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{{Short description|Rebellion against Roman rule (66–73 AD)}}
{{good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = First Jewish–Roman War
| partof            = the [[Jewish–Roman wars]]
| image             = Arch of Titus Menorah.png
| image_size        = 250px
| caption           = Relief on the [[Arch of Titus]] depicting the Temple spoils carried during the triumph procession of 71 AD
| date              = 66–74 AD
| place             = [[Judaea (Roman province)]]
| result            = {{ublist|Roman victory}}
* Destruction of [[Jerusalem]] and its [[Second Temple|Temple]]
* Significant portion of the Jewish population killed, enslaved and displaced, and many towns and villages destroyed
* Collapse of the Jewish elite and disappearance of the [[Sadducees]] and [[Essenes]]
* Creation of Roman military camps and [[Colonia (Roman)|colonies]]
* Consolidation of [[Flavian dynasty|Flavian rule]] in Rome
* Development of [[Rabbinic Judaism]] out of the [[Pharisaic]] school
| combatant1        = [[Roman Empire]]
| combatant2        = [[Judean provisional government (66–68)|Judean provisional government]]
''Supported by:''
* [[Adiabene]] volunteers
----
* Peasantry faction
* Idumeans {{small|(69–70)}}
| combatant3        = Radical factions:
* [[Zealotry in Jewish history|Zealots]]
* [[Idumeans]] {{small|(68)}}
----
* [[Sicarii]]
| commander1        = {{unbulleted list
|[[Gessius Florus]] {{small|(66)}}
|[[Cestius Gallus]] {{DOW}} {{small|(66)}}
|[[Vespasian]]{{WIA}} {{small|(67–69)}}<ref>Josephus, ''[[The Jewish War]]'', VI, 5.4</ref>
|[[Titus]] {{small|(67–71)}}<ref>''The Jewish War'', VI, 2–3</ref>
|[[Sextus Lucilius Bassus|Lucilius Bassus]] {{small|(71–72)}}
|[[Lucius Flavius Silva|Flavius Silva]] {{small|(72–73)}}
|[[Herod Agrippa II]] {{WIA}} }}
| commander2        = {{unbulleted list
|[[Ananus ben Ananus]]{{KIA}}<ref>Josephus, ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', XX, 9.1</ref>
|[[Joseph ben Gurion|Yosef ben Gurion]]{{executed}}
|[[Joshua ben Gamla]]{{executed}}
|[[Eleazar ben Hanania]]{{KIA}}
|[[Josephus]]{{POW}}}}
----{{unbulleted list
|[[Simon bar Giora]]{{Executed}}
|[[Judah ben Ari]]{{KIA}}
|[[Jacob ben Sosa]] {{small|(69–70)}}}}
| commander3        = Zealots:{{unbulleted list
|[[John of Giscala|Yohanan of Gush Halav]]{{POW}}
|[[Eleazar ben Simon]]{{KIA}}}}
Idumeans:{{unbulleted list
|John
|[[Jacob ben Sosa]] {{small|(68)}}
|Simon ben Cathlas
|Phineas ben Clusothus}}
----
{{unbulleted list
|[[Menahem ben Yehuda]]{{Executed}}
|[[Eleazar ben Ya'ir]]{{KIA}}}}
| strength1         = {{unbulleted list
|Gallus's force: 29,548 {{small|(66)}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=302}}
|Vespasian's force: 60,000 {{small|(67–69)}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=302}}
|Titus's force: 50,000 {{small|(69–70)}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=302}}
|Silva's force: 8,000 troops {{small|(74)}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=302}}}}
| strength2         = Unknown
| strength3         = Unknown
| notes             = * According to Josephus, 1.1 million died in Jerusalem and 100,000 in Galilee.<ref>''The Jewish War'', VI, 9.3</ref>
* According to modern analysis, a significant part of Judaea's population died, possibly one-quarter.{{sfn|Herr|1984|p=288}} Josephus's figure of 97,000 enslaved individuals is accepted by multiple scholars.{{sfn|Schwartz|2014b|pp=85–86}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=369}}
}}
{{Campaignbox First Jewish–Roman War}}
{{Campaignbox Jewish–Roman wars}}

The '''First Jewish–Roman War''' (66–74 CE), also known as the '''Great Jewish Revolt''',{{efn|or simply the "Great Revolt";{{sfn|Zissu|2017|p=19}} {{langx|he|המרד הגדול|ha-Mered Ha-Gadol}}}} the '''First Jewish Revolt''', the '''War of Destruction''',{{sfn|Zissu|2017|p=19}} or the '''Jewish War''',{{sfn|Zissu|2017|p=19}}{{efn|{{langx|la|Bellum Iudaicum}}}} was the first of three [[Jewish–Roman wars|major Jewish rebellions]] against the [[Roman Empire]]. Fought in the province of [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]], it resulted in the destruction of [[Jerusalem]] and the [[Second Temple|Jewish Temple]], mass displacement, land appropriation, and the dissolution of the Jewish polity.

Judaea, once independent under the [[Hasmonean dynasty|Hasmoneans]], fell to Rome in the first century BCE. Initially a [[Client kingdoms in ancient Rome|client kingdom]], it later became a [[Roman province|directly ruled province]], marked by the rule of oppressive governors, socioeconomic divides, nationalist aspirations, and rising religious and ethnic tensions. In 66 CE, under [[Nero]], unrest flared when a local Greek sacrificed a bird at the entrance of a [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]] synagogue. Tensions escalated as Governor [[Gessius Florus]] looted the temple treasury and massacred Jerusalem's residents, sparking an uprising in which rebels killed the Roman garrison while pro-Roman officials fled.

To quell the unrest, [[Gaius Cestius Gallus (governor of Syria)|Cestius Gallus]], the governor of [[Roman Syria|Syria]], invaded Judaea but was [[Battle of Beth Horon (66)|defeated]] at [[Bethoron]] and a [[Judean provisional government|provisional government]], led by [[Ananus ben Ananus]], was established in Jerusalem. In 67 CE, commander [[Vespasian]] was sent to suppress the revolt, [[Galilee campaign (67)|invading the Galilee]] and capturing [[Siege of Yodfat|Yodfat]], [[Tarichaea]], and [[Gamla]]. As rebels and refugees fled to Jerusalem, the government was overthrown, leading to infighting between [[Eleazar ben Simon]], [[John of Gischala]] and [[Simon bar Giora]]. After Vespasian subdued most of the province, Nero's death prompted him to depart for [[Rome]] to [[Year of the Four Emperors|claim the throne]]. His son [[Titus]] led the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|siege of Jerusalem]], which fell in the summer of 70 CE, resulting in the Temple's destruction and the city's razing. In 71, they celebrated a [[Roman triumph|triumph]] in Rome, and [[Legio X Fretensis]] remained in Judaea to suppress the last pockets of resistance, culminating in the [[Siege of Masada|fall of Masada]] in 73/74 CE.

The war had profound consequences for the Jewish people, with many killed, displaced, or sold into slavery. The [[Chazal|sages]] emerged as leading figures and established a rabbinic center in [[Yavne]]h, marking a key moment in the development of [[Rabbinic Judaism]] as it adapted to the post-Temple reality. These events in [[Jewish history]] signify the transition from the [[Second Temple period]] to the [[Rabbinic period]]. The victory also strengthened the new [[Flavian dynasty]], which commemorated it through monumental constructions and [[Judaea Capta coinage|coinage]], imposed a [[Fiscus Judaicus|punitive tax on all Jews]], and increased military presence in the region. The Jewish–Roman wars culminated in the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] (132–136 CE), the last major attempt to restore Jewish independence, which resulted in even more catastrophic consequences.

==Ante bellum==
===Judaea under the Romans===
{{See also|Judaea (Roman province)}}{{Further|Second Temple period}}
In 63 BCE, the kingdom of Judaea was conquered by the [[Roman Republic]], ending Jewish independence under the [[Hasmonean dynasty]].{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=9}}{{sfn|Safrai|Stern|p=216|1974}} Roman general [[Pompey]] intervened in a [[Hasmonean civil war|civil war]] between [[Hyrcanus II|Hyrcanus]] and [[Aristobulus II|Aristobolus]], who vied for the throne after the death of their mother, Queen [[Salome Alexandra]].{{sfn|Berlin|Overman|2002|p=2}}{{sfn|Gabba|1999|pp=94–95}} After [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)|capturing Jerusalem]], Pompey entered the Temple's [[Holy of Holies]]{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=95}}{{sfn|Price|1992|p=2}}—an act of desecration,{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=9}}{{sfn|Price|1992|p=2}} as only the [[High Priest of Israel|High Priest]] was permitted to enter.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=272}} The Jewish monarchy was abolished, Hyrcanus was appointed to serve exclusively as High Priest,{{sfn|Gabba|1999|pp=97–98}}{{sfn|Price|1992|p=2}} and parts of the kingdom were transferred to [[Hellenization|Hellenistic]] cities or to the [[Roman province]] of [[Roman Syria|Syria]].{{sfn|Price|1992|p=2}}

Recognizing the nationalist character of Hasmonean rule, the Romans sought to suppress it by instituting a new, loyal dynasty.{{sfn|Cohen|2014|pp=3–4}} In 40 BCE, [[Antigonus II Mattathias]], Aristobolus' son, briefly regained the throne with [[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] support,{{sfn|Berlin|Overman|2002|p=3}} but was deposed by in 37 BCE by [[Herod the Great|Herod]], who had been appointed "King of the Jews" by the [[Roman Senate]].{{sfn|Price|1992|p=5}} Herod [[Herodian kingdom|ruled Judaea]] as a [[Client kingdoms in ancient Rome|client kingdom]],{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=113}} taxed heavily, murdered family members, controlled Jewish institutions, and fueled resentment.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=5}}{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=122}} After his death in 4 BCE, realm was [[Herodian tetrarchy|divided among his sons]]:{{sfn|Berlin|Overman|2002|p=3}} [[Herod Archelaus|Archelaus]] served as ''[[ethnarch]]'' of Judea, [[Samaria]], and [[Idumaea]], while [[Herod Antipas]] governed [[Galilee]] and [[Perea]].{{sfn|Gabba|1999|pp=127–128, 130}} Archelaus's misrule led to his deposition in 6 CE, and the [[Roman Empire]] annexed his territories as the province of [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]].{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=1}}{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=130}}{{sfn|Safrai|Stern|1974|pp=308–309}}
[[File:First_century_Iudaea_province.gif|thumb|Judaea in the first century CE]]
In the following decades, Jewish–Roman relations in Judaea faced repeated crises.{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=1}} With the onset of direct Roman rule, the [[census of Quirinius]], instituted by the governor of Syria, triggered an uprising led by [[Judas of Galilee]]. Judas led the "[[fourth philosophy]]",{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=133}} a movement that recognized God as the only king and rejected foreign rule. Under [[Pontius Pilate|Pilate]] (<abbr>c.</abbr> 26–36 CE), incidents such as the introduction of [[Roman military standards|military standards]] into Jerusalem, the diversion of Temple funds for an [[Roman aqueduct|aqueduct]], and a soldier's [[indecent exposure]] near the Temple provoked unrest and bloodshed.{{sfn|Goodman|1987|pp=1–2}} Conflicts escalated during [[Three Pilgrimage Festivals|pilgrim festivals]], as the influx of worshippers often fueled nationalistic sentiments.{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=2}}{{sfn|Price|1992|pp=13–14}}

Under Emperor [[Caligula]]'s reign (37–41 CE), Roman policy in Judaea underwent a brief disruption.{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=140}} His insistence on the [[Roman imperial cult|imperial cult]] intensified anti-Jewish sentiment, leading to [[Alexandrian riots (38 CE)|violent outbreaks]] in [[Alexandria]] in 38 CE.{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=140}} Tensions escalated following a dispute at [[Yavneh]] (Jamnia), where the Jewish community dismantled a pagan altar. In response, Caligula ordered a statue of himself to be placed in the Temple, provoking widespread outrage.{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=2}}{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=140}} His death averted open conflict, but the episode further deepened Jewish resentment toward Roman rule.{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=2}}{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=140}}

In 41 CE, with Emperor [[Claudius]]'s support, [[Herod Agrippa]] unified the territories once ruled by his grandfather, Herod, as a client king.{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=2}} This briefly restored Jewish self-governance, but after his death in 44 CE, Judaea reverted to direct Roman rule, expanding to include Judea, Samaria, Idumaea, Galilee, and Perea.{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=2}}{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=142}} His son, [[Herod Agrippa II|Agrippa II]], ruled [[Chalcis (ancient state)|Chalcis]] and oversaw the Temple, including appointing and removing High Priests.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=106}}

The second provincial era began stably but soon fell into disorder. Around 48 CE, the Romans [[Crucifixion|crucified]] [[Jacob and Simon uprising|Jacob and Simon]], sons of Judas of Galilee.<ref>''Antiquities of the Jews'', XX, 102</ref>{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=143}}{{sfn|Price|1992|pp=7–8}} Clashes erupted between Jews and [[Samaritans]], and by the early 50s CE, the [[Sicarii]]{{Efn|A loanword from the Latin ''sicarius'', meaning 'assassin', 'murderer', or referring to an armed robber, derived from ''sica'', meaning 'dagger'.{{sfn|Hengel|1989|p=396}}}} (a group of Jewish radicals) began exploiting pilgrim festivals in Jerusalem for assassinations and intimidation.{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=2}} They also targeted rural landowners, destroying property to deter cooperation with Rome.{{sfn|Mattern|2010|p=168}} Religious fanaticism grew, inspiring figures like [[Theudas]], who tried to part the Jordan but was executed by procurator [[Cuspius Fadus|Fadus]],{{sfn|Price|1992|p=12}} and "[[Egyptian (prophet)|The Egyptian]]", whose followers were dispersed by [[Antonius Felix]].{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=145}}

In 64 CE, [[Gessius Florus]] became procurator, securing the role through his wife, a friend of the [[Poppaea Sabina|wife]] of Emperor [[Nero]].{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=146}} His ties to the imperial family gave him considerable freedom in governance.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=124}} Tacitus saw him as unfit,<ref name=":3">Tactius, ''Annals,'' 5.10</ref> while [[Josephus]]—a Jewish commander who became a historian after his capture by the Romans—portrayed him as a ruthless official who plundered the region and imposed harsh punishments.<ref>''The Jewish War'', II, 277</ref>{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=124}} The worsening situation under Florus led many to flee the region.<ref>''Antiquities of the Jews'', XX, 256; ''The Jewish War'', II, 279</ref>{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=283}}

===Causes and motivations===
Most scholars regard the Jewish War as a prime example of ancient Jewish [[nationalism]].{{sfn|Goodblatt|2006|pp=3, 87–88}} The revolt was driven by the pursuit of freedom, the removal of Roman control and the establishment of an independent Jewish state.{{sfn|McLaren|2011|p=141}} Aspiration for independence grew following Herod's death and particularly after the establishment of direct imperial rule. This desire was partially fueled by memories of the successful [[Maccabean Revolt|Maccabean revolt]] against the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]], which fostered the belief that a similar victory over Rome could be achievable.{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=152}} The Hasmonean-led Jewish state, a rare instance of indigenous sovereignty in this period, strengthened Jewish nationalistic awareness and aspirations for independence.{{sfn|Mendels|1992|p=26}} Historian David Goodblatt points to similarities between the rebels' actions and ideology and those of modern national liberation movements, citing the rebels' struggle to free Judaea, their minting of coins inscribed with "Israel," and their adoption of the "freedom of Israel" era as examples.{{sfn|Goodblatt|2006|p=88}}

Jewish discontent was fueled by the harsh suppression of unrest and widespread perception of Roman rule as oppressive.{{sfn|Freyne|2002|p=45}} Many Roman officials were corrupt, brutal, or inept,{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=284}}{{sfn|Cohen|2014|p=4}} fueling unrest even under competent governors.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=12}} Florus's governorship is described by ancient sources as the tipping point that sparked the revolt. Roman historian [[Tacitus]] attributed the war to Roman misgovernance rather than Jewish rebelliousness; he noted that Jews showed restraint under harsh governors but lost patience due to Florus' actions.<ref name=":3" />{{sfn|Clarysse|2021|p=31}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=283}} Similarly, Josephus wrote that the Jews preferred to die in battle rather than endure prolonged suffering under Florus' governance.<ref>''Antiquities of the Jews'', XX, 257</ref>{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=283}}

The concept of "zeal"—a total commitment to God's will and law,{{sfn|Hengel|1989|pp=72, 145, 224–227}} rooted in figures like [[Phinehas]], [[Elijah]], and [[Mattathias]],{{sfn|Hengel|1989|p=224}}{{sfn|Goodblatt|2006|p=|pp=100–101, 104}} and driven by a belief in [[Jews as the chosen people|Israel's election]]{{sfn|Hengel|1989|pp=72, 145, 224–227}}—is often seen as a key driver of the revolt.{{sfn|Hengel|1989|p=224}}{{sfn|Goodblatt|2006|p=|pp=100–101, 104}} While [[Eleazar ben Simon]]'s faction was the only one to explicitly call itself "[[Zealots]],"{{sfn|Goodblatt|2006|p=100}}{{sfn|Price|1992|p=18}}{{Efn|Jonathan Price proposes that the Zealots likely splintered, along with other groups, from a broader movement—the Sicarii, who may have gained this name only after adopting dagger assassinations.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=24}}}} historian [[Martin Hengel]] maintained that all factions rejecting foreign rule in the name of God's sole sovereignty could rightfully be included under this designation.{{sfn|Hengel|1989|p=403}}{{sfn|Hengel|1989|p=227}} Hengel traced this view to the intensification of Torah concepts,{{sfn|Hengel|1989|pp=224, 226–227}} such as [[Kingship and kingdom of God|God's kingship]],{{sfn|Hengel|1989|pp=91–94}} first manifested by Judas' "Fourth Philosophy".{{sfn|Price|1992|p=20}} This ideology resurfaced in the revolt, especially among the Sicarii, who were led by Judas' descendants.{{sfn|Hengel|1989|p=373}} Judaic scholar [[Philip S. Alexander|Philip Alexander]] similarly described the Zealots as a coalition of factions, united by a shared form of nationalism and the goal of liberating Israel by force.{{sfn|Alexander|2024|p=212}}

