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{{Short description|Ancient Roman amphitheatre; a landmark of Rome, Italy}}
{{Other uses}}
{{Redirect|Colosseo|the metro station|Colosseo (Rome Metro)}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox ancient site
 | name                 = Colosseum
 | image                = Colosseo 2020.jpg
 | caption              = View from the [[Palatine Hill|Palatine]], near the [[Colosseo (Rome Metro)|metro exit]]
 | location             = ''[[Regio III Isis et Serapis]]'', [[Rome]], [[Italy]]
 | built                = AD 70–{{Start date and age|80}}
 | builder              = [[Vespasian]], [[Titus]]
 | type                 = [[Amphitheatre]]
 | coordinates          = {{WikidataCoord|display=it}}
 | map_dot_label        = Colosseum
 | map_label_position   = right
 | map_type             = Italy Rome Antiquity
 | map_overlay          = Roma PlanFXD.jpg
 | map_caption          = Shown within Augustan Rome
 | map_size             = 270
 | image_size           = 270
 | mapframe-frame-width = 270
 | mapframe             = yes
 | mapframe-caption     = Click on the map for a fullscreen view
 | mapframe-zoom        = 12
 | mapframe-marker      = monument
 | mapframe-wikidata    = yes
}}

The '''Colosseum''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|k|ɒ|l|ə|ˈ|s|iː|ə|m}} {{respell|KOL|ə|SEE|əm}}; {{langx|it|Colosseo}} {{IPA|it|kolosˈsɛːo|}}, ultimately from Ancient Greek word "kolossos" meaning a large statue or giant) is an [[Ellipse|elliptical]] [[amphitheatre]] in the centre of the city of [[Rome]], [[Italy]], just east of the [[Roman Forum]]. It is the largest ancient amphitheatre ever built, and is still the largest standing amphitheatre in the world, despite its age. Construction began under the Emperor [[Vespasian]] ({{Reign|69|79|era=AD}}) in 72<ref>[[Colosseum#Hopkins|Hopkins]], p. 2.</ref> and was completed in AD 80 under his successor and heir, [[Titus]] ({{Reign|79|81}}).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/colosseum_02.shtml |title=BBC's History of the Colosseum p. 2 |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=22 March 2011 |access-date=16 April 2012}}</ref> Further modifications were made during the reign of [[Domitian]] ({{Reign|81|96}}).<ref name="roth">{{Cite book |last=Roth |first=Leland M. |url=https://archive.org/details/understandingarc00roth |title=Understanding Architecture: Its Elements, History and Meaning |publisher=Westview Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-06-430158-9 |edition=First |location=Boulder, Colorado |url-access=registration}}</ref> The three emperors who were patrons of the work are known as the [[Flavian dynasty]], and the amphitheatre was named the '''Flavian Amphitheatre''' ({{langx|la|Amphitheatrum Flavium}}; {{langx|it|Anfiteatro Flavio}} {{IPA|it|aɱfiteˈaːtro ˈflaːvjo|}}) by later [[classicists]] and [[archaeologists]] for its association with their family name ([[Flavia (gens)|Flavius]]).

The Colosseum is built of [[travertine#Uses|travertine]] limestone, [[tuff]] (volcanic rock), and brick-faced [[Roman concrete|concrete]]. It could hold an estimated 50,000 to 80,000 spectators at various points in its history,<ref>William H. Byrnes IV (Spring 2005) "Ancient Roman Munificence: The Development of the Practice and Law of Charity". ''Rutgers Law Review'' vol. 57, issue 3, pp. 1043–1110.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/colosseum_01.shtml |title=BBC's History of the Colosseum p. 1 |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=22 March 2011 |access-date=16 April 2012}}</ref> having an average audience of some 65,000;<ref>{{cite book |last=Baldwin |first=Eleonora |title=Rome day by day |publisher=John Wiley & Sons Incorporated |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-118-16629-1 |location=Hoboken, New Jersey |page=26 |language=en-us}}</ref> it was used for [[gladiatorial]] contests and [[Roman Empire#spectacle|public spectacles]] including [[venatio|animal hunts]], executions, re-enactments of famous battles, dramas based on [[Roman mythology]], and briefly [[naumachia|mock sea battles]]. The building ceased to be used for entertainment in the [[Early Middle Ages|early medieval]] era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing, workshops, quarters for a religious order, a [[fortress]], a [[quarry]], and a Christian shrine.

Although substantially ruined by earthquakes and stone robbers taking ''[[spolia]]'', the Colosseum is still a renowned symbol of [[Imperial Rome]] and was listed as one of the [[New 7 Wonders of the World]].<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?id=c7e6494a-0e6c-46b4-9982-60b6b4bf20c1&ParentID=f702d4d5-e16e-4a07-bd0a-5bebf5c9b825&MatchID1=4488&TeamID1=8&TeamID2=10&MatchType1=1&SeriesID1=1120&PrimaryID=4488&Headline=The+new+Seven+Wonders+of+the+World| title=The New Seven Wonders of the World| work=[[Hindustan Times]]| date=8 July 2007| access-date=11 July 2007| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930043832/http://www.hindustantimes.com/StoryPage/StoryPage.aspx?id=c7e6494a-0e6c-46b4-9982-60b6b4bf20c1&ParentID=f702d4d5-e16e-4a07-bd0a-5bebf5c9b825&MatchID1=4488&TeamID1=8&TeamID2=10&MatchType1=1&SeriesID1=1120&PrimaryID=4488&Headline=The+new+Seven+Wonders+of+the+World| archive-date=30 September 2007| df=mdy-all}}</ref> It is one of Rome's most popular [[tourist attraction]]s and has links to the [[Catholic Church]], as each [[Good Friday]] the [[Pope]] leads a torchlit [[Stations of the Cross#Modern usage|"Way of the Cross" procession]] that starts in the area around the Colosseum.<ref name="wayofthecross-frommers">{{cite web|url=http://events.frommers.com/sisp/index.htm?fx=event&event_id=11442 |title=Frommer's Events – Event Guide: Good Friday Procession in Rome (Palatine Hill, Italy) |publisher=Frommer's |access-date=8 April 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107161525/http://events.frommers.com/sisp/index.htm?fx=event&event_id=11442 |archive-date=7 January 2009 }}</ref> The Colosseum is depicted on the [[Italian euro coins|Italian version]] of the [[5 euro cent coin]].

