[[Neuroscience]] is considered a relatively new discipline, with the first conference for the Society of Neuroscience occurring in 1971. The meeting was held to merge different fields focused on studying the [[nervous system]] (ex. [[neuroanatomy]], [[neurochemistry]], [[physiological psychology]], [[neuroendocrinology]], [[Neurology|clinical neurology]], [[neurophysiology]], [[neuropharmacology]], etc.) by creating one interdisciplinary field. In 1983, the ''Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology'', published by the American Psychological Association, was split into two separate journals: ''Behavioral Neuroscience'' and the ''Journal of Comparative Psychology''. The author of the journal at the time gave reasoning for this separation, with one being that behavioral neuroscience is the broader contemporary advancement of physiological psychology. Furthermore, in all animals, the nervous system is the organ of behavior. Therefore, every biological and behavioral variable that influences behavior must go through the nervous system to do so. Present-day research in behavioral neuroscience studies all biological variables which act through the nervous system and relate to behavior.<ref name=":03">{{Citation |last=Thompson |first=R. F. |title=Behavioral Neuroscience |date=2001-01-01 |work=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |pages=1118–1125 |editor-last=Smelser |editor-first=Neil J. |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B0080430767034057 |access-date=2024-10-11 |place=Oxford |publisher=Pergamon |doi=10.1016/b0-08-043076-7/03405-7 |isbn=978-0-08-043076-8 |editor2-last=Baltes |editor2-first=Paul B.|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

{{Neuropsychology sidebar}}

==Relationship to other fields of psychology and biology==
In many cases, humans may serve as experimental subjects in behavioral neuroscience experiments; however, a great deal of the experimental literature in behavioral neuroscience comes from the study of non-human species, most frequently rats, mice, and monkeys. As a result, a critical assumption in behavioral neuroscience is that organisms share biological and behavioral similarities, enough to permit extrapolations across species. This allies behavioral neuroscience closely with [[comparative psychology]], [[ethology]], [[evolutionary biology]], and [[neurobiology]]. Behavioral neuroscience also has paradigmatic and methodological similarities to [[neuropsychology]], which relies heavily on the study of the behavior of humans with nervous system dysfunction (i.e., a non-experimentally based biological manipulation). Synonyms for behavioral neuroscience include biopsychology, biological psychology, and psychobiology.<ref name="Breedlove et al 2007">[[Marc Breedlove|S. Marc Breedlove]], [[Mark Rosenzweig (psychologist)|Mark Rosenzweig]] and Neil V. Watson (2007). Biological Psychology: An Introduction to Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience 6e. Sinauer Associates. {{ISBN|978-0-87893-705-9}}</ref> [[Physiological psychology]] is a subfield of behavioral neuroscience, with an appropriately narrower definition.

== Research methods ==

The distinguishing characteristic of a behavioral neuroscience experiment is that either the [[independent variable]] of the experiment is biological, or some [[dependent variable]] is biological. In other words, the [[nervous system]] of the organism under study is permanently or temporarily altered, or some aspect of the nervous system is measured (usually to be related to a behavioral variable).

