View source for Coconut

{{Short description|Species of plant in the palm family}}
{{About|the plant}}
{{redirect|Coconut tree|other uses|Coconut Tree (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Grated coconut|the Pro-Rodeo Hall of Fame bucking horse|Grated Coconut (horse)}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2014}}
{{Use American English|date=July 2020}}
{{Speciesbox
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|55|0}}<small>Early [[Eocene]] – Recent</small>
| image = Cocos_nucifera_-_Köhler–s_Medizinal-Pflanzen-187.jpg
| image_alt = Composite drawing of tree, and its fruit in various stages
| image_caption = 
| image2 = Coconut 4.jpg
| image2_alt = Two coconuts on vines
| image2_caption = 
| display_parents = 4
| genus = Cocos
| parent_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
| species = nucifera
| authority = L.
| synonyms =
* ''Coccus'' {{Au|Mill.}}
* ''Calappa'' {{Au|Steck}}
* ''Coccos'' {{Au|Gaertn.}}
| synonyms_ref = <ref name="WCSP">{{cite web|url=http://wcsp.science.kew.org/synonomy.do?name_id=44568|title=''Cocos'' L., Sp. Pl.: 1188 (1753)|date=2022|work=[[World Checklist of Selected Plant Families]]|publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]]|access-date=29 May 2022|archive-date=May 29, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220529151328/http://wcsp.science.kew.org/synonomy.do?name_id=44568|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| range_map = Cocos nucifera origin native range map.svg
| range_map_caption = Possible native range prior to [[crop domestication|domestication]]
}}

The '''coconut tree''' ('''''Cocos nucifera''''') is a member of the [[palm tree]] [[family (biology)|family]] ([[Arecaceae]]) and the only living [[species]] of the [[genus]] ''Cocos''.<ref name="WCSP"/> The term "'''coconut'''" (or the archaic "'''cocoanut'''")<ref name="COD">{{Cite encyclopedia| title=Coconut|encyclopedia=[[Concise Oxford Dictionary]]|editor=Pearsall, J. | year=1999 |edition= 10th| location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press| isbn=0-19-860287-1}}</ref> can refer to the whole '''coconut palm''', the [[seed]], or the [[fruit]], which botanically is a [[drupe]], not a [[Nut (fruit)|nut]]. Originally native to [[Central Indo-Pacific]], they are now ubiquitous in coastal tropical regions and are a cultural icon of the [[tropics]].

The coconut tree provides food, fuel, cosmetics, folk medicine and building materials, among many other uses. The inner flesh of the mature seed, as well as the [[coconut milk]] extracted from it, forms a regular part of the diets of many people in the tropics and [[subtropics]]. Coconuts are distinct from other fruits because their [[endosperm]] contains a large quantity of an almost clear liquid, called "[[coconut water]]" or "coconut juice". Mature, ripe coconuts can be used as edible seeds, or processed for [[Coconut oil|oil]] and [[Coconut milk|plant milk]] from the flesh, [[charcoal]] from the hard shell, and [[coir]] from the fibrous [[husk]]. Dried coconut flesh is called [[copra]], and the oil and milk derived from it are commonly used in cooking{{Snd}}[[frying]] in particular{{Snd}}as well as in [[soap]]s and [[cosmetics]]. Sweet coconut sap can be made into drinks or fermented into [[palm wine]] or [[coconut vinegar]]. The hard shells, fibrous husks and long pinnate leaves can be used as material to make a variety of products for [[furnishing]] and decoration.

The coconut has cultural and religious significance in certain societies, particularly in the [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] cultures of the [[Western Pacific Ocean|Western Pacific]] where it is featured in their mythologies, songs, and oral traditions. The fall of its mature fruit has led to a preoccupation with [[death by coconut]].<ref name="Nayar"/><ref>{{Cite book|last=Michaels, Axel.|title=Hinduism : past and present|year=2006|orig-year=2004|publisher=Orient Longman|isbn=81-250-2776-9|oclc=398164072}}</ref> It also had ceremonial importance in pre-colonial [[animistic]] religions.<ref name="Nayar">{{cite book |last1=Nayar |first1=N Madhavan |title=The Coconut: Phylogeny, Origins, and Spread |date=2017 |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |isbn=978-0-12-809778-6 |pages=10–21}}</ref><ref name="Lew">{{cite journal |last1=Lew |first1=Christopher |title=Tracing the origin of the coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) |url=https://prizedwriting.ucdavis.edu/sites/prizedwriting.ucdavis.edu/files/sitewide/Tracing%20the%20origin%20of%20the%20coconut%20%28Cocos%20nucifera%20L.%29.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Prized Writing 2018–2019 |publisher=[[University of California, Davis]] |pages=143–157 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210623220429/https://prizedwriting.ucdavis.edu/sites/prizedwriting.ucdavis.edu/files/sitewide/Tracing%20the%20origin%20of%20the%20coconut%20%28Cocos%20nucifera%20L.%29.pdf |archive-date=June 23, 2021 |access-date=April 22, 2021}}</ref> It has also acquired religious significance in [[South Asia]]n cultures, where it is used in [[ritual]]s of [[Hindu]]ism. It forms the basis of wedding and worship rituals in Hinduism. It also plays a central role in the [[Coconut Religion]] founded in 1963 in [[Vietnam]].

Coconuts were first [[crop domestication|domesticated]] by the [[Austronesian peoples]] in [[Island Southeast Asia]] and were spread during the [[Neolithic]] via their [[Austronesian expansion|seaborne migrations]] as far east as the [[Pacific Islands]], and as far west as [[Madagascar]] and the [[Comoros]]. They played a critical role in the long sea voyages of Austronesians by providing a portable source of food and water, as well as providing building materials for Austronesian [[outrigger boat]]s. Coconuts were also later spread in historic times along the coasts of the [[Indian Ocean|Indian]] and [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] [[Ocean|Oceans]] by [[South Asia]]n, [[Arab people|Arab]], and [[Age of Discovery|European]] sailors. Based on these separate introductions, coconut populations can still be divided into Pacific coconuts and Indo-Atlantic coconuts, respectively. Coconuts were introduced by Europeans to the [[Americas]] during the [[European colonization of the Americas|colonial era]] in the [[Columbian exchange]], but there is evidence of a possible [[pre-Columbian]] introduction of Pacific coconuts to [[Panama]] by Austronesian sailors. The evolutionary origin of the coconut is under dispute, with theories stating that it may have evolved in [[Asia]], South America, or Pacific islands.

Trees can grow up to {{convert|30|m|ft|sigfig=1|abbr=off}} tall and can yield up to 75 fruits per year, though fewer than 30 is more typical. Plants are intolerant to cold and prefer copious precipitation and full sunlight. Many insect pests and diseases affect the species and are a nuisance for commercial production. In 2022, about 73% of the world's supply of coconuts was produced by [[Indonesia]], [[India]], and the [[Philippines]].

== Description ==
[[File:Coconut tree leave.jpeg|thumb|Coconut palm leaves]]

''Cocos nucifera'' is a large palm, growing up to {{convert|30|m|ft|abbr=off|sigfig=1}} tall, with [[pinnate]] leaves {{convert|4|-|6|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} long, and pinnae {{convert|60|-|90|cm|ft|0}} long; old leaves break away cleanly, leaving the [[trunk (botany)|trunk]] smooth.<ref name="Pradeepkumar">{{cite book |last1= Pradeepkumar |first1= T. |last2=Sumajyothibhaskar |first2=B. |last3= Satheesan |first3= K.N. |year= 2008 |title= Management of Horticultural Crops |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=VHmokNZXbHUC&pg=PA539 |series=[[Horticulture Science Series]]|volume=11, 2nd of 2 Parts |publisher=[[New India Publishing]]|pages= 539–587 |isbn=978-81-89422-49-3}}</ref> On fertile soil, a tall coconut palm tree can yield up to 75 [[fruit]]s per year, but more often yields less than 30.<ref name="Grimwood18">[[#Grimwood|Grimwood]], p. 18.</ref><ref name="Sarian">{{cite news |last= Sarian |first= Zac B. |date= 18 August 2010 |title=New coconut yields high |url=http://www.mb.com.ph/articles/272929/new-coconut-yields-high |work=The [[Manila Bulletin]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119033447/http://mb.com.ph/articles/272929/new-coconut-yields-high |archive-date= 19 November 2011 |access-date=  21 April 2011}}</ref><ref name="Ravi">{{cite news |last= Ravi |first= Rajesh |date=16 March 2009 |title=Rise in coconut yield, farming area put India on top |url=http://www.financialexpress.com/news/rise-in-coconut-yield-farming-area-put-india-on-top/434818/0 |work=The [[The Financial Express (India)|Financial Express]]|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130515043307/http://www.financialexpress.com/news/rise-in-coconut-yield-farming-area-put-india-on-top/434818/0 |archive-date= 15 May 2013 |access-date=21 April 2011}}</ref> Given proper care and growing conditions, coconut palms produce their first fruit in six to ten years, taking 15 to 20 years to reach peak production.<ref>{{cite web |title=How Long Does It Take for a Coconut Tree to Get Coconuts? |url=http://homeguides.sfgate.com/long-coconut-tree-coconuts-84353.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113173755/http://homeguides.sfgate.com/long-coconut-tree-coconuts-84353.html |archive-date=November 13, 2014 |work=[[Home Guides – SF Gate]]|date=August 20, 2013 |df=mdy-all}}</ref>

True-to-type [[dwarf plant|dwarf]] varieties of Pacific coconuts have been cultivated by the [[Austronesian peoples]] since ancient times. These varieties were selected for slower growth, sweeter coconut water, and often brightly colored fruits.<ref name="lebrun2013">{{cite book |last1=Lebrun |first1=P. |title=Current Advances in Coconut Biotechnology |last2=Grivet |first2=L. |last3=Baudouin |first3=L. |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]]|year=2013 |isbn=978-94-015-9283-3 |editor1-last=Oropeza |editor1-first=C. |pages=83–85 |chapter=Use of RFLP markers to study the diversity of the coconut palm |editor2-last=Verdeil |editor2-first=J.K. |editor3-last=Ashburner |editor3-first=G.R. |editor4-last=Cardeña |editor4-first=R. |editor5-last=Santamaria |editor5-first=J.M.}}</ref> Many modern varieties are also grown, including the [[Maypan coconut palm|Maypan]], [[King coconut|King]], and [[Macapuno]]. These vary by the taste of the coconut water and color of the fruit, as well as other genetic factors.<ref>{{cite web |title=Coconut Varieties |url=http://www.floridagardener.com/palms/coconutpalm.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020105211/http://www.floridagardener.com/palms/coconutpalm.htm |archive-date=October 20, 2015 |access-date=19 May 2016 |publisher=floridagardener.com |df=mdy-all}}</ref>

===Fruit===
{{multiple image
| align             = right
| direction         = vertical
| width             = 250
| header            =
| image1            = Cocos nucifera (coconut) 5 (38507429165).jpg
| alt1              = Cross-section of the ''niu kafa'' form of the fruits of wild and Indo-Atlantic coconuts
| caption1          = The ''niu kafa'' form of the fruits of wild and Indo-Atlantic coconuts
| image2            = Cocos nucifera (coconut) 2 (39384972311).jpg
| alt2              = Cross-section of the ''niu vai'' form of the fruits of domesticated Pacific coconuts
| caption2          = The ''niu vai'' form of the fruits of domesticated Pacific coconuts
| image3            = Exocarp of coconut.jpg
| alt3              = Exocarp of coconut.
| caption3          = Exocarp of coconut.
}}

[[Botany|Botanically]], the coconut fruit is a [[drupe]], not a [[Nut (fruit)|true nut]].<ref name="botany">{{cite web |date=December 2014 |title=Coconut botany |url=http://agritech.tnau.ac.in/horticulture/horti_pcrops_coconut_botany.html |access-date=14 December 2017 |website=Agritech Portal |publisher=[[Tamil Nadu Agricultural University]]}}</ref> Like other fruits, it has [[Fruit anatomy|three layers]]: the [[exocarp]], [[mesocarp]], and [[endocarp]]. The exocarp is the glossy outer skin, usually yellow-green to yellow-brown in color. The mesocarp is composed of a [[fiber]], called [[coir]], which has many traditional and commercial uses. Both the exocarp and the mesocarp make up the "husk" of the coconut, while the endocarp makes up the hard coconut "shell". The endocarp is around {{convert|4|mm|in|abbr=off|frac=8}} thick and has three distinctive [[germination]] pores ([[Micropyle (botany)|micropyle]]s) on the distal end. Two of the pores are plugged (the "eyes"), while one is functional.<ref name="Ledo">{{cite journal |last1=Lédo |first1=Ana da Silva |last2=Passos |first2=Edson Eduardo Melo |last3=Fontes |first3=Humberto Rolemberg |last4=Ferreira |first4=Joana Maria Santos |last5=Talamini |first5=Viviane |last6=Vendrame |first6=Wagner A. |last7=Lédo |first7=Ana da Silva |last8=Passos |first8=Edson Eduardo Melo |last9=Fontes |first9=Humberto Rolemberg |last10=Ferreira |first10=Joana Maria Santos |last11=Talamini |first11=Viviane |date=2019 |title=Advances in Coconut palm propagation |journal=[[Revista Brasileira de Fruticultura]]|volume=41 |issue=2 |doi=10.1590/0100-29452019159 |doi-access=free |last12=Vendrame |first12=Wagner A.|issn = 0100-2945}}</ref><ref name="Armstrong">{{cite web |last1=Armstrong |first1=W.P. |title=Edible Palm Fruits |url=https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/ecoph10.htm |access-date=20 April 2021 |website=Wayne's Word: An On-Line Textbook of Natural History |publisher=[[Palomar College]] |archive-date=September 2, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902172839/https://www2.palomar.edu/users/warmstrong/ecoph10.htm |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:JfBohol7038naturefvf 39.JPG|thumb|Palm heavy with fruit]]

The interior of the endocarp is hollow and is lined with a thin brown [[seed coat]] around {{convert|0.2|mm|in|abbr=on|frac=64}} thick. The endocarp is initially filled with a multinucleate liquid [[endosperm]] (the [[coconut water]]). As development continues, cellular layers of endosperm deposit along the walls of the endocarp up to {{convert|11|mm|in|abbr=on|frac=8}} thick, starting at the distal end. They eventually form the edible solid endosperm (the "coconut meat" or "coconut flesh") which hardens over time. The small cylindrical [[plant embryo|embryo]] is embedded in the solid endosperm directly below the functional pore of the endosperm. During germination, the embryo pushes out of the functional pore and forms a [[haustorium]] (the [[coconut sprout]]) inside the central cavity. The haustorium absorbs the solid endosperm to nourish the seedling.<ref name="Ledo" /><ref name="duke">{{cite web |date=1983 |title=''Cocos nucifera'' L. (Source: James A. Duke. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops; unpublished) |url=http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Cocos_nucifera.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150603080303/http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Cocos_nucifera.html |archive-date=June 3, 2015 |access-date=4 June 2015 |publisher=[[Purdue University]], NewCROP – New Crop Resource |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref name="Sugimuma">{{cite journal |last1=Sugimuma |first1=Yukio |last2=Murakami |first2=Taka |date=1990 |title=Structure and Function of the Haustorim in Germinating Coconut Palm Seed |url=https://www.jircas.go.jp/sites/default/files/publication/jarq/24-1-001-014_0.pdf |journal=[[JARQ]]|volume=24 |pages=1–14}}</ref>

Coconut fruits have two distinctive forms depending on {{Slink||domestication}}. Wild coconuts feature an elongated triangular fruit with a thicker husk and a smaller amount of endosperm. These allow the fruits to be more buoyant and make it easier for them to lodge into sandy shorelines, making their shape ideal for ocean dispersal.<ref name="Lebrun" /><ref name="Shukla" /><ref name="Lutz" />
Domesticated Pacific coconuts, on the other hand, are rounded in shape with a thinner husk and a larger amount of endosperm. Domesticated coconuts also contain more [[coconut water]].<ref name="Lebrun" /><ref name="Shukla" /><ref name="Lutz" />
These two forms are referred to by the [[Samoan language|Samoan]] terms '''''niu kafa''''' for the elongated wild coconuts, and '''''niu vai''''' for the rounded domesticated Pacific coconuts.<ref name="Lebrun" /><ref name="Shukla" /><ref name="Lutz" />

A full-sized coconut fruit weighs about {{convert|1.4|kg|lboz|abbr=off}}. Coconuts sold domestically in coconut-producing countries are typically not de-husked. Especially immature coconuts (6 to 8 months from flowering) are sold for coconut water and softer jelly-like coconut meat (known as "green coconuts", "young coconuts", or "water coconuts"), where the original coloration of the fruit is more aesthetically pleasing.<ref name="Paull">{{cite book |last1=Paull |first1=Robert E. |url=https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/F_N-45.pdf |title=Coconut: Postharvest Quality-Maintenance Guidelines |last2=Ketsa |first2=Saichol |date=March 2015 |publisher=College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, [[University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa]]}}</ref><ref name="postharvest">{{cite book |url=http://agriculture.gov.gy/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/Coconut.pdf |title=Coconut: Postharvest Care and Market Preparation |date=May 2004 |publisher=[[Ministry of Fisheries, Crops and Livestock]], [[New Guyana Marketing Corporation]], [[National Agricultural Research Institute]] |series=Technical Bulletin No. 27}}</ref>

Whole mature coconuts (11 to 13 months from flowering) sold for export, however, typically have the husk removed to reduce weight and volume for transport. This results in the naked coconut "shell" with three pores more familiar in countries where coconuts are not grown locally. De-husked coconuts typically weigh around {{convert|750|to|850|g|lboz}}. {{nowrap|De-husked}} coconuts are also easier for consumers to open, but have a shorter postharvest storage life of around two to three weeks at temperatures of {{convert|12|to|15|°C|°F|abbr=on}} or up to 2 months at {{convert|0|to|1.5|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. In comparison, mature coconuts with the husk intact can be stored for three to five months at normal room temperature .<ref name="Paull" /><ref name="postharvest" />

===Roots===
Unlike some other plants, the [[palm tree]] has neither a [[taproot]] nor [[root hair]]s, but has a [[fibrous root system]].<ref name="pk">Thampan, P.K. (1981). ''Handbook on Coconut Palm''. Oxford & [[IBH Publishing Co.]]</ref> The root system consists of an abundance of thin roots that grow outward from the plant near the surface. Only a few of the roots penetrate deep into the soil for stability. This type of root system is known as fibrous or adventitious, and is a characteristic of grass species. Other types of large trees produce a single downward-growing tap root with a number of feeder roots growing from it. 2,000–4,000 [[adventitious root]]s may grow, each about {{convert|1|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} large. Decayed roots are replaced regularly as the tree grows new ones.<ref name="agro">{{cite book |date=April 2006 |editor=Elevitch, C.R. |chapter=''Cocos nucifera'' (coconut), version 2.1 |url=http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020005217/http://agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf |archive-date=October 20, 2013 |access-date=22 December 2016 |title=Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry|publisher=[[Permanent Agriculture Resources]]|location=[[Hōlualoa]], Hawai‘i|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