Historian Jonathan Price wrote that [[Jewish Apocalypticism|apocalyptic beliefs]] played a role in fueling the revolt, with many rebels envisioning a divinely sanctioned cosmic struggle inspired by prophetic texts, such as the [[Book of Daniel]], which foretold the fall of the fourth imperial power, which people believed was Rome.{{sfn|Price|2024|pp=18–19}} Historian [[Tessa Rajak]], however, asserted that there is no evidence to suggest the insurgents were driven by messianic or end-of-days aspirations.{{sfn|Rajak|2002|pp=181–182}}

[[Marxism|Marxist]] scholars, notably Heinz Kreißig, interpreted the revolt as a [[Class conflict|class struggle]] between [[Social stratification|social strata]], though critics such as Jonathan Price argued that argued this prioritizes [[Political philosophy|political theory]] over evidence.{{sfn|Price|1992|pp=45–46}} The burning of debt records by the rebels is often cited as proof of socio-economic motives,{{sfn|Freyne|2002|p=51}} but this view is also disputed by Price, who notes there is little evidence of economic grievances.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=47}} He argues that rebel leaders lacked class loyalty—[[Simon bar Giora]] freed slaves and targeted the wealthy but also had aristocratic support, while others had no social agenda.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=47}} He sees the burning of debt records as a tactic for popular support, not ideology.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=47}} Classicist Guy McLean Rogers adds that debt was routine and neither a key cause nor a unifying rallying point for the rebels.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=152}}

Historian [[Uriel Rappaport]] wrote that hostility between Jews and surrounding Greek cities was the decisive factor that made the revolt inevitable, as Rome failed to address the tensions.{{sfn|Rappaport|1981|p=81}}{{sfn|Freyne|2002|p=47}} The provincial Roman garrison was mainly drawn from Hellenistic cities, while Greek-speaking eastern provincials held key administrative roles, heightening tensions.{{sfn|Stern|1976|p=297}} Historian [[Martin Goodman (historian)|Martin Goodman]], however, argued that since Jews had chosen to live in Greek cities, deep hostility was not a long-standing issue, and the violence of 66 CE was a consequence of rising tensions rather than the root cause of the revolt.{{sfn|Goodman|1987|pp=6–7}}{{sfn|Freyne|2002|p=47}} Instead, Goodman argued that the revolt was driven by the inability of the local elite to address economic and societal discontent. This failure was linked to their lack of legitimacy, as their authority depended on the Herodians and Romans, both of whom were often despised by the populace.{{sfn|Goodman|2002|p=16}} He argues that elite involvement made Rome view the uprising as a full rebellion and deepened divisions within the rebel state.{{sfn|Goodman|2002|p=16}}

==Initial stages of war==
===Outbreak of the rebellion===
{{Further information|Jerusalem riots of 66}}In May 66 CE, violence erupted in the city of [[Caesarea Maritima|Caesarea]] over a land dispute. Local Jews sought to buy land beside their synagogue from its Greek owner, but despite offering well above its value, he refused and built workshops that blocked access to the synagogue.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=1, 126}}{{sfn|Ritter|2015|pp=253–254}} When young Jews resisted, Florus backed the Greek.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=1, 126}} Prominent Jews paid Florus eight [[Talent (measurement)|talents]] to stop the construction, but he took the money and left without intervening, allowing the work to continue.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=127}}{{sfn|Ritter|2015|p=254}} On Shabbat, a Greek desecrated the synagogue entrance by sacrificing a bird on a chamber pot, sparking violence between the communities.<ref>''The Jewish War'', II, 289–292</ref>{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=1, 127}}{{sfn|Freyne|2002|pp=47–48}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=288}} Local cavalry failed to intervene, and Jews who complained to Florus were arrested.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=1, 127}}{{sfn|Ritter|2015|p=254}}

Afterwards, Florus arrived in Jerusalem and seized 17 talents from the Temple treasury, claiming it was for "governmental purposes."{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=289}} Mass protests ensued, with crowds mocking him by passing around a basket to collect alms as if he were a beggar.<ref>''The Jewish War'', II, 293–295</ref>{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=289}} When the [[Sanhedrin]]—the Jewish high court—refused to surrender the offenders, Florus ordered his troops to sack the Upper Agora, reportedly killing over 3,600 people. Among the victims were wealthy Jews of the [[Equites|equestrian order]], who, despite being [[Roman citizenship|Roman citizens]] and exempt from such punishment, were not spared.<ref name="Wars 2.14.9">''The Jewish War'', II, 14.9</ref>{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=289}} His soldiers exceeded orders, looting and taking prisoners.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=289}} Jewish princess [[Berenice (daughter of Herod Agrippa)|Berenice]], who was visiting the city, pleaded for restraint but was threatened by legionaries.{{sfn|Wilker|2012|p=161}} A second massacre occurred when Jews greeting two arriving [[Cohort (military unit)|cohorts]] were met with silence. Angered, some reacted, prompting soldiers to charge, causing a stampede toward the [[Antonia Fortress]].{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|pp=289–290}} Florus fled the city, leaving a cohort behind to serve as a garrison.{{sfn|Ritter|2015|p=255}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=132}}[[File:19_Shrine_of_the_Book_005_(cropped).jpg|thumb|272x272px|[[Holyland Model of Jerusalem|Scale model reconstruction]] of the [[Temple Mount]] during the first century CE, with the [[Second Temple]] in the center and the [[Antonia Fortress]] to the upper right]]

Agrippa II hurried from Alexandria to calm the unrest,{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=148}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=2}}{{sfn|Wilker|2012|p=161}} while [[Gaius Cestius Gallus (governor of Syria)|Cestius Gallus]], the Roman governor of Syria, sent an emissary who found Jerusalem loyal to Rome but opposed to Florus.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|pp=289–291}} Agrippa then delivered a public speech to the people of Jerusalem alongside his sister Berenice, acknowledging the failures of Roman administration but urging restraint. He argued that a small nation could not challenge the might of the Roman Empire.{{sfn|Wilker|2012|p=161}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=291}} At first, the crowd agreed, reaffirming allegiance to the emperor. They restored damaged structures and paid the tax owed.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=140–141}}{{sfn|Price|1992|p=9}} However, when he urged patience with Florus until a new governor was appointed, the crowd turned on him, forcing him and Berenice to flee the city.{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=148}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=2}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=140–141}}{{sfn|Wilker|2012|p=162}}

[[Eleazar ben Hanania]], the Temple's captain and son of an ex-High Priest, convinced the priests to cease accepting offerings from foreigners.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=143}}{{sfn|Price|1992|p=9}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=292}} This act ended the practice of offering sacrifices on behalf of Rome and its emperor. According to Josephus, this event marked the foundation of the war.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=144}}{{sfn|Bilde|1979|pp=184–185}}{{Efn|While some historians view this act as a declaration of war on Rome, others argue it was neither directed at Rome nor intended as a declaration of war.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=144}}}} Around this time, a faction of Sicarii led by [[Menahem ben Judah]], a descendant of Judas of Galilee,{{sfn|Hengel|1989|p=358}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=292}} launched a surprise assault on the desert fortress of [[Masada]], capturing it and killing the Roman garrison.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=292}} The seized weapons were transported to Jerusalem.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=|pp=143, 152–153}}{{sfn|Cohen|1982|pp=401–402}}{{sfn|Hengel|1989|p=358}}

After failing to pacify the rebels, Jerusalem's moderate leaders sought military assistance from Florus and Agrippa. In response, Agrippa dispatched 2,000 cavalrymen from [[Auranitis]], [[Batanaea]], and [[Trachonitis]].{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=149}}{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=71}} These forces reinforced the moderates, who controlled the Upper City, while Eleazar ben Hanania's followers controlled the Lower City and Temple Mount.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=150}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=294}} After a few days of fighting, the rebels captured the Upper City, forcing the moderates into [[Herod's Palace (Jerusalem)|Herod's Palace]], while others fled or hid.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=152}} They burned the house of ex-High Priest [[Ananias son of Nedebeus|Ananias]], the royal palaces, and the public archives, where debt records were kept,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=151}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=294}} likely to win support from Jerusalem's poor.<ref>''The Jewish War'', II, 427</ref>{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=151}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=294}}

The rebels then captured the Antonia Fortress, seizing artillery and massacring the Roman garrison.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=294}} With reinforcements from the Sicarii, they captured Herod's Palace, then agreed to a ceasefire with the moderates, but refused to make peace with the Roman soldiers.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=153}}{{sfn|Hengel|1989|p=363}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=294}} The Romans retreated to the towers of Phasael, Hippicus, and Mariamne, where they held out for eleven more days.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=153}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=294}} During this time, the Sicarii captured and killed Ananias and his brother.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=294}} In mid-September,{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=294}} the besieged soldiers surrendered for safe passage, but the rebels killed them all except commander Metilius, who pledged to convert to Judaism and undergo [[Brit milah|circumcision]].{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=143}} After appearing in royal attire in public, Menahem was captured, tortured, and executed by Eleazar ben Hanania's faction, while many of his Sicarii followers were killed or scattered.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=|pp=153–154}} Others, including Menahem's relative Eleazar ben Yair, withdrew to Masada.{{sfn|Cohen|1982|p=402}}{{sfn|Hengel|1989|p=365}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=295}}

Ethnic violence spread across the region. Around the time of the garrison massacre, according to Josephus,{{sfn|Ritter|2015|p=256}} non-Jews in Caesarea carried out an ethnic cleansing, killing about 20,000 Jews. The survivors were arrested by Florus.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=155}} Hundreds of Jews were reportedly killed in [[Ascalon]] and [[Ptolemais in Phoenicia|Akko-Ptolemais]], while in [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], [[Hippos (Golan Heights)|Hippos]], and [[Gadara]], many were executed or imprisoned.{{sfn|Ritter|2015|p=259}} The Jews of [[Beit She'an|Scythopolis]] initially assisted their fellow townspeople in defending the city from Jewish attackers. However, they were later relocated with their families to a grove outside the town, where they were massacred by those who had fought alongside them.<ref>''The Jewish War'', II, 466</ref>{{sfn|Wilker|2012|p=171}}{{sfn|Ritter|2015|p=261}} In [[Antioch]], [[Sidon]], and [[Apamea, Syria|Apamea]], the local residents spared the Jewish communities, and in [[Jerash|Gerasa]], they even escorted those who chose to leave all the way to the city's border.<ref>''The Jewish War'', II, 479–480</ref>{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=361}} News of the massacre prompted Jewish groups to attack nearby villages and cities, especially in the [[Decapolis]], including [[Amman|Philadelphia]], [[Heshbon]], Gerasa and [[Pella, Jordan|Pella]].{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=155}}{{Efn|According to Guy McLean Rogers, these cities were likely targeted due to their Greek or Macedonian origins and cultural influence, though some had Jewish residents as a result of the conquests of Hasmonean king [[Alexander Jannaeus]] in the first century BCE.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=155}}}} [[Kedesh|Cedasa]], Hippos, Akko-Ptolemais, Gaba, and Caesarea were also targeted.{{sfn|Ritter|2015|p=259}} Archaeological evidence confirms destruction in Gerasa and Gadara,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=155}} while Josephus describes Sebaste, [[Ashkelon]], [[Anthedon (Palestine)|Anthedon]], and [[Gaza City|Gaza]] as destroyed by fire, this account may be exaggerated.{{sfn|Ritter|2015|p=260}}

Violence also [[Alexandria riot (66)|broke out in Alexandria]], [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]], when Greeks attacked Jews, capturing some alive and provoking retaliation.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=158}} Roman governor [[Tiberius Julius Alexander]]—a Jew who had renounced his ancestral tradition{{sfn|Mondésert|1999|p=878}}—attempted mediation but failed, and his troops killed tens of thousands.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=159}} In Judaea, Jewish forces seized the fortresses of Cypros near [[Jericho]] and [[Machaerus]] in Perea.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=295}}

===Gallus' campaign and defeat===
{{Further information|Battle of Beth Horon (66)}}

At this point, Gallus marched from Antioch to Judaea with [[Legio XII Fulminata]], 2,000 troops from each of Syria's three other legions, six infantry cohorts, and four cavalry units.{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=71}} He was joined by two to three legions from vassal kings [[Antiochus IV of Commagene]], Agrippa II, and [[Sohaemus of Emesa]], adding thousands of cavalry and infantry to his forces.{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=71}} Irregular forces from cities like [[Berytus]], driven by anti-Jewish sentiment, were also recruited.<ref>''The Jewish War'', II, 18, 9</ref>{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=71}}

From his base in Akko-Ptolemais,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=166}} Gallus launched a campaign in the Galilee, burning [[Chabulon]] and nearby villages before marching to Caesarea.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=167}} His forces captured [[Jaffa]], massacred its people, and torched the city.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=167}} Cavalry units were also dispatched to ravage the [[Toparches|toparchy]] (district) of Narbata, near Caesarea.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=168}} The residents of [[Sepphoris]] welcomed the Romans and pledged their support.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=168}}{{sfn|Wilker|2012|pp=172–173}} Gallus then advanced toward Jerusalem, leaving destruction in his wake. The town of [[Lod|Lydda]], largely deserted as most residents had gone to Jerusalem for the festival of [[Sukkot]] (around September–October), was destroyed, and those who remained were killed.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=169}} As the army continued through [[Bethoron]] and [[Gibeon (ancient city)|Gabaon]], it was ambushed by Jewish forces, suffering heavy losses. Among the Jewish fighters were [[Niger the Perean]]{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=170—171}} Simon bar Giora,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=170—171}} and [[Adiabene|Adiabenian]] princes Monobazus and Candaios.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=170—171}} Agrippa made a final attempt at peace, but failed.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=174}}

In late [[Tishrei]] (September/October), Gallus encamped on [[Mount Scopus]] overlooking Jerusalem.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=174}} This drove the rebels into the inner city and Temple complex.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=174}} Upon entering, Gallus set fire to the Bezetha district and Timber Market to intimidate the population.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=175}} For unclear reasons, he lifted the siege and retreated.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=11}}{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=71}} Josephus suggested that Gallus could have captured the city with more determination.{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=71}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=175,177}} Historian [[Menahem Stern]] suggested that Gallus, facing strong resistance, doubted he could seize the city.{{sfn|Stern|1976|p=300}} Historian [[E. Mary Smallwood]] proposed that Gallus may have been concerned about the approaching winter, lack of siege equipment, the risk of ambushes in the hills, and the potential insincerity of the moderates' offer to open the gates.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=295}}

Gallus' retreat turned into a rout, resulting in the loss of 5,300 infantry and 480 cavalry.{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=71}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=180}} At the steep, narrow Bethoron pass, the Roman force [[Battle of Beth Horon (66)|fell into an]] [[Battle of Beth Horon (66)|ambush]] by archers positioned on the surrounding cliffs. Some escaped under cover of darkness but at the cost of hundreds of men.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|pp=297–298}} Pursued to [[Antipatris]], the Roman forces abandoned supplies, including artillery and battering rams, which the rebels seized.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=179-180}} [[Suetonius]] claimed the Romans lost their [[Aquila (Roman)|legionary eagle]].<ref>[[Suetonius]], ''Vespasian'', 4.5</ref>{{sfn|Mason|2016|p=282}} Gallus died soon after, possibly by suicide.<ref>''Histories'', 5.10.1</ref>{{sfn|Murison|2016|p=78}} Scholars note the rarity of this defeat as a decisive Roman loss in a provincial uprising.{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=71}}

The unexpected victory boosted pro-revolt factions, increasing their confidence, while many others were swept up in the enthusiasm.{{sfn|Stern|1976|p=300}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=181}} Some elite moderates fled to the Romans, while others stayed and joined the rebels.<ref>''The Jewish War'', II, 556</ref>{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=184}}{{sfn|Hengel|1989|p=369}} Among those fleeing were Costobar and Saul, members of the Herodian royalty, as well as Philip, son of Iacimus, the prefect of Agrippa's army.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=184}} Around the same time, a pogrom broke out in [[Damascus]]. The city's men, fearing betrayal by their wives who had converted to Judaism, locked the Jewish population in a [[Gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]] and, according to Josephus, killed thousands within hours.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=184-185}}

===Judean provisional government===
{{Main|Judean provisional government (66–68)}}[[Image:Half Shekel.jpg|right|thumb|A coin issued by the rebels in 68, using the [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet]]. Obverse: "[[Shekel]], Israel. Year 3." Reverse: "Jerusalem the Holy"]]After Gallus' defeat, a popular assembly convened at the Jerusalem Temple and established a [[Judean provisional government|provisional government]]. [[Ananus ben Ananus]], a former High Priest, was appointed as one of the government heads alongside [[Joseph ben Gurion]].{{sfn|Price|1992|p=51}}{{sfn|Ben-Zion|2008|p=45}}{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=159}} The new government divided the country into military districts. Josephus was appointed commander of Galilee and [[Gaulanitis]],{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=159}}{{Efn|At the time, Josephus was a 30-year-old priest and had no prior military experience.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=300}}}} while Joseph ben Shimon commanded Jericho.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=51}} John the Essene led the districts of Jaffa, Lydda, [[Emmaus-Nicopolis|Emmaus]], and [[Khirbet Tibnah|Thamna]],{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=51}} and Eleazar ben Ananias and Jesus ben Sappha oversaw [[Edom|Idumaea]], with Niger the Perean, a hero of the Gallus campaign, under their command. Menasseh commanded Perea in [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]], and John ben Ananias was tasked with [[Jifna|Gophna]] and [[Aqraba, Nablus|Acrabetta]].{{sfn|Ben-Zion|2008|p=45}} Eleazar ben Simon, who had played a role in Gallus' defeat and seized large amounts of money and spoils, was denied any formal position.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=51, 180, 186}} Simon bar Giora, another leading figure in the victory over Gallus, was likewise overlooked.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=51, 180, 186}} Citing the exclusion of the Zealots, scholars such as [[Richard A. Horsley|Richard Horsley]] argue that the government may have only feigned support for the revolt, instead seeking a compromise with Rome.{{sfn|Horsley|2002|pp=89–90}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=186, 594}}