==Name==

Originally, the building's Latin name was simply {{Langx|la|amphitheatrum|lit=amphitheatre|label=none}}.<ref name=":0">{{Citation |title=Colosseum, ''n.'' |work=[[Oxford English Dictionary|Oxford English Dictionary Online]] |year=2011 |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/36587 |edition=3rd, online}}.</ref> Though the modern name Flavian Amphitheatre ({{Langx|la|Amphitheatrum Flavium}}) is often used, there is no evidence it was used in [[classical antiquity]].<ref name=":0" /> This name refers to the patronage of the [[Flavian dynasty]], during whose reigns the building was constructed, but the structure is better known as the Colosseum.<ref name=":0" /> In antiquity, Romans may have referred to the Colosseum by the unofficial name ''Amphitheatrum Caesareum'' (with ''Caesareum'' an adjective pertaining to the title ''[[Caesar (title)|Caesar]]''), but this name may have been strictly poetic<ref name="edmondson-josephus">{{Cite book |author=Edmondson |first1=J. C. |title=Flavius Josephus and Flavian Rome |last2=Mason |first2=Steve |last3=Rives |first3=J. B. |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-19-926212-0 |page=114 |language=en}}</ref><ref name="thecolosseum-history1">{{cite web|url=http://www.the-colosseum.net/history/h1.htm|title=The Colosseum – History 1|access-date=26 January 2008}}</ref> as it was not exclusive to the Colosseum; Vespasian and Titus, builders of the Colosseum, also constructed a [[Flavian Amphitheatre (Pozzuoli)|Flavian Amphitheatre]] in [[Puteoli]] (modern Pozzuoli).<ref>[[Amedeo Maiuri|Mairui, Amedeo]]. ''Studi e ricerche sull'Anfiteatro Flavio Puteolano''. [[Naples|Napoli]], Italia: G. Macchiaroli, 1955. OCLC {{OCLC search link|2078742}}.</ref>
[[File:Frith, Francis (1822-1898) - Roma - Interno del Colosseo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|Interior of the Colosseum by late nineteenth century photographer [[Francis Frith]] ]]
The name ''Colosseum'' is believed to be derived from a [[Colossus of Nero|colossal statue of Nero]] on the model of the [[Colossus of Rhodes]].<ref name=":0" /><ref name="roth" /> The giant bronze sculpture of Nero as a [[solar deity]] was moved to its position beside the amphitheatre by the emperor [[Hadrian]] ({{Reign|117|138}}).<ref name=":0" /> The word ''colosseum'' is a [[Neuter (grammar)|neuter]] [[Latin noun]] formed from the [[Latin adjective|adjective]] ''colosseus'', meaning "gigantic" or "colossean".<ref name=":0" /> By the year 1000 the Latin name "Colosseum" had been coined to refer to the amphitheatre from the nearby "Colossus Solis".<ref>{{cite book |last=Richardson |first=L. Jr. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_qjo30tjHAC&pg=PA7 |title=A New Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome |publisher=[[JHU Press]] |year=1992 |isbn=9780801843006 |editor=Johns Hopkins University |editor-link=Johns Hopkins University |page=7 |language=en-us}}</ref>

In the 8th century, an epigram attributed to the [[Bede|Venerable Bede]] celebrated the symbolic significance of the statue in a prophecy that is variously quoted: ''Quamdiu stat Colisæus, stat et Roma; quando cadet colisæus, cadet et Roma; quando cadet Roma, cadet et mundus'' ("as long as the Colossus stands, so shall Rome; when the Colossus falls, Rome shall fall; when Rome falls, so falls the world").<ref name="Catholic Encyclopedia">{{cite encyclopedia| url = http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04101b.htm | title = The Coliseum | encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia | publisher=New Advent | access-date =2 August 2006}}; the form quoted from the Pseudo-Bede is that printed in [[Migne]], ''Pat. Lat'' '''94''' (Paris), 1862:543, noted in F. Schneider, ''Rom und Romgedanke im Mittelalter'' (Munich) 1926:66f, 251, and in Roberto Weiss, ''The Renaissance Discovery of Classical Antiquity'' (Oxford:Blackwell) 1973:8 and note 5.</ref> This is often mistranslated to refer to the Colosseum rather than the Colossus (as in, for instance, [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Byron]]'s poem ''[[Childe Harold's Pilgrimage]]''). However, at the time that the Pseudo-Bede wrote, the [[grammatical gender|masculine noun]] ''coliseus'' was applied to the statue rather than to the amphitheatre.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Ensoli |first1=Serena |last2=La Rocca |first2=Eugenio |title=Aurea Roma: dalla città pagana alla città cristiana |date=2000 |publisher=L'Erma di Bretschneider |location=Rome |isbn=978-88-8265-126-8 |page=67 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=USiAdRTlS6MC&dq=beda+%2B+colosseo&pg=PA67 |access-date=10 April 2022 |language=it}}</ref>

The spelling was sometimes altered in {{Langx|la-x-medieval|coloseum}} and ''coliseum'' are attested from the 12th and 14th centuries respectively.<ref name=":0" /> In the 12th century, the structure was recorded as the {{Langx|la|amphitheatrum colisei|lit=Amphitheatre of the Colossus|label=none}}.<ref name=":0" /> In the [[High Middle Ages]], the Flavian amphitheatre is attested as the late 13th-century {{Langx|fro|colosé}}, and in {{Langx|frm|colisée|label=[[Middle French]] as}} by the early 16th century, by which time the word could be applied to any amphitheatre.<ref name=":0" /> From {{Langx|frm|colisée|links=no}} derived the {{Langx|enm|colisee}}, in use by the middle of the 15th century and employed by [[John Capgrave]] in his ''Solace of Pilgrims'', in which he remarked: {{Langx|enm|collise eke is a meruelous place … þe moost part of it stant at þis day}}.<ref name=":1">{{Citation |title=† Colisee, ''n''. |work=[[Oxford English Dictionary|Oxford English Dictionary Online]] |year=2011 |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/36587 |edition=3rd, online}}.</ref> An English translation by [[John Bourchier, 2nd Baron Berners]], of [[Antonio de Guevara]]'s biography of [[Marcus Aurelius]] ({{Reign|161|180}}) in about 1533 referred to {{Langx|enm|this Emperour, beynge with the Senate at Collisee}} ....<ref name=":1" /> Similarly, the {{Langx|it|colosseo}}, or {{Langx|it|coliseo|label=none}}, are attested as referring first to the amphitheatre in Rome, and then to any amphitheatre (as {{Langx|it|culiseo}} in 1367).<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> By 1460, an equivalent existed in {{Langx|ca|coliseu}}; by 1495 had appeared the {{Langx|es|coliseo}}, and by 1548 the {{Langx|pt|coliseu}}.<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Rom (IT), Kolosseum -- 2024 -- 0610.jpg|thumb|left|The Colosseum at night in 2024]]
The earliest citation for the name Colosseum in [[Early Modern English]] is the 1600 translation, by [[Philemon Holland]], of the ''Urbis Romae topographia'' of [[Bartolomeo Marliani]], which he used in the preparation of his translation of [[Livy]]'s [[Augustan literature (ancient Rome)|Augustan era]] ''[[Ab Urbe Condita Libri]]''.<ref name=":0" /> The text states: "This Amphitheatre was commonly called Colosseum, of Neroes Colossus, which was set up in the porch of Neroes house."<ref name=":0" /> Similarly, [[John Evelyn]], translating the {{Langx|frm|le Colisée|label=Middle French name}} used by the architectural theorist [[Roland Fréart de Chambray]], wrote "And 'tis indeed a kind of miracle to see that the Colosseum … and innumerable other Structures which seemed to have been built for Eternity, should be at present so ruinous and dilapidated".<ref name=":0" />

== History ==

=== Construction, inauguration, and Roman renovations ===
[[File:Colosseum Ses Titus 80AD.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|[[Sestertius]] of Titus celebrating the inauguration of the Colosseum (minted 80 AD).]]
[[File:Map of downtown Rome during the Roman Empire large.png|thumb|upright=1.4|A map of central Rome during the Roman Empire, with the Colosseum at the upper right corner]]

The site chosen was a flat area on the floor of a low valley between the [[Caelian Hill|Caelian]], [[Esquiline Hill|Esquiline]] and [[Palatine Hill]]s, through which a [[canal]]ised stream ran as well as an artificial lake/marsh.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.the-colosseum.net/architecture/lacus_en.htm|title=The-Colosseum.net:Before the Colosseum|website=www.the-colosseum.net|access-date=19 September 2019|archive-date=24 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224235736/http://www.the-colosseum.net/architecture/lacus_en.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> By the 2nd century BC the area was densely inhabited. It was devastated by the [[Great Fire of Rome]] in 64 AD, following which [[Nero]] seized much of the area to add to his personal domain. He built the grandiose [[Domus Aurea]] on the site, in front of which he created an artificial lake surrounded by pavilions, gardens and porticoes. The existing [[Aqua Claudia]] aqueduct was extended to supply water to the area and the gigantic bronze [[Colossus of Nero]] was set up nearby at the entrance to the Domus Aurea.<ref name="claridge">{{Cite book | first=Amanda | last=Claridge | year=1998 | title=Rome: An Oxford Archaeological Guide | edition=First | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=Oxford | isbn=978-0-19-288003-1 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/romeoxfordarchae00aman/page/276 276–282] | url=https://archive.org/details/romeoxfordarchae00aman/page/276 }}</ref> [[File:L-Kolloseum.png|upright=1.2|thumb|left|Cross-section from the ''[[Lexikon der gesamten Technik]]'' (1904)]] Although the Colossus was preserved, much of the Domus Aurea was torn down. The lake was filled in and the land reused as the location for the new Flavian Amphitheatre. Gladiatorial schools and other support buildings were constructed nearby within the former grounds of the Domus Aurea. Vespasian's decision to build the Colosseum on the site of Nero's lake can be seen as a populist gesture of returning to the people an area of the city which Nero had appropriated for his own use. In contrast to many other amphitheatres, which were on the outskirts of a city, the Colosseum was constructed in the city centre, in effect, placing it both symbolically and geographically at the heart of Rome.