===Disabling or decreasing neural function===

* [[Lesions]] – A classic method in which a brain-region of interest is naturally or intentionally destroyed to observe any resulting changes such as degraded or enhanced performance on some behavioral measure. Lesions can be placed with relatively high accuracy "Thanks to a variety of brain 'atlases' which provide a map of brain regions in 3-dimensional" [[stereotactic surgery|stereotactic coordinates]].[[File:Journal.pone.0057573.g005 cropped.png|thumb|301x301px|The part of the picture emphasized shows the [[lesion]] in the brain. This type of lesion can be removed through surgery.]]
**'''Surgical''' lesions – Neural tissue is destroyed by removing it surgically.
** '''Electrolytic''' lesions – Neural tissue is destroyed through the application of electrical shock trauma.
** '''Chemical''' lesions – Neural tissue is destroyed by the infusion of a [[neurotoxin]].
** '''Temporary''' lesions – Neural tissue is temporarily disabled by cooling or by the use of [[anesthetics]] such as [[tetrodotoxin]].
* [[Transcranial magnetic stimulation]] – A new technique usually used with human subjects in which a magnetic coil applied to the scalp causes unsystematic electrical activity in nearby cortical neurons which can be experimentally analyzed as a functional lesion.
* [[Receptor activated solely by a synthetic ligand|Synthetic ligand injection]] – A receptor activated solely by a synthetic ligand (RASSL) or Designer Receptor Exclusively Activated by Designer Drugs (DREADD), permits spatial and temporal control of [[G protein]] signaling [[in vivo]]. These systems utilize G protein-coupled receptors ([[GPCR]]) engineered to respond exclusively to synthetic small molecules [[ligands]], like [[clozapine N-oxide]] (CNO), and not to their natural ligand(s). RASSL's represent a GPCR-based [[chemogenetic]] tool. These synthetic ligands upon activation can decrease neural function by G-protein activation. This can with Potassium attenuating neural activity.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Zhu|first1=Hu|title=Silencing synapses with DREADDs|journal=Neuron|volume=82|issue=4|pages=723–725|pmc=4109642|year=2014|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2014.05.002|pmid=24853931}}</ref>
* [[Optogenetic]] inhibition – A light activated inhibitory protein is expressed in cells of interest. Powerful millisecond timescale neuronal inhibition is instigated upon stimulation by the appropriate frequency of light delivered via fiber optics or implanted LEDs in the case of vertebrates,<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.08030444|title = Controlling Neuronal Activity|year = 2008|last1 = Schneider|first1 = M. Bret|last2 = Gradinaru|first2 = Viviana|last3 = Zhang|first3 = Feng|last4 = Deisseroth|first4 = Karl|journal = American Journal of Psychiatry|volume = 165|issue = 5|pages = 562|pmid = 18450936}}</ref> or via external illumination for small, sufficiently translucent invertebrates.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1038/nature05744| title=Multimodal fast optical interrogation of neural circuitry| year=2007| last1=Zhang| first1=Feng| last2=Wang| first2=Li-Ping| last3=Brauner| first3=Martin| last4=Liewald| first4=Jana F.| last5=Kay| first5=Kenneth| last6=Watzke| first6=Natalie| last7=Wood| first7=Phillip G.| last8=Bamberg| first8=Ernst| last9=Nagel| first9=Georg| last10=Gottschalk| first10=Alexander| last11=Deisseroth| first11=Karl| journal=Nature| volume=446| issue=7136| pages=633–639| pmid=17410168| bibcode=2007Natur.446..633Z| s2cid=4415339}}</ref> Bacterial [[Halorhodopsins]] or [[Proton pumps]] are the two classes of proteins used for inhibitory optogenetics, achieving inhibition by increasing cytoplasmic levels of halides ({{chem|Cl|-}}) or decreasing the cytoplasmic concentration of protons, respectively.<ref>Chow, B. Y. et al. "High-performance genetically targetable optical
neural silencing by light-driven proton pumps." Nature. Vol 463. 7 January 2010</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1007/s11068-008-9027-6| title=ENpHR: A Natronomonas halorhodopsin enhanced for optogenetic applications| year=2008| last1=Gradinaru| first1=Viviana| last2=Thompson| first2=Kimberly R.| last3=Deisseroth| first3=Karl| journal=Brain Cell Biology| volume=36| issue=1–4| pages=129–139| pmid=18677566| pmc=2588488}}</ref>