Following the Temple meeting,{{sfn|Price|1992|pp=67–68}} Jerusalem's priestly leadership{{sfn|Deutsch|2011|p=368}} began [[First Jewish Revolt coinage|minting coins]]—an assertion of financial autonomy and rejection of foreign rule.{{sfn|McLaren|2011|p=148}} The coins bore Hebrew inscriptions with slogans like ''"Jerusalem the Holy"'' and ''"For the Freedom of Zion"'',{{sfn|Magness|2012|p=166}}{{sfn|Price|1992|pp=67–68}} later changed in the fourth year to ''"For the Redemption of Zion"''.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=300}}{{sfn|McLaren|2011|p=146}} Dated using a new revolutionary calendar (years one to five), they marked the start of a new era of independence.{{sfn|Magness|2012|p=166}}{{sfn|McLaren|2011|pp=143, 145}} The silver coins—the first of their kind in Jewish history—were labeled as the ''"shekel of Israel"'',{{sfn|McLaren|2011|p=145}}{{sfn|Deutsch|2011|p=361}} with "Israel" possibly denoting the state's name.{{sfn|McLaren|2011|pp=146, 149}} Their denominations (''shekel'', ''half-shekel'', ''quarter-shekel'')''{{sfn|Deutsch|2011|p=361}}'' revived the biblical weight system, evoking ancient sovereignty,{{sfn|Magness|2012|p=166}} while the use of Hebrew symbolized Jewish nationalism and statehood.{{sfn|Cotton|2022|pp=136–137}}{{sfn|Price|1992|pp=67–68}}{{Efn|Hebrew was similarly employed on coinage and documents for nationalistic purposes during the later Bar Kokhba revolt.{{sfn|Cotton|2022|pp=136–137}}}}

The new government ordered the destruction of Herod Antipas' palace in [[Tiberias]] due to its display of images forbidden by Jewish law, possibly to demonstrate zeal or appease rebels.<ref>Josephus, ''Life'', 65</ref>{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=67}} Envoys were sent to Jews in the Parthian Empire to seek support against Rome.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=67}} In Jerusalem, the unfinished Third Wall protecting the northern flank was completed.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=70}} With no regular army since the Hasmoneans, the government struggled to build one, as most military-age men had joined rebel factions.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=54}} Rebels acquired arms by stripping the dead and captured, raiding fortresses, commissioning local blacksmiths in Jerusalem, and possibly buying from suppliers connected to the Roman army.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=69}}

During [[Hanukkah]], Niger the Perean and John the Essene led an assault on Ashkelon,{{sfn|Freyne|2002|pp=49–50}}{{sfn|Price|1992|pp=73–74}} a city that remained under Roman control.{{sfn|McLaren|2011|p=137}} Two successive attacks were repelled, forcing a retreat.{{sfn|Freyne|2002|pp=49–50}}{{sfn|Price|1992|pp=73–74}} In Galilee, [[John of Gischala]], a wealthy olive oil trader, emerged as a key rebel leader.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=87}} Initially opposed to the war,{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=160}} he changed his stance after his hometown [[Gush Halav]] was attacked by the people of Tyre and Gadara.{{sfn|Hengel|1989|p=374}} Leading a group of peasants, refugees, and brigands,{{sfn|Horsley|2002|p=102}}{{sfn|Hengel|1989|p=374}} he became Josephus' main adversary, but failed to displace him.{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=160}} Meanwhile, Simon bar Giora led attacks on the wealthy in northern Judea. Expelled from Acrabetene, he fled to Masada,{{sfn|Gabba|1999|pp=160, 290}} where rebels first distrusted but later accepted him into their raids.{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=290}}

==Vespasian's campaigns==
===Vespasian's Galilee campaign===
{{Main|Galilee campaign (67)}}
{{Further information|Siege of Yodfat|Siege of Gamla}}

After Gallus's defeat, Nero appointed [[Vespasian]]—a former consul and seasoned commander—to lead the war effort.{{sfn|Millar|1995|pp=71–72}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=306}} Vespasian, a man of [[Flavia gens|humble origins]], was chosen—according to Suetonius—for both his military effectiveness and his obscure background,<ref>''Vespasian'' 4.5–6</ref>{{sfn|Vervaet|2016|p=51}} which made him a politically safe choice to suppress the revolt without posing a threat to the emperor.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=204–205}} He traveled from [[Corinth]] to Syria,{{sfn|Mason|2016|p=359}} assembling Legions [[Legio V Macedonica|V Macedonica]] and [[Legio X Fretensis|X Fretensis]], while Titus, his eldest son, marched [[Legio XV Apollinaris|XV Apollinaris]] from Alexandria to Akko-Ptolemais.{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=72}}{{sfn|Mason|2016|p=359}}{{sfn|Murison|2016|p=78}} The Roman force was reinforced by 23 auxiliary {{Transliteration|la|[[Auxilia#Cohortes|cohortes]]}} and six {{Transliteration|la|[[Auxilia#Alae|alae]]}} of cavalry, likely drawn from Syria. Local rulers, including Antiochus IV of Commagene, Agrippa II, Sohaemus of Emesa, and [[Malichus II|Malchus II]] of [[Nabataean Kingdom|Nabatea]], contributed additional infantry and cavalry.{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=72}}

In early summer 67 CE, Vespasian established his base at Akko-Ptolemais before launching an offensive on the Galilee, a heavily populated Jewish region in the north of the province.{{sfn|Millar|1995|pp=72–73}} Josephus claimed to have assembled 100,000 men, though this figure is clearly exaggerated.{{sfn|Millar|1995|pp=72–73}} Additionally, people of [[Sepphoris]]–Galilee's capital{{sfn|Wilker|2012|p=174}} and the second-largest Jewish city in the country after Jerusalem{{sfn|Meyers|2002|p=110}}–surrendered and pledged loyalty to Rome.{{sfn|Mason|2016|p=360}} Nevertheless, the Romans faced a significant challenge,{{sfn|Millar|1995|pp=72–73}} as Jewish forces withdrew into fortified cities and villages, forcing the Romans into prolonged sieges.{{sfn|Stern|1976|p=301}} The Romans captured [[Arraba, Israel|Gabara]] in the first assault, with Josephus reporting that all the men were killed—reportedly out of animosity toward the Jews and in retaliation for Gallus' defeat.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=214}} The town and surrounding villages were set on fire, and survivors were enslaved.<ref>''The Jewish War'', III, 132–134</ref>{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=214}}{{sfn|Mason|2016|p=365}}{{sfn|Horsley|2002|pp=94–95}} Around the same time, Titus destroyed the nearby village of [[Yafa an-Naseriyye|Iaphia]], where all the men were reportedly slain and the women and children sold into slavery.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=226–227}} Cerialis, who commanded Legio V Macedonica, was dispatched to fight a large group of [[Samaritans]] who had gathered atop [[Mount Gerizim]], the site of [[Mount Gerizim Temple|their ruined temple]], killing many.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=227}}

Vespasian then [[Siege of Yodfat|besieged]] the town of [[Yodfat]] (Yodefat/Iotapata),{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=214}} which fell in June or July after a 47-day siege.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=230}}{{sfn|Mendels|1992|p=365}} Under Josephus's command, the defenders used various materials to absorb Roman attacks and countered with boulders and [[boiling oil]]—the earliest known use of this tactic.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=308}} Arrowheads and ballista stones have been found at the site.{{sfn|Aviam|2002|pp=128–129}} When the city fell, the Romans massacred those outside and hunted survivors in hiding.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=229}} Josephus reported 40,000 deaths, though modern research estimates around 2,000 killed and 1,200 women and infants captured.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=229}} Josephus recounts that after the town's fall, he and 40 others hid in a deep pit and agreed to commit suicide by drawing lots.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=231–234}} Left among the last two, Josephus chose to surrender rather than die.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=234}} He prophesied Vespasian's rise to emperor, prompting Vespasian to spare him.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=235–236}} Vespasian and Titus then took a 20-day respite in [[Caesarea Philippi]] (Panias), Agrippa's capital.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=240–241}}{{efn|It is believed that it was during this episode that Titus and Berenice began their love affair.{{sfn|Wilker|2011|p=282}} Berenice later lived in Rome as Titus’ mistress, but public opposition to the foreign Jewish queen forced him to dismiss her.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|pp=387–388}}}}

As military operations resumed, Tiberias, a Jewish-majority city in Agrippa's realm,{{sfn|Wilker|2012|p=171}} surrendered without resistance as pro-Roman factions prevailed.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=242–243}}{{sfn|Wilker|2012|p=172}} By contrast, the nearby [[Tarichaea]] mounted a fierce defense. According to Josephus, the residents did not initially want to fight, but the influx of outsiders into the city made them more determined to resist after a decisive defeat outside the walls.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=245}}{{sfn|Alon|1977|p=282}} After the town's fall, surviving rebels took to the [[Sea of Galilee]], engaging the Romans in naval skirmishes that resulted in heavy losses for the Jews.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=246–247}} Josephus reports 6,700 killed, leaving the lake red with blood and filled with bodies.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=247}} Afterward, Vespasian separated local prisoners from "foreign instigators," executing 1,200 in Tiberias.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=247–248}} 6,000 were sent to work on the [[Corinth Canal]] in [[Greece in the Roman era|Greece]],{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=247–248}}{{sfn|van Kooten|2011|p=445}} some were given to Agrippa II, and 30,400 were sold into slavery.<ref>''The Jewish War'', III, 540</ref>{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=247–248}}[[File:Gamla ruin.jpg|alt=Ruins of the Jewish stronghold of Gamla|thumb|[[Gamla]], a fortified town in the [[Golan Heights|Golan]], fell to Roman forces in 67 CE. The image shows the main breach in the town's wall]]
The next target was [[Gamla]], a fortified city on a steep rocky promontory in the southern [[Golan Heights|Golan]].{{sfn|Magness|2012|p=171}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=249, 252}} Archaeological finds at the site include pieces of armor, arrowheads and hundreds of ballista and catapult stones.{{sfn|Mason|2016|p=349}}{{sfn|Syon|2002|pp=141–146}} [[Gamla Synagogue|Gamla's synagogue]] was seemingly repurposed into a refuge area, as indicated by fireplaces, cookpots, and storage jars buried under ballista stones.{{sfn|Syon|2002|p=146}} Despite heavy casualties, the Romans eventually seized the town in October, and it was never resettled.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=258–259}}{{sfn|Syon|2002|pp=136, 149}} According to Josephus, only two women survived, with the rest either throwing themselves into ravines or being killed by the Romans.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=258}}

John of Gischala negotiated a surrender at Gush Halav, but fled with his followers during a Shabbat truce offered by Titus. The city capitulated upon Titus's return.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=259–260}} The Romans also captured the fortress on [[Mount Tabor]]{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=256–257}} and, in a separate campaign, recaptured Jaffa, ending rebel piracy that had disrupted naval routes and grain supplies; a storm helped by destroying the rebel fleet.{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=309}}

===Civil war and coup in Jerusalem===
{{Main|Zealot coup in Jerusalem}}

As the Galilee campaign ended, Jerusalem descended into chaos, overcrowded with refugees and rebels.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=86}} The Zealots, led by Eleazar ben Simon and Zachariah ben Avkilus, opposed the moderate government, continuing the anti-Roman stance of Eleazar ben Hananiah.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=18}} Allied with John of Gischala, who likely arrived in late 67 CE,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=265}} they executed suspected collaborators, seized the Temple, and appointed [[Phannias ben Samuel]]—an unqualified villager without [[Priestly divisions|priestly lineage]]—as high priest by lot.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=267–268}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|pp=312–313}} In response, moderate leader Ananus ben Ananus rallied popular support to confront the Zealots. Though the Zealots launched a preemptive attack, they were overpowered and forced to retreat into the Temple.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=271–272}} Urged by John, they summoned the Idumeans,{{Efn|A group residing south of Judea, the Idumeans were converted to Judaism by Hasmonean leader [[John Hyrcanus]] after their conquest in the 2nd century BCE.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=273}}{{sfn|Price|1992|p=89}}}} who entered the city during a storm and, alongside the Zealots, massacred Ananus's forces and civilians alike.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=273–277}}{{sfn|Price|1992|p=89}}

Through the winter of 67/68, the Zealots consolidated control via terror, staged tribunals, and executions of moderates, killing Ananus, Joshua ben Gamla, Niger the Perean, and Joseph ben Gurion.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=276–279}}{{sfn|Price|1992|p=90}} Many Idumeans later withdrew, while others joined Simon bar Giora.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=280}}{{sfn|Price|1992|pp=91, 93}} Upon hearing of the events from deserters,{{Efn|Many fled to the Romans due to personal danger and disillusionment with the rebel leadership, with some escaping by paying the Zealots and their allies for passage.{{sfn|Price|1992|pp=95, 100}}}} Vespasian decided against marching on Jerusalem, reasoning that the God of the Jews was delivering them into Roman hands without any effort, and that it was wiser to let them destroy one another.<ref>''The Jewish War'', IV, 370–371</ref>{{sfn|Price|1992|p=91}} In Spring, during the [[Passover Seder|Passover feast]], the Sicarii descended from Masada and raided the wealthy village of [[Ein Gedi (archaeological site)|Ein Gedi]] on the southwestern shore of the [[Dead Sea]].{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=283–284}} They killed 700 women and children, looted homes, and seized crops before returning to the fort.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=284}} Similar raids on nearby villages devastated the area and attracted new recruits.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=284}}

===Vespasian's campaign in Judea===
In January 68, the leaders of Gadara in Perea sent a delegation to Vespasian to offer their surrender. As he advanced, opponents of the surrender killed a leading citizen and fled. The remaining residents dismantled the city walls, allowing Roman forces to enter and establish a garrison.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=284–285}} Meanwhile, fugitives attempted to rally support in nearby [[Bethennabris]], but were defeated by Roman forces. The survivors, seeking refuge in Jericho, were massacred near the [[Jordan River]], where over 15,000 were reportedly killed, and many drowned or were captured.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=284–285}}

In spring 68, Vespasian systematically subdued settlements en route to Jerusalem,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=284, 286}} delaying the siege to gather supplies from the spring harvest and to let internal factions weaken.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=281–282}} After capturing Antipatris, Vespasian advanced, burning and destroying nearby towns. He reduced the district of Thamna and resettled Lydda and Yavneh with surrendered inhabitants.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=286–287}} At Emmaus, he stationed Legio V by April 68.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=287}} From there, he advanced to [[Bayt Nattif|Bethleptepha]], burning the area and parts of Idumaea, before capturing [[Beit Guvrin-Maresha National Park|Betabris]] and Caphartoba, reportedly killing over 10,000 people and taking 1,000 prisoners.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=287}} By May–June, he camped at Corea, passed through Mabartha (later [[Nablus|Flavia Neapolis]]) in Samaria,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=287}} and advanced to Jericho, joining the force that took Perea. Perea's survivors fled to Jericho but abandoned it as the Romans approached, leaving it empty. The Romans then stationed garrisons in Jericho and [[Tel Hadid|Adida]], east of Lydda.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=287}}

Vespasian visited the Dead Sea and tested its buoyancy by throwing bound non-swimmers into the water.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=288}} Archaeological evidence indicates that around this time, the [[Qumran]] community, commonly linked to the [[Essenes]],{{sfn|Magness|2002|p=39}} was destroyed,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=287–288}}{{sfn|Magness|2002|pp=61–62}} with some members possibly joining the rebels at Masada.{{sfn|Magness|2002|p=85}} Following this, commander Lucius Annius was sent to Gerasa (likely a textual error for [[Gezer]]), where after capturing the city, he executed many young men, enslaved women and children, plundered and burned the homes, and destroyed surrounding villages, slaughtering those who could not escape.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=288}}

Simon bar Giora gained strength outside Jerusalem, extending his influence over Judea. He plundered the wealthy, freed slaves, and promised gifts to his followers.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=290}} After defeating a Zealot army,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=290}} he reached a stalemate with an Idumaean force before withdrawing to Nain, preparing to invade Idumaea.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=291}} In [[Teqoa]], he failed to capture [[Herodium]],{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=291}} and at [[Halhul|Alurus]], an Idumaean officer betrayed his army, leading them to surrender without a fight.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=291}} Simon's subsequent successes, including the capture of [[Hebron]],{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=291}} prompted the Zealots to ambush him. When they captured his wife, Simon retaliated by torturing captives, threatening to destroy Jerusalem's walls unless she was returned.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=292}}{{sfn|Price|1992|p=103}} The Zealots complied, and Simon paused his campaign.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=292}}

===Simon enters Jerusalem, and a succession war in Rome===
{{Further information|Year of the Four Emperors}}
[[File:Year_of_the_Four_Emperors.jpg|thumb|Coins from the [[Year of the Four Emperors]]. Following Nero's death in June 68, a delay of about a year occurred, during which Vespasian left Judaea to contest the imperial throne ]]As the war progressed, major political upheavals were taking place in Rome. In June 68, Nero fled Rome and committed suicide,{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=73}} sparking a war of succession known as the "[[Year of the Four Emperors]]".{{sfn|Price|1992|p=102}} After only a few months in power, Emperor [[Galba]] was murdered by supporters of his rival, [[Otho]].{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=289–290}}{{sfn|Murison|2016|p=79}} Meanwhile, in Jerusalem, the Galilean Zealots plundered the homes of the wealthy, murdered men, and raped women.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=294}} Following this, they reportedly began to adopt the attire and behaviors of women, imitating both their ornaments and their desires, as Josephus notes, engaging in what he describes as "unlawful pleasures".{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=294}}{{Efn|This claim by Josephus has not been universally accepted by scholars. Steve Mason, for example, sees it as a literary device meant to portray John of Gischala as unmanly.{{sfn|Mason|2016|p=106}} Guy Rogers views it as part of a broader narrative strategy, though he notes that the events could still be historically grounded despite the thematic framing.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=607}}}} Those who fled the city were killed by Simon bar Giora and his followers outside the walls.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=294}}