Construction was funded by the opulent spoils taken from the [[Second Temple|Jewish Temple]] after the [[First Jewish–Roman War]] in 70 AD led to the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|Siege of Jerusalem]]. According to a reconstructed inscription found on the site, "the emperor [[Vespasian]] ordered this new amphitheatre to be erected from his general's share of the booty." It is often assumed, as it is with many other Roman projects at the time,  that slaves and prisoners of war were brought back to Rome and contributed to the massive workforce needed for the construction of the amphitheater.<ref>Elkins, p. 23.</ref> Along with this free source of unskilled labor, teams of professional Roman builders, engineers, artists, painters and decorators undertook the more specialized tasks necessary for building the Colosseum. The Colosseum was constructed with several different materials: wood, limestone, [[tuff]], tiles, cement, and mortar.

Construction of the Colosseum began under the rule of Vespasian<ref name=roth/> in around 70–72 AD (73–75 AD according to some sources). The Colosseum had been completed up to the third story by the time of Vespasian's death in 79. The top level was finished by his son, [[Titus]], in 80,<ref name=roth/> and the inaugural games were held in 80 or 81 AD.<ref name="tribunesandtriumphs.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.tribunesandtriumphs.org/colosseum/building-the-colosseum.htm|title=Building the Colosseum|work=tribunesandtriumphs.org}}</ref> [[Dio Cassius]] recounts that over 9,000 wild animals were killed during the [[Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre|inaugural games]] of the amphitheatre. Commemorative coinage was issued celebrating the inauguration.<ref>Sear, David R. (2000). ''Roman Coins and Their Values – The Millennium Edition''. Volume I: The Republic and The Twelve Caesars, 280 BC – 96 AD (pp. 468–469, coin # 2536). London: Spink. {{ISBN|1-902040-35-X}}</ref> The building was remodelled further under Vespasian's younger son, the newly designated Emperor [[Domitian]], who constructed the ''[[hypogeum]]'', a series of tunnels used to house animals and slaves. He also added a gallery to the top of the Colosseum to increase its [[seating capacity]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Alföldy|first=Géza|title=Eine Bauinschrift Aus Dem Colosseum.|journal=Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik|year=1995|volume=109|pages=195–226}}</ref>

In 217, the Colosseum was badly damaged by a major fire (caused by lightning, according to Dio Cassius<ref>Cass. Dio lxxviii.25.</ref>), which destroyed the wooden upper levels of the amphitheatre's interior. It was not fully repaired until about 240 and underwent further repairs in 250 or 252 and again in 320. [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]] banned the practice of gladiator fights in 399 and again in 404. Gladiatorial fights are last mentioned around 435.<ref name="claridge" /> An inscription records the restoration of various parts of the Colosseum under [[Theodosius II]] and [[Valentinian III]] (reigned 425–455), possibly to repair damage caused by a major earthquake in 443; more work followed in 484<ref>The repairs of the damages inflicted by the earthquake of 484 were paid for by the Consul [[Decius Marius Venantius Basilius]], who put two inscriptions to celebrate his works ({{CIL|6|1716}}).</ref> and 508. The arena continued to be used for contests well into the 6th century. Animal hunts continued until at least 523, when [[Anicius Maximus]] celebrated his consulship with some ''[[venationes]]'', criticised by King [[Theodoric the Great]] for their high cost.<ref name="claridge"/>

=== Medieval ===
[[File:Coliseo medieval.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|Map of medieval Rome depicting the Colosseum]]
The Colosseum underwent several radical changes of use. By the late 6th century a small chapel had been built into the structure of the amphitheater, though this apparently did not confer any particular religious significance on the building as a whole. The arena was converted into a cemetery. The numerous vaulted spaces in the arcades under the seating were converted into housing and workshops, and are recorded as still being rented out as late as the 12th century. Around 1200 the [[Frangipani family]] took over the Colosseum and fortified it, apparently using it as a castle. In the early to mid 14th century, the Pope's [[Avignon Papacy|relocation to Avignon]] caused a population decline in Rome that left the region insecure. The colosseum was largely abandoned by the public and became a popular den for bandits.<ref name="History of the Colosseum">{{cite web |title=History of the Colosseum |url=https://www.wonders-of-the-world.net/Colosseum/History-of-the-Colosseum.php |website=Wonders of the World |access-date=2 November 2022}}</ref>

Severe damage was inflicted on the Colosseum by the great [[1349 Apennine earthquakes|earthquake in 1349]], causing the outer south side, lying on a less stable [[Alluvium|alluvial]] terrain, to collapse. Much of the tumbled stone was reused to build palaces, churches, hospitals and other buildings elsewhere in Rome. In 1377, after the Pope's return to Rome, the Colosseum was restored by a religious order called Arciconfraternita del SS. Salvatore ad Sancta Sanctorum, who then inhabited a northern portion of it until as late as the early 19th century.<ref name="History of the Colosseum"/><ref name="colnet">{{cite web|title=MEDIVM AEVVM|url=http://the-colosseum.net/history/medium.htm|website=The-Colosseum|publisher=The-Colosseum.Net|access-date=1 November 2016}}<br/>Names the order: ''Arciconfraternita del SS. Salvatore ad Sancta Sanctorum'', aka ''del Gonfalone''. Co-tenants: the Roman Senate and the Camera Apostolica. "In 1519 The Confraternita built the little chapel of Santa Maria della Pietà inside the Colosseum."</ref> The interior of the amphitheater was extensively stripped of stone, which was reused elsewhere, or (in the case of the marble façade) was burned to make [[quicklime]].<ref name="claridge"/> The iron clamps<ref name="claridge"/> which held the stonework together were pried or hacked out of the walls, leaving numerous pockmarks which still scar the building today.

=== Modern ===
[[File:Maarten van Heemskerck - Rome, the Colosseum.jpg|thumb|The Colosseum in the 1530s, sketched by [[Maarten van Heemskerck]], and used as the model for his later ''[[Self-Portrait with the Colosseum]]'' and ''[[Octo Mundi Miracula]]''.]]
[[File:Piranesi Kolosseum.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.2|Overview of the interior of the Colosseum in a 1776 engraving by [[Giovanni Battista Piranesi]]]] 
[[File:Colosseum and Arch of Constantine (est. 1870).jpg|thumb|1870 view emphasizing the semi-rural environs of the Colosseum at the time]]
During the 16th and 17th century, Church officials sought a productive role for the Colosseum. [[Pope Sixtus V]] (1585–1590) planned to turn the building into a wool factory to provide employment for Rome's prostitutes, though this proposal fell through with his premature death.<ref>"Rome." ''Encyclopædia Britannica''. 2006.</ref> In 1671, Cardinal [[Paluzzo Paluzzi Altieri degli Albertoni|Paluzzo Altieri]] authorized its use for [[bullfight]]s; a public outcry caused the idea to be hastily abandoned.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lloyd |first1=Karen J. |title=Art, Patronage, and Nepotism in Early Modern Rome |date=19 August 2022 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-000-63698-7 |page=22 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Hnh3EAAAQBAJ |access-date=17 December 2024 |language=en}}</ref>
[[File:The British Army on Leave in Italy, June 1944 TR1959.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Allied troops consult a guidebook outside the Colosseum after liberation in 1944]]

In 1749, [[Pope Benedict XIV]] endorsed the view that the Colosseum was a sacred site where early Christians had been [[martyr]]ed. He forbade the use of the Colosseum as a quarry and consecrated the building to the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion of Christ]] and installed [[Stations of the Cross]], declaring it sanctified by the blood of the [[Persecution of early Christians by the Romans|Christian martyrs]] who perished there (''see [[#Significance in Christianity|Significance in Christianity]]'').