=== Enhancing neural function ===

* Electrical stimulation – A classic method in which neural activity is enhanced by application of a small electric current (too small to cause significant cell death).
* '''Psychopharmacological''' manipulations – A chemical [[receptor antagonist]] induces neural activity by interfering with [[neurotransmission]]. Antagonists can be delivered systemically (such as by intravenous injection) or locally (intracerebrally) during a surgical procedure into the ventricles or into specific brain structures. For example, [[NMDA]] [[antagonist]] [[AP5]] has been shown to inhibit the initiation of [[long term potentiation]] of excitatory synaptic transmission (in rodent fear conditioning) which is believed to be a vital mechanism in learning and memory.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Jeansok J. |last2=Decola |first2=Joseph P. |last3=Landeira-Fernandez |first3=Jesus |last4=Fanselow |first4=Michael S. |year=1991 |title=N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonist APV blocks acquisition but not expression of fear conditioning |journal=Behavioral Neuroscience |volume=105 |issue=1 |pages=126–133 |doi=10.1037/0735-7044.105.1.126 |pmid=1673846}}</ref>
* Synthetic Ligand Injection – Likewise, G<sub>q</sub>-DREADDs can be used to modulate cellular function by innervation of brain regions such as Hippocampus. This innervation results in the amplification of γ-rhythms, which increases motor activity.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Ferguson|first1=Susan|title=Grateful DREADDs: Engineered Receptors Reveal How Neural Circuits Regulate Behavior|journal= Neuropsychopharmacology|date=2012|volume=37|issue=1|pages=296–297|doi=10.1038/npp.2011.179|pmid=22157861|pmc=3238068}}</ref>
* [[Transcranial magnetic stimulation]] – In some cases (for example, studies of [[motor cortex]]), this technique can be analyzed as having a stimulatory effect (rather than as a functional lesion).
* [[Optogenetic]] excitation – A light activated excitatory protein is expressed in select cells. [[Channelrhodopsin]]-2 (ChR2), a light activated cation channel, was the first bacterial opsin shown to excite neurons in response to light,<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1038/nmeth936|title = Channelrhodopsin-2 and optical control of excitable cells|year = 2006|last1 = Zhang|first1 = Feng|last2 = Wang|first2 = Li-Ping|last3 = Boyden|first3 = Edward S.|last4 = Deisseroth|first4 = Karl|journal = Nature Methods|volume = 3|issue = 10|pages = 785–792|pmid = 16990810|s2cid = 15096826}}</ref> though a number of new excitatory optogenetic tools have now been generated by improving and imparting novel properties to ChR2.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.cell.2010.02.037|title = Molecular and Cellular Approaches for Diversifying and Extending Optogenetics|year = 2010|last1 = Gradinaru|first1 = Viviana|last2 = Zhang|first2 = Feng|last3 = Ramakrishnan|first3 = Charu|last4 = Mattis|first4 = Joanna|last5 = Prakash|first5 = Rohit|last6 = Diester|first6 = Ilka|last7 = Goshen|first7 = Inbal|last8 = Thompson|first8 = Kimberly R.|last9 = Deisseroth|first9 = Karl|journal = Cell|volume = 141|issue = 1|pages = 154–165|pmid = 20303157|pmc = 4160532}}</ref>