In April 69, the rivals of John of Gischala opened Jerusalem's gates for Simon ben Giora.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=294}} Simon took control over much of the city, including the Upper City, with his base at the [[Phasael tower|Phasael Tower]], much of the Lower City, and the northern suburbs.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=104}} He failed, however, to dislodge John, who retained control over the Temple area.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=294}}{{sfn|Price|1992|pp=104–105}} Simon's forces grew as the Idumaeans and nobles joined him.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=104}}

In June 69, Vespasian subdued the toparchies of [[Gophna]] and Acrabetta and captured the cities of [[Bethel]] and [[Taybeh, Ramallah|Ephraim]].{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=292–293}} He then approached Jerusalem's walls, killing many and capturing others, marking his closest approach to the city.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=293}} Meanwhile, Cerialis led a [[Scorched earth|scorched-earth]] campaign in northern Idumaea, burning [[Horvat 'Ethri|Caphethra]] and capturing [[Khirbat Umm Burj|Capharabis]], whose residents surrendered to the Romans with [[olive branch]]es, sparing the town from destruction. The Romans then destroyed Hebron and slaughtered its inhabitants.<ref>''The Jewish War'', IV, 550–555</ref>{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=293}}{{sfn|Zissu|2017|p=23}}

Infighting in Jerusalem persisted throughout the summer of 69.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=105}} The rival factions burned the city's food supplies to weaken their opponents, severely depleting the resources needed to withstand the impending siege.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=105}} According to Tacitus, "There were constant battles, treachery and arson among them, and a large store of grain was burnt."<ref>''Histories'', V, 12.3</ref>{{sfn|Price|1992|p=105}} According to rabbinic sources, extremists set fire to the supplies in order to compel the people to fight the Romans.<ref>''[[Lamentations Rabbah]]'', 1.31; ''[[Ecclesiastes Rabbah]]'', 7.12; [[Avot de-Rabbi Natan]] (Version A, c. 6; Version B: c. 7)</ref>{{Efn|The rabbinic interpretation is, however, called into question by Jonathan Price.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=105}}}}{{Efn|Josephus mentions the burning of food stores only after the split between John of Gischala and Eleazar ben Simon at a later stage, which, according to Jonathan Price, was deliberately placed by Josephus at that point, despite occurring earlier, as a rhetorical device to amplify the internal conflict.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=105}}}} The destruction of supplies led to widespread starvation.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=106}}

According to Josephus, Vespasian was proclaimed emperor by his troops in Caesarea in mid-69 CE, though the official account places his first acclamation on 1 July in Alexandria.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=295}} After reluctantly accepting, he secured the support of Egypt, followed by Syria and other provinces.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=295}} With military operations in Judaea paused,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=296}} he traveled to Alexandria in autumn 69 and remained there with Titus through the winter.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=298}} With [[Vitellius]], the reigning emperor, dead on 20 December 69, the Senate conferred imperial authority on Vespasian the next day.{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=73}}{{sfn|Roberts|2007|p=804}} Command in Judaea was transferred to Titus,{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=73}} while Vespasian stayed in Egypt until later summer 70, when he sailed to Rome to secure the throne.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=298}}{{sfn|Roberts|2007|p=804}}

==Siege of Jerusalem and conclusion of the war==
===Siege of Jerusalem===
{{Main|Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)}}By the winter of 69/70 CE, Titus returned to Judaea with over 48,000 troops, establishing his base in Caesarea.{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=75}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=302}} His forces included legions V Macedonica, X Fretensis, XV Apollinaris, XII Fulminata, auxiliaries from Egypt and vassal kingdoms, and Arab allies reportedly driven by long-standing hostility toward the Jews.'''{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=75}}''' In early [[Nisan]] (March/April) 70, Titus camped near [[Gibeah]], north of Jerusalem,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=304}} choosing to attack from the north, where the terrain lacked natural defenses.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=305}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=319}} Jerusalem, then swelled by [[Passover]] pilgrims and refugees{{sfn|Price|2024|p=18}}—faced mounting pressure as Roman forces approached. The warring factions only united as the Romans battered its walls.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=309–310}} Titus narrowly escaped an ambush during reconnaissance, then established camps at Mount Scopus and the [[Mount of Olives]], repelling a Jewish surprise attack during the latter's construction.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=307}}{{sfn|Price|1992|pp=128–129}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=318}}

On 14 Nisan, with the onset of Passover, the Romans exploited a halt in Jewish attacks to position their siege forces.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=129}} Meanwhile, John's faction infiltrated the Temple's inner courtyards and subdued the Zealots.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=309–310}}{{sfn|Price|1992|p=129}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|p=318}}

After fifteen days, the Romans breached the Third Wall and captured the northern suburbs.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=316}} The Second Wall was breached soon after; though initially unable to hold the area,{{sfn|Price|1992|p=134}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=318–319}} the Romans later secured it, destroyed northern Jerusalem,{{sfn|Price|1992|p=135}} and paraded their forces for psychological effect.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=320–321}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=320}} A famine ravaged the city,{{sfn|Price|1992|p=156}}{{Efn|Josephus mentions children with swollen bellies<ref>''The Jewish War'', V, 513</ref> and mentions deserters who appear to have suffered from [[dropsy]].<ref>''The Jewish War'', V, 549</ref>{{sfn|Price|1992|p=156}} In [[Lamentations Rabbah]], [[Eleazar bar Zadok]] recounts how, despite living many years after the destruction, his father's body never fully recovered. The same work also mentions a woman whose hair fell out due to malnutrition.<ref>Lamentations Rabbah, 4.11</ref>{{sfn|Price|1992|p=156}}}} with Josephus describing mass suffering and even [[Human cannibalism|cannibalism]].{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=345}}{{sfn|Price|1992|p=155}} Attempted escapees were executed by both rebels and Romans,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=325–327}} as Arab and Syrian auxiliaries disemboweled refugees while searching for hidden valuables.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=333–334}}{{sfn|Price|1992|p=161}} By [[Sivan]] (May/June), the Romans completed a [[Investment (military)|circumvallation]] wall to cut off supplies and escape routes.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=329}} The defenders destroyed the siege engines targeting the Antonia Fortress by tunneling beneath them and setting them ablaze, but the fortress eventually fell, leading the Romans to turn their assault toward the Temple.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=329, 340–341}} The defenders burned the porticoes linking the sanctuary to the fortress to block Roman access and took refuge in the courtyards.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=341–342, 346–349}} On the eighth day of [[Av (month)|Av]] (July/August), the sanctuary's outer court was breached.{{sfn|Bahat|1999|p=42}}[[File:(Venice)_La_distruzione_del_tempio_di_Gerusalemme_-Francesco_Hayez_-_gallerie_Accademia_Venice.jpg|thumb|The destruction of the temple of Jerusalem, painting by [[Francesco Hayez]], 1867]]On 10 Av, a Roman soldier hurled a burning object into the Temple, sparking a blaze that consumed the structure.<ref>''The Jewish War'', VI, 254–259</ref>{{sfn|Bahat|1999|p=42}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=355}} According to Josephus, Titus intended to preserve the Temple as a symbol of Roman rule,<ref>''The Jewish War'', VI, 237–243</ref>{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=352–353}} and when it caught fire, he reportedly rushed from a nap and ordered the flames extinguished, but his soldiers ignored or did not hear him.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=355}} In contrast, 4th-century historian [[Sulpicius Severus]] claims Titus ordered the destruction.<ref>Sulpicius Severus, ''Chronica'' 2.30, 6–7</ref>{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=354}} Amid the fire, chaos reigned—mass suicides and indiscriminate slaughter followed.{{Efn|Josephus describes how some priests, overwhelmed by grief and despair at the sight of the Temple engulfed in flames, leapt into the fire.{{sfn|Bahat|1999|pp=42–43}} Cassius Dio recounts that as the temple burned and defeat became inevitable, many Jews chose suicide, viewing it as a form of victory and salvation to die alongside the temple.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', LXVI, 6, 2–3</ref>{{sfn|Goodblatt|2006|pp=184–185}} According to Josephus, approximately 6,000 Jews, including women and children, sought refuge in a colonnade in the outer court, but the Romans set it on fire, killing them all.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=361}}{{sfn|Price|1992|pp=171–172}}}}{{sfn|Bahat|1999|pp=42–43}} The remaining structures on the Temple Mount were razed.<ref>''The Jewish War'', VI, 280–284</ref>{{sfn|Price|1992|p=171}}{{sfn|Bahat|1999|pp=42–43}}

Titus ordered the destruction of several districts, including the [[Acra (fortress)|Acra]] and the [[Ophel]],{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=363–364}} followed by the entire Lower City.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=365}}{{sfn|Price|1992|pp=172–173}} On 20 Av, the Upper City was stormed.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=366}} Soldiers massacred people in their homes and streets, and many who fled into tunnels were either killed or captured.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=367}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=370}} According to Josephus, Titus spared only three towers of Herod's palace and a portion of Jerusalem's western wall for a Roman garrison, while the rest of the city was systematically razed.<ref>''The Jewish War'', VII, 1–3</ref>{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=368}}{{sfn|Price|2011|p=409}}{{sfn|Magness|2024|pp=293–294}} The archeological record confirms widespread destruction and burning across the city in 70 CE.{{sfn|Price|2011|p=409}}
[[File:Davidson Center - Jerusalem Archaeological Park - The Western Wall overground 2.jpg|alt=Stone piles below the Western Wall|thumb|A pile of stones beneath the [[Western Wall]], thrown down by Roman legionaries from the Temple Mount during its destruction, now preserved in the [[Jerusalem Archaeological Park]]]]
After the city's fall, the elderly and infirm were killed against Titus's orders,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=368}} while younger survivors were sorted: rebels executed, the strongest sent to Titus' triumph, those over 17 enslaved or executed across the empire, and children sold into slavery.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=368–369}} John of Gischala surrendered and was sentenced to life imprisonment,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=370}} while Simon bar Giora, captured after emerging from a tunnel, was brought in chains before Titus.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=377}}

===Triumph in Rome===
[[File:The Triumph of Titus Alma Tadema.jpg|alt=19th century painting of the triumph of Titus|thumb|287x287px|The Triumph of Titus, painting by [[Lawrence Alma-Tadema]], 1885]]
After Jerusalem's fall, Titus toured Judaea and southern Syria, funding spectacles with Jewish captives.<ref name="tjw">''The Jewish War'', VII, 96</ref>{{sfn|Davies|2023|p=101}}{{sfn|Andrade|2013|p=115}}{{Efn|According to Nathanael Andrade, these events served to unify the ethnically and culturally diverse populations of Greek cities, while simultaneously marginalizing Jews, who were perceived as a threat to the Greek way of life. Additionally, these spectacles led Greeks to view the Romans as their defenders against Jewish uprising.{{sfn|Andrade|2013|p=115}}}} In Caesarea Philippi, he staged executions, [[gladiatorial combat]], and [[Damnatio ad bestias|wild animal killings]]. For his brother [[Domitian]]'s birthday, celebrated in Caesarea Maritima, 2,500 captives were slaughtered in similar games.{{sfn|Beard|2002|p=553}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=376, 377}} More executions followed during Vespasian's birthday in Berytus.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=376, 377}}

In the summer of 71 CE, a triumph was celebrated in Rome to mark the victory in Judaea—the only imperial triumph ever held for the subjugation of a provincial population already under Roman rule.{{sfn|Millar|1995|pp=79, 101}}{{sfn|Huitink|2024|pp=216, 223}} The event, witnessed by hundreds of thousands of spectators,{{sfn|Künzl|1988|p=72}} featured Vespasian and Titus riding in chariots.{{sfn|Beard|2002|p=550}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=383}} The procession featured treasures and artworks, including tapestries, gemstones, statues, and animals.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=381–382}} Among the treasures carried in the procession were the [[Temple menorah|Temple's menorah]], a [[Showbread#The table (shulchan)|golden table]], possibly that of the [[Showbread]], and "the law of the Jews," likely sacred texts taken from the Temple.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=382, 619}} Jewish captives were paraded "to display their own destruction",<ref name="tjw" />{{sfn|Beard|2002|p=553}} while multi-story scaffolds showcased ivory and gold craftsmanship, illustrating scenes of the war, including ruined cities, destroyed fortresses, and defeated enemies.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=382}} Simon bar Giora was paraded in the procession and, upon its end on [[Capitoline Hill]], scourged and taken to the [[Mamertine Prison]], where he was executed by hanging.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=383}}{{sfn|Hengel|1989|p=375}}

===Last strongholds===
{{Further information|Siege of Masada}}
In the spring of 71, Titus departed for Rome, leaving three fortresses still under rebel control.{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=76}}{{sfn|Magness|2012|p=215}} [[Sextus Lucilius Bassus]], the new legate of Judaea, was tasked with their conquest.{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=76}} Herodium, located south of Jerusalem,{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=76}} fell rapidly, with Josephus offering only a brief mention of its surrender.<ref>''The Jewish War'', VII, 163</ref>{{sfn|Davies|2023|p=108}} Bassus then crossed the Jordan River to besiege Machaerus, constructing a circumvallation wall, siege camps, and an incomplete assault ramp, traces of which still exist today.{{sfn|Millar|1995|pp=76–77}}{{sfn|Davies|2023|pp=113, 115, 121}} The rebels capitulated after Eleazar, a young man from a prominent Jewish family who had ventured outside the fort, was captured, stripped, and scourged in full view of the defenders in preparation for crucifixion. The insurgents then negotiated their surrender, securing assurances of safe passage for the Jewish defenders.<ref>''The Jewish War'', VII, 200–205</ref>{{sfn|Tropper|2016|p=92}}{{sfn|Davies|2023|pp=111–112}} The Romans slaughtered all non-Jews at the site, except for a few who escaped.{{sfn|Davies|2023|p=110}} Bassus then pursued rebels led by Judah ben Ari in the forest of Jardes.{{sfn|Tropper|2016|p=92}}'''{{efn|The precise location of the forest remains unknown. Gwyn Davies has suggested [[Wadi Mujib]] or a similar valley in the region of [[Moab]] as the likely site.{{sfn|Davies |2023|p=112}}}}''' Roman cavalry surrounded the forest while infantry cut down trees and overpowered the outmatched rebels; 3,000 were reportedly killed.{{sfn|Davies|2023|p=112}} Bassus then died of uncertain causes.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=402}}

{{multiple image
| align             = right
| width             = 75
| direction         = vertical
| image1            = מצדה איין.jpg
| alt1              = Aerial view of Masada
| image2            = Masada Roman Ruins by David Shankbone.jpg
| alt2              = Ruins of a legionary camp at Masada
| footer            = 
| image3            = 
| total_width       = 200
| caption3          = 
| caption1          = [[Masada]] marked the final stand of the revolt, falling to [[Lucius Flavius Silva]] after a siege in 73 or 74 CE
| caption2          = Remnants of one of several legionary camps at Masada, just outside the [[circumvallation]] wall at the bottom of the image
| alt3              = 
}}
[[Lucius Flavius Silva]] succeeded Bassus and, in 72/73 or 73/74 CE,{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=77}}{{sfn|Magness|2012|p=215}}{{sfn|Tropper|2016|p=[https://books.google.it/books?id=HigFDAAAQBAJ&dq=jardes+forest&pg=PA92&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=jardes%20forest&f=false]}} led 8,000 troops—including Legio X Fretensis and auxiliaries—to besiege Masada, the last rebel stronghold.{{sfn|Davies|2023|p=113}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=410}} When its defenders refused to surrender, he established siege camps and a circumvallation wall around the fort, along with a siege ramp, features that remain among the best-preserved examples of [[Roman siege engines|Roman siegecraft]].{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=77}}{{sfn|Magness|2012|p=215}} The siege lasted between two and six months during the winter season.{{sfn|Magness|2012|p=215}} According to Josephus, when it became evident that the last fortification would fall, Eleazar ben Yair, the leader of the rebels, delivered a speech advocating for [[Mass suicide|collective suicide]].{{sfn|Cohen|1982|pp=392–393}} He argued that this act would preserve their freedom, spare them from slavery, and deny their enemies a final victory.<ref>''The Jewish War'', VII, 334–336, 388</ref>{{sfn|Cohen|1982|p=393}} The rebels carried out the plan, with each man killing his own family before taking his own life.{{sfn|Cohen|1982|p=393}} When the Romans entered the fortress, they found that 960 of the 967 inhabitants had committed suicide. Only two women and five children survived, having concealed themselves in a cistern.<ref>''The Jewish War'', VII, 399–400</ref>{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=422}}{{sfn|deSilva|2024|p=152}} Archaeological work at Masada uncovered eleven [[ostraca]] (one of which contained the name of Ben Yair, possibly used to determine the order of suicide), twenty-five skeletons of the defenders, ritual baths and a synagogue.{{sfn|Feldman|1999|p=905}} Findings at the site support Josephus' account of the siege, though the mass suicide's historicity remains debated.{{sfn|Magness|2011|pp=358–359}}{{sfn|Cohen|1982|p=401}}{{efn|As noted by [[Louis Feldman]], Josephus' account was contested for several reasons, including the strong discouragement of suicide by Jewish law and expectations of a last stand by the fighters.{{sfn|Feldman|1999|p=905}} [[Shaye J. D. Cohen]] suggests that while Josephus' mass suicide narrative likely has a factual basis, with some Sicarii indeed committing suicide, it was exaggerated for dramatic effect, serving as a polemic against the Sicarii and drawing inspiration from the Greco-Roman fascination with collective suicide.{{sfn|Cohen|1982|pp=401, 403–404}}}}