===Inflorescence===
[[File:Cocos nucifera (11124377083).jpg|thumb|Inflorescence unfurling]]
The palm produces both the female and male [[flower]]s on the same [[inflorescence]]; thus, the palm is [[monoecious]].<ref name="pk" /> However, there is some evidence that it may be [[polygamomonoecious]] and may occasionally have bisexual flowers.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Willmer |first=Pat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UVGi6W8QdO4C&pg=PA57 |title=Pollination and Floral Ecology |date=2011-07-25 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-12861-0 |pages=57 |language=en}}</ref> The female flower is much larger than the male flower. Flowering occurs continuously. Coconut palms are believed to be largely cross-[[pollination|pollinated]], although most dwarf varieties are self-pollinating.<ref name="Lutz" />

== Taxonomy ==
===Phylogeny===
<!--"Cocos intertrappeansis" redirects here.-->
[[File:Miocene coconut.jpg|thumb|Fossil ''[[Cocos zeylandica]]'' from the [[Miocene]] of [[New Zealand]], approximately the size of a [[strawberry]] at {{convert|3.5|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} long|alt=Small blackened fossil]]
The [[evolutionary history]] and [[fossil]] distribution of ''Cocos nucifera'' and other members of the tribe [[Cocoseae]] is more ambiguous than modern-day dispersal and distribution, with its ultimate origin and pre-human dispersal still unclear. There are currently two major viewpoints on the origins of the genus ''Cocos'', one in the Indo-Pacific, and another in South America.<ref name="Srivastava2014">{{cite journal |last1=Srivastava |first1=Rashmi |last2=Srivastava |first2=Gaurav |date=2014 |title=Fossil fruit of ''Cocos'' L. (Arecaceae) from Maastrichtian-Danian sediments of central India and its phytogeographical significance |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/261107861 |journal=[[Acta Palaeobotanica]]|volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=67–75 |doi=10.2478/acpa-2014-0003 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Nayar2016">{{cite book |author=Nayar, N. Madhavan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pWEuDAAAQBAJ |title=The Coconut: Phylogeny, Origins, and Spread |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-12-809779-3 |pages=51–66}}</ref> The vast majority of ''Cocos''-like fossils have been recovered generally from only two regions in the world: [[New Zealand]] and west-central [[India]]. However, like most palm fossils, ''Cocos''-like fossils are still putative, as they are usually difficult to identify.<ref name="Nayar2016" />
The earliest ''Cocos''-like fossil to be found was ''[[Cocos zeylandica]]'', a fossil species described as small fruits, around {{convert|3.5|cm|in|frac=4|abbr=on}} × {{convert|1.3|to|2.5|cm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}} in size, recovered from the [[Miocene]] (~23 to 5.3 million years ago) of [[New Zealand]] in 1926. Since then, numerous other fossils of similar fruits were recovered throughout New Zealand from the [[Eocene]], [[Oligocene]], and possibly the [[Holocene]]. But research on them is still ongoing to determine their phylogenetic affinities.<ref name="Nayar2016" /><ref name="Conran2015">{{cite journal|publisher=The [[Linnean Society]]|last1=Conran |first1=John G. |last2=Bannister |first2=Jennifer M. |last3=Lee |first3=Daphne E. |last4=Carpenter |first4=Raymond J. |last5=Kennedy |first5=Elizabeth M. |last6=Reichgelt |first6=Tammo |last7=Fordyce |first7=R. Ewan |date=2015 |title=An update of monocot macrofossil data from New Zealand and Australia |journal=[[Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society]]|volume=178 |issue=3 |pages=394–420 |doi=10.1111/boj.12284 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Endt & Hayward (1997) have noted their resemblance to members of the South American genus ''[[Parajubaea]]'', rather than ''Cocos'', and propose a South American origin.<ref name="Nayar2016" /><ref name="Endt1997">{{cite journal |last1=Endt |first1=D. |last2=Hayward |first2=B. |date=1997 |title=Modern relatives of New Zealand's fossil coconuts from high altitude South America |journal=[[New Zealand Geological Society Newsletter]]|volume=113 |pages=67–70}}</ref><ref name="Hayward2012">{{cite journal |last1=Hayward |first1=Bruce |date=2012 |title=Fossil Oligocene coconut from Northland |journal=[[Geocene]]|volume=7 |issue=13}}</ref> Conran ''et al.'' (2015), however, suggests that their diversity in New Zealand indicate that they evolved endemically, rather than being introduced to the islands by long-distance dispersal.<ref name="Conran2015" /> In west-central India, numerous fossils of ''Cocos''-like fruits, leaves, and stems have been recovered from the [[Deccan Traps]]. They include [[morphotaxa]] like ''[[Palmoxylon sundaran]]'', ''[[Palmoxylon insignae]]'', and ''[[Palmocarpon cocoides]]''. ''Cocos''-like fossils of fruits include ''[[Cocos intertrappeansis]]'', ''[[Cocos pantii]]'', and ''[[Cocos sahnii]]''. They also include fossil fruits that have been tentatively identified as modern ''Cocos nucifera''. These include two specimens named ''[[Cocos palaeonucifera]]'' and ''[[Cocos binoriensis]]'', both dated by their authors to the [[Maastrichtian]]–[[Danian]] of the early [[Tertiary]] (70 to 62 million years ago). ''C. binoriensis'' has been claimed by their authors to be the earliest known fossil of ''Cocos nucifera''.<ref name="Srivastava2014" /><ref name="Nayar2016" /><ref name="Singh2016">{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Hukam |last2=Shukla |first2=Anumeha |last3=Mehrotra |first3=R.C. |date=2016 |title=A Fossil Coconut Fruit from the Early Eocene of Gujarat |url=http://www.geosocindia.org/index.php/jgsi/article/view/88633 |journal=[[Journal of Geological Society of India]]|volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=268–270 |doi=10.1007/s12594-016-0394-9 |bibcode=2016JGSI...87..268S |access-date=10 January 2019 |s2cid=131318482|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Outside of New Zealand and India, only two other regions have reported ''Cocos''-like fossils, namely [[Australia]] and [[Colombia]]. In Australia, a ''Cocos''-like fossil fruit, measuring {{convert|10|x|9.5|cm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}}, were recovered from the Chinchilla Sand Formation dated to the latest [[Pliocene]] or basal [[Pleistocene]]. Rigby (1995) assigned them to modern ''Cocos nucifera'' based on its size.<ref name="Srivastava2014" /><ref name="Nayar2016" /> In Colombia, a single ''Cocos''-like fruit was recovered from the [[Paleocene|middle to late Paleocene]] [[Cerrejón Formation]]. The fruit, however, was compacted in the fossilization process and it was not possible to determine if it had the diagnostic three pores that characterize members of the tribe [[Cocoseae]]. Nevertheless, Gomez-Navarro ''et al.'' (2009), assigned it to ''Cocos'' based on the size and the ridged shape of the fruit.<ref name="Gomez-Navarro2009">{{cite journal |last1=Gomez-Navarro |first1=Carolina |last2=Jaramillo |first2=Carlos |last3=Herrera |first3=Fabiany |last4=Wing |first4=Scott L. |last5=Callejas |first5=Ricardo |date=2009 |title=Palms (Arecaceae) from a Paleocene rainforest of northern Colombia |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]]|volume=96 |issue=7 |pages=1300–1312 |doi=10.3732/ajb.0800378 |pmid=21628279}}</ref>

Further complicating measures to determine the evolutionary history of ''Cocos'' is the genetic diversity present within ''C. nucifera'' as well as its relatedness to other palms. Phylogenetic evidence supports the closest relatives of ''Cocos'' being either ''[[Syagrus (plant)|Syagrus]]'' or ''[[Attalea (plant)|Attalea]]'', both of which are found in South America. However, ''Cocos'' is not thought to be indigenous to South America, and the highest genetic diversity is present in Asian ''Cocos'', indicating that at least the modern species ''Cocos nucifera'' is native to there''.'' In addition, fossils of potential ''Cocos'' ancestors have been recovered from both Colombia and India. In order to resolve this enigma, a 2014 study proposed that the ancestors of ''Cocos'' had likely originated on the [[Caribbean]] coast of what is now Colombia, and during the [[Eocene]] the ancestral ''Cocos'' performed a long-distance dispersal across the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to [[North Africa]]. From here, island-hopping via [[Atoll|coral atolls]] lining the [[Tethys Ocean|Tethys Sea]], potentially boosted by ocean currents at the time, would have proved crucial to dispersal, eventually allowing ancestral coconuts to reach India. The study contended that an adaptation to coral atolls would explain the prehistoric and modern distributions of ''Cocos'', would have provided the necessary evolutionary pressures, and would account for morphological factors such as a thick husk to protect against ocean degradation and provide a moist medium in which to germinate on sparse atolls.<ref name="Harries-2014">{{Cite journal |last1=Harries |first1=Hugh C. |last2=Clement |first2=Charles R. |date=2014 |title=Long-distance dispersal of the coconut palm by migration within the coral atoll ecosystem|journal=Annals of Botany|language=en |volume=113 |issue=4 |pages=565–570 |doi=10.1093/aob/mct293 |pmc=3936586 |pmid=24368197 |doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Etymology ===
The name ''coconut'' is derived from the 16th-century [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] word ''[[Coco (folklore)|coco]]'', meaning 'head' or 'skull' after the three indentations on the coconut shell that resemble facial features.<ref>{{cite book |last=Dalgado |first=Sebastião |url=https://archive.org/details/glossriolusoas00dalguoft/page/n363/mode/2up |title=Glossário luso-asiático |publisher=Coimbra, Imprensa da Universidade |year=1919 |volume=1 |page=291}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/coco |title=coco  |website=Online Etymology Dictionary|language=en |access-date=3 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/coconut |title=coconut |website=Online Etymology Dictionary|access-date=3 May 2020 }}</ref><ref name="Losada">{{cite book |last= Losada |first= Fernando Díez |year= 2004 |title= La tribuna del idioma |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=RxGv6tMX2QcC&pg=PT481 |language= es |publisher= Editorial Tecnologica de CR |page= 481 |isbn=978-9977-66-161-2}}</ref> ''Coco'' and ''coconut'' apparently came from 1521 encounters by [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] and [[Spanish people|Spanish]] explorers with [[Pacific Islander]]s, with the coconut shell reminding them of a [[ghost]] or [[witch]]<!-- Is "witch" said in Losada and Figueiredo citations? --> in Portuguese folklore called ''[[Coco (folklore)|coco]]'' (also ''côca'').<ref name="Losada" /><ref>{{cite book |last= Figueiredo |first= Cândido |year= 1940 |title= Pequeno Dicionário da Lingua Portuguesa |language= pt |location= Lisbon |publisher= Livraria Bertrand }}</ref> In the West it was originally called ''nux indica'', a name used by [[Marco Polo]] in 1280 while in [[Sumatra]]. He took the term from the Arabs, who called it جوز هندي ''jawz hindī'', translating to 'Indian nut'.<ref name="Elzabroek">{{Cite book |last=Elzebroek |first=A. T. G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YvU1XnUVxFQC&pg=PA186 |title=Guide to Cultivated Plants |date=2008 |publisher=CABI |isbn=978-1-84593-356-2 |pages=186–192 |language=en}}</ref> ''Thenga'', its [[Tamil language|Tamil]]/[[Malayalam]] name, was used in the detailed description of coconut found in ''[[Itinerario]]'' by [[Ludovico di Varthema]] published in 1510 and also in the later ''[[Hortus Indicus Malabaricus]]''.<ref name="Grimwood1">[[#Grimwood|Grimwood]], p. 1.</ref>

[[Carl Linnaeus]] first wanted to name the coconut genus ''Coccus'' from [[latin]]izing the Portuguese word ''coco'', because he saw works by other botanists in middle of the 17th century use the name as well. He consulted the catalogue ''Herbarium Amboinense'' by [[Georg Eberhard Rumphius]] where Rumphius said that ''coccus'' was a [[homonym]] of ''coccum'' and ''coccus'' from [[Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|el|κόκκος}} ''kokkos'' meaning "grain"<ref name="Liddel">{{cite web|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dko%2Fkkos |title=κόκκος |last1=Liddell |first1=Henry George |last2=Scott |first2=Robert |work=A Greek-English Lexicon |publisher=[[Perseus Digital Library]]|date= 1940 }}</ref> or "berry", but [[Roman people|Romans]] identified ''coccus'' with "[[Kermes (insect)|kermes insects]]"; Rumphius preferred the word ''cocus'' as a replacement. However, the word ''cocus'' could also mean "cook" like ''coquus'' in Latin,<ref>{{cite dictionary |url= https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0059:entry=coquus |title= cŏquus |last1= Lewis |first1= Charlton T. |last2= Short |first2= Charles |dictionary= A Latin Dictionary |edition= |publisher=[[Perseus Digital Library]]|date = 1879 }}</ref> so Linnaeus chose ''Cocos'' directly from the Portuguese word ''coco'' instead.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Furtado |first1=C. X. |title=On The Etymology Of The Word Cocos |journal=[[Principes (journal)|Principes]]|date=1964 |volume=8 |pages=107–112 |url=https://palms.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/v8n3p107-112.pdf |via= International Palm Society |access-date=5 November 2022}}</ref>

The [[specific name (botany)|specific name]] ''nucifera'' is derived from the [[Latin]] words ''nux'' (nut) and ''fera'' (bearing), for 'nut-bearing'.<ref>{{cite web |title=National Flower – Nelumbo nucifera |url=http://bsienvis.nic.in/files/National%20Flower_Nelumbo%20nucifera_26.9.14.pdf |access-date=19 February 2021 |publisher=ENVIS Resource Partner on Biodiversity}}</ref>

==Distribution and habitat==

Coconuts have a nearly [[cosmopolitan distribution]] due to human cultivation and dispersal. However, their original distribution was in the [[Central Indo-Pacific]], in the regions of [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] and [[Melanesia]].<ref name="Perera"/>

===Origin===
{{See also|Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia|Austronesian peoples|Genomics of domestication}}
[[File:Chronological dispersal of Austronesian people across the Pacific (per Benton et al, 2012, adapted from Bellwood, 2011).png|thumb|400px|Chronological dispersal of [[Austronesian peoples]] across the [[Indo-Pacific]]<ref name="Chambers2013">{{cite book |last1=Chambers |first1=Geoff |title=eLS |date=2013 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc. |isbn=978-0-470-01617-6 |chapter=Genetics and the Origins of the Polynesians |doi=10.1002/9780470015902.a0020808.pub2}}</ref><ref name="Blench2009Remap">{{cite book |author=Blench, Roger |title=Discovering History Through Language: Papers in Honour of Malcolm Ross |publisher=Pacific Linguistics |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-85883-605-1 |editor=Evans, Bethwyn |chapter=Remapping the Austronesian expansion |chapter-url=http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Austronesian/General/Blench%20Ross%20Festschrift%20paper%20revised.pdf}}</ref>|alt=Map of the Pacific and Indian oceans]]
Modern genetic studies have identified the center of origin of coconuts as being the [[Central Indo-Pacific]], the region between western [[Southeast Asia]] and [[Melanesia]], where it shows greatest genetic diversity.<ref name="Perera">{{Cite book |last1=Vollmann |first1=Johann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y_heb_lB3qoC&pg=PA370 |title=Oil Crops |last2=Rajcan |first2=Istvan |date=2009-09-18 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-0-387-77594-4 |pages=370–372 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="agro" /><ref name="Baudouin2008">{{cite journal |last1=Baudouin |first1=Luc |last2=Lebrun |first2=Patricia |date=26 July 2008 |title=Coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) DNA studies support the hypothesis of an ancient Austronesian migration from Southeast Asia to America |journal=Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=257–262 |doi=10.1007/s10722-008-9362-6 |s2cid=19529408}}</ref><ref name="Gunn2011">{{cite journal |last1=Gunn |first1=Bee F. |last2=Baudouin |first2=Luc |last3=Olsen |first3=Kenneth M. |last4=Ingvarsson |first4=Pär K. |date=22 June 2011 |title=Independent Origins of Cultivated Coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) in the Old World Tropics |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=e21143 |bibcode=2011PLoSO...621143G |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0021143 |pmc=3120816 |pmid=21731660 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Their cultivation and spread was closely tied to the early migrations of the [[Austronesian peoples]] who carried coconuts as [[canoe plants]] to the islands they settled.<ref name="Baudouin2008" /><ref name="Gunn2011" /><ref name="Crowther2016">{{cite journal |last1=Crowther |first1=Alison |last2=Lucas |first2=Leilani |last3=Helm |first3=Richard |last4=Horton |first4=Mark |last5=Shipton |first5=Ceri |last6=Wright |first6=Henry T. |last7=Walshaw |first7=Sarah |last8=Pawlowicz |first8=Matthew |last9=Radimilahy |first9=Chantal |last10=Douka |first10=Katerina |last11=Picornell-Gelabert |first11=Llorenç |date=14 June 2016 |title=Ancient crops provide first archaeological signature of the westward Austronesian expansion |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=113 |issue=24 |pages=6635–6640 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1522714113 |pmc=4914162 |pmid=27247383 |doi-access=free |last12=Fuller |first12=Dorian Q. |last13=Boivin |first13=Nicole L.|bibcode=2016PNAS..113.6635C }}</ref><ref name="Brouwers2011">{{cite web |last1=Brouwers |first1=Lucas |date=1 August 2011 |title=Coconuts: not indigenous, but quite at home nevertheless |url=https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/thoughtomics/httpblogsscientificamericancomthoughtomics20110801coconuts-not-indigenous-but-quite-at-home-nevertheless/ |access-date=10 January 2019 |website=Scientific American}}</ref> The similarities of the local names in the [[Austronesia]]n region is also cited as evidence that the plant originated in the region. For example, the [[Polynesian languages|Polynesian]] and [[Melanesian languages|Melanesian]] term ''niu''; [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] and [[Chamorro language|Chamorro]] term ''niyog''; and the [[Malay language|Malay]] word ''nyiur'' or ''nyior''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ahuja |first1=SC |last2=Ahuja |first2=Siddharta |last3=Ahuja |first3=Uma |date=2014 |title=Coconut – History, Uses, and Folklore |url=http://www.asianagrihistory.org/vol-18/coconut-18-3.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=[[Asian Agri-History]]|volume=18 |issue=3 |page=223 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810233110/http://asianagrihistory.org/vol-18/coconut-18-3.pdf |archive-date=August 10, 2017 |access-date=3 January 2017 |df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Traditional trees of Pacific Islands : their culture, environment, and use |date=2006 |publisher=[[Permanent Agriculture Resources]]|others=forewords by Isabella Aiona Abbott and Roger R.B. Leakey |isbn=978-0-9702544-5-0 |editor-last=Elevitch |editor-first=Craig R. |edition=1st |location=Hōlualoa, Hawaii}}</ref> Other evidence for a [[Central Indo-Pacific]] origin is the native range of the [[coconut crab]]; and the higher amounts of ''C. nucifera''-specific insect pests in the region (90%) in comparison to the Americas (20%), and Africa (4%).<ref name="Lew" />