=== Measuring neural activity ===
* Optical techniques – Optical methods for recording neuronal activity rely on methods that modify the optical properties of neurons in response to the cellular events associated with action potentials or neurotransmitter release.
**[[Voltage sensitive dyes]] (VSDs) were among the earliest method for optically detecting neuronal activity. VSDs commonly changed their fluorescent properties in response to a voltage change across the neuron's membrane, rendering membrane sub-threshold and supra-threshold (action potentials) electrical activity detectable.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1016/0301-0082(95)00010-S| title=Use of voltage-sensitive dyes and optical recordings in the central nervous system| year=1995| last1=Ebner| first1=Timothy J.| last2=Chen| first2=Gang| journal=Progress in Neurobiology| volume=46| issue=5| pages=463–506| pmid=8532849| s2cid=17187595}}</ref> Genetically encoded voltage sensitive fluorescent proteins have also been developed.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1016/s0896-6273(00)80955-1| title=A Genetically Encoded Optical Probe of Membrane Voltage| year=1997| last1=Siegel| first1=Micah S.| last2=Isacoff| first2=Ehud Y.| journal=Neuron| volume=19| issue=4| pages=735–741| pmid=9354320| s2cid=11447982| doi-access=free}}</ref>
** [[Calcium imaging]] relies on dyes<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1016/0165-0270(93)90145-H| title=Real-time imaging of neurons retrogradely and anterogradely labelled with calcium-sensitive dyes| year=1993| last1=O'Donovan| first1=Michael J.| last2=Ho| first2=Stephen| last3=Sholomenko| first3=Gerald| last4=Yee| first4=Wayne| journal=Journal of Neuroscience Methods| volume=46| issue=2| pages=91–106| pmid=8474261| s2cid=13373078}}</ref> or genetically encoded proteins<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1074/jbc.M312751200| title=Genetically Encoded Indicators of Cellular Calcium Dynamics Based on Troponin C and Green Fluorescent Protein| year=2004| last1=Heim| first1=Nicola| last2=Griesbeck| first2=Oliver| journal=Journal of Biological Chemistry| volume=279| issue=14| pages=14280–14286| pmid=14742421| doi-access=free}}</ref> that fluoresce upon binding to the calcium that is transiently present during an action potential.
** [[Synapto-pHluorin]] is a technique that relies on a [[fusion protein]] that combines a synaptic vesicle membrane protein and a pH sensitive fluorescent protein. Upon synaptic vesicle release, the chimeric protein is exposed to the higher pH of the synaptic cleft, causing a measurable change in fluorescence.<ref>{{Cite journal | doi=10.1038/28190| title=Visualizing secretion and synaptic transmission with pH-sensitive green fluorescent proteins| year=1998| last1=Miesenböck| first1=Gero| last2=De Angelis| first2=Dino A.| last3=Rothman| first3=James E.| journal=Nature| volume=394| issue=6689| pages=192–195| pmid=9671304| bibcode=1998Natur.394..192M| s2cid=4320849}}</ref>
* [[Single-unit recording]] – A method whereby an electrode is introduced into the brain of a living animal to detect electrical activity that is generated by the neurons adjacent to the electrode tip. Normally this is performed with sedated animals but sometimes it is performed on awake animals engaged in a behavioral event, such as a thirsty rat whisking a particular sandpaper grade previously paired with water in order to measure the corresponding patterns of neuronal firing at the decision point.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.0050305|title = Neuronal Activity in Rat Barrel Cortex Underlying Texture Discrimination|year = 2007|last1 = von Heimendahl|first1 = Moritz|last2 = Itskov|first2 = Pavel M.|last3 = Arabzadeh|first3 = Ehsan|last4 = Diamond|first4 = Mathew E.|journal = PLOS Biology|volume = 5|issue = 11|pages = e305|pmid = 18001152|pmc = 2071938 | doi-access=free }}</ref>
* Multielectrode recording – The use of a bundle of fine electrodes to record the simultaneous activity of up to hundreds of neurons.
* [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging]] – fMRI, a technique most frequently applied on human subjects, in which changes in cerebral blood flow can be detected in an [[MRI]] apparatus and are taken to indicate relative activity of larger scale brain regions (i.e., on the order of hundreds of thousands of neurons).
*[[File:PET - Human Addiction.jpg|thumb|PET brain scans can show chemical differences in the brain between addicts and non-addicts. The normal images in the bottom row come from non-addicts while people with addictions have scans that look more abnormal.]][[Positron emission tomography]] - PET detects particles called photons using a 3-D nuclear medicine examination. These particles are emitted by injections of radioisotopes such as fluorine. PET imaging reveal the pathological processes which predict anatomic changes making it important for detecting, diagnosing and characterising many pathologies.<ref>{{Cite journal |pmid = 25835405|year = 2015|last1 = Ocampo|first1 = T.|last2 = Knight|first2 = K.|last3 = Dunleavy|first3 = R.|last4 = Shah|first4 = S. N.|title = Techniques, benefits, and challenges of PET-MR|journal = Radiologic Technology|volume = 86|issue = 4|pages = 393–412; quiz 413–6}}</ref>
* [[Electroencephalography]] – EEG, and the derivative technique of [[event-related potential]]s, in which scalp electrodes monitor the average activity of neurons in the cortex (again, used most frequently with human subjects). This technique uses different types of electrodes for recording systems such as needle electrodes and saline-based electrodes. EEG allows for the investigation of mental disorders, sleep disorders and physiology. It can monitor brain development and cognitive engagement.<ref>Sanei, S., & Chambers, J. A. (2013). EEG signal processing. John Wiley & Sons.</ref>
* Functional neuroanatomy – A more complex counterpart of [[phrenology]]. The expression of some anatomical marker is taken to reflect neural activity. For example, the expression of [[immediate early genes]] is thought to be caused by vigorous neural activity. Likewise, the injection of [[2-deoxyglucose]] prior to some behavioral task can be followed by anatomical localization of that chemical; it is taken up by neurons that are electrically active.
* [[Magnetoencephalography]] – MEG shows the functioning of the human brain through the measurement of electromagnetic activity. Measuring the magnetic fields created by the electric current flowing within the neurons identifies brain activity associated with various human functions in real time, with millimeter spatial accuracy. Clinicians can noninvasively obtain data to help them assess neurological disorders and plan surgical treatments.

=== Genetic techniques ===

* [[Quantitative trait loci|QTL mapping]] – The influence of a gene in some behavior can be statistically inferred by studying [[inbred strains]] of some species, most commonly mice. The recent sequencing of the [[genome]] of many species, most notably mice, has facilitated this technique.
* [[Selective breeding]] – Organisms, often mice, may be bred selectively among inbred strains to create a [[recombinant congenic strain]]. This might be done to isolate an experimentally interesting stretch of [[DNA]] derived from one strain on the background genome of another strain to allow stronger inferences about the role of that stretch of DNA.
* [[Genetic engineering]] – The genome may also be experimentally-manipulated; for example, [[knockout mice]] can be engineered to lack a particular gene, or a gene may be expressed in a strain which does not normally do so (the 'transgenic'). Advanced techniques may also permit the expression or suppression of a gene to occur by injection of some regulating chemical.