==Consequences==

=== Destruction and displacement in Judaea ===

The revolt's suppression had a profound impact on the Jews of Judaea. Many died in battles, sieges, and famine, while cities, towns, and villages across the region suffered varying degrees of destruction.{{sfn|Herr|1984|p=288}} The Jewish capital of Jerusalem—praised by [[Pliny the Elder]] as "by far the most famous city of the East"<ref>Pliny, Naturalis Historia, v. 70</ref>{{sfn|Goodman|2004|pp=4–5}}—was systematically destroyed,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=368}}{{sfn|Price|2011|p=409}}{{sfn|Price|1992|p=172}} with much of its population massacred or enslaved.{{sfn|Davies|2023|pp=100–101}}{{Efn|Both historical accounts and archaeological evidence corroborate this devastation.{{sfn|Price|2011|pp=409–410}}}} [[Tacitus]] described the siege as involving "six hundred thousand" besieged people of all ages and both sexes, remarking: "Both men and women showed the same determination; and if they were to be forced to change their home, they feared life more than death."<ref name=":1">Tacitus, ''Histories'', [https://books.google.com/books?id=atpPAAAAYAAJ&q=jerusalem&pg=PA504 V], XIII</ref>{{sfn|Stern|1980|pp=31, 60–63}} Josephus claimed that 1.1 million people died in Jerusalem, including pilgrims present for Passover—a figure widely considered exaggerated. Historian [[Seth Schwartz]] estimates the population of Judaea at roughly 1 million (half Jewish), noting that large Jewish communities survived the war. Rogers similarly interprets Josephus' number as intended to flatter the Romans and instead suggests 20,000–30,000 deaths in Jerusalem.{{sfn|Schwartz|2006|p=23}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=369}} Classicist Charles Murison suggests the 1.1 million may refer to total war losses.{{sfn|Murison|2016|p=81}}

Aside from Jerusalem itself, Judea proper experienced the most severe devastation, particularly in the [[Judaean Mountains]].{{sfn|Herr|1984|p=288}} In contrast, cities like Lod, Yavneh and their surroundings remained relatively intact.{{sfn|Herr|1984|p=288}} In the Galilee, Tarichaea (likely [[Magdala]]) and Gabara were destroyed, but Sepphoris and Tiberias reconciled with the Romans and escaped major harm.{{sfn|Herr|1984|p=288}} Mixed cities saw the elimination of their Jewish populations, and the impact extended into parts of Transjordan.{{sfn|Herr|1984|p=288}} Furthermore, large numbers of Jews were taken captive. Josephus' report of 97,000 captives has been accepted by several scholars.{{efn|Rogers attributes this reliability to the Roman practice of recording the number of slaves sold after their wars.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=369}} Schwartz concurs, noting that this indicates a significant portion of the population was either expelled from the country or, at the very least, displaced.{{sfn|Schwartz|2014b|pp=85–86}}}} Many faced harsh treatment, execution, or forced labor. Strong young men were sent into gladiatorial combat across the empire; others were [[Slavery in ancient Rome|sold into slavery]] or sent to [[Prostitution in ancient Rome|brothels]], with the majority exiled abroad.{{sfn|Herr|1984|p=288}}

Historian Moshe David Herr estimates that one-quarter of Judaea's Jewish population died due to warfare, civil strife, famine, disease and massacres in the mixed cities.{{sfn|Herr|1984|p=288}} A further tenth were captured. In total, he concludes that roughly one-third of the Jewish population of Judaea was effectively erased.{{sfn|Herr|1984|p=288}} Despite the devastating losses, Jewish life recovered and continued to flourish in Judaea.{{sfn|Safrai|1976|p=314}}{{sfn|Schiffman|1991|p=161–162}} Jews remained a relative majority in the region,{{sfn|Levine|2017|p=164}} and Jewish society eventually regained enough strength to rise in revolt again during the [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] (132–136 CE). That rebellion's suppression, however, proved even more catastrophic, leading to the widespread destruction and depopulation of Judea proper.{{sfn|Schwartz|2014b|pp=85–86}}

=== Economic and social ramifications ===
The uprising effectively ended the already limited Jewish political and social autonomy under Rome.{{sfn|Saldarini|2002|p=231}} The social impact was profound, particularly for the classes closely associated with the temple. The aristocracy, including the High Priesthood, who held significant influence and amassed great wealth, collapsed entirely.{{sfn|Herr|1984|p=290}} Their fall, along with that of the Sanhedrin, created a leadership vacuum.{{Sfn|Safrai|1976|p=317}}{{sfn|deSilva|2024|p=162}}

The revolt significantly impacted Judaea's economy, and to a lesser extent, the broader Jewish world. The influx of pilgrims concentrated vast wealth in Jerusalem, but its destruction ended this prosperity.{{sfn|Schwartz|2014b|pp=85–86}} The Romans confiscated and auctioned the land of Jews who participated in the insurrection, affecting many landowners in Judea proper.{{sfn|Schwartz|2006|pp=25–26}} The date and [[Balm of Gilead|balsam]] groves of Jericho and Ein Gedi, along with other "royal lands," were incorporated into Vespasian's estate.{{sfn|deSilva|2024|p=155}} The countryside was devastated; Josephus reports that all trees around Jerusalem were felled during the siege, leaving the land barren.{{sfn|Safrai|1976|p=314}} Only a small number of Jews remained in Jerusalem's vicinity, which Pliny the Elder now referred to as the toparchy of Orine.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=373}} The emperor took control of the area, and the Jews were forced to work it as [[Colonus (person)|quasi-tenants]].{{sfn|deSilva|2024|p=155}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=373}}[[File:Greek ostrakon – receipt of payment of the Jewish tax (MAK-AS-2782-74).jpg|thumb|After the revolt, a new tax, the [[Fiscus Judaicus]], was imposed on all Jews in the Empire. Pictured is a receipt of payment from [[Edfu]]]]Following the destruction of Jerusalem, the Romans imposed a new tax, the {{lang|la|[[Fiscus Judaicus]]}}, on all Jews across the Empire.{{sfn|Clarysse|2021|pp=316–317}}{{sfn|Goodman|2004|p=17}}{{Efn|Samuel Safrai noted that the tax arose from the Roman idea that the deities of conquered nations became subordinate to Rome, and thus the temple revenue of Israel's God was seized as part of their victory.{{Sfn|Safrai|1976|p=317}}}} This tax required Jews to pay an annual sum of two [[Ancient drachma|drachmas]], replacing the half-shekel previously donated to the Temple. The funds were redirected to the rebuilding and maintenance of the [[Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus|Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus]] in Rome, which had been destroyed during the civil war of 69 CE.<ref>''The Jewish War'', VII, 218</ref>{{sfn|Clarysse|2021|pp=316–317}}{{sfn|Edmondson|2005|p=11}}{{sfn|Schwartz|2006|p=26}} The tax implicitly held all Jews in the Roman Empire responsible for the revolt, even though most had no role in the conflict.{{sfn|Goodman|2004|p=26}} Under Domitian, tax enforcement worsened.{{sfn|Goodman|2004|p=18}}{{sfn|Edmondson|2005|p=11}}{{sfn|Schwartz|2006|p=32}} Suetonius writes that Domitian extended the tax to those who lived as Jews without openly acknowledging it and to those who hid their Jewish background.{{sfn|Cohen|2014|p=236}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|pp=376–377}} His successor, [[Nerva]], reformed the tax system, applying it only to Jews who observed their ancestral customs.{{sfn|Cohen|2014|p=236}}

=== Establishment of Roman garrisons and colonies ===
[[File:Samuel_and_Saidye_Bronfman_Archaeology_WingDSCN5046.JPG|thumb|An inscription referencing ''[[Legio X Fretensis]]'', a legion stationed on Jerusalem's ruins]]
Following the revolt, Jerusalem's ruins were garrisoned by Legio X Fretensis, which remained stationed there for nearly two centuries.{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=76}}{{sfn|Belayche|2001|pp=82–84}} The Roman forces also included cavalry {{Transliteration|la|[[Ala (Roman cavalry unit)|alae]]}} and infantry {{Transliteration|la|cohortes}}.{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=76}} This increased presence prompted changes in the province's administrative structure, requiring the appointment of a governor ({{lang|la|[[legatus Augusti pro praetore]]}}) of ex-praetorian rank.{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=76}}{{sfn|Schwartz|2006|p=25}} Within this new framework, the regions of Judea and Idumaea were designated as a military zone ({{lang|la|campus legionis}}) under the command of officers from Legio X.{{sfn|Zissu|2017|pp=21–22}}

Former soldiers, along with other Roman citizens, established themselves in Judaea.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=373}} Vespasian settled 800 veterans in [[Motza]], which became a colony named {{lang|la|[[Qalunya|Colonia Amosa]]}} or {{lang|la|Colonia Emmaus}}.{{sfn|Isaac|1990|p=348}}{{sfn|Davies|2023|p=105}}{{sfn|Safrai|1976|p=315}} He also granted [[Colonia (Roman)|colony status]] to Caesarea, renaming it {{lang|la|Colonia Prima Flavia Augusta Caesarensis}} and settling many veterans there.{{sfn|Belayche|2001|pp=82–84}}{{sfn|Magness|2012|p=171}} A large odeon was reportedly built in the city on the site of a former synagogue, using war spoils.<ref name=":0">John Malalas, ''Chronicle'', 10, 261</ref>{{sfn|Levine|2005|p=126}} The devastated port town of Jaffa was re-founded,{{sfn|deSilva|2024|p=155}} and a new city, [[Flavia Neapolis]], was founded in Samaritis, near the ruins of [[Shechem]].{{sfn|deSilva|2024|p=155}}{{sfn|Belayche|2001|pp=82–84}}

=== In the Jewish diaspora ===
The revolt led to the revocation of many privileges previously enjoyed by [[Jewish diaspora|Jews in the diaspora]].{{sfn|Kerkeslager|2006|p=55}} Roman authorities took measures to quell possible uprisings in diaspora communities, focusing on individuals deemed troublemakers in Egypt and [[Cyrenaica]],{{sfn|Goodman|2004|p=26}} which had absorbed thousands of refugees and insurgents from Judaea.{{sfn|Kerkeslager|2006|p=57}} According to Josephus, a group of Sicarii fled to these regions, where they tried to incite rebellion and, even under torture, refused to acknowledge the emperor as "lord."<ref>''The Jewish War'', VII, 410, 418–19</ref>{{sfn|Goodblatt|2006|p=92}}{{sfn|Goodblatt|2006|p=92}} Jewish institutions were now seen as potential sources of rebellion,{{sfn|Kerkeslager|2006|p=55}} leading to the closure of the Jewish temple at [[Leontopolis (Heliopolis)|Leontopolis]] in Egypt in 72 CE.<ref>''The Jewish War'', VII, 420–436</ref>{{sfn|Goodman|2004|p=26}}{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=237}}

In spring 71 CE, upon arriving in Antioch, Titus faced demands to expel the Jews but refused, stating that the Jews' country was destroyed and no other place would take them.<ref>''The Jewish War'', VII, 100–109</ref>{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|pp=363–364}}{{sfn|Andrade|2013|p=115}} The crowd then sought removal of tablets inscribed with the Jews' rights, but Titus again declined.<ref>''The Jewish War'', VII, 110–11; ''Antiquities of the Jews'', XII, 121–24.</ref>{{sfn|Andrade|2013|p=115}} In 73 CE, the Jewish aristocracy in Cyrenaica was massacred. While Vespasian did not openly approve, he implicitly endorsed it by treating the responsible Roman governor leniently.{{sfn|Kerkeslager|2006|p=55}}

In the wake of the revolt, thousands of Jewish slaves were brought to the [[Italian peninsula|Italian Peninsula]].{{sfn|Rocca|2022|pp=41–42}} A tombstone from [[Pozzuoli|Puteoli]], near [[Naples]], mentions a captive woman from Jerusalem named Claudia Aster, with the name Aster believed to be derived from [[Esther (given name)|Esther]].{{sfn|Bendlin|2020|p=157}}{{sfn|Rocca|2022|p=133}}{{sfn|Price|2011|p=413}} The Roman poet [[Martial]] references a Jewish slave of his, described as originating from "Jerusalem destroyed by fire."{{sfn|Rocca|2022|pp=272–273}} Jewish slaves brought to Italy after the war are also evidenced by [[Roman graffiti|graffiti]] in [[Pompeii]] and other places in [[Campania]], as well as possibly by [[Habinnas]], a character who may have been Jewish, in [[Petronius]]' ''[[Satyricon]]''.{{sfn|Rocca|2022|pp=132, 142}} Similar to Josephus, there are records of other Jews bearing the ''{{Transliteration|grc|[[Nomen gentilicium|nomen]]}}'' "Flavius", possibly indicating descent from freed captives.{{sfn|Rocca|2022|p=135}} Rome itself experienced a significant influx of Jewish slaves.{{sfn|Spilsbury|2003|p=1}}

The destruction of Jerusalem also [[History of the Jews in the Arabian Peninsula|brought Jews to the Arabian Peninsula]], leading to the establishment of settlements in southern [[Yemen]], along the coast of [[Hadhramaut|Ḥaḍramawt]], and most notably in the [[Hejaz]], particularly in Yathrib (later [[Medina]]), where they became prominent representatives of [[monotheism in pre-Islamic Arabia]].{{sfn|Bowersock|2017|p=102}} Around the same period, Jews also began settling in [[Hispania]] (modern [[Spain]] and [[Portugal]]) and [[Roman Gaul|Gaul]] (modern [[France]]).{{sfn|Herr|1998|p=26}}

=== Roman commemoration of the victory ===
Vespasian, who came from a relatively modest background,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=387–388}} leveraged his victory to solidify his claim to the emperorship, elevate Rome's prestige, and redirect attention from the civil war that had brought him to power,{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=236}}{{sfn|Huitink|2024|p=215}} heralding an era of peace reminiscent of [[Augustus]]' reign.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=387–388}} His dynasty framed its legitimacy on triumph over a foreign enemy.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=3–5}}{{sfn|Davies|2023|p=101}}{{sfn|Goodman|2004|pp=16–19}}{{multiple image
| align             = right
| width             = 75
| direction         = vertical
| image1            = Sestertius - Vespasiano - Iudaea Capta-RIC 0424.jpg
| alt1              = Judaea Capta coin featuring Vespasian and a woman personifying the Jewish people
| image2            = Titus Augustus Denarius.png
| alt2              = Titus' Judaea Capta coin commemorating his triumph
| footer            = 
| image3            = 
| total_width       = 200
| caption3          = 
| caption1          = A ''[[Judaea Capta]]'' coin issued by Vespasian, depicting a bound captive and a mourning woman personifying the Jewish people beneath a date palm, a symbol of Judaea
| caption2          = [[Denarius]] depicting Titus and a Jewish captive kneeling in front of a trophy of arms (c. 79)
| alt3              = 
}}

The Flavians issued a series of coins inscribed with the title ''{{lang|la|[[Judaea Capta]]}}'' ("Judaea has been conquered") to commemorate the subjugation of the province.{{sfn|Magness|2012|pp=166–167}} Issued over a 10–12-year period, the series marked a rare instance of a provincial defeat being celebrated in Roman coinage and served as a key component of Flavian propaganda.{{sfn|Overman|2002|p=215}} The obverse of the coins typically featured portraits of Titus or Vespasian,{{sfn|Overman|2002|p=215}} while the reverse depicted symbolic imagery, including a mourning woman, representing the Jewish people, seated beneath a [[date palm]], a symbol of Judaea.{{sfn|Magness|2012|pp=166–167}} Variations in the designs included depictions of the woman bound, kneeling, or blindfolded before [[Nike (mythology)|Nike]] (or [[Victoria (mythology)|Victoria]]), personifications of victory.{{sfn|Overman|2002|p=215}}

Rome's city center was reshaped with victory monuments,{{sfn|Goodman|2004|p=17}} including two [[triumphal arch]]es: the [[Arch of Titus]] in the [[Roman Forum|Forum]], completed after his death in 81 CE, and [[Arch of Titus (Circus Maximus)|another]] at the [[Circus Maximus]], finished earlier that year.{{sfn|Millar|2005|pp=113–114}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=3–5}}{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=236}} The first, still standing, is widely attributed to Domitian, was dedicated by the [[SPQR|Senate and People of Rome]] to the divine Vespasian and Titus.{{sfn|Rocca|2022|pp=261–262}} It features reliefs of soldiers carrying Temple spoils and Titus in a [[quadriga]] during the triumph.{{sfn|Rocca|2022|p=263}} The second arch's inscription proclaims Titus "subdued the Jewish people and destroyed the city of Jerusalem, a thing either sought in vain by all generals, kings and peoples before him or untried entirely."{{sfn|Rocca|2022|pp=265–266}}{{Efn|This claim overlooks earlier conquests of the city, including that of the Roman general Pompey a century earlier.{{sfn|Rocca|2022|pp=265–266}}}}[[File:Rome_(Italy,_October_2019)_-_157_(50589726552).jpg|thumb|Rome's Arch of Titus (front) features reliefs of the triumph, including the display of Temple vessels, while the [[Colosseum]] (back) was financed "from the spoils of the war."]]The Temple spoils, including the menorah, were displayed in the newly built [[Temple of Peace, Rome|Temple of Peace]], alongside other masterpieces of art.{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=236}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|pp=388–389, 550}}{{sfn|van Kooten|2011|pp=423–424}} The temple, dedicated to [[Pax (goddess)|Pax]], the Roman goddess of peace,{{sfn|Goodman|1987|p=236}} symbolized the restoration of peace throughout the Empire.{{sfn|Cotton|2022|p=391}} Additionally, the [[Colosseum]], initiated by Vespasian and completed under Titus, was financed "{{lang|la|ex manubi(i)s}}" (from the spoils of war), as noted in an inscription, tying its funding to the Jewish War.{{sfn|Millar|2005|pp=117–119}}

Construction works commemorating the victory seem to have also taken place in Syria. [[John Malalas]], a 6th-century [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] chronicler, writes that a synagogue in [[Harbiye, Defne|Daphne]], near Antioch, was destroyed during the war and replaced by Vespasian with a theater, an inscription of which claimed it was founded "from the spoils of Judaea."<ref name=":0" />{{sfn|Levine|2005|p=126}} He also describes a gate of [[cherub]]s in Antioch, established by Titus from the spoils of the Temple.{{sfn|Levine|2005|p=126}}