{{multiple image
| align             = left
| direction         = vertical
| width             = 300
| header            =
| image2            = Historical Introduction of Coconuts (Gunn, Baudouin,& Olsen, 2011).png
| alt2              =
| caption2          = Inferred historical introduction of coconuts from the original centers of diversity in the [[Indian subcontinent]] and [[Island Southeast Asia]]<ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name="Lutz">{{cite web |last1=Lutz |first1=Diana |date=24 June 2011|title=Deep history of coconuts decoded |url=https://source.wustl.edu/2011/06/deep-history-of-coconuts-decoded/ |website=The Source |access-date=10 January 2019}}</ref><ref name="Brouwers2011"/>
| image1            = Geographical distributions of Indo-Atlantic and Pacific coconut subpopulations.png
| alt1              =
| caption1          = Geographical distributions of Indo-Atlantic and Pacific coconut subpopulations and their genetic composition (Gunn ''et al.'', 2011)<ref name="Gunn2011"/>
}}

A study in 2011 identified two highly genetically differentiated subpopulations of coconuts, one originating from [[Island Southeast Asia]] (the Pacific group) and the other from the southern margins of the [[Indian subcontinent]] (the Indo-Atlantic group). The Pacific group is the only one to display clear genetic and phenotypic indications that they were domesticated; including dwarf habit, self-pollination, and the round "''niu vai''" fruit morphology with larger endosperm-to-husk ratios. The distribution of the Pacific coconuts correspond to regions settled by Austronesian voyagers indicating that its spread was largely the result of human introductions. It is most strikingly displayed in [[Madagascar]], an island settled by Austronesian sailors at around 2000 to 1500 [[Before present|BP]]. The coconut populations on the island show genetic admixture between the two subpopulations indicating that Pacific coconuts were first brought by the Austronesian settlers, which then interbred with the later Indo-Atlantic coconuts brought by Europeans from India.<ref name="Gunn2011" /><ref name="Crowther2016" />

[[File:Wa'a kaulua.jpg|thumb|A ''[[wa'a|wa'a kaulua]]'' ([[catamaran|double-hulled canoe]]) from [[Hawai'i]]. [[Catamaran]]s were one of the early technological innovations of [[Austronesian peoples]] that allowed them to colonize the islands of the [[Indo-Pacific]] and introduce coconuts and other [[canoe plants]] along their migration routes.<ref name="Mahdi1999">{{cite book |last=Mahdi |first=Waruno |title=Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts |publisher=Routledge |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-415-10054-0 |editor-last=Blench |editor-first=Roger |series=One World Archaeology |volume=34 |pages=144–179 |chapter=The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean |editor-last2=Spriggs |editor-first2=Matthew}}</ref><ref name="Doran1981">{{cite book |last1=Doran |first1=Edwin B. |title=Wangka: Austronesian Canoe Origins |date=1981 |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |isbn=978-0-89096-107-0}}</ref><ref name="Johns">{{cite journal |last1=Johns |first1=D. A. |last2=Irwin |first2=G. J. |last3=Sung |first3=Y. K. |date=29 September 2014 |title=An early sophisticated East Polynesian voyaging canoe discovered on New Zealand's coast |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=111 |issue=41 |pages=14728–14733 |bibcode=2014PNAS..11114728J |doi=10.1073/pnas.1408491111 |pmc=4205625 |pmid=25267657 |doi-access=free}}</ref>|alt=Boat on ocean]]
Genetic studies of coconuts have also confirmed [[pre-Columbian]] populations of coconuts in [[Panama]]. However, it is not native and displays a genetic bottleneck resulting from a [[founder effect]]. A study in 2008 showed that the coconuts in the Americas are genetically closest related to the coconuts in the [[Philippines]], and not to any other nearby coconut populations (including [[Polynesia]]). Such an origin indicates that the coconuts were not introduced naturally, such as by sea currents. The researchers concluded that it was brought by early Austronesian sailors to the Americas from at least 2,250 BP, and may be proof of pre-Columbian contact between Austronesian cultures and South American cultures. It is further strengthened by other similar botanical evidence of contact, like the pre-colonial presence of [[sweet potato]] in Oceanian cultures.<ref name="Baudouin2008" /><ref name="Brouwers2011" /><ref name="Ward" /> During the [[Early modern period|colonial era]], Pacific coconuts were further introduced to [[Mexico]] from the [[Spanish East Indies]] via the [[Manila galleon]]s.<ref name="Gunn2011" />

In contrast to the Pacific coconuts, Indo-Atlantic coconuts were largely spread by Arab and Persian traders into the [[East Africa]]n coast. Indo-Atlantic coconuts were also introduced into the [[Atlantic Ocean]] by [[Portuguese people|Portuguese]] ships from their colonies in coastal [[India]] and [[Sri Lanka]]; first introduced to coastal [[West Africa]], then onwards into the [[Caribbean]] and the east coast of [[Brazil]]. All of these introductions are within the last few centuries, relatively recent in comparison to the spread of Pacific coconuts.<ref name="Gunn2011" />

===Natural habitat===
The coconut palm thrives on sandy soils and is highly tolerant of [[salinity]]. It prefers areas with abundant sunlight and regular rainfall ({{convert|1500|–|2500|mm|in|abbr=on|disp=sqbr}} annually), which makes colonizing shorelines of the tropics relatively straightforward.<ref name="sppia">Chan, Edward and Craig R. Elevitch. (April 2006). [http://www.agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf ''Cocos nucifera'' (coconut)] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131020005217/http://agroforestry.net/tti/Cocos-coconut.pdf|date=October 20, 2013}} (version 2.1). In C. R. Elevitch (ed.). ''Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry''. Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i: [[Permanent Agriculture Resources]] (PAR).</ref> Coconuts also need high [[humidity]] (at least 70–80%) for optimum growth, which is why they are rarely seen in areas with low humidity. However, they can be found in humid areas with low annual precipitation such as in [[Karachi]], [[Pakistan]], which receives only about {{convert|250|mm|in|abbr=on|frac=4}} of rainfall per year, but is consistently warm and humid.

Coconut palms require warm conditions for successful growth, and are intolerant of cold weather. Some seasonal variation is tolerated, with good growth where mean summer temperatures are between {{convert|28|and|37|C|F}}, and survival as long as winter temperatures are above {{convert|4|–|12|C|F}}; they will survive brief drops to {{convert|0|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. Severe frost is usually fatal, although they have been known to recover from temperatures of {{convert|-4|°C|°F|abbr=on}}. Due to this, there are not many [[coconut palms in California]].<ref name="sppia" /> They may grow but not fruit properly in areas with insufficient warmth or sunlight, such as [[Bermuda]].

The conditions required for coconut trees to grow without any care are:
* Mean daily temperature above {{convert|12|–|13|C|F}} every day of the year
* Mean annual rainfall above {{convert|1,000|mm|in|abbr=on}}
* No or very little overhead [[Canopy (biology)|canopy]], since even small trees require direct sun

The main limiting factor for most locations which satisfy the rainfall and temperature requirements is canopy growth, except those locations near coastlines, where the sandy soil and salt spray limit the growth of most other trees.

===Domestication===
Wild coconuts are naturally restricted to coastal areas in sandy, saline soils. The fruit is adapted for ocean dispersal. Coconuts could not reach inland locations without human intervention (to carry seednuts, plant seedlings, etc.) and early germination on the palm (vivipary) was important.<ref name=HCH_2>{{cite journal | last1 = Harries | first1 = H. C. | year = 2012 | title = Germination rate is the significant characteristic determining coconut palm diversity | journal = Annals of Botany | volume = 2012 | pages = pls045 | doi = 10.1093/aobpla/pls045 | pmid = 23275832 | pmc = 3532018 }}</ref>

Coconuts today can be grouped into two highly genetically distinct subpopulations: the Indo-Atlantic group originating from southern [[India]] and nearby regions (including [[Sri Lanka]], the [[Laccadives]], and the [[Maldives]]); and the Pacific group originating from the region between [[maritime Southeast Asia]] and [[Melanesia]]. Linguistic, archaeological, and genetic evidence all point to the early domestication of Pacific coconuts by the [[Austronesian peoples]] in maritime Southeast Asia during the [[Austronesian expansion]] (c.&nbsp;3000 to 1500&nbsp;BCE). Although archaeological remains dating to 1000 to 500&nbsp;BCE also suggest that the Indo-Atlantic coconuts were also later independently cultivated by the [[Dravidian peoples]], only Pacific coconuts show clear signs of domestication traits like dwarf habits, self-pollination, and rounded fruits. Indo-Atlantic coconuts, in contrast, all have the ancestral traits of tall habits and elongated triangular fruits.<ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name="Lew"/><ref name="Baudouin2008"/><ref name="scid">{{cite news |title=Deep history of coconuts decoded: Origins of cultivation, ancient trade routes, and colonization of the Americas |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/06/110624142037.htm |access-date=22 April 2021 |work=ScienceDaily |publisher=Washington University in St. Louis |date=24 June 2011}}</ref>
{{multiple image
 | align = right
 | direction = vertical
 | width = 220
 | header =
 | image1 = Coconut fruits.jpg
 | alt1 =
 | caption1 = Indo-Atlantic coconut from eastern [[India]] with the elongated triangular ''niu kafa''-type fruits
 | image2 =  Fish ponds Pandanus San Miguel Bulacan Highway 20.JPG
 | alt2 =
 | caption2 = Domesticated Pacific coconut from the [[Philippines]] with bright yellow rounded ''niu vai''-type fruits and a slow-growing [[Dwarfing|dwarf]] habit
}}

The coconut played a critical role in the migrations of the Austronesian peoples. They provided a portable source of both food and water, allowing Austronesians to survive long sea voyages to colonize new islands as well as establish long-range trade routes. Based on linguistic evidence, the absence of words for coconut in the Taiwanese Austronesian languages makes it likely that the Austronesian coconut culture developed only after Austronesians started colonizing the [[Philippine Islands|Philippine islands]]. The importance of the coconut in Austronesian cultures is evidenced by shared terminology of even very specific parts and uses of coconuts, which were carried outwards from the Philippines during the Austronesian migrations.<ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name="Lew"/> Indo-Atlantic type coconuts were also later spread by [[Arab people|Arab]] and [[South Asia]]n traders along the [[Indian Ocean]] basin, resulting in limited admixture with Pacific coconuts introduced earlier to [[Madagascar]] and the [[Comoros]] via the ancient [[Austronesian maritime trade network]].<ref name="Gunn2011"/>

Coconuts can be broadly divided into two fruit types{{Snd}}the ancestral ''niu kafa'' form with a thick-husked, angular fruit, and the ''niu vai'' form with a thin-husked, spherical fruit with a higher proportion of [[endosperm]]. The terms are derived from the [[Samoan language]] and was adopted into scientific usage by Harries (1978).<ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name=Lebrun/><ref name=Harries/>

The ''niu kafa'' form is the wild ancestral type, with thick husks to protect the seed, an angular, highly ridged shape to promote buoyancy during ocean dispersal, and a pointed base that allowed fruits to dig into the sand, preventing them from being washed away during [[germination]] on a new island. It is the dominant form in the Indo-Atlantic coconuts.<ref name=Lebrun/><ref name="Gunn2011"/> However, they may have also been partially selected for thicker husks for [[coir]] production, which was also important in Austronesian material culture as a source for cordage in building houses and boats.<ref name="Lew"/>

[[File:Efate East - Very old coconut plantations - panoramio.jpg|thumb|A coconut plantation in [[Efate]], [[Vanuatu]]]]

The ''niu vai'' form is the domesticated form dominant in Pacific coconuts. They were selected for by the Austronesian peoples for their larger endosperm-to-husk ratio as well as higher coconut water content, making them more useful as food and water reserves for sea voyages. The decreased buoyancy and increased fragility of this spherical, thin-husked fruit would not matter for a species that had started to be dispersed by humans and grown in plantations.<ref name=Lebrun>{{cite journal | last1 = Lebrun | first1 = P. | last2 = Seguin | first2 = M. | last3 = Grivet | first3 = L. | last4 = Baudouin | first4 = L. | year = 1998 | title = Genetic diversity in coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) revealed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) markers | doi = 10.1023/a:1018323721803 | journal = Euphytica | volume = 101 | pages = 103–108 | s2cid = 19445166 }}</ref><ref name=Shukla>{{cite journal | last1 = Shukla | first1 = A. | last2 = Mehrotra | first2 = R. C. | last3 = Guleria | first3 = J. S. | year = 2012 | title = Cocos sahnii Kaul: A ''Cocos nucifera'' L.-like fruit from the Early Eocene rainforest of Rajasthan, western India | journal = Journal of Biosciences | volume = 37 | issue = 4| pages = 769–776 | doi=10.1007/s12038-012-9233-3| pmid = 22922201 | s2cid = 14229182 }}</ref> ''Niu vai'' endocarp fragments have been recovered in archaeological sites in the [[St. Matthias Islands]] of the [[Bismarck Archipelago]]. The fragments are dated to approximately 1000&nbsp;BCE, suggesting that cultivation and artificial selection of coconuts were already practiced by the Austronesian [[Lapita people]].<ref name="Lew"/>

Coconuts can also be broadly divided into two general types based on habit: the "Tall" (var. ''typica'') and "Dwarf" (var. ''nana'') varieties.<ref name=Santos>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/bioversity/publications/Web_version/108/ch02.htm#Chapter+1+BOTANY+OF+THE+COCONUT+PALM|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212200527/http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/bioversity/publications/Web_version/108/ch02.htm|url-status=dead|title=Chapter 1: Botany of the Coconut Palm |archive-date=December 12, 2013|website=www.bioversityinternational.org}}</ref> The two groups are genetically distinct, with the dwarf variety showing a greater degree of artificial selection for ornamental traits and for early germination and fruiting.<ref name=Harries>{{cite journal | last1 = Harries | first1 = H. C. | year = 1978 | title = The evolution, dissemination and classification of ''Cocos nucifera'' L. | journal = The Botanical Review | volume = 44 | issue = 3 | pages = 265–319 | doi=10.1007/bf02957852| bibcode = 1978BotRv..44..265H | s2cid = 26636137 }}</ref><ref name=Huang>{{cite journal | last1 = Huang | first1 = Y.-Y. | last2 = Matzke | first2 = A. J. M. | last3 = Matzke | first3 = M. | year = 2013 | title = Complete sequence and comparative analysis of the chloroplast genome of coconut palm (''Cocos nucifera'') | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 8| page = e74736 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0074736 | pmid=24023703 | pmc=3758300| bibcode = 2013PLoSO...874736H | doi-access = free }}</ref> The tall variety is [[outcrossing]] while dwarf palms are [[Autogamy|self-pollinating]], which has led to a much greater degree of [[genetic diversity]] within the tall group.<ref name="Rivera">{{Cite journal | last1 = Rivera | first1 = R. | last2 = Edwards | first2 = K. J. | last3 = Barker | first3 = J. H. | last4 = Arnold | first4 = G. M. | last5 = Ayad | first5 = G. | last6 = Hodgkin | first6 = T. | last7 = Karp | first7 = A. | title = Isolation and characterization of polymorphic microsatellites in ''Cocos nucifera'' L | journal = Genome | volume = 42 | issue = 4 | pages = 668–675 | year = 1999 | pmid = 10464790 | doi=10.1139/g98-170}}</ref>

The dwarf coconut cultivars are fully domesticated, in contrast to tall cultivars which display greater diversity in terms of domestication (and lack thereof).<ref name="Bourdeix"/><ref name="Rivera"/> The fact that all dwarf coconuts share three genetic markers out of thirteen (which are only present at low frequencies in tall cultivars) makes it likely that they all originate from a single domesticated population. Philippine and Malayan dwarf coconuts diverged early into two distinct types. They usually remain genetically isolated when introduced to new regions, making it possible to trace their origins. Numerous other dwarf cultivars also developed as the initial dwarf cultivar was introduced to other regions and hybridized with various tall cultivars. The origin of dwarf varieties is [[Southeast Asia]], which contain the tall cultivars that are genetically closest to dwarf coconuts.<ref name="Gunn2011"/><ref name="lebrun2013"/><ref name="Bourdeix">{{cite book |last1=Bourdeix |first1=R. |last2=Prades |first2=A. |title=A Global Strategy for the conservation and use of Coconut Genetic Resources 2018–2028 |date=2017 |publisher=Bioversity International |isbn=978-92-9043-984-4 |url=https://www.bioversityinternational.org/e-library/publications/detail/a-global-strategy-for-the-conservation-and-use-of-coconut-genetic-resources-2018-2028/}}</ref><ref name=Rivera/>

Sequencing of the genome of the tall and dwarf varieties revealed that they diverged 2 to 8 million years ago and that the dwarf variety arose through alterations in genes involved in the metabolism of the plant hormone [[gibberellin]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Shouchuang |last2=Xiao |first2=Yong |last3=Zhou |first3=Zhi-Wei |last4=Yuan |first4=Jiaqing |last5=Guo |first5=Hao |last6=Yang |first6=Zhuang |last7=Yang |first7=Jun |last8=Sun |first8=Pengchuan |last9=Sun |first9=Lisong |last10=Deng |first10=Yuan |last11=Xie |first11=Wen-Zhao |last12=Song |first12=Jia-Ming |last13=Qamar |first13=Muhammad Tahir ul |last14=Xia |first14=Wei |last15=Liu |first15=Rui |date=2021-11-04 |title=High-quality reference genome sequences of two coconut cultivars provide insights into evolution of monocot chromosomes and differentiation of fiber content and plant height |journal=Genome Biology |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=304 |doi=10.1186/s13059-021-02522-9 |issn=1474-760X |pmc=8567702 |pmid=34736486 |doi-access=free }}</ref> 

Another ancestral variety is the '''''niu leka''''' of [[Polynesia]] (sometimes called the "Compact Dwarfs"). Although it shares similar characteristics to dwarf coconuts (including slow growth), it is genetically distinct and is thus believed to be independently domesticated, likely in [[Tonga]]. Other cultivars of ''niu leka'' may also exist in other islands of the Pacific, and some are probably descendants of advanced crosses between Compact Dwarfs and Southeast Asian Dwarf types.<ref name="lebrun2013"/><ref name="Bourdeix"/>

===Dispersal===
[[File:Lefaga, Return to Paradise beach, south coast Upolu Island, Samoa, 2009.jpg|thumb|Coconut trees on a beach in [[Upolu]], [[Samoa]]]]

Coconut fruit in the wild is light, buoyant, and highly water resistant. It is claimed that they evolved to disperse significant distances via [[marine current]]s.<ref name=Foale>Foale, Mike. (2003). [http://aciar.gov.au/files/node/453/mono101.pdf The Coconut Odyssey&nbsp;– the bounteous possibilities of the tree of life] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110330164523/http://aciar.gov.au/files/node/453/mono101.pdf |date=March 30, 2011 }}. [http://www.aciar.gov.au/publication/MN101 Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318013909/http://www.aciar.gov.au/publication/MN101 |date=March 18, 2009 }}. Retrieved May 30, 2009.</ref> However, it can also be argued that the placement of the vulnerable eye of the nut (down when floating), and the site of the coir cushion are better positioned to ensure that the water-filled nut does not fracture when dropping on rocky ground, rather than for flotation.{{cn|date=May 2025}}

It is often stated that coconuts can travel 110 days, or {{convert|3000|mi|km|sigfig=1|order=flip|abbr=on}}, by sea and still be able to germinate.<ref name=Edmondson>{{cite journal| last1 = Edmondson | first1 = C.H. | year = 1941 | title = Viability of coconut seeds after floating in sea | journal = Bernice P. Bishop Museum Occasional Papers | volume = 16 | pages = 293–304}}</ref> This figure has been questioned based on the extremely small sample size that forms the basis of the paper that makes this claim.<ref name=Ward>{{cite journal | last1 = Ward | first1 = R. G. | last2 = Brookfield | first2 = M. | year = 1992 | title = Special Paper: the dispersal of the coconut: did it float or was it carried to Panama? | journal = Journal of Biogeography | volume = 19 | issue = 5| pages = 467–480 | doi=10.2307/2845766| jstor = 2845766 | bibcode = 1992JBiog..19..467W }}</ref> [[Thor Heyerdahl]] provides an alternative, and much shorter, estimate based on his first-hand experience crossing the Pacific Ocean on the raft ''[[Kon-Tiki]]'':<ref name="Heyerdahl">Heyerdahl, Thor. (1950) ''Kon-Tiki: Across the Pacific by Raft''. Mattituck: Amereon House. 240 p.</ref>

<blockquote> The nuts we had in baskets on deck remained edible and capable of germinating the whole way to [[Polynesia]]. But we had laid about half among the special provisions below deck, with the waves washing around them. Every single one of these was ruined by the sea water. And no coconut can float over the sea faster than a [[balsa]] raft moves with the wind behind it.</blockquote>

He notes that several of the nuts began to germinate by the time they had been ten weeks at sea, precluding an unassisted journey of 100 days or more.<ref name=Ward/>

Drift models based on wind and ocean currents have shown that coconuts could not have drifted across the Pacific unaided.<ref name=Ward /> If they were naturally distributed and had been in the Pacific for a thousand years or so, then we would expect the eastern shore of Australia, with its own islands sheltered by the [[Great Barrier Reef]], to have been thick with coconut palms: the currents were directly into, and down along this coast. However, both [[James Cook]] and [[William Bligh]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.sl.nsw.gov.au/archive/discover_collections/history_nation/terra_australis/logbook.html|title=William Bligh's Logbook|first=State Library of New South|last=Wales|access-date=October 26, 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026084918/http://www2.sl.nsw.gov.au/archive/discover_collections/history_nation/terra_australis/logbook.html|archive-date=October 26, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> (put adrift after the [[Mutiny on the Bounty|''Bounty'' mutiny]]) found no sign of the nuts along this {{convert|2000|km|abbr=on}} stretch when he needed water for his crew. Nor were there coconuts on the east side of the African coast until [[Vasco da Gama]], nor in the Caribbean when first visited by [[Christopher Columbus]]. They were commonly carried by Spanish ships as a source of fresh water.