However, there is no historical evidence to support Benedict's claim, nor is there even any evidence that anyone before the 16th century suggested this might be the case; the ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' concludes that there are no historical grounds for the supposition, other than the reasonably plausible conjecture that some of the many martyrs may well have been.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04101b.htm The Coliseum] in Catholic Encyclopedia</ref>
[[File:Cole Thomas Interior of the Colosseum Rome 1832.jpg|thumb|''Interior of the Colosseum, Rome'' (1832) by [[Thomas Cole]], showing the [[Stations of the Cross]] around the arena and the extensive vegetation]]

Later popes initiated various stabilization and restoration projects, removing the extensive vegetation which had overgrown the structure and threatened to damage it further. The façade was reinforced with triangular brick wedges in 1807 and 1827, and the interior was repaired in 1831, 1846 and in the 1930s. The arena substructure was partly excavated in 1810–1814 and 1874 and was fully exposed under [[Benito Mussolini]] in the 1930s.<ref name="claridge"/>

The Colosseum is today one of Rome's most popular tourist attractions, receiving millions of visitors annually.{{citation needed|date=December 2024}} The effects of pollution and general deterioration over time prompted a major restoration programme carried out between 1993 and 2000, at a cost of 40&nbsp;billion&nbsp;[[Italian lira|lire]] ($19.3&nbsp;million or €20.6&nbsp;million at 2000 prices).{{citation needed|date=December 2024}}

In recent years, the Colosseum has become a symbol of the international campaign against capital punishment, which was abolished in Italy in 1948. Several anti–death penalty demonstrations took place in front of the Colosseum in 2000. Since that time, as a gesture against the death penalty, the local authorities of Rome change the color of the Colosseum's night time illumination from white to gold whenever a person condemned to the death penalty anywhere in the world gets their sentence commuted or is released,<ref>{{Cite news |first=Gayle |last=Young |url=http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/views/y/2000/02/young.italydeath.feb24/ |title=On Italy's passionate opposition to death penalty |publisher=CNN |date=24 February 2000 |access-date=2 August 2006 |archive-date=13 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211113142102/http://edition.cnn.com/SPECIALS/views/y/2000/02/young.italydeath.feb24/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> or if a jurisdiction abolishes the death penalty. Most recently, the Colosseum was illuminated in gold in November 2012 following the abolishment of capital punishment in the American state of [[Connecticut]] in April 2012.<ref name="Death Penalty">{{cite web|title=International: Roman Colosseum Lit to Mark Connecticut's Abolition of Death Penalty|url=http://www.deathpenaltyinfo.org/international-roman-colosseum-lit-mark-connecticuts-abolition-death-penalty|website=Death Penalty Info|access-date=9 June 2015}}</ref>

Because of the ruined state of the interior, it is impractical to use the Colosseum to host large events; only a few hundred spectators can be accommodated in temporary seating. However, much larger concerts have been held just outside, using the Colosseum as a backdrop. Performers who have played at the Colosseum in recent years have included [[Ray Charles]] (May 2002),<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/1983176.stm Colosseum stages peace concert], BBC News Online, 12 May 2002.</ref> [[Paul McCartney]] (May 2003),<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/3019241.stm McCartney rocks the Colosseum], BBC News Online, 12 May 2003.</ref> [[Elton John]] (September 2005),<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/4213352.stm Sir Elton's free gig thrills Rome], BBC News Online, 4 September 2005.</ref> and [[Billy Joel]] (July 2006).

== Physical description ==

=== Exterior ===
[[File:Colosseum exterior, inner and outer wall AvL.jpg|thumb|left|The exterior of the Colosseum, showing the partially intact outer wall (left) and the mostly intact inner wall (center and right)]]
Unlike [[Roman theatre (structure)|Roman theatres]] that were built into hillsides, the Colosseum is an entirely free-standing structure. It derives its basic exterior and interior architecture from that of two theatres back to back. It is elliptical in plan and is 189 meters (615&nbsp;ft / 640 Roman feet) long, and 156 meters (510&nbsp;ft / 528 Roman feet) wide, with a base area of {{convert|6|acre|m2|order=flip}}. The height of the outer wall is 48 meters (157&nbsp;ft / 165 Roman feet). The perimeter originally measured 545 meters (1,788&nbsp;ft / 1,835 Roman feet). The central arena is an ellipse 87&nbsp;m (287&nbsp;ft) long and 55&nbsp;m (180&nbsp;ft) wide, surrounded by a wall 5&nbsp;m (15&nbsp;ft) high, above which rose tiers of seating.

The outer wall is estimated to have required over {{convert|100000|m3|e6ft3|abbr=off|lk=out}} of [[travertine]] stone which were set without mortar; they were held together by 300 tons of iron clamps.<ref name="claridge"/> However, it has suffered extensive damage over the centuries, with large segments having collapsed following earthquakes. The north side of the perimeter wall is still standing; the distinctive triangular brick wedges at each end are modern additions, having been constructed in the early 19th century to shore up the wall. The remainder of the present-day exterior of the Colosseum is in fact the original interior wall.

[[File:Exterior of the Colosseum 01.JPG|thumb|[[Superposed order]] of the Colosseum]]
The surviving part of the outer wall's monumental façade comprises three [[Superposed order|superposed]] storeys surmounted by a [[podium]] on which stands a tall [[attic]], both of which are pierced by windows interspersed at regular intervals. The arcades are framed by half-columns of the [[Doric order|Doric]], [[Ionic order|Ionic]], and [[Corinthian order|Corinthian]] orders, while the attic is decorated with Corinthian [[pilaster]]s.<ref name="oxford_classical">Ian Archibald Richmond, [[Donald Emrys Strong]], [[Janet DeLaine]]. "Colosseum", ''The Oxford Companion to Classical Civilization''. Ed. Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth. Oxford University Press, 1998.</ref> Each of the arches in the second- and third-floor arcades framed statues, probably honoring divinities and other figures from [[Classical mythology]].

Two hundred and forty mast [[corbel]]s were positioned around the top of the attic. They originally supported a retractable [[awning]], known as the ''[[velarium]]'', that kept the sun and rain off spectators. This consisted of a canvas-covered, net-like structure made of ropes, with a hole in the center.<ref name=roth/> It covered two-thirds of the arena, and sloped down towards the center to catch the wind and provide a breeze for the audience. Sailors, specially enlisted from the Roman naval headquarters at [[Misenum]] and housed in the nearby ''Castra Misenatium'', were used to work the ''[[velarium]]''.<ref>{{cite web| last = Downey | first =  Charles T. | date = 9 February 2005 | url = http://ionarts.blogspot.com/2005/02/colosseum-was-skydome.html | title =  The Colosseum Was a Skydome? | access-date =2 August 2006}}</ref>

[[File:Colosseum-Entrance LII.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Entrance LII of the Colosseum, with [[Roman numerals]] still visible]]

The Colosseum's huge crowd capacity made it essential that the venue could be filled or evacuated quickly. Its architects adopted solutions very similar to those used in modern stadia to deal with the same problem. The amphitheatre was ringed by eighty entrances at ground level, 76 of which were used by ordinary spectators.<ref name=roth/> Each entrance and exit was numbered, as was each staircase. The northern main entrance was reserved for the [[Roman Emperor]] and his aides, whilst the other three axial entrances were most likely used by the elite. All four axial entrances were richly decorated with painted [[stucco]] reliefs, of which fragments survive. Many of the original outer entrances have disappeared with the collapse of the perimeter wall, but entrances XXIII (23) to LIIII (54) survive.<ref name="claridge"/>

Spectators were given tickets in the form of numbered pottery shards, which directed them to the appropriate section and row. They accessed their seats via ''[[vomitorium|vomitoria]]'' (singular ''vomitorium''), passageways that opened into a tier of seats from below or behind. These quickly dispersed people into their seats and, upon conclusion of the event or in an emergency evacuation, could permit their exit within only a few minutes. The name ''vomitoria'' derived from the Latin word for a rapid discharge, from which English derives the word vomit.