== Legacy ==

=== Impact on Judaism ===

==== Yavneh, ben Zakkai, and the transformation of Judaism ====
{{Further information|Rabbinic Judaism}}

The destruction of the Second Temple, as a symbol of God's presence which was central to Jewish life,{{sfn|Levine|2005|p=174}}{{sfn|Rosenfeld|1997|p=438}}{{sfn|Cohen|1999|p=314}} created a deep religious and societal void.{{sfn|Rosenfeld|1997|p=438}} It ended [[Korban|sacrificial offerings]],{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=70}}{{sfn|Cohen|1984|p=27}} terminated the High Priesthood's lineage,{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=70}} and led to the disappearance of Jewish sectarianism.{{sfn|Cohen|1984|pp=31, 35–36}} The [[Sadducees]], whose authority depended on the Temple, dissolved due to the loss of their power base, role in the revolt, land confiscations, and the collapse of Jewish self-governance.{{sfn|Stemberger|1999|p=435}} The Essenes, including the community of Qumran, also vanished.{{efn|Goodman, however, notes that no direct sources explicitly document the disappearance of the Essenes and Sadducees following the destruction, with the first clear evidence for their demise appearing in the 4th century, though it does not provide a specific date.{{sfn|Goodman|2006|pp=153–154}} Instead, he suggests that hints in later rabbinic and [[Patristics|patristic literature]] imply the potential persistence of Jewish sectarianism, including groups related to the Sadducees and Essenes, for years, or even centuries, after the Temple's destruction.{{sfn|Goodman|2006|p=161}}}} In contrast, the [[Pharisees]]—who had largely opposed the revolt—survived. Their spiritual successors,{{Efn|Though not all early rabbis were Pharisees, and they did not claim the label, Pharisaic teachings and practices were preserved by the emerging rabbinic movement. The house of Gamaliel—a prominent Pharisaic lineage whose descendants became leading rabbinic figures for generations—reflects the continuity between the two groups.{{sfn|Cohen|2014|pp=224–225}}}} the rabbinic sages, emerged as the dominant force in Judaism through the rise of the [[Rabbinic Judaism|rabbinic movement]],{{sfn|Schaper|1999|pp=426–427}}{{sfn|Cohen|2014|pp=224–225}} which reoriented Jewish life around [[Torah study]] and [[Chesed|acts of loving-kindness]].{{Sfn|Safrai|1976|p=318}}{{sfn|Cohen|2014|pp=224–225}}

According to rabbinic sources,'''{{efn|The episode is referenced in five works: [[Avot de-Rabbi Natan]] (Versions A and B), [[Lamentations Rabbah|Midrash Lamentations]], the [[Babylonian Talmud]] (Gittin), and [[Midrash Proverbs]], with notable differences in the traditions.{{sfn|Alon|1977|pp=296–297}}{{sfn|Safrai|1976|pp=319–320}}}}''' Rabban [[Yohanan ben Zakkai]] (''{{lang|he|Ribaz}}''), a prominent Pharisaic sage,{{sfn|Safrai|1976|p=319}} was smuggled out of besieged Jerusalem in a coffin by his students. After prophesying Vespasian's rise to emperor,{{Efn|According to legend, Ben Zakkai quoted a prophecy from [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]] ([[Isaiah 10|10]]:34): 'And the Lebanon shall fall by a majestic one.' In this context, 'Lebanon' is understood to refer to the Temple, constructed from the [[Cedrus libani|cedars of Lebanon]], while 'majestic one' is interpreted as referring to Vespasian.{{sfn|Cohen|2014|p=24}}}} he secured permission to establish a rabbinic center in Yavneh.{{Efn|The exact details remain uncertain, and the rabbinic sources provide varying accounts of his conversation with Vespasian.{{sfn|Stuckenbruck|Gurtner|2019|pp=694–695, 834–836}} [[Gedaliah Alon]], for example suggested that Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai and his followers first arrived in the city as fugitives, as it had been designated by the Romans as a refuge for moderates.{{sfn|Alon|1977|pp=274, 294}} Nonetheless, Josephus records that several dignitaries fled Jerusalem, making Ben Zakkai's escape plausible.{{sfn|Stuckenbruck|Gurtner|2019|pp=694–695, 834–836}}}} There, a system of rabbinic scholarship began to form,{{efn|According to [[Shaye J. D. Cohen]], the Yavneh center—composed mainly of Pharisees but functioning as a coalition of various groups{{sfn|Cohen|1984|p=50}}— fostered a model that tolerated divergent opinions.{{sfn|Cohen|1984|p=27}} This approach, exemplified in the Mishnah—where arguments and discussions are often attributed to individuals—embraced [[Pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralism]]{{sfn|Cohen|1984|p=47}} while seeking to eliminate factionalism.{{sfn|Cohen|1984|p=27}}}} laying the foundation for Rabbinic Judaism as the dominant form of Judaism in later centuries.{{sfn|deSilva|2024|p=162}} Under Ben Zakkai and his successor [[Gamaliel II]],{{sfn|Alon|1994|pp=106–107}} various enactments adapted Jewish life to post-Temple reality, including extending Temple-related practices for observance outside the Temple.{{sfn|Levine|2005|p=199}}{{sfn|deSilva|2024|p=162}} For example, the ''{{lang|he|[[mitzvah]]}}'' of taking the ''{{lang|he|[[lulav]]}}'' was extended to all seven days of Sukkot everywhere, whereas it had previously been observed only in the Temple.{{sfn|deSilva|2024|p=162}} The ''{{lang|he|[[shofar]]}}'' was also permitted to be sounded in any courtyard when the [[Rosh Hashanah|New Year]] coincided with [[Shabbat]].{{sfn|deSilva|2024|p=163}} Additionally, the [[Jewish prayer|prayer liturgy]] was formalized, including the ''{{lang|he|[[Amidah]]}}'', which was established to be recited three times daily as a substitute for the sacrificial offerings.<ref>''Jerusalem Talmud'', Berakhot 4, 1, 7b; ''Babylonian Talmud'', Berakhot 26b</ref>{{sfn|Levine|2005|p=200}}{{sfn|Zissu|2017|p=38}} The rabbinic reconstitution of Judaism continued over the subsequent centuries, culminating in the compilation of the [[Mishnah]] and later the two [[Talmud]]s, which became foundational texts of [[Halakha|Jewish law]].{{sfn|Stuckenbruck|Gurtner|2019|pp=694–695, 834–836}}{{sfn|Cohen|2014|pp=227–228}}

The [[synagogue]] increasingly became the center of Jewish worship and community life.{{sfn|Cohen|1999|p=298}}{{sfn|Levine|2005|p=175}} Rabbinic literature describes it as a "diminished sanctuary",{{sfn|Levine|2005|p=4}}{{sfn|Cohen|1999|pp=320–321}} stating that [[Shekhinah|divine presence]] resides there, especially during prayer or study.{{sfn|Cohen|1999|pp=320–321}} Traditional synagogue worship—including sermons and scripture readings—was preserved, while new forms such as {{lang|he|[[piyyut]]}} (liturgical poetry) and organized prayer also emerged.{{sfn|Levine|2005|p=5}} Rabbinic instruction maintained that certain rituals remained exclusive to the Temple,{{sfn|Cohen|1999|p=322}} and most synagogues are faced toward its site.{{sfn|Cohen|1999|p=321}}

==== Jewish responses to the destruction ====
[[File:PikiWiki_Israel_44784_Tisha_BAv_at_the_Western_Wall.JPG|thumb|Jews praying at the [[Western Wall]] during [[Tisha B'Av]], a fast day commemorating the Temple's destruction]]The Temple's destruction is commemorated in Judaism on [[Tisha B'Av]], a major [[Fasting in Judaism|fast day]] that also marks the destruction of the [[Solomon's Temple|First Temple]] alongside other tragedies in Jewish history.{{Sfn|Daschke|2010|pp=1–2}} The [[Western Wall]], a remnant of the temple, had become a symbol of the homeland's destruction and the hope for its restoration.{{Sfn|Daschke|2010|pp=1–2}} Following the destruction, some Jews reportedly mourned the loss by abstaining from meat and wine, while others withdrew to caves, awaiting redemption.{{sfn|Cohen|1999|p=315}}{{Sfn|Safrai|1976|p=318}} In late antiquity, some communities even adopted the year of the Temple's destruction as a reference point for life events.{{sfn|Sivan|2008|pp=243–245}}

Jewish [[apocalyptic literature]] experienced a resurgence,{{sfn|Alexander|2024|p=205}} mourning the Temple's destruction while offering explanations for the events.{{sfn|Kirschner|1985|pp=27–28}}{{sfn|Alexander|2024|p=205}} The ''[[Syriac Apocalypse of Baruch|Apocalypse of Baruch]]'' and ''[[4 Esdras|Fourth Ezra]]'' interpreted the destruction of the Second Temple through the lens of the First, reusing its figures, historical setting, and biblical motifs to portray contemporary events as divinely ordained and heralding the end times.{{sfn|Kirschner|1985|pp=29–30, 34–35, 38}}{{sfn|Henze|2013|pp=3–4}} Drawing on the biblical precedent of Jerusalem's restoration after the [[Babylonian captivity|Babylonian exile]], they prophesied Rome's fall and Jerusalem's renewal.{{sfn|Alexander|2024|p=205}}{{sfn|Alexander|2024|pp=206–208}}{{sfn|Price|1992|p=176}} Both works affirmed Jewish continuity through the Torah and the enduring validity of the covenant with God.{{sfn|Schwartz|2006|p=31}} Book 4 of the ''[[Sibylline Oracles]]''—a collection of Jewish and later Christian prophecies{{sfn|van Kooten|2011|p=420}}{{sfn|Collins|1997|pp=181, 183, 196}}—likely written after the [[Eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD|eruption of Mount Vesuvius]] in 79 CE,{{sfn|van Kooten|2011|p=420}} links the destruction to the Roman civil war, retroactively prophesying a Roman leader who would burn the Temple and devastate the land of the Jews.<ref>''Sibylline Oracles'', IV, 123–136</ref> It also foretells [[Nero Redivivus|Nero's return]] as divine retribution against Rome and the Flavians.{{sfn|van Kooten|2011|pp=421–422, 445}}

The rabbinic response to Jerusalem's destruction is reflected in [[Aggadah|tales]], traditions and [[Midrash|exegetical writings]] integrated into [[rabbinic literature]].{{sfn|Saldarini|2002|pp=231–232}} Early rabbinic works convey profound grief and anguish,{{Sfn|Safrai|1976|p=318}} as exemplified by the Mishnah, which states that since the destruction, "there has been no day without its curse."<ref>''Mishnah'', [[Sotah (Talmud)|Sotah]], 9:12</ref>{{Sfn|Leaney|1984|p=120}} Some texts attribute the destruction to punishment for Israel's sins and societal failings, such as weak leadership, internal divisions, misuse of wealth, and a lack of communal care.{{sfn|Saldarini|2002|pp=222, 232}} One text explains that while the First Temple was destroyed due to idolatry, immorality, and bloodshed, the Second Temple fell because of the equally grave issue of groundless hatred.<ref>''Babylonian Talmud'', [[Yoma]], 9b</ref>{{sfn|Price|1992|pp=178–179}} The tale of [[Kamsa and Bar Kamsa]] recounts a banquet where the host mistakenly invites Bar Kamsa instead of Kamsa. When Bar Kamsa is dishonored by being denied a seat, he becomes an informer to the Romans, triggering a series of events that lead to the war.{{sfn|Saldarini|2002|p=230}}

=== Impact on Jewish national identity ===
Moshe and David Aberbach argued that the revolt's suppression left Jews "deprived of the territorial, social, and political bases of their nationalism", forcing them to base their identity and hopes for survival on cultural and moral power.{{sfn|Aberbach|Aberbach|2000|pp=4–5}} [[Adrian Hastings]] writes that following the revolt, Jews ceased to be a political entity resembling a nation-state for almost two millennia. Despite this, they preserved their national identity through collective memory, religion, and sacred texts, remaining a nation rather than just an ethnic group, eventually leading to the rise of [[Zionism]] and the establishment of [[Israel|modern Israel]].{{sfn|Hastings|1997|pp=186–187}}

=== Impact on Christianity ===
The revolt has been identified by several scholars as one of the stages in the gradual [[Split of Christianity and Judaism|separation between Christianity and Judaism]].{{sfn|Schwartz|2006|p=31}}{{sfn|Alexander|1992|p=3}} It led to the destruction or dispersal of the Jerusalem church, the original center of the Christian community.{{sfn|Dunn|2015|p=3}}{{sfn|Marcus|2006|p=99}} According to later Christian sources like [[Eusebius]] and [[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]], Jerusalem's Christians [[Flight to Pella|fled to Pella]] prior to the war following divine guidance, though the historicity of this tradition remains debated.<ref>Eusebius, ''[[Ecclesiastical History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]]'', III, 5.3; [[Epiphanius of Salamis|Epiphanius]], ''[[Panarion]]'', 1.29.7.7-8, 30.2.7; ''[[On Weights and Measures]],'' 15</ref>{{sfn|Paget|2018|p=279}} Scholar of Judaism Philip S. Alexander argues that, in the aftermath of the Temple's destruction, Christianity attempted to appeal to Jews in Judaea but failed due to its radical doctrines and the success of the rabbinic movement.{{sfn|Alexander|1992|p=3}} Meanwhile, Christian groups in [[Asia Minor]] and the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] continued to grow, relatively insulated from the war's effects.{{sfn|Dunn|2009|p=1168}} Theologian Jörg Frey contends that the Temple's destruction had only a limited impact on Christian identity, which was shaped more significantly by the development of [[Christology]].{{sfn|Frey|2012|pp=448–449, 507}} Over the following decades, Christianity became predominantly gentile in composition and theology, ceased to observe Jewish law, and adopted an increasingly elevated view of [[Jesus]].{{sfn|Cohen|2014|pp=166–167}}

Theologically, the destruction of the Temple was interpreted by early Christians as divine punishment for the Jewish [[rejection of Jesus]]. This idea appears in the [[New Testament]] [[Gospel|Gospels]],{{sfn|Schwartz|2006|p=31}} which include prophecies attributed to Jesus about the destruction of Jerusalem; the [[Gospel of Matthew]] may also allude to the burning of the city by Titus.{{sfn|Mitchell|2006a|p=188}} The [[Epistle of Barnabas]] attributes the destruction to the Jews' role in bringing about the war,{{sfn|Frey|2012|p=463}} and presents it as evidence that God rejected the physical Temple in favor of a spiritual one, embodied in the faith of Gentile believers.{{sfn|Lieu|2006|p=219}} By the 4th century, [[Church Fathers]] like Eusebius{{sfn|Mitchell|2006b|p=298}} and [[John Chrysostom]]{{sfn|Kessler|2010|p=60}} had fully integrated this view, portraying the destruction as both retribution and the symbolic beginning of the apostolic mission to the wider world.{{sfn|Clements|2012|p=518}}

=== Later Jewish–Roman relations ===
{{Further information|Diaspora Revolt|Bar Kokhba revolt}}

Two further Jewish revolts against Rome occurred in the second century. In 115 CE, the [[Diaspora Revolt]] erupted, with large-scale uprisings in multiple provinces and [[Kitos War|limited activity]] in Judaea. The causes were rooted in the Temple's destruction and the Jewish Tax.{{sfn|Pucci Ben Zeev|2006|pp=93–94}} Refugees and traders from Judaea are believed to have spread the ideas from the first revolt, as evidenced by the discovery of revolt coinage in these areas.{{sfn|Horbury|2014|p=273}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1999|pp=190–191}} The revolt's suppression led to the near-total annihilation of Jewish communities in [[Roman Cyprus|Cyprus]], [[Roman Egypt|Egypt]], and [[Roman Libya|Libya]].{{sfn|Kerkeslager|2006|pp=61–62}}{{sfn|Goodman|2004|p=10}}

In 132, the Jews of Judaea launched their last major effort to regain independence—the Bar Kokhba revolt—triggered by the establishment of [[Aelia Capitolina]], a Roman colony on Jerusalem's ruins.{{sfn|Magness|2024|p=338–339}}{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=106}}{{sfn|Price|2024|p=19}} The revolt led to widespread destruction and the near-total depopulation of Judea, with many Jews killed or sold into slavery and transported abroad.{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=126}}{{sfn|Taylor|2012|p=243}} After the fall of [[Betar (ancient village)|Betar]] in 135 CE, Hadrian imposed harsh anti-Jewish laws to dismantle Jewish nationalism,{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=127}}{{sfn|Smallwood|1976|pp=464–465}} banned Jews from Jerusalem, and renamed the province [[Syria Palaestina]],{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=127}} ending Jewish aspirations for national independence.{{sfn|Eshel|2006|p=127}}{{sfn|Isaac|1990|p=55}} The Jewish population had significantly declined, with most Jews concentrated in the Galilee.{{sfn|Schwartz|2006|p=37}} By the time of [[Judah ha-Nasi]] later in the century, Jews had reached a pragmatic coexistence with Rome.{{sfn|Alexander|2024|p=220}}