[[File:Coconut germinating on Black Sand Beach, Island of Hawaii.JPG|thumb|Coconut germinating on [[Punaluʻu Beach]] on the island of [[Hawaii (island)|Hawaiʻi]]|alt=Sapling on a black sand beach]]

These provide substantial circumstantial evidence that deliberate [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] voyagers were involved in carrying coconuts across the Pacific Ocean and that they could not have dispersed worldwide without human agency. More recently, genomic analysis of cultivated coconut (''C.&nbsp;nucifera'' L.) has shed light on the movement. However, [[Genetic admixture|admixture]], the transfer of genetic material, evidently occurred between the two populations.<ref name="coco"/>

Given that coconuts are ideally suited for inter-island group ocean dispersal, obviously some natural distribution did take place. However, the locations of the admixture events are limited to [[Madagascar]] and coastal east Africa, and exclude the [[Seychelles]]. This pattern coincides with the known trade routes of Austronesian sailors. Additionally, a genetically distinct subpopulation of coconut on the Pacific coast of Latin America has undergone a genetic bottleneck resulting from a [[founder effect]]; however, its ancestral population is the Pacific coconut from the Philippines. This, together with their use of the South American [[sweet potato]], suggests that Austronesian peoples may have sailed as far east as the Americas.<ref name="coco">{{cite journal|last=Gunn|first=Bee|author2=Luc Baudouin|author3=Kenneth M. Olsen|title=Independent Origins of Cultivated Coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) in the Old World Tropics|journal=PLOS ONE|year=2011|volume=6|issue=6|pages=e21143|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0021143|pmid=21731660|pmc=3120816|df=mdy-all|bibcode=2011PLoSO...621143G|doi-access=free}}</ref> In the [[Hawaiian Islands]], the coconut is regarded as a [[Polynesia]]n [[introduced species|introduction]], first brought to the islands by early Polynesian voyagers (also Austronesians) from their homelands in the southern islands of Polynesia.<ref name=Elzabroek/>

Specimens have been collected from the sea as far north as [[Norway]] (but it is not known where they entered the water).<ref>Ferguson, John. (1898). ''All about the "coconut palm" (''Cocos nucifera'')'' (2nd edition).</ref> They have been found in the Caribbean and the Atlantic coasts of Africa and South America for less than 500 years (the Caribbean native inhabitants do not have a dialect term for them, but use the Portuguese name), but evidence of their presence on the Pacific coast of South America antedates Columbus's arrival in the Americas.<ref name=Perera/> They are now almost ubiquitous between 26°&thinsp;N and 26°&thinsp;S except for the interiors of Africa and South America.

The 2014 coral atoll origin hypothesis proposed that the coconut had dispersed in an island hopping fashion using the small, sometimes transient, coral atolls. It noted that by using these small atolls, the species could easily island-hop. Over the course of evolutionary time-scales the shifting atolls would have shortened the paths of colonization, meaning that any one coconut would not have to travel very far to find new land.<ref name="Harries-2014" />

== Ecology ==
{{further|List of coconut palm diseases}}
[[File:Pteropus tonganus1.jpg|thumb|The Pacific flying fox (''[[Pteropus tonganus]]'') feeding on [[Coconut flower nectar|nectar]] and pollen from coconut flowers in [[Fiji]]]]

Coconuts are susceptible to the [[phytoplasma]] disease, [[lethal yellowing]]. One recently selected [[cultivar]], the [[Maypan coconut palm|'Maypan']], has been bred for resistance to this disease.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Harries|first1=H.C.|last2=Romney|first2=D.H.|year=1974|title=Maypan: an F1 hybrid coconut variety for commercial production in Jamaica|journal=[[World Crops]]|volume=26|pages=110–111}}</ref> Yellowing diseases affect plantations in Africa, India, Mexico, the Caribbean and the [[Pacific Region]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://asiatimes.com/article/future-coconut-threatened-lethal-yellowing-disease/|title=Clarion call for King Coconut|last=Bourdeix|first=Ronald|date=9 December 2016|website=www.atimes.com|access-date=14 December 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Konan ''et al.'', 2007 explains much [[crop disease resistance|resistance]] with a few [[allele]]s at a few [[microsatellite]]s.<ref name="Microsatellite"/> They find that '[[Vanuatu Tall]]' and '[[Sri-Lanka Green Dwarf]]' are the most resistant while '[[West African Tall]]' breeds are especially susceptible.<ref name="Microsatellite">
:{{cite book|year=2017|publisher=[[Springer Cham]]|first2=S.|first1=M.|last2=Jain|number=17|last1=Ahuja|pages=xii+511|title=Biodiversity and Conservation of Woody Plants|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-66426-2|series=[[Sustainable Development and Biodiversity]]|volume=17 |isbn=978-3-319-66425-5 |s2cid=518220 |issn=2352-474X|eissn=2352-4758}}{{RP|page=23}}
:
:{{cite book|publisher=[[Springer Cham]]|year=2020|first5=Julianne|first4=Quang|first3=Roland|first2=Mike|first1=Steve|last5=Biddle|last4=Nguyen|last3=Bourdeix|last2=Foale|last1=Adkins|editor-first1=Steve |editor-first2=Mike |editor-first3=Roland |editor-first4=Quang |editor-first5=Julianne |editor-last1=Adkins |editor-last2=Foale |editor-last3=Bourdeix |editor-last4=Nguyen |editor-last5=Biddle |pages=xv+282|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-44988-9|title=Coconut Biotechnology: Towards the Sustainability of the 'Tree of Life'|isbn=978-3-030-44987-2 |s2cid=220051653 }}{{RP|pages=128,132}}
:
:These books cite this research.
:
:{{cite journal|issue=4|year=2010|volume=6|publisher=[[Academic Journals (publisher)|Academic Journals]]|first6=A.|first5=S.|first4=P.|first3=J.|first2=K.|first1=K.|last6=Sangare|last5=Dery|last4=Lebrun|last3=Konan|last2=Koffi|last1=Konan|title=Microsatellite gene diversity in coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) accessions resistants to lethal yellowing disease|journal=[[African Journal of Biotechnology]]|issn=1684-5315|doi=10.4314/ajb.v6i4.56209|doi-broken-date=November 1, 2024 |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajb/article/view/56209}}
</ref>

The coconut palm is damaged by the [[larva]]e of many [[Lepidoptera]] ([[butterfly]] and [[moth]]) species which feed on it, including the [[African armyworm]] (''Spodoptera exempta'') and ''[[Batrachedra]]'' spp.: ''B. arenosella'', ''B. atriloqua'' (feeds exclusively on ''C. nucifera''), ''B. mathesoni'' (feeds exclusively on ''C. nucifera''), and ''B. nuciferae''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Yarro|first1=J. G.|last2=Otindo|first2=B. L.|last3=Gatehouse|first3=A. G.|last4=Lubega|first4=M. C.|date=December 1981|title=Dwarf variety of coconut, ''Cocos nucifera'' (Palmae), a hostplant for the African armyworm, Spodoptera exempta (Wlk.) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae)|journal=International Journal of Tropical Insect Science|volume=1|issue=4|pages=361–362|doi=10.1017/S1742758400000667|doi-broken-date=November 1, 2024 |bibcode=1981IJTIS...1..361Y |s2cid=88007323|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

''[[Brontispa longissima]]'' (coconut leaf beetle) feeds on young leaves, and damages both [[seedlings]] and mature coconut palms. In 2007, the Philippines imposed a [[quarantine]] in [[Metro Manila]] and 26 provinces to stop the spread of the [[pest (organism)|pest]] and protect the Philippine coconut industry managed by some 3.5 million farmers.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/62343/news/regions/report-26-provinces-quarantined-for-coconut-pest |title=Report: 26 provinces quarantined for coconut pest |publisher=GMA News Online |date=28 September 2007 |access-date=17 December 2016 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220190900/http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/62343/news/regions/report-26-provinces-quarantined-for-coconut-pest |archive-date=December 20, 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

The fruit may also be damaged by [[eriophyid]] [[coconut mite]]s (''Eriophyes guerreronis''). This mite infests coconut plantations, and is devastating; it can destroy up to 90% of coconut production. The immature seeds are infested and desapped by larvae staying in the portion covered by the [[perianth]] of the immature seed; the seeds then drop off or survive deformed. Spraying with wettable [[sulfur]] 0.4% or with [[Neem]]-based pesticides can give some relief, but is cumbersome and labor-intensive.

In Kerala, India, the main coconut pests are the [[coconut mite]], the [[rhinoceros beetle]], the [[red palm weevil]], and the [[coconut leaf caterpillar]]. Research into countermeasures to these pests has {{As of|2009|lc=on}} yielded no results; researchers from the [[Kerala Agricultural University]] and the Central Plantation Crop Research Institute, Kasaragode, continue to work on countermeasures. The Krishi Vigyan Kendra, Kannur under Kerala Agricultural University has developed an innovative extension approach called the compact area group approach  to combat coconut mites.

==Cultivation==

Coconut palms are normally cultivated in hot and wet tropical climates. They need year-round warmth and moisture to grow well and fruit. Coconut palms are hard to establish in dry climates, and cannot grow there without frequent irrigation; in drought conditions, the new leaves do not open well, and older leaves may become desiccated; fruit also tends to be shed.<ref name="sppia"/>

The extent of cultivation in the tropics is threatening a number of habitats, such as [[mangrove]]s; an example of such damage to an ecoregion is in the Petenes mangroves of the [[Yucatán region|Yucatán]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.eoearth.org/article/Petenes_mangroves?topic=49597 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121011011735/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Petenes_mangroves?topic=49597 |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 11, 2012 |title=Petenes mangroves: types and severity of threats |last1=McGinley |first1=Mark |last2=Hogan |first2=C Michael |series=The Encyclopedia of Earth |publisher=World Wildlife Fund, Washington, DC |date=19 April 2011 |access-date=17 December 2016 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

Unique among plants, coconut trees can be irrigated with sea water.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Carr |first1=M. K. V. |title=Advances in irrigation agronomy: plantation crops |date=2012-04-05 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=101}}</ref> Although that is recommended for coconut plants that are over 2 years old.[https://en.vikaspedia.in/viewcontent/agriculture/crop-production/package-of-practices/plantation-crops/coconut/coconut-cultivation-practices]

===Cultivars===
Coconut has a number of commercial and traditional [[cultivar]]s. They can be sorted mainly into tall cultivars, dwarf cultivars, and hybrid cultivars (hybrids between talls and dwarfs). Some of the dwarf cultivars such as 'Malayan dwarf' have shown some promising resistance to lethal yellowing, while other cultivars such as 'Jamaican tall' are highly affected by the same plant disease. Some cultivars are more drought resistant such as 'West coast tall' (India) while others such as 'Hainan Tall' (China) are more cold tolerant. Other aspects such as seed size, shape and weight, and [[copra]] thickness are also important factors in the selection of new cultivars. Some cultivars such as 'Fiji dwarf' form a large bulb at the lower stem and others are cultivated to produce very sweet coconut water with orange-colored husks ([[king coconut]]) used entirely in fruit stalls for drinking (Sri Lanka, India).{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}

===Harvesting===

{{multiple image
 | align = right
 | direction = horizontal
 | width1 = 100
 | width2 = 120
 | width3 = 83
 | header =
 | image1 = Coconut notches.jpg
 | alt1 = Tree with notches cut in it
 | caption1 =
 | image2 = CoconutHarvestCazones.JPG
 | alt2 =
 | caption2 =
 | image3 =Coconut harvest.jpg
 | alt3 =
 | caption3 =
|footer = '''Left:''' Harvesting coconuts in the [[Philippines]] is done by workers who climb the trees using notches cut into the trunk;<br />'''Center:''' Worker harvesting coconuts in [[Veracruz]], [[Mexico]] using ropes and [[pulley]]s;<br />'''Right:''' Coconut workers in the [[Maldives]] using a loop of cloth around the ankles
}}
The two most common harvesting methods are the climbing method and the pole method. Climbing is the most widespread, but it is also more dangerous and requires skilled workers.<ref name="tp2">{{cite web |title=Harvesting and Post-harvest Management |website=Coconut Handbook |date=December 28, 2016 |url=https://coconuthandbook.tetrapak.com/chapter/harvesting-and-post-harvest-management|publisher=Tetra Pak |access-date=18 April 2021}}</ref> Manually climbing trees is traditional in most countries and requires a specific posture that exerts pressure on the trunk with the feet. Climbers employed on coconut plantations often develop musculoskeletal disorders and risk severe injury or death from falling.<ref name="Piggott">{{cite book |last1=Piggott |first1=C.J. |title=Coconut Growing |date=1964 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=61}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Tropical Tree and Palm Crops |url=https://www.iloencyclopaedia.org/part-x-96841/agriculture-and-natural-resources-based-industries/tree-bramble-and-vine-crops/item/548-tropical-tree-and-palm-crops |website=Encyclopedia of Occupational Health & Safety |publisher=International Labour Organization |access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref><ref name="George">{{cite journal |last1=George |first1=Bincy M. |last2=Rao |first2=Muddanna S. |last3=Kumar |first3=Arunachalam |last4=Suvarna |first4=Niveditha |last5=D'Souza |first5=Jessica Sushima |title=Health of coconut tree climbers of rural southern India – medical emergencies, body mass index and occupational marks: A quantitative and survey study |journal=Journal of Clinical and Diagnostic Research |date=2012 |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=57–60 |url=https://www.jcdr.net/articles/pdf/1829/13%20-%203430.(A).pdf}}</ref>

[[File:“Lambanog”- Philippines Coconut Wine.jpg|thumb|Worker in the [[Philippines]] using a bamboo bridge network to collect sweet coconut sap from cut flower stalks for the production of ''[[lambanog]]'', a distilled alcoholic drink]]

To avoid this, coconuts workers in the Philippines and [[Guam]] traditionally use [[bolo knife|bolos]] tied with a rope to the waist to cut grooves at regular intervals on the coconut trunks. This basically turns the trunk of the tree into a ladder, though it reduces the value of coconut timber recovered from the trees and can be an entry point for infection.<ref name="fao-timber">{{cite book |title=Coconut wood: Processing and Use |date=1985 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |isbn=92-5-102253-4 |page=27 |url=http://www.fao.org/3/an792e/an792e00.pdf}}</ref><ref name="tp2"/><ref name="Safford">{{cite journal |last1=Safford |first1=William Edwin |title=The Useful Plants of the Island of Guam |journal=Bulletin of the United States National Museum |date=8 April 1905 |volume=9 |page=243}}</ref> Other manual methods to make climbing easier include using a system of pulleys and ropes; using pieces of vine, rope, or cloth tied to both hands or feet; using spikes attached to the feet or legs; or attaching coconut husks to the trunk with ropes.<ref name="COGENT"/> Modern methods use hydraulic elevators mounted on tractors or ladders.<ref name="Loyola"/> Mechanical coconut climbing devices and even automated robots have also been recently developed in countries like India, Sri Lanka, and [[Malaysia]].<ref name="tp"/><ref name="Kumar">{{cite news |last1=Kumar |first1=V. Sajeev |title=New mechanical coconut climbing device developed |url=https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/economy/agri-business/New-mechanical-coconut-climbing-device-developed/article20111199.ece |access-date=18 April 2021 |work=The Hindu Business Line |date=20 March 2011}}</ref><ref name="Subramanian">{{cite journal |last1=Subramanian |first1=Parvathi |last2=Sankar |first2=Tamil Selvi |title=Development of a novel coconut-tree-climbing machine for harvesting |journal=Mechanics Based Design of Structures and Machines |date=7 April 2021 |volume=51 |issue=5 |pages=2757–2775 |doi=10.1080/15397734.2021.1907756|s2cid=233530078 }}</ref><ref name="COGENT">{{cite web |title=Climbing the coconut palm |url=http://cogentnetwork.org/oldsite/climbing-the-coconut-palm |website=COGENT |access-date=24 April 2021}}</ref>

The pole method uses a long pole with a cutting device at the end. In the Philippines, the traditional tool is known as the ''halabas'' and is made from a long bamboo pole with a sickle-like blade mounted at the tip. Though safer and faster than the climbing method, its main disadvantage is that it does not allow workers to examine and clean the crown of coconuts for pests and diseases.<ref name="cpg">{{cite web |title=Coconut Production Guide |url=https://businessdiary.com.ph/3062/coconut-production-guide/#Harvest_Management |website=Business Diary PH |date=March 30, 2020 |access-date=18 April 2021}}</ref>

Determining ''whether'' to harvest is also important. Gatchalian et al. 1994 developed a [[bioacoustics|sonometry]] technique for precisely determining the stage of ripeness of young coconuts.<ref name="Yahia-2011">{{cite book | last=Yahia | first=Elhadi | title=Postharvest Biology and Technology of Tropical and Subtropical Fruits | publisher=[[Woodhead Publishing|Woodhead]] | publication-place=Cambridge | year=2011 | isbn=978-0-85709-362-2 | oclc=828736900 | page=152}}</ref>