=== Interior seating ===
[[File:Rome (29096723).jpg|thumb|left|The raked areas that once held seating]]
According to the [[Chronography of 354|Codex-Calendar of 354]], the Colosseum could accommodate 87,000 people, although modern estimates put the figure at around 50,000. They were seated in a tiered arrangement that reflected the rigidly stratified nature of Roman society. Special boxes were provided at the north and south ends respectively for the Emperor and the [[Vestal Virgins]], providing the best views of the arena. Flanking them at the same level was a broad platform or ''podium'' for the [[Roman Senate|senatorial]] class, who were allowed to bring their own chairs. The names of some 5th century senators can still be seen carved into the stonework, presumably reserving areas for their use.
[[File:Colosseum-profile-english.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Diagram of the levels of seating]]
The tier above the senators, known as the ''maenianum primum'', was occupied by the non-senatorial noble class or knights (''[[Equestrian (Roman)|equites]]''). The next level up, the ''maenianum secundum'', was originally reserved for ordinary Roman citizens (''[[Plebs|plebeians]]'') and was divided into two sections. The lower part (the ''immum'') was for wealthy citizens, while the upper part (the ''summum'') was for poor citizens. Specific sectors were provided for other social groups: for instance, boys with their tutors, soldiers on leave, foreign dignitaries, scribes, heralds, priests and so on. Stone (and later marble) seating was provided for the citizens and nobles, who presumably would have brought their own cushions with them. Inscriptions identified the areas reserved for specific groups.

Another level, the ''maenianum secundum in legneis'', was added at the very top of the building during the reign of [[Domitian]]. This comprised a gallery for the common poor, [[Slavery|slaves]] and women. It would have been either standing room only, or would have had very steep wooden benches. Some groups were banned altogether from the Colosseum, notably gravediggers, actors and former gladiators.<ref name="claridge"/>

Each tier was divided into sections (''maeniana'') by curved passages and low walls (''praecinctiones'' or ''baltei''), and were subdivided into ''cunei'', or wedges, by the steps and aisles from the vomitoria. Each row (''gradus'') of seats was numbered, permitting each individual seat to be exactly designated by its gradus, cuneus, and number.<ref>Samuel Ball Platner (as completed and revised by Thomas Ashby), ''[https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/Lazio/Roma/Rome/_Texts/PLATOP*/Amphitheatrum_Flavium.html A Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome]''. Oxford University Press, 1929.</ref>

=== Arena and hypogeum ===
[[File:0 Colosseum - Rome 111001 (2).JPG|thumb|The Colosseum arena, showing the ''[[hypogeum]]'' now filled with walls. The walls were added early in the Colosseum's existence when it was decided it would no longer be flooded and used for naval battles.]]
The arena itself was 83&nbsp;meters by 48&nbsp;meters (272&nbsp;ft by 157&nbsp;ft / 280 by 163&nbsp;Roman feet).<ref name="claridge"/> It comprised a wooden floor covered by sand (the Latin word for sand is ''harena'' or ''arena''), covering an elaborate underground structure called the ''[[hypogeum]]'' (literally meaning "underground"). The hypogeum was not part of the original construction but was ordered to be built by Emperor [[Domitian]]. Little now remains of the original arena floor, but the ''hypogeum'' is still clearly visible. It consisted of a two-level subterranean network of tunnels and cages beneath the arena where gladiators and animals were held before contests began. Eighty vertical shafts provided instant access to the arena for caged animals and scenery pieces concealed underneath; larger hinged platforms, called ''hegmata'', provided access for elephants and the like. It was restructured on numerous occasions; at least twelve different phases of construction can be seen.<ref name="claridge"/>

[[File:Panoramic photograph of interior of Colosseum.jpg|thumb|left|A view of the interior of the Colosseum; clearing showing the hypogeum (Greek for "underground")]]
The ''hypogeum'' was connected by tunnels to a number of points outside the Colosseum. Animals and performers were brought through the tunnel from nearby stables, with the gladiators' barracks at the [[Ludus Magnus]] to the east also being connected by tunnels. Separate tunnels were provided for the Emperor and the [[Vestal Virgins]] to permit them to enter and exit the Colosseum without needing to pass through the crowds.<ref name="claridge"/>

Substantial quantities of machinery also existed in the ''hypogeum''. Elevators and pulleys raised and lowered scenery and props, as well as lifting caged animals to the surface for release. There is evidence for the existence of major [[hydraulic]] mechanisms<ref name="claridge"/> and according to ancient accounts, it was possible to flood the arena rapidly, presumably via a connection to a nearby aqueduct. However, the construction of the hypogeum at Domitian's behest put an end to the practise of flooding, and thus also to naval battles, early in the Colosseum's existence. There is however wide debate over the practicality and logistics of this phenomenon which leads to speculation over its actuality. This is mostly because there is no physical evidence of naumachiae at the Colosseum remains.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Ancient Romans Would Flood the Colosseum to re-enact sea battles |date=15 September 2016 |url=https://www.thevintagenews.com/2016/09/15/ancient-romans-flood-colosseum-re-enact-sea-battles/ }}</ref>

=== Supporting buildings ===

The Colosseum and its activities supported a substantial industry in the area. In addition to the amphitheatre itself, many other buildings nearby were linked to the games. Immediately to the east is the remains of the ''[[Ludus Magnus]]'', a training school for gladiators. This was connected to the Colosseum by an underground passage, to allow easy access for the gladiators. The ''Ludus Magnus'' had its own miniature training arena, which was itself a popular attraction for Roman spectators. Other training schools were in the same area, including the ''Ludus Matutinus'' (Morning School), where fighters of animals were trained, plus the Dacian and Gallic Schools.

Also nearby were the ''Armamentarium'', comprising an armory to store weapons; the ''Summum Choragium'', where machinery was stored; the ''Sanitarium'', which had facilities to treat wounded gladiators; and the ''Spoliarium'', where bodies of dead gladiators were stripped of their armor and disposed of.

Around the perimeter of the Colosseum, at a distance of {{convert|18|m|ft|abbr=on}} from the perimeter, was a series of tall stone posts, with five remaining on the eastern side. Various explanations have been advanced for their presence; they may have been a religious boundary, or an outer boundary for ticket checks, or an anchor for the ''[[velarium]]'' or awning.<ref name="claridge"/>

== Use ==
[[File:Ave Caesar Morituri te Salutant (Gérôme) 01.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.2|''[[Ave Imperator, morituri te salutant]] (Hail, [[Caesar (title)|Cesar]], those who will die salute you)'', by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]], 1859]]
The Colosseum was used to host [[gladiator]]ial shows as well as a variety of other events. The shows, called {{Lang|la|[[Munera (ancient Rome)|munera]]}}, were always given by private individuals rather than the state. They had a strong religious element but were also demonstrations of power and family prestige and were immensely popular. Another major attraction was the animal hunt, or ''[[venatio]]''. This utilized a great variety of wild beasts, mainly imported from Africa and the Middle East, and included creatures such as [[rhinoceros]], [[hippopotamus]]es, [[elephant]]s, [[giraffe]]s, [[aurochs]], [[wisent]]s, [[Barbary lion]]s, [[Leopard|panthers]], [[leopard]]s, [[bears]], [[Caspian tiger]]s, [[crocodile]]s and [[ostrich]]es. Battles and hunts were often staged amid elaborate sets with movable trees and buildings. These events could be huge in scale; [[Trajan]] is said to have celebrated his victories in [[Dacia]] in 107 with contests involving 11,000 animals and 10,000 gladiators over the course of 123 days. During lunch intervals, executions ''[[Damnatio ad bestias|ad bestias]]'' would be staged. Those condemned to death would be sent into the arena, naked and unarmed, to face the beasts of death which would literally tear them to pieces. Acrobats and magicians would also perform, usually during the intervals.[[File:Jean-Leon Gerome Pollice Verso.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''[[Pollice Verso (Gérôme)|Pollice Verso]]'' (''Thumbs Down'') by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]], 1872]]