=== Quantifying behavior ===

* [[File:Drosophila anipose tracking.png|thumb|Fruit fly ([[Drosophila melanogaster]]) leg joints being tracked in 3D with Anipose.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karashchuk |first1=Pierre |last2=Rupp |first2=Katie L. |last3=Dickinson |first3=Evyn S. |last4=Walling-Bell |first4=Sarah |last5=Sanders |first5=Elischa |last6=Azim |first6=Eiman |last7=Brunton |first7=Bingni W. |last8=Tuthill |first8=John C. |date=2021-09-28 |title=Anipose: A toolkit for robust markerless 3D pose estimation |journal=Cell Reports |language=en |volume=36 |issue=13 |page=109730 |doi=10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109730 |issn=2211-1247 |pmc=8498918 |pmid=34592148}}</ref>]][[Pose (computer vision)|Markerless pose estimation]] – The advancement of [[computer vision]] techniques in recent years have allowed for precise quantifications of animal movements without needing to fit physical markers onto the subject. On high-speed video captured in a behavioral assay, keypoints from the subject can be extracted frame-by-frame,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mathis |first1=Alexander |last2=Mamidanna |first2=Pranav |last3=Cury |first3=Kevin M. |last4=Abe |first4=Taiga |last5=Murthy |first5=Venkatesh N. |last6=Mathis |first6=Mackenzie Weygandt |last7=Bethge |first7=Matthias |date=September 2018 |title=DeepLabCut: markerless pose estimation of user-defined body parts with deep learning |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-018-0209-y |journal=Nature Neuroscience |language=en |volume=21 |issue=9 |pages=1281–1289 |doi=10.1038/s41593-018-0209-y |pmid=30127430 |s2cid=52807326 |issn=1546-1726|url-access=subscription }}</ref> which is often useful to analyze in tandem with neural recordings/manipulations. Analyses can be conducted on how keypoints (i.e. parts of the animal) move within different phases of a particular behavior (on a short timescale),<ref>{{Cite web|last1=Syeda |first1=Atika |last2=Zhong |first2=Lin |last3=Tung |first3=Renee |last4=Long |first4=Will |last5=Pachitariu |first5=Marius |last6=Stringer |first6=Carsen |date=2022-11-04 |title=Facemap: a framework for modeling neural activity based on orofacial tracking |url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/2022.11.03.515121v1 |language=en |pages=2022.11.03.515121 |doi=10.1101/2022.11.03.515121|s2cid=253371320 }}</ref> or throughout an animal's behavioral repertoire (longer timescale).<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Marshall |first1=Jesse D. |last2=Aldarondo |first2=Diego E. |last3=Dunn |first3=Timothy W. |last4=Wang |first4=William L. |last5=Berman |first5=Gordon J. |last6=Ölveczky |first6=Bence P. |date=2021-02-03 |title=Continuous Whole-Body 3D Kinematic Recordings across the Rodent Behavioral Repertoire |journal=Neuron |language=en |volume=109 |issue=3 |pages=420–437.e8 |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2020.11.016 |issn=0896-6273 |pmc=7864892 |pmid=33340448}}</ref> These keypoint changes can be compared with corresponding changes in neural activity. A machine learning approach can also be used to identify specific behaviors (e.g. forward walking, turning, grooming, courtship, etc.), and quantify the dynamics of transitions between behaviors.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Berman |first1=Gordon J. |last2=Choi |first2=Daniel M. |last3=Bialek |first3=William |last4=Shaevitz |first4=Joshua W. |date=2014-10-06 |title=Mapping the stereotyped behaviour of freely moving fruit flies |journal=Journal of the Royal Society Interface |language=en |volume=11 |issue=99 |pages=20140672 |doi=10.1098/rsif.2014.0672 |issn=1742-5689 |pmc=4233753 |pmid=25142523}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tillmann |first1=Jens F. |last2=Hsu |first2=Alexander I. |last3=Schwarz |first3=Martin K. |last4=Yttri |first4=Eric A. |date=April 2024 |title=A-SOiD, an active-learning platform for expert-guided, data-efficient discovery of behavior |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41592-024-02200-1 |journal=Nature Methods |language=en |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=703–711 |doi=10.1038/s41592-024-02200-1 |pmid=38383746 |issn=1548-7105}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Goodwin |first1=Nastacia L. |last2=Choong |first2=Jia J. |last3=Hwang |first3=Sophia |last4=Pitts |first4=Kayla |last5=Bloom |first5=Liana |last6=Islam |first6=Aasiya |last7=Zhang |first7=Yizhe Y. |last8=Szelenyi |first8=Eric R. |last9=Tong |first9=Xiaoyu |last10=Newman |first10=Emily L. |last11=Miczek |first11=Klaus |last12=Wright |first12=Hayden R. |last13=McLaughlin |first13=Ryan J. |last14=Norville |first14=Zane C. |last15=Eshel |first15=Neir |date=2024-05-22 |title=Simple Behavioral Analysis (SimBA) as a platform for explainable machine learning in behavioral neuroscience |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41593-024-01649-9 |journal=Nature Neuroscience |volume=27 |issue=7 |language=en |pages=1411–1424 |doi=10.1038/s41593-024-01649-9 |pmid=38778146 |pmc=11268425 |pmc-embargo-date=July 1, 2025 |issn=1546-1726}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last1=Weinreb |first1=Caleb |title=Keypoint-MoSeq: parsing behavior by linking point tracking to pose dynamics |date=2023-03-17 |language=en |doi=10.1101/2023.03.16.532307 |pmc=10055085 |pmid=36993589 |last2=Pearl |first2=Jonah |last3=Lin |first3=Sherry |last4=Osman |first4=Mohammed Abdal Monium |last5=Zhang |first5=Libby |last6=Annapragada |first6=Sidharth |last7=Conlin |first7=Eli |last8=Hoffman |first8=Red |last9=Makowska |first9=Sofia|journal=BioRxiv: The Preprint Server for Biology }}</ref>