A system of bamboo bridges and ladders directly connecting the tree canopies are also utilized in the Philippines for coconut plantations that harvest coconut sap (not fruits) for [[coconut vinegar]] and [[palm wine]] production.<ref name="Bello">{{cite journal |last1=Bello |first1=Rolando T. |last2=Pantoja |first2=Blanquita R. |last3=Tan |first3=Maria Francesca O. |last4=Banalo |first4=Roxanne A. |last5=Alvarez |first5=Jaonne V. |last6=Rañeses |first6=Florita P. |title=A study on skills for trade and economic diversification (STED) in the non-traditional coconut export sectors of the Philippines |journal=Employment Working Paper |date=2020 |publisher=International Labor Organization |location=Geneva |issn=1999-2947 |page=18 |url=https://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_742455.pdf}}</ref><ref name="Loyola"/> In other areas, like in [[Papua New Guinea]], coconuts are simply collected when they fall to the ground.<ref name="tp2"/>

A more controversial method employed by a small number of coconut farmers in [[Thailand]] and Malaysia use trained [[Southern pig-tailed macaque|pig-tailed macaques]] to harvest coconuts. Thailand has been raising and training pig-tailed macaques to pick coconuts for around 400&nbsp;years.<ref name="npr">{{Cite web |last=Barclay |first=Eliza |date=October 19, 2015 |title=What's Funny About The Business Of Monkeys Picking Coconuts? |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2015/10/19/448960760/monkeys-pick-coconuts-in-thailand-are-they-abused-or-working-animals |website=[[NPR]]}}</ref><ref name="vm">{{cite news |title=The truth behind the "widespread" practice of monkeys harvesting coconuts in Thailand impacting on consumers & retailers |url=https://vegworldmag.com/the-truth-behind-the-widespread-practice-of-monkeys-harvesting-coconuts-in-thailand-impacting-on-consumers-retailers/ |access-date=18 April 2021 |work=Vegworld Magazine |date=31 July 2020}}</ref><ref name="Pratruangkrai">{{cite news |last1=Pratruangkrai |first1=Petchanet |title=Focus: Thai coconut farmers reject monkey abuse charges, suffer lost income |url=https://english.kyodonews.net/news/2020/07/438857ee536a-focus-thai-coconut-farmers-reject-monkey-abuse-charges-suffer-lost-income.html |access-date=18 April 2021 |work=Kyodo News |date=16 July 2020}}</ref> Training schools for pig-tailed macaques still exist both in southern Thailand and in the Malaysian state of [[Kelantan]].<ref>Bertrand, Mireille. (January 27, 1967). Training without Reward: Traditional Training of Pig-tailed Macaques as Coconut Harvesters. ''Science'' '''155''' (3761): 484–486.</ref>

The practice of using macaques to harvest coconuts was exposed in [[Thailand]] by the [[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]] (PETA) in 2019, resulting in calls for [[boycott]]s on coconut products. PETA later clarified that the use of macaques is not practiced in the Philippines, India, [[Brazil]], [[Colombia]], [[Hawaii]], and other major coconut-producing regions.<ref name="Loyola">{{cite news |last1=Loyola |first1=James A. |title=Philippine coconut industry: No monkey business here |url=https://mb.com.ph/2020/07/23/philippine-coconut-industry-no-monkey-business-here/ |access-date=18 April 2021 |work=Manila Bulletin |date=23 July 2020}}</ref>

===Substitutes for cooler climates===
{{see also|Cocoseae}}
In cooler climates (but not less than [[Hardiness zone|USDA Zone 9]]), a similar palm, the [[queen palm]] (''Syagrus romanzoffiana''), is used in [[landscaping]]. Its fruits are similar to coconut, but smaller. The queen palm was originally classified in the genus ''Cocos'' along with the coconut, but was later reclassified in ''[[Syagrus (plant)|Syagrus]]''. A recently discovered palm, ''[[Beccariophoenix alfredii]]'' from [[Madagascar]], is nearly identical to the coconut, more so than the queen palm and can also be grown in slightly cooler climates than the coconut palm. Coconuts can only be grown in temperatures above {{convert|18|C|F}} and need a daily temperature above {{convert|22|C|F}} to produce fruit.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}}

{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:right; width:14em; text-align:center; margin-right:1em;"
|+ Coconut production, 2022
! style="background: #ddf;"| Country
! style="background: #ddf;"| Production<br /><small>(millions of [[tonne]]s)</small>
|-
|{{IDN}} || 17.2
|-
|{{PHL}} || 14.9
|-
|{{IND}} || 13.3
|-
|{{BRA}} || 2.7
|-
|{{LKA}} || 2.2
|-
! '''World''' !! 62.4
|-
|colspan=2|<small>Source: [[FAOSTAT]] of the [[United Nations]]</small><ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title= Coconut production in 2022, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity/Year (pick lists)|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database|date=2024|access-date=29 February 2024}}</ref>
|}
===Production===
{{Main|List of countries by coconut production}}
{{See also|Asian and Pacific Coconut Community}}

In 2022, world production of coconuts was 62 million [[tonne]]s, led by [[Indonesia]], India, and the Philippines, with 73% combined of the total.<ref name=faostat/>

====Indonesia====
Indonesia is the world's largest producer of coconuts, with a gross production of 15 million tonnes.<ref name="FAO">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081113104500/http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/desktopdefault.aspx#ancor|url-status=dead|title=FAOSTAT|archive-date=November 13, 2008|website=www.fao.org}}</ref>

====Philippines====
[[File:Nata de coco (Philippines).jpg|thumb|Red ''[[Nata de coco]]'' in syrup from the [[Philippines]]]]

The Philippines is the world's second-largest producer of coconuts. It was the world's largest producer for decades until a decline in production due to aging trees as well as from typhoon devastations. Indonesia overtook it in 2010. It is still the largest producer of [[coconut oil]] and [[copra]], accounting for 64% of global production. The production of coconuts plays an important role in the [[Economy of the Philippines|economy]], with 25% of cultivated land (around 3.56 million hectares) used for coconut plantations and approximately 25 to 33% of the population reliant on coconuts for their livelihood.<ref name="Tacio">{{cite web |last1=Tacio |first1=Henrylito D. |title=Reviving the Coconut Industry of the Philippines |url=https://www.gaiadiscovery.com/agriculture-industry/reviving-the-coconut-industry-of-the-philippines.html |website=Gaia Discovery |date=January 22, 2012 |access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref><ref name="Calderon">{{cite web |last1=Calderon |first1=Justin |title=Philippines counting on coconuts |url=http://investvine.com/philippines-counting-on-coconuts/ |website=investvine |date=January 5, 2013 |access-date=24 May 2019 |archive-date=May 28, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190528113002/http://investvine.com/philippines-counting-on-coconuts/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="McAloon">{{cite news |last1=McAloon |first1=Catherine |title=Coconut faces a looming global supply shortage, but could an Australian industry crack it? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/rural/2017-08-26/australians-love-coconuts-so-should-we-grown-our-own/8834012 |website=ABC News |date=August 25, 2017 |access-date=24 May 2019}}</ref>

Two important coconut products were first developed in the Philippines, [[Macapuno]] and ''[[Nata de coco]]''. Macapuno is a coconut variety with a jelly-like coconut meat. Its meat is sweetened, cut into strands, and sold in glass jars as coconut strings, sometimes labeled as "coconut sport". ''Nata de coco'', also called coconut gel, is another jelly-like coconut product made from fermented coconut water.<ref name="tietze">{{cite book|last1=Tietze|first1=Harald|last2=Echano|first2=Arthur|title=Coconut: Rediscovered as Medicinal Food|date=2006|publisher=Harald Tietze Publishing P/|isbn=978-1-876173-57-9|page=37|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0NAA8_fDI9wC&pg=PA37}}</ref><ref name="rillo">{{cite book|first1=Erlinda P.|last1=Rillo|editor1-first=C.|editor1-last=Oropeza|editor2-first=J.L.|editor2-last=Verdeil|editor3-first=G.R.|editor3-last= Ashburner|editor4-first=R.|editor4-last=Cardeña |editor5-first=J.M.|editor5-last=Santamaría|title =Current Advances in Coconut Biotechnology|volume=35|chapter =Coconut embryo culture|publisher = Springer Netherlands|doi =10.1007/978-94-015-9283-3_20|year =1999|pages=279–288|isbn =978-94-015-9283-3|series=Current Plant Science and Biotechnology in Agriculture}}</ref>

====India====
[[File:Coconut Market.JPG|thumb|upright=.8|Coconuts being sold on a street in India|alt=Many stacked coconuts, with man]]

Traditional areas of coconut cultivation in India are the states of [[Kerala]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Karnataka]], [[Puducherry (union territory)|Puducherry]], [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Goa]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Odisha]], [[West Bengal]] and, [[Gujarat]] and the islands of [[Lakshadweep]] and [[Andaman and Nicobar]]. As per 2014–15 statistics from Coconut Development Board of Government of India, four southern states combined account for almost 90% of the total production in the country: Tamil Nadu (33.8%), Karnataka (25.2%), Kerala (24.0%), and Andhra Pradesh (7.2%).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.coconutboard.gov.in/stat.htm |title=Coconut Cultivation |author1=Coconut Development Board |author2=Government of India. |date=n.d. |access-date=December 8, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210194230/http://www.coconutboard.gov.in/stat.htm |archive-date=December 10, 2015 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Other states, such as Goa, Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal, and those in the northeast ([[Tripura]] and [[Assam]]) account for the remaining productions. Though Kerala has the largest number of coconut trees, in terms of production per hectare, Tamil Nadu leads all other states. In Tamil Nadu, [[Coimbatore]] and [[Tirupur]] regions top the production list.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.coconutboard.nic.in/cps-tn.htm |title=Coconut Cultivation |author1=Coconut Development Board |author2=Government of India. |date=n.d. |access-date=December 8, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208153858/http://www.coconutboard.nic.in/cps-tn.htm |archive-date=December 8, 2015 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The coconut tree is the official state tree of Kerala, India.

In Goa, the coconut tree has been reclassified by the government as a palm (rather than a tree), enabling farmers and developers to clear land with fewer restrictions and without needing permission from the forest department before cutting a coconut tree.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Coconut-tree-loses-tree-status-in-Goa/articleshow/50239580.cms|title=Coconut tree loses tree status in Goa |newspaper=The Times of India|access-date=2017-01-08|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170207152535/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/goa/Coconut-tree-loses-tree-status-in-Goa/articleshow/50239580.cms|archive-date=February 7, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/jan/20/indian-state-decides-coconut-trees-are-no-longer-trees-but-palms-farming|title=Indian state decides coconut trees are no longer trees but palms|date=20 January 2016|newspaper=The Guardian|access-date=28 March 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160331034934/http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/jan/20/indian-state-decides-coconut-trees-are-no-longer-trees-but-palms-farming|archive-date=March 31, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

====Middle East====
{{originalresearch|section|date=April 2024}}
The main coconut-producing area in the Middle East is the [[Dhofar]] region of [[Oman]], but they can be grown all along the [[Persian Gulf]], [[Arabian Sea]], and [[Red Sea]] coasts, because these seas are tropical and provide enough humidity (through seawater evaporation) for coconut trees to grow. The young coconut plants need to be nursed and irrigated with drip pipes until they are old enough (stem bulb development) to be irrigated with [[brackish water]] or seawater alone, after which they can be replanted on the beaches. In particular, the area around [[Salalah]] maintains large coconut plantations similar to those found across the Arabian Sea in Kerala. The reasons why coconut are cultivated only in [[Yemen]]'s [[Al Mahrah]] and [[Hadramaut]] governorates and in the Sultanate of Oman, but not in other suitable areas in the [[Arabian Peninsula]], may originate from the fact that Oman and Hadramaut had long [[dhow]] trade relations with [[Burma]], Malaysia, Indonesia, East Africa, and [[Zanzibar]], as well as southern India and China. Omani people needed the coir rope from the coconut fiber to stitch together their traditional seagoing [[dhow]] vessels in which nails were never used. The know-how of coconut cultivation and necessary [[Erosion control|soil fixation]] and [[irrigation]] may have found its way into Omani, Hadrami and Al-Mahra culture by people who returned from those overseas areas.

[[File:Al hafa corniche.jpg|thumb|left|Coconut trees line the beaches and corniches of [[Oman]]|alt=Trees along a road]]

The ancient coconut groves of Dhofar were mentioned by the medieval Moroccan traveller [[Ibn Battuta]] in his writings, known as ''Al [[Rihla]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1354-ibnbattuta.html |title=Medieval Sourcebook: Ibn Battuta: Travels in Asia and Africa 1325–1354 |author=Halsall, Paul. (Ed). |publisher=Fordham University Center for Medieval Studies |date=February 21, 2001 |access-date=April 14, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513172555/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/1354-ibnbattuta.html |archive-date=May 13, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The annual rainy season known locally as ''[[khareef]]'' or [[monsoon]] makes coconut cultivation easy on the Arabian east coast.

Coconut trees also are increasingly grown for decorative purposes along the coasts of the [[United Arab Emirates]] and [[Saudi Arabia]] with the help of irrigation. The UAE has, however, imposed strict laws on mature coconut tree imports from other countries to reduce the spread of [[pest (organism)|pests]] to other native palm trees, as the mixing of date and coconut trees poses a risk of cross-species palm pests, such as [[rhinoceros beetle]]s and [[red palm weevil]]s.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pubhort.org/datepalm/datepalm2/datepalm2_38.pdf |last1=Kaakeh |first1=Walid |first2=Fouad |last2=El-Ezaby |first3=Mahmoud M.  |last3=Aboul-Nour |first4=Ahmed A.  |last4=Khamis |title=Management of the red palm weevil, ''Rhynchophorus ferrugineus'' Oliv., by a pheromone/food-based trapping system |year=2001 |access-date=December 6, 2009 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326030504/http://www.pubhort.org/datepalm/datepalm2/datepalm2_38.pdf |archive-date=March 26, 2009 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> The artificial landscaping may have been the cause for [[lethal yellowing]], a viral coconut palm disease that leads to the death of the tree. It is spread by host insects that thrive on heavy turf grasses. Therefore, heavy turf grass environments ([[beach resort]]s and [[golf course]]s) also pose a major threat to local coconut trees. Traditionally, [[dessert banana]] plants and local wild beach flora such as ''[[Scaevola taccada]]'' and ''[[Ipomoea pes-caprae]]'' were used as humidity-supplying green undergrowth for coconut trees, mixed with [[sea almond]] and [[sea hibiscus]]. Due to growing [[sedentary lifestyle]]s and heavy-handed landscaping, a decline in these traditional farming and soil-fixing techniques has occurred.

==== Sri Lanka ====
[[Sri Lanka]] is the world's fourth-largest producer of coconuts and is the second-largest producer of coconut oil and copra, accounting for 15% of the global production.<ref name="sri">{{Cite web|title=Coconut Industry in Sri Lanka – Sri Lanka Export Development Board|url=https://www.srilankabusiness.com/coconut/about/#:~:text=Coconut%20accounts%20for%20approximately%2012,3600%20million%20nuts%20per%20year.|access-date=2021-01-03|website=www.srilankabusiness.com}}</ref> The production of coconuts is the main source of [[Economy of Sri Lanka|Sri Lanka economy]], with 12% of cultivated land and 409,244 hectares used for coconut growing (2017). Sri Lanka established its Coconut Development Authority and Coconut Cultivation Board and Coconut Research Institute in the early [[British Ceylon]] period.<ref name=sri/>

====United States====
[[File:Coconut Sport Balls (Macapuno).jpg|thumb|[[Macapuno]] [[Fruit preserves|preserves]] sold in the [[United States]]]]

In the [[United States]], coconut palms can be grown and reproduced outdoors without irrigation in [[Hawaii]], southern and central [[Florida]],<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.floridagardener.com/palms/coconutpalm.htm | title=''Cocos nucifera'', Coconut palm | publisher=Florida Gardener | work=FloridaGardener.com | date=12 June 2008 | access-date=27 July 2016 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020105211/http://www.floridagardener.com/palms/coconutpalm.htm | archive-date=October 20, 2015 | df=mdy-all }}</ref> and the territories of [[Puerto Rico]], [[Guam]], [[American Samoa]], the [[U.S. Virgin Islands]], and the [[Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands|Northern Mariana Islands]]. Coconut palms are also periodically successful in the [[Lower Rio Grande Valley]] region of [[South Texas|southern Texas]] and in other microclimates in the [[Southwestern United States|southwest]].

In [[Florida]], wild populations of coconut palms extend up the East Coast from [[Key West]] to [[Jupiter Inlet]], and up the West Coast from [[Marco Island]] to [[Sarasota]]. Many of the smallest coral islands in the [[Florida Keys]] are known to have abundant coconut palms sprouting from coconuts that have drifted or been deposited by ocean currents. Coconut palms are cultivated north of South Florida to roughly [[Cocoa Beach]] on the East Coast and [[Clearwater, Florida|Clearwater]] on the West Coast.