During the early days of the Colosseum, ancient writers recorded that the building was used for ''[[naumachia]]e'' (more properly known as ''navalia proelia'') or simulated sea battles. Accounts of the inaugural games held by Titus in AD 80 describe it being filled with water for a display of specially trained swimming horses and bulls. There is also an account of a re-enactment of a famous sea battle between the [[Corfu|Corcyrean]] (Corfiot) Greeks and the [[Ancient Corinth|Corinthians]]. This has been the subject of some debate among historians; although providing the water would not have been a problem, it is unclear how the arena could have been waterproofed, nor would there have been enough space in the arena for the warships to move around. It has been suggested that the reports either have the location wrong or that the Colosseum originally featured a wide floodable channel down its central axis (which would later have been replaced by the [[hypogeum]]).<ref name="claridge" />

''Sylvae'' or recreations of natural scenes were also held in the arena. Painters, technicians and architects would construct a simulation of a forest with real trees and bushes planted in the arena's floor, and animals would then be introduced. Such scenes might be used simply to display a natural environment for the urban population, or could otherwise be used as the backdrop for hunts or dramas depicting episodes from mythology. They were also occasionally used for executions in which the hero of the story — played by a condemned person — was killed in one of various gruesome but mythologically authentic ways, such as being mauled by beasts or burned to death.

=== Modern use<span class="anchor" id="Today"></span> ===
[[File:Rom Colosseum Sept 2021 3.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the Colosseum, 2021]]
Beneath the Colosseum, a network of subterranean passageways that were once used for transporting wild animals and gladiators to the arena, opened to the public in summer 2010.<ref>{{cite news|first=Nick|last=Squires |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/7849829/Colosseum-to-open-gladiator-passageways-for-first-time.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/italy/7849829/Colosseum-to-open-gladiator-passageways-for-first-time.html |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Colosseum to open gladiator passageways for first time |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=UK |date=23 June 2010 |access-date=30 January 2011}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

The Colosseum is also the site of Roman Catholic ceremonies in the 20th and 21st centuries. For instance, [[Pope Benedict XVI]] led the [[Stations of the Cross]] called the [[Scriptural Way of the Cross]] (which calls for more meditation) at the Colosseum<ref>{{cite book|author=Champlin, Joseph M. |title=The Stations of the Cross With Pope John Paul II |publisher=Liguori Publications |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-89243-679-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Vatican Description of the Stations of the Cross at the Colosseum |url=http://www.pcf.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/speeches/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_20000421_via-crucis_en.html |website=pcf.va |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603105242/http://www.pcf.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/speeches/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_20000421_via-crucis_en.html |archive-date=3 June 2013 }}</ref> on [[Good Friday]]s.<ref name="wayofthecross-frommers"/>

====Restoration====
[[File:Colosseum under renovation in Rome, Italy (Ank Kumar) 03.jpg|thumb|Colosseum under renovation, 2015]]
In 2011, [[Diego Della Valle]], head of the shoe firm [[Tod's]], entered into an agreement with local officials to sponsor a €25&nbsp;million restoration of the Colosseum. Work was planned to begin at the end of 2011, taking up to two and a half years.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-12256813 |title=Rome Colosseum repair to be funded by Tods shoe firm |publisher=BBC |date=21 January 2011 |access-date=16 April 2012|work=BBC News }}</ref> Due to the controversial nature of using a [[public–private partnership]] to fund the restoration, work was delayed and began in 2013. The restoration is the first full cleaning and repair in the Colosseum's history.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Silvers|first1=Eric|title=The Colosseum's Badly Needed Bath|url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052702304518704579521583112244014|access-date=7 September 2014|work=The Wall Street Journal|date=25 April 2014}}</ref> The first stage is to clean and restore the Colosseum's arcaded façade and replace the metal enclosures that block the ground-level arches. After three years, the work was completed on 1&nbsp;July 2016, when the Italian minister of culture, Dario Franceschini, also announced that the funds have been committed to replace the floors by the end of 2018. These will provide a stage that Franceschini says will be used for "cultural events of the highest level."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://skift.com/2016/07/03/italy-completes-a-long-overdue-restoration-of-romes-iconic-colosseum/|title=Italy Completes a Long Overdue Restoration of Rome's Iconic Colosseum|date=3 July 2016|access-date=12 January 2018|archive-date=28 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728181623/https://skift.com/2016/07/03/italy-completes-a-long-overdue-restoration-of-romes-iconic-colosseum/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The project also includes creating a services center and restoring the galleries and underground spaces inside the Colosseum.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Colosseum Won't Be Restored in a Day, but Work Is Finally Scheduled to Start|url = http://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/31/colosseum-wont-be-restored-in-a-day-but-work-is-finally-scheduled-to-start/|access-date = 17 June 2015|first = Elisabetta|last = Povoledo|date = 31 July 2012}}</ref> Since 1&nbsp;November 2017, the top two levels have been opened for guided visits. The fourth level held the marketplace, and the top fifth tier is where the poorest citizens, the plebeians, gathered and watched the show, bringing picnics for the day-long event.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.italymagazine.com/news/colosseum-open-top-levels-public|title=Colosseum To Open Top Levels to the Public|first=Silvia|last=Donati|date=5 October 2017}}</ref>