==Sources==
The main [[primary source]] for the revolt is Josephus (37/38–c. 100 CE{{sfn|Huitink|2024|p=217}}''{{sfn|Schwartz|2014a|p=1}}''), born {{lang|he|Yosef ben Mattityahu}},{{sfn|Huitink|2024|p=217}} a Jewish historian of [[Kohanim|priestly descent]] and a native of Jerusalem.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=469}}{{sfn|Edmondson|2005|p=1}} Appointed commander of Galilee in 66 CE, he was tasked with preparing the region for the revolt but surrendered after the siege of Yodfat in 67 CE. Escaping a suicide pact, he saved his life by prophesying Vespasian's rise to emperor.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=471}} Held captive for two years, he later gained freedom after Vespasian's accession in 69 CE,{{sfn|Gabba|1999|p=163}}{{sfn|Edmondson|2005|pp=1–2}}{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=297}} and accompanied Titus during the siege of Jerusalem in 70 CE.{{sfn|Edmondson|2005|p=2}}{{sfn|Rocca|2022|p=242}} In 71 CE, he moved to Rome, where he received Roman citizenship and the name Flavius Josephus.{{sfn|Edmondson|2005|p=3}} He spent his later years writing historical works,{{sfn|Millar|1995|p=70}}{{sfn|Feldman|1999|p=903}} living under imperial patronage.{{sfn|Edmondson|2005|p=2}}{{sfn|Rocca|2022|p=147}}
[[File:Jewish_war,_josephus_flavius_1559.jpg|thumb|A 16th-century copy of ''[[The Jewish War]]'', written by [[Josephus]] in the years following the revolt]]
Josephus' first work and primary account of the revolt, ''[[The Jewish War]]'', completed by 79 CE,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=472}} chronicles the revolt in seven volumes.{{sfn|Rocca|2022|p=242}} Originally in his native language, probably [[Aramaic]],{{sfn|Beard|2002|p=546}} he later rewrote it in Greek with assistance.{{sfn|Feldman|1999|p=903}}{{sfn|Edmondson|2005|pp=3–4}}{{sfn|Beard|2002|p=546}} The first volume covers events in the two centuries preceding the revolt, while the rest detail the war and its aftermath.{{sfn|Rocca|2022|p=242}} Claiming to correct biased accounts,{{sfn|Edmondson|2005|p=3}} Josephus also sought to deter future revolts.{{sfn|Feldman|1999|p=904}}<ref>''The Jewish War'', III, 108</ref> His firsthand experience, supplemented by accounts from deserters and Roman records, shaped his narrative.{{sfn|Feldman|1999|p=904}}{{sfn|Rocca|2022|p=242}} He minimized the collective responsibility of the Jewish people for the revolt,{{sfn|Bilde|1979|p=202}} blaming a rebellious minority,{{sfn|Feldman|1999|p=904}}{{sfn|Bilde|1979|pp=186–187}}{{efn|Josephus condemned all factions involved in the war, holding them directly responsible for the conflict, labeling their leaders as 'tyrants,' characterizing them as brigands ({{lang|grc|leistai}}), and accusing them of godlessness and impiety.{{sfn|Price|2024|p=33}}}} corrupt and brutal Roman governors,{{sfn|Bilde|1979|pp=188–189, 197}} and divine will.{{sfn|Bilde|1979|pp=199–200}} Taking pride in receiving endorsement from Vespasian and Titus for the accuracy of his writings;<ref>''Life'', 361–363</ref> he was likely compelled to present his account in a manner that aligned with their messages or, at the very least, did not contradict them.{{efn|Josephus, while careful not to directly criticize his Roman patrons,{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=248}} nonetheless documented acts of brutal violence they committed, including the killing of prisoners of war.{{sfn|Rogers|2022|p=248}}{{sfn|Mason|2016|p=369}}}} At the same time, his experience as a participant and eyewitness, as well as his knowledge of both Jewish and Roman worlds, renders his account an invaluable historical source.{{sfn|McLaren|2011|p=130}}

Josephus' later autobiography, [[The Life of Flavius Josephus|''Life'']], written as an appendix to another work, ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', focuses on his role in the Galilee.{{sfn|Feldman|1999|p=913}} It was a rebuttal to the now-lost ''A History of the Jewish War'' by [[Justus of Tiberias]], which was published twenty years after the revolt,''{{sfn|Feldman|1999|pp=913–914}}'' and which challenged Josephus's earlier narrative and religiosity.''{{sfn|Feldman|1999|p=914}}'' In ''Life'', Josephus provides a detailed account of the events of 66–67 CE, which contrasts with his first work, revealing differences in the portrayal of events.{{sfn|Schwartz|2014a|p=146}}{{sfn|Rappaport|1994|pp=279–280}}

Aside from Josephus, the written sources for the revolt are limited.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=194}} Tacitus' ''Histories'', written in the early 2nd century CE, offers a detailed Jewish history in Book 5 as a prelude to the revolt,''{{sfn|Schwartz|2014a|p=1}}'' though his siege narrative is incomplete.''{{sfn|Schwartz|2014a|p=1}}''{{sfn|Price|1992|p=194}} [[Cassius Dio]]'s account in Book 66 survives only in epitomes, while Suetonius provides occasional remarks.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=194}} These sources complement and sometimes contradict Josephus, helping to refine and corroborate his account where its reliability is debated.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=194}} Rabbinic literature offers insights into the war but presents challenges for historians, as it was primarily legal and theological, not historical.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=198}} Oral transmission often embellished events for religious or ethical reasons,{{sfn|Price|1992|p=198}} though some descriptions, like those of the famine in Jerusalem, align with external sources, confirming parts of the historical narrative.{{sfn|Price|1992|p=200}}

More information on the revolt can be deduced from archaeological, numismatic, and documentary evidence.{{sfn|Popović|2011|p=2}} Excavations at sites destroyed during the war reveal military tactics, preparations, and the impact of the sieges and battles.{{sfn|Popović|2011|p=2}}{{sfn|Price|1992|pp=194–197}} Jewish revolt coins reflect rebel ideology, messaging, and aims.{{sfn|Popović|2011|p=2}}{{sfn|McLaren|2011|pp=143, 145, 148}}{{sfn|Price|1992|pp=197–198}} Texts such as the documents from [[Wadi Murabba'at]], featuring dating formulas and phrases similar to revolt coinage, shed light on daily life and legal matters during the uprising.{{sfn|Popović|2011|p=2}}

==See also==

===Jewish–Roman wars===
* [[Diaspora Revolt]] (115–117 CE)
** [[Kitos War]]
* [[Bar Kokhba revolt]] (132–136 CE)

===Later Jewish and Samaritan revolts===
* [[Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus]] (352)
* [[Samaritan revolts]] (484–572)
* [[Jewish revolt against Heraclius]] (614-617/625)

===Related topics===
* [[First Jewish Revolt coinage]]
* [[History of the Jews in the Roman Empire]]
* [[List of conflicts in the Near East]]
* [[List of Jewish civil wars]]

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist|17em}}

=== Ancient sources ===
* {{Cite book |last=Cassius Dio |author-link=Cassius Dio |url= |title=Roman History |publisher= |year= |isbn= |editor-last= |editor-first= |series= |volume= |pages=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Eusebius |author-link=Eusebius |url= |title=[[Ecclesiastical History (Eusebius)|Church History]] |publisher= |year= |isbn= |editor-last= |editor-first= |series= |volume= |pages=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Josephus |author-link=Josephus |url= |title=[[The Life of Flavius Josephus|Life]] |publisher= |year= |isbn= |editor-last= |editor-first= |series= |volume=  |pages=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Josephus |author-link=Josephus |url= |title=[[The Jewish War]] |publisher= |year= |isbn= |editor-last= |editor-first= |series= |volume= |pages=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Malalas |first=John |author-link=John Malalas |url= |title=Chronicle |publisher= |year= |isbn= |editor-last= |editor-first= |series= |volume= |pages=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Pliny |author-link=Pliny the Elder |url= |title=[[Naturalis Historia]] |publisher= |year= |isbn= |editor-last= |editor-first= |series= |volume= |pages=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Suetonius |author-link=Suetonius |url= |title=[[The Twelve Caesars#Vespasian|Vespasian]] |publisher= |year= |isbn= |editor-last= |editor-first= |series= |volume=  |pages=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Sulpicius Severus |author-link=Sulpicius Severus |url= |title=Chronica |publisher= |year= |isbn= |editor-last= |editor-first= |series= |volume= |pages=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tacitus |author-link=Tacitus |url= |title=[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]] |publisher= |year= |isbn= |editor-last= |editor-first= |series= |volume= |pages=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tacitus |author-link=Tacitus |url= |title=[[Histories (Tacitus)|Histories]] |publisher= |year= |isbn= |editor-last= |editor-first= |series= |volume= |pages=}}
* {{Cite book |title=[[Avot de-Rabbi Natan]] |publisher= |year= |isbn= |editor-last= |editor-first= |series= |volume=  |pages=}}
* {{Cite book |title=[[Babylonian Talmud]] |publisher= |year= |isbn= |editor-last= |editor-first= |series= |volume=  |pages=}}
* {{Cite book |title=[[Jerusalem Talmud]] |publisher= |year= |isbn= |editor-last= |editor-first= |series= |volume=  |pages=}}
* {{Cite book |title=[[Lamentations Rabbah]] |publisher= |year= |isbn= |editor-last= |editor-first= |series= |volume= |pages=}}
* {{Cite book |title=[[Mishnah]] |publisher= |year= |isbn= |editor-last= |editor-first= |series= |volume= |pages=}}