====Australia====
Coconuts are commonly grown around the northern coast of Australia, and in some warmer parts of [[New South Wales]]. However, they are mainly present as decoration, and the Australian coconut industry is small; Australia is a net importer of coconut products. Australian cities put much effort into de-fruiting decorative coconut trees to ensure that mature coconuts do not fall and injure people.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Australia has a lot of coconut palms – so why don't we have a coconut industry? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-09-30/should-we-be-doing-more-with-australian-coconuts/9000884|date=2017-09-29|website=ABC.net.au|access-date=2020-05-05}}</ref>

== Allergens ==

=== Food ===
[[Coconut oil]] is increasingly used in the food industry.<ref name="MichavilaAmat2015">{{cite journal |vauthors=Michavila Gomez A, Amat Bou M, Gonzalez Cortés MV, Segura Navas L, Moreno Palanques MA, Bartolomé B |year=2015 |title=Coconut anaphylaxis: Case report and review |url=http://apps.elsevier.es/watermark/ctl_servlet?_f=10&pident_articulo=90393999&pident_usuario=0&pcontactid=&pident_revista=105&ty=150&accion=L&origen=zonadelectura&web=www.elsevier.es&lan=en&fichero=105v43n02a90393999pdf001.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Allergol Immunopathol (Madr) |type=Review. Letter. Case reports. |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=219–220 |doi=10.1016/j.aller.2013.09.004 |pmid=24231149 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625034613/http://apps.elsevier.es/watermark/ctl_servlet?_f=10&pident_articulo=90393999&pident_usuario=0&pcontactid=&pident_revista=105&ty=150&accion=L&origen=zonadelectura&web=www.elsevier.es&lan=en&fichero=105v43n02a90393999pdf001.pdf |archive-date=June 25, 2016 |access-date=June 18, 2016 |df=mdy-all}}</ref> Proteins from coconut [[Food allergy|may cause allergic reactions]], including [[anaphylaxis]], in some people.<ref name="MichavilaAmat2015" />

In the United States, the [[Food and Drug Administration]] declared that coconut must be disclosed as an ingredient on package labels as a "tree nut" with potential [[allergen]]icity.<ref>{{cite web |date=January 2013 |title=Guidance for Industry: A Food Labeling Guide (6. Ingredient Lists); Major Food Allergens (food source names and examples) |url=https://www.fda.gov/food/guidanceregulation/guidancedocumentsregulatoryinformation/labelingnutrition/ucm064880.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529191639/https://www.fda.gov/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/LabelingNutrition/ucm064880.htm |archive-date=May 29, 2016 |access-date=29 May 2016 |work=Food Labeling and Nutrition |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration |df=mdy-all}}</ref>

=== Topical ===
[[Cocamidopropyl betaine]] (CAPB) is a [[surfactant]] manufactured from coconut oil that is increasingly used as an ingredient in personal hygiene products and cosmetics, such as [[shampoo]]s, liquid [[soap]]s, cleansers and [[Antiseptic|antiseptics]], among others.<ref name="JacobAmini2008">{{cite journal |vauthors=Jacob SE, Amini S |year=2008 |title=Cocamidopropyl betaine |journal=Dermatitis |type=Review |volume=19 |issue=3 |pages=157–160 |doi=10.2310/6620.2008.06043 |pmid=18627690}}</ref> CAPB may cause mild skin irritation,<ref name="JacobAmini2008" /> but allergic reactions to CAPB are rare<ref name="SchnuchLessmann2011">{{cite journal |vauthors=Schnuch A, Lessmann H, Geier J, Uter W |year=2011 |title=Is cocamidopropyl betaine a contact allergen? Analysis of network data and short review of the literature |journal=Contact Dermatitis |type=Review |volume=64 |issue=4 |pages=203–211 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0536.2010.01863.x |pmid=21392028 |s2cid=205814762}}</ref> and probably related to impurities rendered during the manufacturing process (which include [[amidoamine]] and [[dimethylaminopropylamine]]) rather than CAPB itself.<ref name="JacobAmini2008" />

== Uses ==
[[File:Coconut_Wall_clock_coir_work5.jpg|200px|thumbnail|left| Coconut wall [[clock]] and [[coir]]]]
[[File:Coconuts for sale, Puthia (01).jpg|thumb|Immature green coconuts sold in [[Bangladesh]] for [[coconut water]] and their soft jelly-like flesh|alt=Stack of green coconuts on cart]]

The coconut palm is grown throughout the [[tropics]] for decoration, as well as for its many culinary and nonculinary uses; virtually every part of the coconut palm can be used by humans in some manner and has significant economic value. Coconuts' versatility is sometimes noted in its naming. In [[Sanskrit]], it is ''kalpa vriksha'' ("the tree which provides all the necessities of life"). In the [[Malay language]], it is ''pokok seribu guna'' ("the tree of a thousand uses"). In the Philippines, the coconut is commonly called the "[[tree of life]]".<ref>Margolis, Jason. (December 13, 2006). [http://www.theworld.org/?q=node/7280 Coconut fuel] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110831035256/http://www.theworld.org/?q=node%2F7280 |date=August 31, 2011 }}. ''PRI's The World''. Retrieved April 10, 2011.</ref>

It is one of the most useful trees in the world.<ref name="duke" />

===Culinary===
{{Cookbook}}

====Nutrition====
{{Nutritional value
| name=Coconut meat, raw
|image=Coconuts - single and cracked open.jpg
| water=47 g
| kJ=1480
| protein=3.33 g
| fat=33.49 g
| satfat=29.698 g
| monofat = 1.425 g
| polyfat = 0.366 g
| carbs=15.23 g
| sugars=6.23 g
| fiber=9.0 g
| calcium_mg=14
| copper_mg=0.435
| iron_mg=2.43
| magnesium_mg=32
| phosphorus_mg=113
| potassium_mg=356
| sodium_mg=20
| zinc_mg=1.10
| manganese_mg=1.500
| selenium_ug=10.1
| vitC_mg=3.3
| thiamin_mg=0.066
| riboflavin_mg=0.020
| niacin_mg=0.540
| pantothenic_mg=0.300
| vitB6_mg=0.054
| folate_ug=26
| vitE_mg=0.24
| vitK_ug=0.2
<!-- amino acids -->
| tryptophan=0.039 g
| threonine=0.121 g
| isoleucine=0.131 g
| leucine=0.247 g
| lysine=0.147 g
| methionine=0.062 g
| cystine=0.066 g
| phenylalanine=0.169 g
| tyrosine=0.103 g
| valine=0.202 g
| arginine=0.546 g
| histidine=0.077 g
| alanine=0.170 g
| aspartic acid=0.325 g
| glutamic acid=0.761 g
| glycine=0.158 g
| proline=0.138 g
| serine=0.172 g
| source_usda=1
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/170169/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}
A {{convert|100|g|oz|abbr=off|adj=on|frac=2}} reference serving of raw coconut flesh supplies {{convert|1480|kJ|kcal|0|abbr=off}} of [[food energy]] and a high amount of total [[fat]] (33 grams), especially [[saturated fat]] (89% of total fat), along with a moderate quantity of [[carbohydrates]] (15g), and [[Protein (nutrient)|protein]] (3g). [[Micronutrients]] in significant content (more than 10% of the [[Daily Value]]) include the [[dietary minerals]], [[manganese]], [[copper]], [[iron]], [[phosphorus]], [[selenium]], and [[zinc]] (table).

====Coconut meat====
{{redirect|Grated coconut|the bucking horse|Grated Coconut (horse)}}
The edible white, fleshy part of the seed (the [[endosperm]]) is known as the "coconut meat", "coconut flesh", or "coconut kernel".<ref name="Roehl 1996 p. 115"/> In the coconut industry, coconut meat can be classified loosely into three different types depending on maturity{{Snd}}namely ''"Malauhog", "Malakanin" and "Malakatad"''. The terminology is derived from the [[Tagalog language]]. Malauhog (literally "[[mucus]]-like") refers to very young coconut meat (around 6 to 7 months old) which has a translucent appearance and a gooey texture that disintegrates easily. Malakanin (literally "[[White rice|cooked rice]]-like") refers to young coconut meat (around 7–8 months old) which has a more opaque white appearance, a soft texture similar to cooked rice, and can still be easily scraped off the coconut shell. Malakatad (literally "leather-like") refers to fully mature coconut meat (around 8 to 9 months old) with an opaque white appearance, a tough rubbery to leathery texture, and is difficult to separate from the shell.<ref name="Gatchalian"/><ref name="Javel"/>

[[File:India, Day 12 (3415347493).jpg|thumb|Soft immature coconut meat usually is eaten as is]]

Maturity is difficult to assess on an unopened coconut, and there is no technically proven method for determining maturity. Based on color and size, younger coconuts tend to be smaller and have brighter colors, while more mature coconuts have browner colors and are larger.<ref name="Marikkar">{{cite book |last1=Marikkar |first1=J.M.N. |last2=Madarapperama |first2=W.S. |editor1-last=Siddiq |editor1-first=Muhammad |editor2-last=Ahmed |editor2-first=Jasim |editor3-last=Lobo |editor3-first=Maria Gloria |editor4-last=Ozadali |editor4-first=Ferhan |title=Tropical and subtropical fruits: postharvest physiology, processing and packaging |date=2012 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Ames, Iowa |isbn=978-1-118-32411-0 |page=164 |chapter=Coconut}}</ref> They can also be determined traditionally by tapping on the coconut fruit. Malauhog has a "solid" sound when tapped, while Malakanin and Malakatad produce a "hollow" sound.<ref name="Gatchalian">{{cite journal |last1=Gatchalian |first1=Miflora M. |last2=De Leon |first2=Sonia Y. |last3=Yano |first3=Toshimasa |title=Measurement of young coconut (Cocos nucifera, L.) maturity by sound waves |journal=Journal of Food Engineering |date=January 1994 |volume=23 |issue=3 |pages=253–276 |doi=10.1016/0260-8774(94)90053-1}}</ref><ref name="Javel">{{cite book |last1=Javel |first1=Irister M. |last2=Bandala |first2=Argel A. |last3=Salvador |first3=Rodolfo C. |last4=Bedruz |first4=Rhen Anjerome R. |last5=Dadios |first5=Elmer P. |last6=Vicerra |first6=Ryan Rhay P. |title=2018 IEEE 10th International Conference on Humanoid, Nanotechnology, Information Technology,Communication and Control, Environment and Management (HNICEM) |chapter=Coconut Fruit Maturity Classification using Fuzzy Logic |date=November 2018 |pages=1–6 |doi=10.1109/HNICEM.2018.8666231|isbn=978-1-5386-7767-4 |s2cid=77391938 }}</ref> Another method is to shake the coconut. Immature coconuts produce a sloshing sound when shaken (the sharper the sound, the younger it is), while fully mature coconuts do not.<ref name="Allonsy">{{cite news |last1=Allonsy |first1=Amelia |title=How to Tell When Coconuts Are Ripe on the Tree |url=https://homeguides.sfgate.com/tell-coconuts-ripe-tree-60198.html |access-date=1 August 2021 |work=SFGATE |date=15 December 2018}}</ref><ref name="Grant">{{cite web |last1=Grant |first1=Amy |title=When Are Coconuts Ripe: Do Coconuts Ripen After They Are Picked |url=https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/edible/fruits/coconut/when-are-coconuts-ripe.htm |website=Gardening Know How |date=April 16, 2021 |access-date=1 August 2021}}</ref>

Both ''"Malauhog"'' and ''"Malakanin"'' meats of immature coconuts can be eaten as is or used in salads, drinks, desserts, and pastries such as [[buko pie]] and ''[[es kelapa muda]]''. Because of their soft textures, they are unsuitable for grating. Mature Malakatad coconut meat has a tough texture and thus is processed before consumption or made into [[copra]]. Freshly shredded mature coconut meat, known as "grated coconut", "shredded coconut", or "coconut flakes", is used in the extraction of [[coconut milk]]. They are also used as a [[Garnish (food)|garnish]] for various dishes, as in ''[[klepon]]'' and ''[[puto bumbong]]''. They can also be cooked in sugar and eaten as a dessert in the Philippines known as ''[[bukayo]]''.<ref name="Roehl 1996 p. 115"/><ref name="polistico2">{{cite book |author=Edgie Polistico |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-h9MswEACAAJ |title=Philippine Food, Cooking, & Dining Dictionary |publisher=Anvil Publishing, Incorporated |year=2017 |isbn=9789712731709}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Coconut: Pacific food leaflet № 4 |date=2006 |publisher=Secretariat of the Pacific Community |isbn=978-982-00-0164-0 |url=https://cms.ctahr.hawaii.edu/Portals/159/Images/Resources/IslandStapleFoods/4%20COCONUT%20web.pdf}}</ref><ref name="El Bassam">{{cite book |last1=El Bassam |first1=N. |title=Handbook of Bioenergy Crops: A Complete Reference to Species, Development, and Applications |date=2010 |publisher=Earthscan |isbn=978-1-84977-478-9 |page=159}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Chu |first1=Wai Hon |last2=Lovatt |first2=Connie |title=The Dumpling: A Seasonal Guide |date=2009 |publisher=Harper Collins |isbn=978-0-06-195940-0 |page=8}}</ref>

Grated coconut that is dehydrated by drying or baking is known as "desiccated coconut". It contains less than 3% of the original moisture content of coconut meat. It is predominantly used in the [[bakery]] and [[confectionery]] industries (especially in non-coconut-producing countries) because of its longer shelf life compared to freshly grated coconut.<ref>{{cite web |title=ICC Quality Standard: Desiccated Coconut |url=https://coconutcommunity.org/viewpdf/apcc_quality_standards_for_coconut_products/4 |website=International Coconut Community |publisher=United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN-ESCAP) |access-date=7 June 2021 |archive-date=December 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216085337/https://coconutcommunity.org/viewpdf/apcc_quality_standards_for_coconut_products/4 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Ghosh">{{cite book |last1=Ghosh |first1=D.K. |title=Value Addition of Horticultural Crops: Recent Trends and Future Directions |date=2015 |publisher=Springer |chapter=Postharvest, Product Diversification and Value Addition in Coconut|editor1-first=Amit Baran|editor1-last=Sharangi|editor2-first=Suchand|editor2-last=Datta |isbn=978-81-322-2262-0}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Exporting desiccated coconuts to Europe |url=https://www.cbi.eu/market-information/processed-fruit-vegetables-edible-nuts/desiccated-coconuts/europe |website=CBI |publisher=Centrum tot Bevordering van de Import uit ontwikkelingslanden (CBI), Netherlands Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=7 June 2021}}</ref> Desiccated coconut is used in confections and desserts such as [[macaroon]]s. Dried coconut is also used as the filling for many [[chocolate bar]]s. Some dried coconut is purely coconut, but others are manufactured with other ingredients, such as [[sugar]], [[propylene glycol]], [[salt]], and [[sodium metabisulfite]].

Coconut meat can also be cut into larger pieces or strips, dried, and salted to make "coconut chips" or "coco chips".<ref name="El Bassam"/> These can be toasted or baked to make bacon-like fixings.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Lyle|first=Katie Letcher|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/560560606|title=The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants, Mushrooms, Fruits, and Nuts: How to Find, Identify, and Cook Them|publisher=[[FalconGuides]]|year=2010|isbn=978-1-59921-887-8|edition=2nd|location=Guilford, CN|page=141|oclc=560560606|orig-year=2004}}</ref>

====Macapuno====
A special cultivar of coconut known as [[macapuno]] produces a large amount of jelly-like coconut meat. Its meat fills the entire interior of the coconut shell, rather than just the inner surfaces. It was first developed for commercial cultivation in the Philippines and is used widely in [[Philippine cuisine]] for desserts, drinks, and pastries. It is also popular in [[Indonesia]] (where it is known as ''kopyor'') for making beverages.<ref name="rillo"/>

====Coconut milk====
{{Main|Coconut milk}}
{{see also|List of dishes using coconut milk}}
[[File:Cononut milk.JPG|left|thumb|[[Coconut milk]], a widely used ingredient in the cuisines of regions where coconuts are native|alt=Bowl of white liquid]]

Coconut milk, not to be confused with coconut water, is obtained by pressing the grated coconut meat, usually with hot water added which extracts the coconut oil, proteins, and aromatic compounds. It is used for cooking various dishes. Coconut milk contains 5% to 20% fat, while coconut cream contains around 20% to 50% fat.<ref name="NIIR">{{cite book |author=NIIR Board of Consultants and Engineers|title=The Complete Book on Coconut & Coconut Products (Cultivation and Processing) |date=2006 |publisher=Asia Pacific Business Press Inc. |isbn=978-81-7833-007-5 |page=274 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UvXKAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA274}}</ref><ref name="tp">{{cite book |author=Tetra Pak|title=Coconut Handbook |date=2016 |chapter=The Chemistry of Coconut Milk and Cream|publisher=Tetra Pak International S.A. |isbn=978-91-7773-948-7 |chapter-url=https://coconuthandbook.tetrapak.com/chapter/chemistry-coconut-milk-and-cream}}</ref> Most of the fat is [[saturated fat|saturated]] (89%), with [[lauric acid]] being the major [[fatty acid]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/3663?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&sort=&qlookup=coconut+milk&offset=&format=Full&new=&measureby=|title=Full Report (All Nutrients): 12117, Nuts, coconut milk, raw (liquid expressed from grated meat and water)|publisher=US Department of Agriculture, National Nutrient Database, version SR-28|date=2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230221407/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/3663?fg=&man=&lfacet=&count=&max=35&sort=&qlookup=coconut+milk&offset=&format=Full&new=&measureby=|archive-date=December 30, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Coconut milk can be diluted to create [[coconut milk beverage]]s. These have a much lower fat content and are suitable as [[milk substitute]]s.<ref name="NIIR"/><ref name="tp"/>

[[Coconut milk powder]], a protein-rich powder, can be processed from coconut milk following [[centrifugation]], [[separation process|separation]], and [[spray drying]].<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Appl Biochem Biotechnol|year=2012|volume=167|issue=5|pages=1290–302|doi=10.1007/s12010-012-9632-9|title=Production of coconut protein powder from coconut wet processing waste and its characterization|vauthors=Naik A, Raghavendra SN, Raghavarao KS|pmid=22434355|s2cid=11890199}}</ref>

Coconut milk and [[coconut cream]] extracted from grated coconut is often added to various desserts and savory dishes, as well as in [[curries]] and stews.<ref name="grimwood" /><ref name="pca-process">{{cite book|author =Philippine Coconut Authority|title =Coconut Processing Technologies: Coconut Milk|publisher =Department of Agriculture, Republic of the Philippines|series =FPDD Guide No. 2 – Series of 2014|year =2014|url =http://www.pca.da.gov.ph/pdf/techno/coconut_milk.pdf|access-date =May 24, 2019|archive-date =November 6, 2020|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20201106130020/http://www.pca.da.gov.ph/pdf/techno/coconut_milk.pdf|url-status =dead}}</ref> It can also be diluted into a beverage. Various other products made from thickened coconut milk with sugar and/or eggs like [[coconut jam]] and [[coconut custard]] are also widespread in Southeast Asia.<ref name="Duruz">{{cite book |last1=Duruz |first1=Jean |last2=Khoo |first2=Gaik Cheng |title=Eating Together: Food, Space, and Identity in Malaysia and Singapore |date=2014 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-2741-5 |page=45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JojpBQAAQBAJ&q=kaya%20coconut&pg=PA45}}</ref><ref name="Alford">{{cite book |last1=Alford |first1=Jeffrey |last2=Duguid |first2=Naomi |title=Hot Sour Salty Sweet: A Culinary Journey Through Southeast Asia |date=2000 |publisher=Artisan Books |isbn=978-1-57965-564-8 |page=302 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cUP30wR8-kUC&pg=PA302}}</ref> In the Philippines, sweetened reduced coconut milk is marketed as [[coconut syrup]] and is used for various desserts.<ref name="thampan">{{cite book |last1=Thampan |first1=Palakasseril Kumaran |title=Handbook on Coconut Palm |date=1981 |publisher=Oxford & IBH |page=199}}</ref> Coconut oil extracted from coconut milk or copra is also used for [[frying]], cooking, and making [[margarine]], among other uses.<ref name="grimwood"/><ref name="kurian">{{cite book |last1=Kurian |first1=Alice |last2=Peter |first2=K.V. |title=Commercial Crops Technology |date=2007 |publisher=New India Publishing |isbn=978-81-89422-52-3 |pages=202–203 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2VFYqwA-Mn4C&pg=PA202}}</ref>

====Coconut water====
{{Main|Coconut water}}
[[File:Coconut Drink, Pangandaran.JPG|thumb|[[Coconut water]] drink|alt=Cut open coconut with straw]]

Coconut water serves as a suspension for the [[endosperm]] of the coconut during its [[Cell cycle#Mitotic phase (chromosome separation)|nuclear phase]] of development. Later, the endosperm matures and deposits onto the coconut rind during the cellular phase.<ref name=botany/> The water is consumed throughout the humid tropics, and has been introduced into the [[retail market]] as a processed [[sports drink]]. Mature fruits have significantly less liquid than young, immature coconuts, barring spoilage. Coconut water can be fermented to produce coconut vinegar.

Per 100-gram serving, coconut water contains 19 [[calories]] and no significant content of [[essential nutrients]].