== Significance in Christianity ==
[[File:Jean-Léon Gérôme - The Christian Martyrs' Last Prayer - Walters 37113.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''The Christian Martyrs' Last Prayer'', by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]] (1883)]]
[[File:Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg - View of the interior of the Colosseum - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright|''View of the interior of the Colosseum'', by [[Christoffer Wilhelm Eckersberg|C. W. Eckersberg]] (1815)]]
The Colosseum is generally regarded by Christians as a site of the martyrdom of large numbers of believers during the [[persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire]], as evidenced by Church history and tradition.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.the-colosseum.net/history/h1.htm|title=The-Colosseum.net: Antiquity|work=the-colosseum.net}}</ref><ref name="newadvent.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04101b.htm|title=Catholic Encyclopedia: The Coliseum|work=newadvent.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tribunesandtriumphs.org/colosseum/colosseum-christian-martyrs.htm|title=Colosseum & Christian Martyrs|work=tribunesandtriumphs.org}}</ref> On the other hand, other scholars believe that the majority of martyrdoms may have occurred at other venues within the city of Rome, rather than at the Colosseum, citing a lack of still-intact physical evidence or historical records.<ref>[[#Hopkins|Hopkins]], p. 103</ref><ref name="Brockman2011">{{cite book|last=Brockman|first=Norbert C.|title=Encyclopedia of Sacred Places [2 volumes]|date= 2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-655-3|page=108|quote=Public executions were held there during the empire, and it is for these last events that the Colosseum became a Christian shrine. It is disputed whether many early Christian martyrs actually died in the Colosseum, since there is no mention of that in ancient Christian records.}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Polidoro |first1=Massimo |author-link=Massimo Polidoro|title=Myths and Secrets of the Colosseum |journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |date=2018 |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=15–17 |url=https://www.csicop.org/si/show/myths_and_secrets_of_the_colosseum |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618193426/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/myths_and_secrets_of_the_colosseum |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 June 2018 |access-date=19 June 2018}}</ref> These scholars assert that "some Christians were executed as common criminals in the Colosseum—their crime being refusal to reverence the Roman gods", but most [[Christian martyr]]s of the [[early Church]] were executed for their faith at the [[Circus Maximus]].<ref name="Brockman">{{cite book|last=Brockman|first=Norbert C.|title=Encyclopedia of Sacred Places [2 volumes]|date= 2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-655-3|page=108|quote=There seems little doubt that some Christians were executed as common criminals in the Colosseum-their crime being refusal to reverence the Roman gods. Most martyrs, however, died for their faith at the Circus Maximus. Some were even executed as members of what the Romans considered a Jewish sect, since both Jews and Christians refused to reverence the gods.}}<!--|access-date=30 April 2014--></ref><ref name="Potter1999">{{cite book|last=Potter|first=David Stone|title=Life, Death, and Entertainment in the Roman Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HPjqJWakX7IC&pg=PA227|year=1999|publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]]|isbn=978-0-472-08568-2|page=227|quote=The public execution of condemned offenders, including Christians, is associated above all with the amphitheater, although there were executions at various other venues. Gladiatorial games, hunting displays, and executions also took place at the Circus Maximus, even after the construction of the Colosseum (Humphrey 1987, 121).}}</ref> According to [[Irenaeus]] (died about 202), [[Ignatius of Antioch]] was fed to the lions in Rome around 107<!--checkp--> A.D. and although Irenaeus says nothing about this happening at the Colosseum, tradition ascribes it to that place.<ref name="Litfin2007"/><ref name="Flinn2006">{{cite book|last=Flinn|first=Frank K.|title=Encyclopedia of Catholicism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gxEONS0FFlsC&pg=PA359|year=2006|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-7565-2|pages=359|quote=He was caught up in the general persecution of the church under the emperor Trajan (r. 98–117), brought to Rome, and fed to the lions in the Coliseum around 107 C.E. His feast day is 17 October. Before his execution, Ignatius wrote seven letters to the churches along his route, one each to Ephesus, Magnesia, Tralles, and Philadelphia, two to the church at Smyrna, and one to Smyrna's bishop, Polycarp. The letters are a rich source about early theology, liturgy, and church organization.}}</ref><ref>[[#Hopkins|Hopkins]], p. 103: "It is likely that Christians ''were'' put to death there and that those said to have been martyred 'in Rome' actually died in the Colosseum. But, despite what we are often told, that is only a guess. One of the possible candidates for martyrdom in the Colosseum is St. Ignatius, a bishop of Antioch (in Syria) at the beginning of the second century AD, who was 'condemned to the beasts' at Rome."</ref><ref name="Norbert">{{cite book|last=Brockman|first=Norbert C.|title=Encyclopedia of Sacred Places [2 volumes]|year=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-59884-655-3|page=108|quote=The Christians who did die in the Colosseum often did so under dramatic circumstances, thus cementing the legend. The hero St. Ignatius of Antioch, a disciple of St. John the Beloved, was sent to the beasts by Trajan in 107. Shortly after, 115 Christians were killed by archers. When Christians refused to pray to the gods for the end of a plague in the latter part of the second century, Marcus Aurelius had thousands killed in the Colosseum for blasphemy.}}</ref>

In the Middle Ages, the Colosseum was not regarded as a monument, and was used as what some modern sources label a "quarry,"<ref>[[#Hopkins|Hopkins]], p. 160: "For most of the Middle Ages and early Renaissance the Colosseum was not so much a monument as a quarry. To describe this activity as 'robbery' is to give the wrong impression. For the most part, there was nothing illegal or unofficial about the removal of this stone."</ref> which is to say that stones from the Colosseum were taken for the building of other sacred sites.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.the-colosseum.net/history/quarry.htm|title=The-Colosseum.net: 1300–1700|work=the-colosseum.net}}</ref> This fact is used to support the idea that, at a time when sites associated with martyrs were highly venerated the Colosseum was not being treated as a sacred site.<ref name="New Advent">{{cite encyclopedia|title=The Coliseum|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04101b.htm|encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia|publisher=New Advent|access-date=24 April 2014|quote=In the Middle Ages, for example, when the sanctuaries of the martyrs were looked upon with so great veneration, the Coliseum was completely neglected; its name never occurs in the itineraries, or guide-books, compiler for the use of pilgrims to the Eternal City.}}</ref> It was not included in the itineraries compiled for the use of pilgrims nor in works such as the 12th century ''[[Mirabilia Urbis Romae]]'' ("Marvels of the City of Rome"), which claims the [[Circus Flaminius]] – but not the Colosseum – as the site of martyrdoms.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=The Coliseum|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04101b.htm|encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia|publisher=New Advent|access-date=24 April 2014|quote=The "Mirabilia Romae", the first manuscripts of which date from the twelfth century, cites among the places mentioned in the "Passions" of the martyrs the Circus Flaminius ad pontem Judaeorum, but in this sense makes no allusion to the Coliseum.}}</ref> Part of the structure was inhabited by a [[Religious order#Christian tradition|Christian religious order]], but it is not known whether this was for any particular religious reason.

[[Pope Pius V]] (1566–1572) is said to have recommended that pilgrims gather sand from the arena of the Colosseum to serve as a relic, on the grounds that it was impregnated with the blood of martyrs, although some of his contemporaries did not share his conviction.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=The Coliseum|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04101b.htm|encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia|publisher=New Advent|access-date=24 April 2014|quote=Pope St. Pius (1566–72) is said to have recommended persons desirous of obtaining relics to procure some sand from the arena of the Coliseum, which, the pope declared, was impregnated with the blood of martyrs. The opinion of the saintly pontiff, however, does not seem to have been shared by his contemporaries.}}</ref> A century later Fioravante Martinelli listed the Colosseum at the head of a list of places sacred to the martyrs in his 1653 book ''Roma ex ethnica sacra''. Martinelli's book evidently had an effect on public opinion; in response to Cardinal Altieri's proposal some years later to turn the Colosseum into a bullring, Carlo Tomassi published a pamphlet in protest against what he regarded as an act of desecration. The ensuing controversy persuaded [[Pope Clement X]] to close the Colosseum's external arcades and declare it a sanctuary.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title=The Coliseum|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04101b.htm|encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia|publisher=New Advent|access-date=24 April 2014|quote=The pamphlet was so completely successful that four years later, the jubilee year of 1675, the exterior arcades were closed by order of Clement X; from this time the Coliseum became a sanctuary.}}</ref>
[[File:Cruz del Jubileo 2000 en el Coliseo - detalle.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|Cross dedicated to the Christian martyrs, placed in 2000 by [[Pope John Paul II]].]]
At the insistence of St. [[Leonard of Port Maurice]], Pope [[Benedict XIV]] (1740–1758) forbade the quarrying of the Colosseum and erected [[Stations of the Cross]] around the arena, which remained until February 1874.<ref name="Benedict">{{cite encyclopedia|title=The Coliseum|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04101b.htm|encyclopedia=Catholic Encyclopedia|publisher=New Advent|access-date=24 April 2014|quote=At the instance of St. Leonard of Port Maurice, Benedict XIV (1740-58) erected Stations of the Cross in the Coliseum, which remained until February, 1874, when they were removed by order of Commendatore Rosa. St. Benedict Joseph Labre (d. 1783) passed a life of austere devotion, living on alms, within the walls of the Coliseum.}}</ref> [[Benedict Joseph Labre]] spent the later years of his life within the walls of the Colosseum, living on [[alms]], before he died in 1783.<ref name="Benedict"/> Several 19th century popes funded repair and restoration work on the Colosseum, and it still retains its Christian connection today. A [[Christian cross]] stands in the Colosseum, with a plaque, stating:

<blockquote>The amphitheater, one consecrated to triumphs, entertainments, and the impious worship of pagan gods, is now dedicated to the sufferings of the martyrs purified from impious superstitions.<ref name="Litfin2007">{{cite book|last=Litfin|first=Bryan M.|title=Getting to Know the Church Fathers: An Evangelical Introduction|date= 2007|publisher=Brazos Press|isbn=978-1-4412-0074-7|page=44|quote=But according to Irenaeus (who spent time in Rome not long after these events took place) Ignatius did in fact meet his end by being torn apart by wild animals for the amusement of the Roman masses, probably in the infamous Colosseum. The crowd there that day would have viewed the spectacle as a crushing defeat of this meek man's Christian religion. But Ignatius understood his death to be a shout of victory. Today a Christian cross stands in the Colosseum of Rome with a plaque that reads, "The amphitheater, one consecrated to triumphs, entertainments, and the impious worship of pagan gods, is now dedicated to the sufferings of the martyrs purified from impious superstitions."}}</ref></blockquote>
Other Christian crosses stand in several points around the arena and every [[Good Friday]] the Pope leads a [[Via Crucis]] procession to the amphitheater.