== Other research methods ==

Computational models - Using a computer to formulate real-world problems to develop solutions.<ref>Otago, U. o., n/d. Computational Modelling. [Online] 
Available at: http://www.otago.ac.nz/courses/otago032670.pdf</ref> Although this method is often focused in computer science, it has begun to move towards other areas of study. For example, psychology is one of these areas. Computational models allow researchers in psychology to enhance their understanding of the functions and developments in nervous systems. Examples of methods include the modelling of neurons, networks and brain systems and theoretical analysis.<ref>Churchland, P. S., & Sejnowski, T. J. (2016). The computational brain. MIT press.</ref> Computational methods have a wide variety of roles including clarifying experiments, hypothesis testing and generating new insights. These techniques play an increasing role in the advancement of biological psychology.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.semcdb.2015.07.001|title = How computational models can help unlock biological systems|year = 2015|last1 = Brodland|first1 = G. Wayne|journal = Seminars in Cell & Developmental Biology|volume = 47-48|pages = 62–73|pmid = 26165820|doi-access = free}}</ref>

=== Limitations and advantages ===

Different manipulations have advantages and limitations. Neural tissue destroyed as a primary consequence of a surgery, electric shock or neurotoxin can confound the results so that the physical trauma masks changes in the fundamental neurophysiological processes of interest.
For example, when using an electrolytic probe to create a purposeful lesion in a distinct region of the rat brain, surrounding tissue can be affected: so, a change in behavior exhibited by the [[experimental group]] post-surgery is to some degree a result of damage to surrounding neural tissue, rather than by a lesion of a distinct brain region.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kirby|first1=Elizabeth D.|last2=Jensen|first2=Kelly|last3=Goosens|first3=Ki A.|last4=Kaufer|first4=Daniela|title=Stereotaxic Surgery for Excitotoxic Lesion of Specific Brain Areas in the Adult Rat|pmc=3476400|journal=Journal of Visualized Experiments|issue=65|pages=4079|doi=10.3791/4079|pmid=22847556|date=19 July 2012}}</ref><ref name="Abel and Lattal 2001"/> Most genetic manipulation techniques are also considered permanent.<ref name="Abel and Lattal 2001"/> Temporary lesions can be achieved with advanced in genetic manipulations, for example, certain genes can now be switched on and off with diet.<ref name="Abel and Lattal 2001"/> Pharmacological manipulations also allow blocking of certain neurotransmitters temporarily as the function returns to its previous state after the drug has been metabolized.<ref name="Abel and Lattal 2001">{{Cite journal | doi=10.1016/s0959-4388(00)00194-x| title=Molecular mechanisms of memory acquisition, consolidation and retrieval| year=2001| last1=Abel| first1=Ted| last2=Lattal| first2=K.Matthew| journal=Current Opinion in Neurobiology| volume=11| issue=2| pages=180–187| pmid=11301237| s2cid=23766473}}</ref>