Coconut water can be drunk fresh or used in cooking as in ''[[binakol]]''.<ref name=endosperm>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cjHCoMQNkcgC&q=coconut+endosperm+encyclopedia&pg=PA112|title=Cocos in The Encyclopedia of Fruit and Nuts|access-date=11 May 2015|year=2008|vauthors=Janick J, Paull RE|pages=109–113|isbn=978-0-85199-638-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Ginataang Manok (Chicken Stewed in Coconut Milk) Filipino Recipe! |url=http://www.savvynana.com/recipe/ginataang-manok-chicken-stewed-coconut-milk-filipino-recipe/ |website=Savvy Nana's |access-date=20 April 2019 |archive-date=December 16, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211216100142/http://www.savvynana.com/recipe/ginataang-manok-chicken-stewed-coconut-milk-filipino-recipe/ |url-status=usurped }}</ref> It can also be fermented to produce a jelly-like dessert known as ''[[nata de coco]]''.<ref name="tietze"/>

====Coconut flour====
Coconut flour has also been developed for use in baking, to combat malnutrition.<ref name="grimwood">[[#Grimwood|Grimwood]], pp. 183–187.</ref>

====Sprouted coconut====
{{See also|Sprouted coconut}}
Newly germinated coconuts contain a spherical edible mass known as the sprouted coconut or coconut sprout. It has a crunchy watery texture and a slightly sweet taste. It is eaten as is or used as an ingredient in various dishes. It is produced as the [[endosperm]] nourishes the [[Plant embryogenesis|developing embryo]]. It is a [[haustorium]], a spongy absorbent tissue formed from the distal part of embryo during coconut germination, which facilitates absorption of nutrients for the growing shoot and root.<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=28867086|year=2018|last1=Manivannan|first1=A|title=Biochemical and nutritional characterization of coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) haustorium|journal=Food Chemistry|volume=238|pages=153–159|last2=Bhardwaj|first2=R|last3=Padmanabhan|first3=S|last4=Suneja|first4=P|last5=Hebbar|first5=K. B|last6=Kanade|first6=S. R|doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.10.127}}</ref>

====Heart of palm====
{{See also|Heart of palm}}
[[File:9850Foods Fruits Baliuag Bulacan Philippines 18.jpg|thumb|Ubod (coconut [[heart of palm]]) from the [[Philippines]]]]

[[Apical meristem|Apical buds]] of adult plants are edible, and are known as "palm cabbage" or heart of palm. They are considered a rare delicacy, as harvesting the buds kills the palms. Hearts of palm are eaten in salads, sometimes called "millionaire's salad".

====Toddy and sap====

The sap derived from incising the flower clusters of the coconut is drunk as [[Hot toddy|toddy]], also known as ''[[tubâ]]'' in the Philippines (both fermented and fresh), ''tuak'' (Indonesia and Malaysia), ''karewe'' (fresh and not fermented, collected twice a day, for breakfast and dinner) in [[Kiribati]], and ''[[neera]]'' in [[South Asia]]. When left to ferment on its own, it becomes palm wine. Palm wine is distilled to produce ''[[arrack]]''. In the Philippines, this alcoholic drink is called ''[[lambanog]]'' (historically also called ''vino de coco'' in Spanish) or "coconut vodka".<ref name="lambanog">{{cite web|url=http://www1.american.edu/ted/lambanog.htm|title=Lambanog: A Philippine Drink|author=Porter, Jolene V.|year=2005|publisher=American University|location=Washington, D.C.|access-date=April 10, 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110222210517/http://www1.american.edu/ted/lambanog.htm|archive-date=February 22, 2011|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

The sap can be reduced by boiling to create a sweet syrup or candy such as ''te kamamai'' in Kiribati or ''dhiyaa hakuru'' and ''addu bondi'' in the Maldives. It can be reduced further to yield [[coconut sugar]] also referred to as [[palm sugar]] or [[jaggery]]. A young, well-maintained tree can produce around {{convert|300|L|USgal|abbr=off}} of toddy per year, while a 40-year-old tree may yield around {{convert|400|L|USgal|abbr=on}}.<ref>[[#Grimwood|Grimwood]], p. 20.</ref>

Coconut sap, usually extracted from cut inflorescence stalks is sweet when fresh and can be drunk as is such as in ''[[tuba fresca]]'' of [[Mexico]] (derived from the Philippine ''tubâ'').<ref>{{cite web |title=Culture of Colima |url=http://www.explorandomexico.com/state/8/Colima/culture |website=Explorando Mexico |access-date=5 May 2019}}</ref> They can also be processed to extract palm sugar.<ref>{{cite web|title=Palm Sugar in Germany|url=http://www.importpromotiondesk.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Publikationen/factsheet/zutaten/palm-sugar-in-germany.pdf|website=Import Promotion Desk (IPD)|publisher=CBI, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, The Netherlands|access-date=6 July 2017|archive-date=May 9, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509022827/http://www.importpromotiondesk.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Publikationen/factsheet/zutaten/palm-sugar-in-germany.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref> The sap when fermented can also be made into coconut vinegar or various palm wines (which can be further [[distilled]] to make arrack).<ref name="Sanchez">{{cite book |last1=Sanchez |first1=Priscilla C. |title=Philippine Fermented Foods: Principles and Technology |date=2008 |publisher=UP Press |isbn=978-971-542-554-4 |pages=151–153 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=smfr-KYgtWkC&pg=PT174}}</ref><ref name="Gibbs1912">{{cite journal |last1=Gibbs |first1=H.D. |last2=Holmes |first2=W.C.|title=The Alcohol Industry of the Philippine Islands Part II: Distilled Liquors; their Consumption and Manufacture|journal=The Philippine Journal of Science: Section A |date=1912 |volume=7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.27242/page/n27 19]–46 |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.27242}}</ref>

====Coconut vinegar====
{{See also|Vinegar#Palm}}
Coconut vinegar, made from fermented [[coconut water]] or sap, is used extensively in Southeast Asian cuisine (notably the Philippines, where it is known as ''[[sukang tuba]]''), as well as in some cuisines of India and Sri Lanka, especially [[Goan cuisine]]. A cloudy white liquid, it has a particularly sharp, acidic taste with a slightly yeasty note.<ref name="polistico2" />

===Coconut oil===
{{Main|Coconut oil}}

Coconut oil is commonly used in cooking, especially for frying. It can be used in liquid form as would other [[vegetable oil]]s, or in solid form similar to [[butter]] or [[lard]].

Long-term consumption of coconut oil may have negative health effects similar to those from consuming other sources of [[saturated fat]]s, including butter, [[beef fat]], and [[palm oil]].<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000510|pmid = 28620111|title = Dietary Fats and Cardiovascular Disease: A Presidential Advisory from the American Heart Association|journal = Circulation|volume = 136|issue = 3|pages = e1–e23|year = 2017|last1 = Sacks|first1 = Frank M.|last2 = Lichtenstein|first2 = Alice H.|last3 = Wu|first3 = Jason H.Y.|last4 = Appel|first4 = Lawrence J.|last5 = Creager|first5 = Mark A.|last6 = Kris-Etherton|first6 = Penny M.|last7 = Miller|first7 = Michael|last8 = Rimm|first8 = Eric B.|last9 = Rudel|first9 = Lawrence L.|last10 = Robinson|first10 = Jennifer G.|last11 = Stone|first11 = Neil J.|last12 = Van Horn|first12 = Linda V.|author13 = American Heart Association|s2cid = 367602|doi-access = free}}</ref> Its chronic consumption may increase the risk of [[cardiovascular diseases]] by raising total [[blood cholesterol]] levels through elevated blood levels of [[low-density lipoprotein|LDL cholesterol]] and [[lauric acid]].<ref name="Neela">{{cite journal | last1=Neelakantan | first1=Nithya | last2=Seah | first2=Jowy Yi Hoong | last3=van Dam | first3=Rob M. | title=The effect of coconut oil consumption on cardiovascular risk factors (Systematic review) | journal=Circulation| volume=141 | issue=10 | date=2020| doi=10.1161/circulationaha.119.043052 | pages=803–814|pmid=31928080| s2cid=210195904 | doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Eyres2016">{{cite journal |last1=Eyres |first1=L |last2=Eyres |first2=MF |last3=Chisholm |first3=A |last4=Brown |first4=RC |title=Coconut oil consumption and cardiovascular risk factors in humans |journal=Nutrition Reviews |date=April 2016 |volume=74 |issue=4 |pages=267–280 |doi=10.1093/nutrit/nuw002 |pmid=26946252|pmc=4892314}}</ref>

====Coconut butter====
[[Coconut butter]] is often used to describe solidified coconut oil, but has also been adopted as an alternate name for [[creamed coconut]], a specialty product made of coconut milk solids or [[purée]]d coconut meat and oil.<ref name="Roehl 1996 p. 115">{{cite book | last=Roehl | first=E. | title=Whole Food Facts: The Complete Reference Guide | publisher=Inner Traditions/Bear | year=1996 | isbn=978-0-89281-635-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H8lwmA52ltIC&pg=PA115| page=115 }}</ref> Having a creamy Consistency that is spreadable, reminiscent of Peanut butter albeit a little richer.<ref>{{Cite web |title=COCONUT BUTTER - Cocowonder.com.ph |url=https://www.cocowonder.com.ph/index.php/product-lines/coconut-products/coconut-spread-jam-butter/coconut-butter |access-date=2024-07-18 |website=www.cocowonder.com.ph}}</ref>

===Copra===
{{Main|Copra|Coconut oil}}
Copra is the dried meat of the seed and after processing produces coconut oil and coconut meal. Coconut oil, aside from being used in cooking as an ingredient and for frying, is used in soaps, cosmetics, hair oil, and massage oil. Coconut oil is also a main ingredient in [[Ayurveda|Ayurvedic oils]]. In [[Vanuatu]], coconut palms for copra production are generally spaced {{convert|9|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} apart, allowing a tree density of {{convert|100|to|160|/ha|/acre|abbr=off}}.

It takes around 6,000 full-grown coconuts to produce one tonne of copra.<ref>Bourke, R. Michael and Tracy Harwood (Eds.). (2009). ''Food and Agriculture in Papua New Guinea''. Australian National University. p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=p92MsquxOEwC&dq=c&pg=PA327 327]. {{ISBN|978-1-921536-60-1}}.</ref>

===Husks and shells===
[[File:Coconut button factory in Dongjiao - 02.JPG|thumb|Coconut buttons in Dongjiao Town, [[Hainan]], China]]
The husk and shells can be used for fuel and are a source of [[charcoal]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Coconut Shell Lump Charcoal|url=http://www.supremecarbon.com/coco.htm|publisher=Supreme Carbon Indonesia|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121229141916/http://www.supremecarbon.com/coco.htm|archive-date=December 29, 2012|df=mdy-all}}</ref> [[Activated carbon]] manufactured from coconut shell is considered extremely effective for the removal of impurities. The coconut's obscure origin in foreign lands led to the notion of using cups made from the shell to neutralise poisoned drinks. [[Coconut cup]]s were frequently carved with scenes in [[relief]] and mounted with precious metals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/17.190.622ab|title=Hans van Amsterdam: Coconut Cup with Cover (17.190.622ab) – Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History – The Metropolitan Museum of Art|work=metmuseum.org|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015101625/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/17.190.622ab|archive-date=October 15, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

The husks can be used as [[Personal flotation device|flotation devices]]. As an [[abrasive]],<ref name="Skyhorse Publishing">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/277203364 |title=The Complete Guide to Edible Wild Plants |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing; United States Department of the Army |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60239-692-0 |location=New York |pages=44 |language=en-US |oclc=277203364}}</ref> a dried half coconut shell with husk can be used to buff floors. It is known as a ''bunot'' in the Philippines and simply a "coconut brush" in [[Jamaica]]. The fresh husk of a brown coconut may serve as a dish sponge or body sponge. 

[[Coconut cup]]s, often with highly decorated mounts in precious metals, were an exotic luxury in medieval and Early Modern Europe, that were also thought to have medical benefits.  A ''[[coco chocolatero]]'' was a simpler type of cup used to serve small quantities of beverages (such as chocolate drinks) between the 17th and 19th centuries in countries such as Mexico, Guatemala, and Venezuela.
[[File:Fish with coconut Mok (9107882174).jpg|thumb|left|Fish curry being served in coconut shell in Thailand|alt=Soup in coconuts]]

In Asia, coconut shells are also used as bowls and in the manufacture of various handicrafts, including buttons carved from the dried shell. Coconut buttons are often used for Hawaiian [[aloha shirt]]s. ''Tempurung'', as the shell is called in the Malay language, can be used as a soup bowl and{{Snd}}if fixed with a handle{{Snd}}a ladle. In Thailand, the coconut husk is used as a potting medium to produce healthy forest tree [[sapling]]s. The process of husk extraction from the coir bypasses the retting process, using a custom-built coconut husk extractor designed by [[ASEAN]]–Canada Forest Tree Seed Centre in 1986. Fresh husks contain more [[tannin]] than old husks. Tannin produces negative effects on sapling growth.<ref>Somyos Kijkar. ''Handbook: Coconut husk as a potting medium''. ASEAN-Canada Forest Tree Seed Centre Project 1991, Muak-Lek, Saraburi, Thailand. {{Listed Invalid ISBN|974-361-277-1}}.</ref> The shell and husk can be burned for smoke to [[Insect repellent|repel]] mosquitoes<ref name="Skyhorse Publishing" /> and are used in parts of South India for this purpose.

Half coconut shells are used in theatre [[Foley sound effects]] work, struck together to create the sound effect of a horse's hoofbeats. Dried half shells are used as the bodies of musical instruments, including the Chinese ''[[yehu]]'' and ''[[banhu]]'', along with the Vietnamese ''[[đàn gáo]]'' and Arabo-Turkic ''[[rebab]]''. In the Philippines, dried half shells are also used as a musical instrument in a folk dance called ''[[maglalatik]]''.
[[File:Srilanka_coconut_fibre.jpg|thumb|upright|Extracting coir, the fiber from the coconut husk, in [[Sri Lanka]]|alt=Two men use industrial machinery]]
The shell, freed from the husk, and heated on warm ashes, exudes an oily material that is used to soothe dental pains in [[traditional medicine]] of Cambodia.<ref name="dyphon" />

In World War II, [[coastwatchers|coastwatcher]] scout [[Biuku Gasa]] was the first of two from the [[Solomon Islands]] to reach the shipwrecked and wounded crew of [[Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109|Motor Torpedo Boat ''PT-109'']] commanded by future U.S. president [[John F. Kennedy]]. Gasa suggested, for lack of paper, delivering by dugout canoe a message inscribed on a husked coconut shell, reading "Nauru Isl commander / native knows posit / he can pilot / 11 alive need small boat / Kennedy."<ref>{{cite web|last1=Edwards|first1=Owen|title=Remembering PT-109: A carved walking stick evokes ship commander John F. Kennedy's dramatic rescue at sea|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/remembering-pt-109-63427209/|website=Smithsonian.com|access-date=21 January 2017}}</ref> This coconut was later kept on the president's desk, and is now in the [[John F. Kennedy Library]].<ref>{{cite web|title=MO63.4852 Coconut shell paperweight with PT109 rescue message|url=https://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Ey5l6Vagyk2dwA6BTctDZg.aspx|website=John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Museum|access-date=21 January 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202093244/https://www.jfklibrary.org/Asset-Viewer/Ey5l6Vagyk2dwA6BTctDZg.aspx|archive-date=February 2, 2017|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

The [[Philippine Coast Guard]] used [[Convention (norm)|unconventional]] coconut husk [[Boom (containment)|boom]] to clean up the oil slick in the [[2024 Manila Bay oil spill]].<ref>{{cite news |last1= Argosino|first1= Faith |title=PH Coast Guard battles Bataan oil spill mess with coconut husk boom|url= https://newsinfo.inquirer.net/1966995/ph-coast-guard-battles-bataan-oil-spill-mess-with-coconut-husk-boom|accessdate=July 29, 2024 |publisher= [[Philippine Daily Inquirer]]|date=July 29, 2024}}</ref>
==== Coir ====
[[Coir]] (the fiber from the husk of the coconut) is used in [[rope]]s, [[mat]]s, [[mat|doormats]], [[brush]]es, and sacks, as [[caulking]] for boats, and as stuffing fiber for [[mattress]]es.<ref>[[#Grimwood|Grimwood]], p. 22.</ref> It is used in [[horticulture]] in potting compost, especially in orchid mix. The coir is used to make brooms in Cambodia.<ref name="dyphon" />

===Leaves===
[[File:Puso of cooked rice.JPG|thumb|''[[Pusô]]'', woven pouches of rice in various designs from the Philippines|alt=Triangular pouches made of coconut leaves]]

The stiff midribs of coconut leaves are used for making [[broom]]s in India, Indonesia (''sapu lidi''), Malaysia, the Maldives, and the Philippines (''walis tingting''). The green of the leaves (lamina) is stripped away, leaving the veins (long, thin, woodlike strips) which are tied together to form a broom or brush. A long handle made from some other wood may be inserted into the base of the bundle and used as a two-handed broom.

The leaves also provide material for [[basket]]s that can draw well water and for roofing [[thatch]]; they can be woven into mats, cooking [[skewer]]s, and kindling [[arrow]]s as well. Leaves are also woven into small pouches that are filled with rice and cooked to make ''[[pusô]]'' and ''[[ketupat]]''.<ref>[[#Grimwood|Grimwood]], p. 19.</ref>

Dried coconut leaves can be burned to ash, which can be harvested for [[lime (mineral)|lime]]. In India, the woven coconut leaves are used to build wedding [[marquee (tent)|marquees]], especially in the states of Kerala, [[Karnataka]], and [[Tamil Nadu]].

The leaves are used for [[thatch]]ing houses, or for decorating climbing frames and [[meeting room]]s in Cambodia, where the plant is known as ''dôô:ng''.<ref name="dyphon">{{cite book |last1=Pauline Dy Phon |title=Plants Utilised In Cambodia |date=2000 |publisher=Imprimerie Olympic |location=Phnon Penh |pages=165–166|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=InD2RAAACAAJ|author1-link=Pauline Dy Phon }}</ref>

===Timber===
[[File:Coconut Palace Court.jpg|thumb|left|[[Coconut Palace]], [[Manila]], Philippines, built entirely out of coconut and local materials|alt=Square with buildings]]
[[File:Coconut trunk.jpg|thumb|upright=.6|Coconut trunk]]

Coconut trunks are used for building small bridges and huts; they are preferred for their straightness, strength, and salt resistance. In Kerala, coconut trunks are used for house construction. [[Coconut timber]] comes from the trunk, and is increasingly being used as an ecologically sound substitute for endangered hardwoods. It has applications in furniture and specialized construction, as notably demonstrated in [[Manila]]'s [[Coconut Palace]].