== Flora ==
[[File:Weed Whacking the Colosseum (2883935844).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Weed control]]
The Colosseum has a wide and well-documented history of [[Flora (plants)|flora]] ever since [[Domenico Panaroli]] made the first catalogue of its plants in 1643. Since then, 684 species have been identified there. The peak was in 1855 (420 species). Attempts were made in 1871 to eradicate the vegetation, because of concerns over the damage that was being caused to the masonry, but much of it has returned.<ref name="claridge"/> Two hundred forty-two species have been counted today and of the species first identified by Panaroli, 200 remain.

The variation of plants can be explained by the change of climate in Rome through the centuries. Additionally, [[bird migration]], flower blooming, and the growth of Rome that caused the Colosseum to become embedded within the modern city centre rather than on the outskirts of the ancient city, as well as deliberate transport of species, are also contributing causes. Another reason often given is their seeds being unwittingly transported either on the fur or in the feces of animals brought there from all corners of the empire.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Cooper|first1=Paul|title=Rome's Colosseum Was Once a Wild, Tangled Garden|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/12/romes-colosseum-garden/547535/|access-date=12 January 2018|work=[[The Atlantic]]|date=5 December 2017}}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
The Colosseum has appeared in numerous films, artworks and games. It is featured in films such as ''[[Roman Holiday]]'',<ref>{{cite web |title=Roman Holiday at Colosseum |url=https://www.sceen-it.com/sceen/140/Roman-Holiday/Colosseum |website=Sceen It |access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref> ''[[Gladiator (2000 film)|Gladiator]]'',<ref>{{cite web |title=Where Gladiator Was Filmed - Colosseum & Filming Locations Explained |url=https://screenrant.com/gladiator-colosseum-filming-locations-explained/ |website=Screen Rant |date=18 July 2023 |access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref> ''[[The Way of the Dragon]]'',<ref>{{cite web |title=Google Arts and Culture |url=https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/bruce-lee-and-chuck-norris-fight-in-the-coliseum-from-the-film-way-of-the-dragon-bruce-lee/GwHjIj6PIf-9cw?hl=en |website=Bruce Lee and Chuck Norris fight in the Coliseum from the film "Way of The Dragon" |access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref> ''[[Jumper (2008 film)|Jumper]],''<ref>{{cite web |title='Jumper' shoot had rare access to Coliseum |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/business/business-news/jumper-shoot-had-rare-access-146993/ |website=The Hollywood Reporter |date=19 December 2006 |access-date=11 November 2023}}</ref> and ''[[Godzilla x Kong: The New Empire]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schreur |first=Brandon |date=2024-01-10 |title=Godzilla x Kong: The New Empire International Trailer Sees Titular Titan Invade Rome's Colosseum |url=https://www.superherohype.com/movies/562922-godzilla-x-kong-the-new-empire-international-trailer-sees-titular-titan-invade-romes-colosseum |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=Comic Book Movies and Superhero Movie News - SuperHeroHype |language=en-US}}</ref>

Several architectural works have also been modelled on or inspired by, the Colosseum. These include:
* The ''Kongresshalle'', or "Congress Hall", (1935, unfinished) at the [[Nazi Party Rally grounds]], [[Nuremberg]], [[Germany]]
* The [[Summer Olympic Games]] [[Olympic medal|medal]] from 1928 to 2000, designed by [[Giuseppe Cassioli]], features a depiction of the Colosseum. At the [[2004 Summer Olympics]] in [[Athens]] the Colosseum was replaced by a depiction of the [[Panathinaiko Stadium]]
* The exterior of the [[Vancouver Public Library]] in [[British Columbia]] resembles the current state of the Colosseum. It was designed by [[Moshe Safdie]].
* The [[Los Angeles Memorial Coliseum]] entrance was inspired by the Colosseum.
* The [[Palazzo della Civiltà Italiana]] was very closely modelled on the Colosseum. It was built for Mussolini for the Universal Exhibition of 1942 but the exhibition never happened due to the outbreak of World War II. The architects were Giovanni Guerrini, Ernesto Bruno La Padula, and Mario Romano.
* [[McCaig's Tower]], overlooking [[Oban]], Scotland.

==Gallery==
<gallery mode="packed" heights="170">
File:Rom Colosseum Sept 2021 2.jpg|The Colosseum in 2021
File:Colosseum and Arch of Constantine seen from Palatine.jpg|The Colosseum and the [[Arch of Constantine]], seen from [[Palatine Hill]]
File:Colosseum (8474551096).jpg|Interior
File:Colosseum 1000689.jpg|Interior
File:Colosseum in Rome-April 2007-1- copie 2B.jpg|The Colosseum at night
File:The Colosseum (9554989427).jpg|Seating tiers at the east entrance
File:Rome (IT), Kolosseum -- 2013 -- 3400.jpg|The Colosseum in 2013
</gallery>

==See also==
{{portal|Catholic Church|Architecture|History}}
* {{annotated link|List of Roman amphitheatres}}
* [[List of tallest structures built before the 20th century]]
* [[List of tourist attractions in Rome]]
* {{annotated link|Roman amphitheatre}}
* {{annotated link|Stadium of Domitian}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book| first=Filippo | last=Coarelli | author-link=Filippo Coarelli | year=1989 | title=Guida Archeologica di Roma | publisher=Arnoldo Mondadori Editore | location=Milano | isbn=978-88-04-11896-1}}
* {{Cite book| ref=Elkins | first=Nathan T. | last=Elkins | year=2019 | title=A Monument to Dynasty and Death: The Story of Rome's Colosseum and the Emperors Who Built It | publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] | location=Baltimore, MD | isbn=9781421432557}}
* {{Cite book | ref=Hopkins | first=Keith | last=Hopkins | author-link=Keith Hopkins | author2=Beard, Mary | author-link2=Mary Beard (classicist) | year=2005 | title=The Colosseum | publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] | location=Cambridge, MA | isbn=978-0-674-01895-2 | url=https://archive.org/details/colosseum00hopk }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{commons}}
{{Wikivoyage|Rome/Colosseo|Colosseum}}
* {{Official website}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120416051239/http://rome.arounder.com/it/monumenti/colosseo/colosseum-by-night.html Virtual tour of the Colosseum]
* [https://sketchfab.com/models/544c64b6445e4899a17350c949b7766a A 3D model of Colosseum on Sketchfab]
* [https://the-colosseum.net/wp/en/ Website providing information on the Colosseum's history and how to visit]
* {{Cite NSRW|short=x|wstitle=Colosseum}}
*[https://www.3ds.com/progress-is-human/heritage-and-future/colosseum 3D model of the past and present of the colosseum – The Only Progress is Human]
{{Sequence
| prev = [[Circus of Nero]] 
| list = Landmarks of Rome
| curr = Colosseum
| next = [[Ludus Magnus]]
}}
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{{Monuments of Rome}}
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