== Topic areas ==
[[File:Experimental setup for noninvasive theta-burst stimulation of the human striatum to enhance striatal activity and motor skill learning.webp|thumb|Experimental setup for noninvasive theta-burst stimulation of the human striatum to enhance striatal activity and motor skill learning.]]
In general, behavioral neuroscientists study various neuronal and biological processes underlying behavior,<ref name=":02">{{Citation |last=Thompson |first=R. F. |title=Behavioral Neuroscience |date=2001-01-01 |encyclopedia=International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences |pages=1118–1125 |editor-last=Smelser |editor-first=Neil J. |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B0080430767034057 |access-date=2024-10-11 |place=Oxford |publisher=Pergamon |doi=10.1016/b0-08-043076-7/03405-7 |isbn=978-0-08-043076-8 |editor2-last=Baltes |editor2-first=Paul B.|url-access=subscription }}</ref> though limited by the need to use nonhuman animals. As a result, the bulk of literature in behavioral neuroscience deals with experiences and [[mental process]]es that are shared across different animal models such as:

*[[Sensation and perception]]
*[[Motivated behavior]] (hunger, thirst, sex)
*[[Movement control|Control of movement]]
*[[Learning]] and [[memory]]
*[[Sleep]] and [[biological rhythms]]
*[[Emotion]]

However, with increasing technical sophistication and with the development of more precise noninvasive methods that can be applied to human subjects, behavioral neuroscientists are beginning to contribute to other classical topic areas of psychology, philosophy, and linguistics, such as:

*[[Language]]
*[[Reasoning]] and [[decision making]]
*[[Consciousness]]

Behavioral neuroscience has also had a strong history of contributing to the understanding of medical disorders, including those that fall under the purview of [[clinical psychology]] and [[biological psychopathology]] (also known as abnormal psychology). Although [[animal models]] do not exist for all mental illnesses, the field has contributed important therapeutic data on a variety of conditions, including:

*[[Parkinson's disease]], a degenerative disorder of the central nervous system that often impairs motor skills and speech.
*[[Huntington's disease]], a rare inherited neurological disorder whose most obvious symptoms are abnormal body movements and a lack of coordination. It also affects a number of mental abilities and some aspects of personality.
*[[Alzheimer's disease]], a neurodegenerative disease that, in its most common form, is found in people over the age of 65 and is characterized by progressive cognitive deterioration, together with declining activities of daily living and by neuropsychiatric symptoms or behavioral changes.
*[[Clinical depression]], a common psychiatric disorder, characterized by a persistent lowering of mood, loss of interest in usual activities and diminished ability to experience pleasure.
*[[Schizophrenia]], a psychiatric diagnosis that describes a mental illness characterized by impairments in the perception or expression of reality, most commonly manifesting as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions or disorganized speech and thinking in the context of significant social or occupational dysfunction.
*[[Autism]], a brain development disorder that impairs social interaction and communication, and causes restricted and repetitive behavior, all starting before a child is three years old.
*[[Anxiety]], a physiological state characterized by cognitive, somatic, emotional, and behavioral components. These components combine to create the feelings that are typically recognized as fear, apprehension, or worry.
*[[Drug abuse]], including [[alcoholism]].

=== Research on topic areas ===

==== Cognition ====
[[File:High Resolution FMRI of the Human Brain.gif|thumb|High resolution [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]] of the human brain. ]]
Behavioral neuroscientists conduct research on various cognitive processes through the use of different [[neuroimaging]] techniques. Examples of cognitive research might involve examination of neural correlates during emotional information processing, such as one study that analyzed the relationship between subjective affect and neural reactivity during sustained processing of positive ([[savoring]]) and negative ([[Rumination (psychology)|rumination]]) emotion. The aim of the study was to analyze whether repetitive positive thinking (seen as being beneficial) and repetitive negative thinking (significantly related to worse mental health) would have similar underlying neural mechanisms. Researchers found that the individuals who had a more intense positive affect during savoring, were also the same individuals who had a more intense negative affect during rumination. [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|fMRI]] data showed similar activations in brain regions during both rumination and savoring, suggesting shared neural mechanisms between the two types of repetitive thinking. The results of the study suggest there are similarities, both subjectively and mechanistically, with repetitive thinking about positive and negative emotions. This overall suggests shared neural mechanisms by which sustained emotional processing of both positive and negative information occurs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Brandeis |first1=Benjamin O. |last2=Siegle |first2=Greg J. |last3=Franzen |first3=Peter |last4=Soehner |first4=Adriane |last5=Hasler |first5=Brant |last6=McMakin |first6=Dana |last7=Young |first7=Kym |last8=Buysse |first8=Daniel J. |date=2023-12-01 |title=Subjective and neural reactivity during savoring and rumination |journal=Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience |language=en |volume=23 |issue=6 |pages=1568–1580 |doi=10.3758/s13415-023-01123-2 |issn=1531-135X |pmc=10684651 |pmid=37726588}}</ref>