Hawaiians hollowed out the trunk to form drums, containers, or small canoes. The "branches" (leaf [[petiole (botany)|petiole]]s) are strong and flexible enough to make a [[switch (rod)|switch]]. The use of coconut branches in corporal punishment was revived in the Gilbertese community on Choiseul in the [[Solomon Islands]] in 2005.<ref>Herming, George. (March 6, 2006). [http://www.corpun.com/sbj00603.htm Wagina whips offenders] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061027160604/http://www.corpun.com/sbj00603.htm |date=October 27, 2006 }}. ''Solomon Star''.</ref>

===Roots===
The roots are used as a [[dye]], a [[mouthwash]], and a folk medicine for [[diarrhea]] and [[dysentery]].<ref name=Grimwood18/> A frayed piece of root can also be used as a [[toothbrush]]. In Cambodia, the roots are used in traditional medicine as a treatment for dysentery.<ref name="dyphon" />

===Other uses===
[[File:Srilanka coconut rug.jpg|thumb|Making a rug from coconut fiber|alt=Workman in coconut field]]

The leftover fiber from coconut oil and coconut milk production, coconut meal, is used as livestock feed. The dried [[calyx (botany)|calyx]] is used as fuel in wood-fired [[stove]]s. Coconut water is traditionally used as a growth supplement in [[plant tissue culture]] and [[micropropagation]].<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Yong | first1 = JW. Ge L. Ng YF. Tan SN. | year = 2009 | title = The chemical composition and biological properties of coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.) water | journal = Molecules | volume = 14 | issue = 12| pages = 5144–5164 | doi=10.3390/molecules14125144 | pmid=20032881| pmc = 6255029 | doi-access = free }}</ref> The smell of coconuts comes from the [[δ-Decalactone|6-pentyloxan-2-one]] molecule, known as δ-decalactone in the food and fragrance industries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rw1013411.html |title=Data sheet about delta-decalactone and its properties |publisher=Thegoodscentscompany.com |date=July 18, 2000 |access-date=February 14, 2012 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219135724/http://www.thegoodscentscompany.com/data/rw1013411.html |archive-date=February 19, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

====Tool and shelter for animals====
Researchers from the [[Melbourne Museum]] in Australia observed the [[octopus]] species ''[[Amphioctopus marginatus]]'' [[tool use by animals|use tools]], specifically coconut shells, for defense and shelter. The discovery of this behavior was observed in [[Bali]] and [[North Sulawesi]] in Indonesia between 1998 and 2008.<ref>{{Cite journal | first1 = Julian K. | last1 = Finn | first2 = Tom | last2 = Tregenza | first3 = Mark D. | last3 = Norman | year = 2009 | title = Defensive tool use in a coconut-carrying octopus | journal = Curr. Biol. | volume = 19 | issue = 23 | pages = R1069–R1070 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2009.10.052 | pmid = 20064403 | s2cid = 26835945 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2009CBio...19R1069F }}</ref><ref name="AP">{{cite news | title = Aussie scientists find coconut-carrying octopus | url = https://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5jfq6qUad8oMqjmm0UKjxvMrFGaaAD9CJIGO80 | first = Kristen | last = Gelineau | date = December 15, 2009 | access-date = December 15, 2009 | agency = Associated Press | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091218165759/https://www.google.com/hostednews/ap/article/ALeqM5jfq6qUad8oMqjmm0UKjxvMrFGaaAD9CJIGO80 | archive-date = December 18, 2009 | df = mdy-all }}</ref><ref name="scientificamerican">{{cite news | title = A tool-wielding octopus? This invertebrate builds armor from coconut halves | url = http://www.scientificamerican.com/blog/post.cfm?id=a-tool-wielding-octopus-this-invert-2009-12-14 | date = December 14, 2009 | work = Scientific American | first = Katherine | last = Harmon | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091217043236/http://www.scientificamerican.com/blog/post.cfm?id=a-tool-wielding-octopus-this-invert-2009-12-14 | archive-date = December 17, 2009 | df = mdy-all }}</ref> ''Amphioctopus marginatus'' is the first [[invertebrate]] known to be able to use tools.<ref name="AP" /><ref name=Times>{{cite news | title = Indonesia's veined octopus 'stilt walks' to collect coconut shells | url = http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/science/biology_evolution/article6956352.ece | date = December 15, 2009 | work = Times Online | first = Mark | last = Henderson | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110815081829/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/science/biology_evolution/article6956352.ece | archive-date = August 15, 2011 | df = mdy-all }}</ref>

A coconut can be hollowed out and used as a home for a rodent or a small bird. Halved, drained coconuts can also be hung up as bird feeders, and after the flesh has gone, can be filled with fat in winter to attract [[tit (bird)|tits]].

==In culture==
{{more citations needed section|date=August 2016}}
[[File:A worship at the shrine of the Holy Infant Jesus of Prague, Davao City, Philippines.jpg|thumb|''Palaspas'', woven palm fronds during [[Palm Sunday]] celebrations in the Philippines|alt=Group of people with palm fronds]]
[[File:Muñeco de coco.jpg|thumb|upright|A "coconut monkey" from [[Mexico]], a common souvenir carved from coconut shells|alt=Coconut carved to look like a monkey]]

The coconut was a critical food item for the people of [[Polynesia]], and the Polynesians brought it with them as they spread to new islands.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Polynesian culture – Gardening|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Polynesia|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=May 25, 2020}}</ref>

In the [[Ilocos region]] of the northern Philippines, the [[Ilocano people]] fill two halved coconut shells with ''diket'' (cooked sweet rice), and place ''liningta nga itlog'' (halved boiled egg) on top of it. This ritual, known as ''niniyogan'', is an offering made to the deceased and one's ancestors. This accompanies the ''palagip'' (prayer to the dead).

[[File:Offerings on the sand, Kuta Beach, Bali.JPG|thumb|upright|A ''canang'', an offering of flowers, rice, and [[incense]] in woven coconut leaves from [[Bali]], [[Indonesia]]]]

A coconut ({{langx|sa|narikela}}) is an essential element of [[rituals]] in [[Hindu]] tradition.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coconut – Fruit Of Lustre In Indian Culture|url=http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Coconut-~-Fruit-of-Lustre-in-Indian-Culture-1.aspx|date=September 2011|last1=Patil|first1=Vimla|website=eSamskriti|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160514010555/http://www.esamskriti.com/essay-chapters/Coconut-~-Fruit-of-Lustre-in-Indian-Culture-1.aspx|archive-date=May 14, 2016|access-date=May 18, 2016|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Often it is decorated with bright metal foils and other symbols of auspiciousness. It is offered during worship to a Hindu god or goddess. [[Narali Purnima]] is celebrated on a [[full moon]] day which usually signifies the end of [[monsoon]] season in India. The word ''Narali'' is derived from ''naral'' implying "coconut" in [[Marathi people|Marathi]]. Fishermen give an offering of coconut to the sea to celebrate the beginning of a new fishing season.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.maharashtratourism.net/festivals/narali-poornima.html | title=Narali Purnima | publisher=Maharashtra Tourism | date=2016 | access-date=August 3, 2016 | url-status=live | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160715223636/http://www.maharashtratourism.net/festivals/narali-poornima.html | archive-date=July 15, 2016 | df=mdy-all }}</ref> Irrespective of their religious affiliations, fishermen of India often offer it to the rivers and seas in the hopes of having bountiful catches. Hindus often initiate the beginning of any new activity by breaking a coconut to ensure the blessings of the gods and successful completion of the activity. The Hindu goddess of well-being and wealth, [[Lakshmi]], is often shown holding a coconut.<ref>Dallapiccola, Anna. ''[[Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend]]''. {{ISBN|0-500-51088-1}}.</ref> In the foothills of the temple town of [[Palani]], before going to worship [[Murugan]] for the [[Ganesha]], coconuts are broken at a place marked for the purpose. Every day, thousands of coconuts are broken, and some devotees break as many as 108 coconuts at a time as per the prayer.{{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} They are also used in Hindu weddings as a symbol of prosperity.<ref>{{Cite web|date=November 9, 2009|title=Food Rituals in Hindu Weddings|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/food-rituals-in-hindu-weddings-72454431/|last=Bramen|first=Lisa|website=Smithsonian Magazine|access-date=May 25, 2020}}</ref>

The flowers are used sometimes in wedding ceremonies in Cambodia.<ref name="dyphon" />

The [[Zulu Social Aid and Pleasure Club]] of [[New Orleans]] traditionally throws hand-decorated coconuts, one of the most valuable [[Mardi Gras]] souvenirs, to parade revelers. The tradition began in the 1910s, and has continued since. In 1987, a "coconut law" was signed by Governor [[Edwin Edwards]] exempting from insurance liability any decorated coconut "handed" from a Zulu float.<ref>{{Cite web|date=February 22, 2017|title=How the Zulu coconut was saved from extinction|url=https://www.nola.com/300/article_c189dcdb-1ec5-5629-84bb-2a2aaec89457.html|publisher=The Times-Picayune|first=Mike|last=Scott|website=NOLA.com|language=en|access-date=May 25, 2020}}</ref>

The coconut is also used as a target and prize in the traditional British fairground game [[coconut shy]]. The player buys some small balls which are then thrown as hard as possible at coconuts balanced on sticks. The aim is to knock a coconut off the stand and win it.<ref name="harries">{{cite journal|last1=Harries|first1=Hugh C.|year=2004|title=Fun Made The Fair Coconut Shy|url=http://www.palms.org/palmsjournal/2004/vol48n2p77-82.pdf|journal=Palms|publisher=The International Palm Society|volume=48|issue=2|pages=77–82|access-date=May 8, 2012|archive-date=July 23, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723105002/http://www.palms.org/palmsjournal/2004/vol48n2p77-82.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

It was the main food of adherents of the now discontinued Vietnamese religion [[Coconut Religion|Đạo Dừa]].<ref name="Coconut 1">{{cite web|title=Coconut religion|url=http://vinhthong.info/FAQ/faq_luomlat_CoconutReligion_ConPhung.html|publisher=Vinhthong|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131022095309/http://vinhthong.info/FAQ/faq_luomlat_CoconutReligion_ConPhung.html|archive-date=October 22, 2013|access-date=May 25, 2013}}</ref>

===Myths and legends===
Some South Asian, Southeast Asian, and Pacific Ocean cultures have [[origin myth]]s in which the coconut plays the main role. In the [[Hainuwele]] myth from [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]], a girl emerges from the blossom of a coconut tree.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195156690.001.0001/acref-9780195156690-e-657|title=Hainuwele – Oxford Reference|work=oxfordreference.com|isbn=978-0-19-515669-0|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928002738/http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195156690.001.0001/acref-9780195156690-e-657|archive-date=September 28, 2013|df=mdy-all|last1=Leeming|first1=David|date=November 17, 2005|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA }}</ref> In [[Maldivian folklore]], one of the main myths of origin reflects the dependence of the [[Maldivians]] on the coconut tree.<ref name="NIAS Press">[[Xavier Romero-Frias|Romero-Frias, Xavier]] (2012) ''Folk tales of the Maldives'', [http://www.niaspress.dk/catalogue2011/Catalogue_2012.pdf NIAS Press] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528131620/http://www.niaspress.dk/catalogue2011/Catalogue_2012.pdf |date=May 28, 2013 }}, {{ISBN|978-87-7694-104-8|978-8776941055}}</ref> In the story of [[Sina and the Eel]], the origin of the coconut is related as the beautiful woman Sina burying an eel, which eventually became the first coconut.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.livingheritage.org.nz/schools/secondary/marcellin/samoa/eel.php|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121029035259/http://www.livingheritage.org.nz/schools/secondary/marcellin/samoa/eel.php|url-status=dead|title=Living Heritage – Marcellin College – Sina and the Eel|archive-date=October 29, 2012|website=www.livingheritage.org.nz}}</ref>

According to urban legend, [[death by coconut|more deaths are caused by falling coconuts than by sharks]] annually.<ref name="flmnh">{{cite web|title=International Shark Attack File|url=http://www.shark.org.au/quotes.html|publisher=Shark Research Institute|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130729014133/http://shark.org.au/quotes.html|archive-date=July 29, 2013|access-date=January 9, 2014|df=dmy}}</ref>

=== Historical records ===
Literary evidence from the ''[[Ramayana]]'' and [[History of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan chronicles]] indicates that the coconut was present in the [[Indian subcontinent]] before the 1st century BCE.<ref name="BlenchSpriggs1998">{{cite book |author1=Roger Blench |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DWMHhfXxLaIC&q=coconut&pg=PA396 |title=Archaeology and Language: Correlating archaeological and linguistic hypotheses |author2=Matthew Spriggs |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-11761-6 |pages=396}}</ref> The earliest direct description is given by [[Cosmas Indicopleustes]] in his ''[[Topographia Christiana]]'' written around 545, referred to as "the great nut of India".<ref name="Rosengarten">Rosengarten, Frederic Jr. (2004). ''The Book of Edible Nuts''. Dover Publications. pp. [https://books.google.com/books?id=7CK8LFCcvtcC&pg=PA65 65–93]. {{ISBN|978-0-486-43499-5}}.</ref> Another early mention of the coconut dates back to the "[[One Thousand and One Nights]]" story of [[Sinbad the Sailor]] wherein he bought and sold a coconut during his fifth voyage.<ref>{{cite web |date=November 2, 2009 |title=The Fifth Voyage of Sindbad the Seaman&nbsp;– The Arabian Nights&nbsp;– The Thousand and One Nights&nbsp;– Sir Richard Burton translator |url=http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/arabian/bl-arabian-5sindbad.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111225203730/http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/arabian/bl-arabian-5sindbad.htm |archive-date=December 25, 2011 |access-date=February 14, 2012 |publisher=Classiclit.about.com |df=mdy-all}}</ref>

In March 1521, a description of the coconut was given by [[Antonio Pigafetta]] writing in Italian and using the words "''cocho''"/"''cochi''", as recorded in his journal after the first European crossing of the Pacific Ocean during the [[Ferdinand Magellan|Magellan]] [[circumnavigation]] and meeting the inhabitants of what would become known as Guam and the Philippines. He explained how at Guam "they eat coconuts" ("''mangiano cochi''") and that the natives there also "anoint the body and the hair with coconut and [[sesame seed|beniseed]] oil" ("''ongieno el corpo et li capili co oleo de cocho et de giongioli''").<ref name="ap">{{cite book |author=Antonio Pigafetta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=283tAAAAMAAJ&q=cocho&pg=PA100 |title=Magellan's Voyage Around the World, Volume 1 (translated by James Alexander Robertson) |publisher=Arthur H. Clark Company |year=1906 |pages=64–100}}</ref>

=== In politics ===
[[Vice President of the United States|United States Vice President]] [[Kamala Harris]] said during a May 2023 [[White House]] ceremony "[[You think you just fell out of a coconut tree?]]", which became a [[Internet meme|meme]] among her supporters during [[Kamala Harris 2024 presidential campaign|her failed 2024 presidential campaign]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Murray |first=Conor |title=Kamala Harris' 'Coconut Tree' Quote, Explained: What She Meant And Why It's Going Viral As She Launches Campaign |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/conormurray/2024/07/21/kamala-harris-coconut-tree-quote-explained-what-she-meant-and-why-its-going-viral-as-biden-drops-out/ |access-date=2024-10-04 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia]]
* [[Central Plantation Crops Research Institute]]
* [[Coconut production in Kerala]]
* [[Coir Board of India]]
* [[List of coconut dishes]]
* [[List of dishes made using coconut milk]]
* [[Ravanahatha]] {{endash}} a musical instrument sometimes made of coconuts
* ''[[Voanioala gerardii]]'' {{endash}} forest coconut, the closest relative of the modern coconut
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
* {{cite book|ref=Grimwood|vauthors=Grimwood BE, Ashman F|year=1975|title=Coconut Palm Products: Their Processing in Developing Countries|publisher=United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fY5hLeJ-WW4C&pg=PA1|isbn=978-92-5-100853-9}}

==Further reading==
* Adkins S.W., M. Foale and Y.M.S. Samosir (eds.) (2006). [https://web.archive.org/web/20160415155111/http://aciar.gov.au/files/node/748/PR125%20full%20text.pdf Coconut revival&nbsp;– new possibilities for the 'tree of life']. Proceedings of the International Coconut Forum held in [[Cairns, Australia]], November 22–24, 2005. ACIAR Proceedings No. 125. {{ISBN|1-86320-515-2}}
* {{cite book
| last1=Batugal |first1=P. |first2=V.R. |last2=Rao  |first3=J. |last3=Oliver
| year=2005
| title= Coconut Genetic Resources
| publisher=[[Bioversity International]]
| url= https://books.google.com/books?id=zZhU8NWtMhwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=#v=onepage&q&f=false <!--http://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/bioversity/publications/pdfs/1112.pdf-->
| isbn=978-92-9043-629-4 }}
* Frison, E.A.; Putter, C.A.J.; Diekmann, M. (eds.). (1993). [http://www.bioversityinternational.org/nc/publications/publication/issue/coconut.html ''Coconut''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510185018/http://www.bioversityinternational.org/nc/publications/publication/issue/coconut.html |date=May 10, 2013 }}. {{ISBN|978-92-9043-156-5}}.
* International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI). (1995). [https://web.archive.org/web/20120312155455/http://www.bioversityinternational.org/nc/publications/publication/issue/descriptors_for_coconut_emcocos_nuciferaem_l.html Descriptors for Coconut (''Cocos nucifera'' L.)]. {{ISBN|978-92-9043-215-9}}.
* Mathur, P.N.; Muralidharan, K.; Parthasarathy, V.A.; Batugal, P.; Bonnot, F. (2008). [http://www.bioversityinternational.org/nc/publications/publication/issue/data_analysis_manual_for_coconut_researchers.html ''Data Analysis Manual for Coconut Researchers''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510195610/http://www.bioversityinternational.org/nc/publications/publication/issue/data_analysis_manual_for_coconut_researchers.html |date=May 10, 2013 }}. {{ISBN|978-92-9043-736-9}}.
* Salunkhe, D.K., J.K. Chavan, R.N. Adsule, and S.S. Kadam. (1992). ''World Oilseeds&nbsp;– Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization''. Springer. {{ISBN|978-0-442-00112-4}}.

==External links==
{{Commons category multi|Coconuts||Cocos nucifera}}
{{Wikispecies|Cocos nucifera}}
* {{cookbook-inline|Coconut}}

{{Coconut}}
{{Culinary wrappings}}
{{Nuts}}
{{Non-timber forest products}}
{{Arecaceae genera}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q13187}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Coconuts| ]]
[[Category:Edible palms]]
[[Category:Flora of the Maldives]]
[[Category:Flora of the Tubuai Islands]]
[[Category:Fruits originating in Asia]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Asia]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Central America]]
[[Category:Halophytes]]
[[Category:Flora of the Afrotropical realm]]
[[Category:Flora of the Australasian realm]]
[[Category:Flora of the Indomalayan realm]]
[[Category:Flora of the Oceanian realm]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Non-timber forest products]]
[[Category:Ornamental trees]]
[[Category:Plants described in 1753]]
[[Category:Flora of Florida]]
[[Category:Endemic flora of Florida]]
[[Category:Symbols of Florida]]
[[Category:Trees of Belize]]
[[Category:Trees of Haiti]]
[[Category:Trees of the Dominican Republic]]
[[Category:Flora of India (region)]]
[[Category:Trees of Indo-China]]
[[Category:Trees of Malesia]]
[[Category:Trees of Pakistan]]
[[Category:Trees of the Caribbean]]
[[Category:Trees of the Pacific]]
[[Category:Tropical agriculture]]
[[Category:Tropical fruit]]
[[Category:Crops]]
[[Category:Extant Eocene first appearances]]
[[Category:Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact]]
[[Category:Oil seeds]]
[[Category:Drupes]]
[[Category:Fruit trees]]
[[Category:Plant dyes]]
[[Category:Flora without expected TNC conservation status]]
[[Category:Austronesian agriculture]]