==== Stress ====
Research within the field of behavioral neuroscience involves looking at the complex neuroanatomy underlying different emotional processes, such as [[stress (biology)|stress]]. Godoy et al. (2018) did so by providing an in-depth analyzation of the neurobiological underpinnings of the stress response. The article features on an overview on the historical development of stress research and its importance leading up to research related to both physical and psychological stressors today. The authors explored various significators of stress and their corresponding neuroanatomical processing, along with the temporal dynamics of both acute and chronic stress and its effects on the brain. Overall, the article provides a comprehensive scientific overview of stress through a neurobiological lens, highlighting the importance of our current knowledge in stress-related research areas today.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Godoy |first=Lívea Dornela |last2=Rossignoli |first2=Matheus Teixeira |last3=Delfino-Pereira |first3=Polianna |last4=Garcia-Cairasco |first4=Norberto |last5=de Lima Umeoka |first5=Eduardo Henrique |date=2018-07-03 |title=A Comprehensive Overview on Stress Neurobiology: Basic Concepts and Clinical Implications |url=https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/behavioral-neuroscience/articles/10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00127/full |journal=Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience |language=en |volume=12 |doi=10.3389/fnbeh.2018.00127 |issn=1662-5153 |pmc=6043787 |pmid=30034327 |doi-access=free}}</ref> 

== Awards ==
'''Nobel Laureates'''

The following [[Nobel Prize]] winners could reasonably be considered behavioral neuroscientists or neurobiologists.{{By whom|date=October 2017}} (This list omits winners who were almost exclusively [[neuroanatomy|neuroanatomists]] or [[neurophysiology|neurophysiologists]]; i.e., those that did not measure behavioral or neurobiological variables.)

{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
*[[Charles Sherrington]] (1932)
*[[Edgar Adrian]] (1932)
*[[Walter Rudolf Hess|Walter Hess]] (1949)
*[[Egas Moniz]] (1949)
*[[Georg von Békésy]] (1961)
*[[George Wald]] (1967)
*[[Ragnar Granit]] (1967)
*[[Konrad Lorenz]] (1973)
*[[Niko Tinbergen]] (1973)
*[[Karl von Frisch]] (1973)
*[[Roger W. Sperry]] (1981)
*[[David H. Hubel]] (1981)
*[[Torsten N. Wiesel]] (1981)
*[[Eric R. Kandel]] (2000)
*[[Arvid Carlsson]] (2000)
*[[Richard Axel]] (2004)
*[[Linda B. Buck]] (2004)
*[[John O'Keefe (neuroscientist)|John O'Keefe]] (2014)
*[[Edvard Moser]] (2014)
*[[May-Britt Moser]] (2014)
}}

'''[[Kavli Prize]] in Neuroscience'''
*[[Ann Graybiel]] (1942)
*[[Cornelia Bargmann]] (1961)
*[[Winfried Denk]] (1957)

==See also==

{{columns-list|colwidth=30em|
* [[Affective neuroscience]]
* [[Behavioral genetics]]
* [[Biological psychiatry]]
* [[Biology]]
* [[Biosemiotics]]
* [[Cognitive neuroscience]]
* [[Developmental psychobiology]]
* [[Epigenetics in psychology]]
* [[Evolutionary psychology]]
* [[Models of abnormality]]
* [[Neurobiology]]
* [[Neuroethology]]
* [[Outline of brain mapping]]
* [[Outline of psychology]]
* [[Outline of the human brain]]
* [[Physical anthropology]]
* [[Psychoneuroimmunology]]
* [[Psychopharmacology]]
* [[Psychophysics]]
* [[Social neuroscience]]
* [[Neuroscience]]
}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|biologicalpsychology.ogg|date=2006-12-18}}
*[http://www.biopsychology.com/news/ Biological Psychology Links]
* [http://homepage.uibk.ac.at/~c720126/humanethologie/ws/medicus/block1/inhalt.html Theory of Biological Psychology (Documents No. 9 and 10 in English)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130425202653/http://ibro.info/ IBRO (International Brain Research Organization)]

{{Neuroscience}}
{{Psychology}}
{{Social sciences}}
{{Evolutionary psychology}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Behavioral Neuroscience}}
[[Category:Behavioral neuroscience| ]]
[[Category:Neuropsychology]]
[[Category:Psychoneuroimmunology]]