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* {{Cite book |last=Cotton |first=Hannah M. |editor-first1=Ofer |editor-last1=Pogorelsky |author-link=Hannah Cotton |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110770438/html?srsltid=AfmBOopPYEDYUOG_Pt2ntM_XLNqnQ0Zr0MUpjVwQ9LoJQ1Slp6P5QwMv#contents |title=Roman Rule and Jewish Life: Collected Papers |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |year=2022 |isbn=978-3-110-77043-8 |series=Studia Judaica |volume=89 |doi=10.1515/9783110770438 |archive-date=22 December 2024 |access-date=8 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241222012907/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110770438/html?srsltid=AfmBOopPYEDYUOG_Pt2ntM_XLNqnQ0Zr0MUpjVwQ9LoJQ1Slp6P5QwMv#contents |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Daschke |first=Dereck |url=https://brill.com/display/title/14754 |title=City of Ruins: Mourning the Destruction of Jerusalem Through Jewish Apocalypse |publisher=Brill |year=2010 |isbn=978-9-004-18181-6 |series=Biblical Interpretation Series |volume=99 |pages= |chapter= |author-link= |archive-date=31 May 2024 |access-date=14 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240531152735/https://brill.com/display/title/14754 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Gwyn |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004540828/BP000016.xml |title=Pushing Sacred Boundaries in Early Judaism and the Ancient Mediterranean |publisher=Brill |year=2023 |isbn=978-9-004-54082-8 |editor-last=Mizzi |editor-first=Dennis |series=Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism |chapter=Stamping Out the Embers: Roman "Mopping-Up" Operations at the End of the First Jewish Revolt |editor-last2=Grey |editor-first2=Matthew |pages=100–127 |doi=10.1163/9789004540828_005 |volume=208 |editor-last3=Rassalle |editor-first3=Tine |archive-date=6 June 2023 |access-date=2 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606075525/https://brill.com/display/book/9789004540828/BP000016.xml |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=deSilva |first=David A. |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/58629 |title=Judea under Greek and Roman Rule |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2024 |isbn=978-0-190-26328-7 |series= |volume= |pages= |chapter= |author-link= }}
* {{Cite book |last=Deutsch |first=Robert |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004216693/B9789004216693_015.xml |title=The Jewish Revolt Against Rome: Interdisciplinary Perspectives |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-9-004-21668-6 |editor-last=Popović |editor-first=Mladen |series=Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism |pages=361–371 |chapter=Coinage of the First Jewish Revolt against Rome: Iconography, Minting Authority, Metallurgy |volume=154 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Dunn |first=James D. G. |title=Beginning from Jerusalem |publisher=Eerdmans Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-802-83932-9 |series=Christianity in the Making |volume=2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Dunn |first=James D. G. |title=Neither Jew nor Greek |publisher=Eerdmans Publishing |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-802-87801-4 |series=Christianity in the Making |volume=3}}
* {{Cite book |last=Edmondson |first=Jonathan |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199262120.003.0001 |title=Flavius Josephus and Flavian Rome |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-199-26212-0 |editor-last=Edmondson |editor-first=Jonathan |volume=3 |pages=1–35 |chapter=Introduction: Flavius Josephus and Flavian Rome |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199262120.003.0001 |editor-last2=Mason |editor-first2=Steve |editor-last3=Rives |editor-first3=James }}
* {{Cite book |last=Eshel |first=Hanan |author-link=Hanan Eshel |url= |title=The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |volume=4th |pages= |chapter=The Bar Kochba Revolt, 132–135}}
* {{Cite book |last=Feldman |first=Louis |author-link=Louis Feldman |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/josephus-ce-37c-100/7D72A376B4EB4B26D4269D1F72EC0B55 |title=The Early Roman Period |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=9781139053662 |editor-last=Horbury |editor-first=William |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |volume=3 |pages=901–921 |chapter=Josephus (CE 37–c. 100) |editor-last2=Davies |editor-first2=W. D. |editor-last3=Sturdy |editor-first3=John |archive-date=7 December 2024 |access-date=23 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241207220155/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/josephus-ce-37c-100/7D72A376B4EB4B26D4269D1F72EC0B55 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Frey |first=Jörg |title=Was 70 CE a Watershed in Jewish History? On Jews and Judaism before and after the Destruction of the Second Temple |publisher=Brill |year=2012 |isbn=978-9-004-21534-4 |editor1-last=Schwartz |editor1-first=Daniel R. |pages=447–508 |chapter=Temple and Identity in Early Christianity and in the Johannine Community: Reflections on the "Parting of the Ways" |editor2-last=Weiss |editor2-first=Zeev}}
* {{Cite book |last=Freyne |first=Sean |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-First-Jewish-Revolt-Archaeology-History-and-Ideology/Berlin-Overman/p/book/9780415620246?srsltid=AfmBOorz-WbpHl71xDPDGpN7SBcRerBsQpQSToBH01bSq3Ekq_TkQ1DT |title=The First Jewish Revolt: Archaeology, History, and Ideology |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-62024-6 |editor-last=Berlin |editor-first=Andrea M. |series=  |chapter=The Revolt from a regional perspective |editor-last2=Overman |editor-first2=J. Andrew |pages=43–55 |archive-date=22 December 2024 |access-date=5 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241222014726/https://www.routledge.com/The-First-Jewish-Revolt-Archaeology-History-and-Ideology/Berlin-Overman/p/book/9780415620246?srsltid=AfmBOorz-WbpHl71xDPDGpN7SBcRerBsQpQSToBH01bSq3Ekq_TkQ1DT |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Gabba |first=Emilio |author-link=Emilio Gabba |url= |title=The Early Roman Period |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=9781139053662 |editor-last=Horbury |editor-first=William |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |volume=3 |pages=94–167 |chapter=The social, economic and political history of Palestine 63 BCE–CE 70 |editor-last2=Davies |editor-first2=W. D. |editor-last3=Sturdy |editor-first3=John}}
* {{cite book |last1=Goodblatt |first1=David M. |title=Elements of Ancient Jewish Nationalism |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9780511499067}}
* {{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Goodman (historian) |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511552656 |title=The Ruling Class of Judaea: The Origins of the Jewish Revolt against Rome, A.D. 66–70 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1987 |isbn=9780511552656 |series= |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511552656 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Martin |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-First-Jewish-Revolt-Archaeology-History-and-Ideology/Berlin-Overman/p/book/9780415620246?srsltid=AfmBOorz-WbpHl71xDPDGpN7SBcRerBsQpQSToBH01bSq3Ekq_TkQ1DT |title=The First Jewish Revolt: Archaeology, History, and Ideology |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-62024-6 |editor-last=Berlin |editor-first=Andrea M. |series=  |pages=15–24 |chapter=Current scholarship on the First Revolt |editor-last2=Overman |editor-first2=J. Andrew |archive-date=22 December 2024 |access-date=5 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241222014726/https://www.routledge.com/The-First-Jewish-Revolt-Archaeology-History-and-Ideology/Berlin-Overman/p/book/9780415620246?srsltid=AfmBOorz-WbpHl71xDPDGpN7SBcRerBsQpQSToBH01bSq3Ekq_TkQ1DT |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Goodman |first=Martin |year=2004 |title=Trajan and the Origins of Roman Hostility to the Jews |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3600803 |journal=[[Past & Present (journal)|Past & Present]] |volume= |issue=182 |pages=3–29 |doi=10.1093/past/182.1.3 |jstor=3600803 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book |last=Goodman |first=Martin |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789047410614/Bej.9789004153097.i-275_014.xml |title=Judaism in the Roman World |publisher=Brill |year=2006 |isbn=978-9-047-41061-4 |series=Ancient Judaism and Early Christianity |pages=153–162 |volume=66 |chapter=Sadducees and Essenes after 70 CE |archive-date=21 October 2023 |access-date=2 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231021074039/https://brill.com/display/book/9789047410614/Bej.9789004153097.i-275_014.xml |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Hastings |first=Adrian |title=The Construction of Nationhood: Ethnicity, Religion and Nationalism |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=0-521-59391-3 |pages=186–187}}
* {{cite book |last1=Hengel |first1=Martin |title=The Zealots: Investigation into the Jewish Freedom Movement in the Period from Herod until 70 AD |publisher=[[T&T Clark]] |isbn=0-567-09372-7|year=1989|translator-last=Smith|translator-first=David|author-link=Martin Hengel|edition=2nd (Translated from German)}}
* {{Cite book |last=Henze |first=Matthias |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004258815/B9789004258815_002.xml |title=Fourth Ezra and Second Baruch: Reconstruction after the Fall |publisher=Brill |year=2013 |isbn=978-9-004-25867-9 |editor-last=Henze |editor-first=Matthias |series=Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism |chapter=4Ezra and 2Baruch: The Status Quaestionis |editor-last2=Boccaccini |editor-first2=Gabriele |pages=3–27 |archive-date=17 June 2024 |access-date=31 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240617162808/https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004258815/B9789004258815_002.xml |url-status=live }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Horbury |first=William |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/jewish-war-under-trajan-and-hadrian/jewish-war-under-trajan-and-hadrian/039283010F789E29AA6B95AA212BC9FA |title=Jewish War under Trajan and Hadrian |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-139-04905-4 |pages= |chapter= |archive-date=29 August 2024 |access-date=7 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240829152312/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/jewish-war-under-trajan-and-hadrian/jewish-war-under-trajan-and-hadrian/039283010F789E29AA6B95AA212BC9FA |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Horsley |first=Richard A. |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-First-Jewish-Revolt-Archaeology-History-and-Ideology/Berlin-Overman/p/book/9780415620246?srsltid=AfmBOorz-WbpHl71xDPDGpN7SBcRerBsQpQSToBH01bSq3Ekq_TkQ1DT |title=The First Jewish Revolt: Archaeology, History, and Ideology |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-62024-6 |editor-last=Berlin |editor-first=Andrea M. |series= |chapter=Power vacuum and power struggle in 66–7 CE |editor-last2=Overman |editor-first2=J. Andrew |pages=87–109 |archive-date=22 December 2024 |access-date=5 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241222014726/https://www.routledge.com/The-First-Jewish-Revolt-Archaeology-History-and-Ideology/Berlin-Overman/p/book/9780415620246?srsltid=AfmBOorz-WbpHl71xDPDGpN7SBcRerBsQpQSToBH01bSq3Ekq_TkQ1DT |url-status=live }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Kerkeslager |first=Allen |url= |title=The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |volume=4 |pages= |chapter=The Jews in Egypt and Cyrenaica, 66–c. 235 CE}}
* {{Cite book |last=Kessler |first=Edward |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/an-introduction-to-jewishchristian-relations/8213409DE8E351B07840F99E07B2FF6B |title=An Introduction to Jewish-Christian Relations |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-511-80106-8 |series= |volume= |pages= |chapter= |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511801068 |archive-date=20 December 2024 |access-date=4 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241220190506/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/an-introduction-to-jewishchristian-relations/8213409DE8E351B07840F99E07B2FF6B |url-status=live }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Künzl |first=Ernst |url= |title=Der römische Triumph: Siegesfeiern im antiken Rom |publisher=Beck |year=1988 |isbn=978-3-406-32899-2 |series= |volume= |pages= |language=de |chapter=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Leaney |first=Alfred Robert Clare |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/jewish-and-christian-world-200-bc-to-ad-200/9B859CC4D8F41305AD8AA1F4156AE07A |title=The Jewish and Christian World 200 BC to AD 200 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1984 |isbn=978-0-511-62136-9 |series=  |doi=10.1017/CBO9780511621369 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |access-date=13 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121032443/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/jewish-and-christian-world-200-bc-to-ad-200/9B859CC4D8F41305AD8AA1F4156AE07A |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book | last=Levine | first=David | editor-first=Joshua J. | editor-last=Schwartz | editor2-first=Peter J. | editor2-last=Tomson | title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE | series=Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum | volume=15 | chapter=70 CE or 135 CE – Where was the Watershed? Ancient and Modern Perspectives | chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004352971_011 | year=2017 | pages=161–175 | isbn=978-90-04-35297-1 | publisher=Brill | doi=10.1163/9789004352971_011 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Levine |first=Lee I. |author-link=Lee I. Levine |url=https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300106282/the-ancient-synagogue/ |title=The Ancient Synagogue: The First Thousand Years |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2005 |isbn=0-300-10628-9 |edition=2nd |archive-date=25 December 2024 |access-date=25 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241225210326/https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300106282/the-ancient-synagogue/ |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Lieu |first=Judith |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-christianity/selfdefinition-visavis-the-jewish-matrix/3B0DF159CBC2C27884DC4B48C20CCE7A |title=Origins to Constantine |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=9781139054836 |editor-last=Mitchell |editor-first=Margaret M. |series=The Cambridge History of Christianity |volume=1 |pages=214–229 |chapter=Self-definition vis-à-vis the Jewish matrix |access-date= |editor-last2=Young |editor-first2=Frances M.}}
* {{Cite book |last=Magness |first=Jodi |url= |title=The Archaeology of Qumran and the Dead Sea Scrolls |publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company |year=2002 |isbn=0-8028-4589-4 |series= |volume= |pages= |chapter= |author-link=Jodi Magness}}
* {{Cite book |last=Magness |first=Jodi |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004216693/B9789004216693_014.xml |title=The Jewish Revolt against Rome: Interdisciplinary Perspectives |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-9-004-21668-6 |editor-last=Popović |editor-first=Mladen |series=Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism |pages=343–359 |chapter=A Reconsideration of Josephus' Testimony about Masada |volume=154 |archive-date=4 March 2024 |access-date=13 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240304012119/https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004216693/B9789004216693_014.xml |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Magness |first=Jodi |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/archaeology-of-the-holy-land/22D828E7C9A290BCB132BF5234F02332 |title=The Archaeology of the Holy Land: From the Destruction of Solomon's Temple to the Muslim Conquest |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-139-01383-3 |series= |volume= |pages= |chapter= |author-link= }}
* {{Cite book |last=Magness |first=Jodi |url=https://global.oup.com/academic/product/jerusalem-through-the-ages-9780190937805 |title=Jerusalem Through The Ages: From Its Beginnings To The Crusades |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2024 |isbn=978-0-19-093780-5 |series= |volume= |pages= |chapter= |archive-date=8 December 2024 |access-date=8 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241208110830/https://global.oup.com/academic/product/jerusalem-through-the-ages-9780190937805 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Marcus |first=Joel |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-christianity/jewish-christianity/2431D7566B1749C7CD584CA08A87C658 |title=Origins to Constantine |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=9781139054836 |editor-last=Mitchell |editor-first=Margaret M. |series=The Cambridge History of Christianity |volume=1 |pages=85–102 |chapter=Jewish Christianity |access-date= |editor-last2=Young |editor-first2=Frances M.}}
* {{Cite book |last=Mason |first=Steve |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139020718 |title=A History of the Jewish War: AD 66–74 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-139-02071-8 |series=Key Conflicts of Classical Antiquity |volume= |pages= |chapter= |doi=10.1017/CBO9781139020718 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Mattern |first=Susan |url=https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691156361/makers-of-ancient-strategy?srsltid=AfmBOop00vr0U1DtYwHXlLhnka-TMHORYVoxJGSHPeektBEzuYyh0GTP |title=Makers of Ancient Strategy: From the Persian Wars to the Fall of Rome |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-691-13790-2 |editor-last=Hanson |editor-first=Victor Davis |series= |pages=163–184 |chapter=Counterinsurgency and the Enemies of Rome |archive-date=22 December 2024 |access-date=5 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241222012302/https://press.princeton.edu/books/paperback/9780691156361/makers-of-ancient-strategy?srsltid=AfmBOop00vr0U1DtYwHXlLhnka-TMHORYVoxJGSHPeektBEzuYyh0GTP |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=McLaren |first=James S. |url=https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/20807 |title=The Jewish Revolt against Rome: Interdisciplinary Perspectives |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-9-004-21668-6 |editor-last=Popović |editor-first=Mladen |series= |chapter=Going to War against Rome: The Motivation of the Jewish Rebels |pages=129–153 |doi=10.1163/9789004216693_007 |archive-date=21 June 2024 |access-date=26 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240621050904/https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/20807 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |last1=Mendels |first1=Doron |title=The Rise and Fall of Jewish Nationalism: Jewish and Christian Ethnicity in Ancient Palestine |date=1992 |series=Anchor Bible Reference Library |publisher=Doubleday |isbn=978-0-385-26126-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Meyers |first=Eric M. |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-First-Jewish-Revolt-Archaeology-History-and-Ideology/Berlin-Overman/p/book/9780415620246?srsltid=AfmBOorz-WbpHl71xDPDGpN7SBcRerBsQpQSToBH01bSq3Ekq_TkQ1DT |title=The First Jewish Revolt: Archaeology, History, and Ideology |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-62024-6 |editor-last=Berlin |editor-first=Andrea M.  |chapter=Sepphoris: City of peace |editor-last2=Overman |editor-first2=J. Andrew |pages=110–120 |archive-date=22 December 2024 |access-date=5 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241222014726/https://www.routledge.com/The-First-Jewish-Revolt-Archaeology-History-and-Ideology/Berlin-Overman/p/book/9780415620246?srsltid=AfmBOorz-WbpHl71xDPDGpN7SBcRerBsQpQSToBH01bSq3Ekq_TkQ1DT |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Millar |first=Fergus |author-link=Fergus Millar |url=https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674778863 |title=The Roman Near East: 31 BC–AD 337 |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-674-77886-3 |series= |volume= |archive-date=7 December 2024 |access-date=5 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241207100353/https://www.hup.harvard.edu/books/9780674778863 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Millar |first=Fergus |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199262120.003.0006 |title=Flavius Josephus and Flavian Rome |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-199-26212-0 |editor-last=Edmondson |editor-first=Jonathan |volume=3 |pages=101–128 |chapter=Last Year in Jerusalem: Monuments of the Jewish War in Rome |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199262120.003.0006 |editor-last2=Mason |editor-first2=Steve |editor-last3=Rives |editor-first3=James }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Mondésert |first=Claude |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/philo-of-alexandria/38BA50DC4F78064144A1974E4CE7FF49 |title=The Early Roman Period |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1999 |isbn=9781139053662 |editor-last=Horbury |editor-first=William |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |volume=3 |pages=877–900 |chapter=Philo of Alexandria |editor-last2=Davies |editor-first2=W. D. |editor-last3=Sturdy |editor-first3=John |archive-date=19 December 2024 |access-date=16 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241219113924/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-history-of-judaism/philo-of-alexandria/38BA50DC4F78064144A1974E4CE7FF49 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Murison |first=Charles Leslie |url=https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118878149.ch4 |title=A Companion to the Flavian Age of Imperial Rome |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-444-33600-9 |editor-last=Zissos |editor-first=Andrew |chapter=The Emperor Titus |pages=76–91 |doi=10.1002/9781118878149.ch4 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Overman |first=J. Andrew |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-First-Jewish-Revolt-Archaeology-History-and-Ideology/Berlin-Overman/p/book/9780415620246?srsltid=AfmBOorz-WbpHl71xDPDGpN7SBcRerBsQpQSToBH01bSq3Ekq_TkQ1DT |title=The First Jewish Revolt: Archaeology, History, and Ideology |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-62024-6 |editor-last=Berlin |editor-first=Andrea M. |chapter=The First Revolt and Flavian politics |editor-last2=Overman |editor-first2=J. Andrew |pages=213–221 |archive-date=22 December 2024 |access-date=5 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241222014726/https://www.routledge.com/The-First-Jewish-Revolt-Archaeology-History-and-Ideology/Berlin-Overman/p/book/9780415620246?srsltid=AfmBOorz-WbpHl71xDPDGpN7SBcRerBsQpQSToBH01bSq3Ekq_TkQ1DT |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book | last=Paget | first=James Carleton | editor-first=Joshua J. | editor-last=Schwartz | editor2-first=Peter J. | editor2-last=Tomson | title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE | series=Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum | volume=15 | chapter=Jewish Revolts and Jewish-Christian Relations | chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004352971_011 | year=2018 | pages=276–306 | isbn=978-90-04-35297-1 | publisher=Brill | doi=10.1163/9789004352971_011 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Popović |first=Mladen |url=https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/20807 |title=The Jewish Revolt against Rome: Interdisciplinary Perspectives |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-9-004-21668-6 |editor-last=Popović |editor-first=Mladen |series= |chapter=The Jewish Revolt against Rome: History, Sources and Perspectives |pages=1–25 |doi=10.1163/9789004216693_002 |archive-date=21 June 2024 |access-date=26 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240621050904/https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/20807 |url-status=live }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Price |first=Jonathan J. |url=https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/20807 |title=The Jewish Revolt against Rome: Interdisciplinary Perspectives |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-9-004-21668-6 |editor-last=Popović |editor-first=Mladen |series= |chapter=The Jewish Population of Jerusalem from the First Century BCE to the Early Second Century CE: The Epigraphic Record |pages=399–418 |doi=10.1163/9789004216693_017 |archive-date=21 June 2024 |access-date=26 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240621050904/https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/20807 |url-status=live }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Pucci Ben Zeev |first=Miriam |url= |title=The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-521-77248-8 |editor-last=Katz |editor-first=Steven T. |series=The Cambridge History of Judaism |volume=4 |pages=93–104 |chapter=The Uprisings in the Jewish Diaspora, 116–117 |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521772488.005}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rajak |first=Tessa |url=https://www.routledge.com/The-First-Jewish-Revolt-Archaeology-History-and-Ideology/Berlin-Overman/p/book/9780415620246?srsltid=AfmBOorz-WbpHl71xDPDGpN7SBcRerBsQpQSToBH01bSq3Ekq_TkQ1DT |title=The First Jewish Revolt: Archaeology, History, and Ideology |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-62024-6 |editor-last=Berlin |editor-first=Andrea M. |series=  |chapter=Jewish Millenarian Expectations |editor-last2=Overman |editor-first2=J. Andrew |pages=164–188 |author-link=Tessa Rajak }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Rappaport |first=Uriel |author-link=Uriel Rappaport |url=https://brill.com/edcollchap/book/9789004509122/B9789004509122_s018.xml |title=Josephus and the History of the Greco-Roman Period |publisher=Brill |year=1994 |isbn=978-9-004-50912-2 |series=Studia Post Biblica |volume=41 |pages=279–289 |chapter=Where Was Josephus Lying — In His Life or in the War? |editor-last=Parente |editor-first=Fausto |editor-last2=Sievers |editor-first2=Joseph |archive-date=20 April 2024 |access-date=15 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240420055301/https://brill.com/edcollchap/book/9789004509122/B9789004509122_s018.xml |url-status=live }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Rogers |first=Guy MacLean |url=https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300248135/for-the-freedom-of-zion/ |title=For the Freedom of Zion: The Great Revolt of Jews against Romans, 66–74 CE |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |year=2022 |isbn=978-0-300-24813-5 |series= |volume= |pages= |chapter= |archive-date=7 December 2024 |access-date=5 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241207230626/https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300248135/for-the-freedom-of-zion/ |url-status=live }}
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* {{Cite book |last=van Kooten |first=George H. |url=https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/20807 |title=The Jewish Revolt against Rome: Interdisciplinary Perspectives |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-9-004-21668-6 |editor-last=Popović |editor-first=Mladen |series= |chapter=The Jewish War and the Roman Civil War of 68–69 CE: Jewish, Pagan, and Christian Perspectives |pages=419–450 |doi=10.1163/9789004216693_018 |archive-date=21 June 2024 |access-date=26 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240621050904/https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/20807 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Vervaet |first=Frederik Juliaan |url=https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118878149.ch2 |title=A Companion to the Flavian Age of Imperial Rome |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-444-33600-9 |editor-last=Zissos |editor-first=Andrew |series= |chapter=The Remarkable Rise of the Flavians |pages=41–59 |doi=10.1002/9781118878149.ch2 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Weksler-Bdolah |first=Shlomit |url=https://brill.com/display/title/55598 |title=Aelia Capitolina – Jerusalem in the Roman Period: In Light of Archaeological Research |publisher=Brill |year=2020 |isbn=978-9-004-40733-6 |series=Mnemosyne, Supplements, History and Archaeology of Classical Antiquity |volume=432 |archive-date=20 January 2025 |access-date=28 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250120143846/https://brill.com/display/title/55598 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Wilker |first=Julia |url=https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/20807 |title=The Jewish Revolt against Rome: Interdisciplinary Perspectives |publisher=Brill |year=2011 |isbn=978-9-004-21668-6 |editor-last=Popović |editor-first=Mladen |series= |chapter=Josephus, the Herodians, and the Jewish War |pages=271–290 |doi=10.1163/9789004216693_010 |archive-date=21 June 2024 |access-date=26 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240621050904/https://brill.com/edcollbook/title/20807 |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Wilker |first=Julia |url=https://brill.com/edcollchap/book/9789004218512/B9789004218512_010.xml |title=Jewish Identity and Politics between the Maccabees and Bar Kokhba Groups, Normativity, and Rituals |publisher=Brill |year=2012 |isbn=978-9-004-21046-2 |editor-last=Eckhardt |editor-first=Benedikt |series=Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism |chapter="God is with Italy now" Pro-Roman Jews and the Jewish Revolt |pages=157–187 |doi=10.1163/9789004218512_010 |volume=155 |archive-date=9 May 2024 |access-date=2 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240509081435/https://brill.com/edcollchap/book/9789004218512/B9789004218512_010.xml |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite book |last=Zissos |first=Andrew |url=https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118878149.ch4 |title=A Companion to the Flavian Age of Imperial Rome |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-444-33600-9 |editor-last=Zissos |editor-first=Andrew |chapter=The Flavian Legacy |pages=487–513 |doi=10.1002/9781118878149.ch4 }}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite journal |last=Curran |first=John R. |year=2007 |title=The Jewish War: Some Neglected Regional Factors |journal=The Classical World |volume=101 |issue=1 |pages=75–91 |doi=10.1353/clw.2007.0100 |jstor=25471914 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25471914 |url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite journal |last=Jordán |first=Javier |year=2020 |title=An analysis of the Jewish-Roman War (66–73 AD) using contemporary insurgency theory |journal=Small Wars & Insurgencies |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=1058–1079 |doi=10.1080/09592318.2020.1764710 |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09592318.2020.1764710 |archive-date=16 January 2025 |access-date=16 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250116084050/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09592318.2020.1764710 |url-status=live|url-access=subscription }}
* {{Cite book |last=Rajak |first=Tessa |year=1983 |title=Josephus: The Historian and His Society |url= |publisher=Duckworth |isbn= |series= |volume= |pages= |chapter=}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rappaport |first=Uriel |author-link=Uriel Rappaport |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789047409069/Bej.9789004150089.i-471_005.xml |title=Making History: Josephus and Historical Method |publisher=Brill |year=2006 |isbn=978-9-004-15008-9 |editor-last=Rodgers |editor-first=Zuleika |series=Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism |volume=110 |pages=68–81 |chapter=Josephus' Personality and the Credibility of His Narrative |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004150089.i-471.24 |archive-date=8 December 2023 |access-date=15 January 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231208051519/https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789047409069/Bej.9789004150089.i-471_005.xml |url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Reeder |first=Caryn A. |year=2015 |title=Gender, War, and Josephus |journal=Journal for the Study of Judaism |volume=46 |issue=1 |pages=65–85|doi=10.1163/15700631-12340419}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Reeder |first=Caryn A. |year=2017 |title=Wartime Rape, the Romans, and the First Jewish Revolt |journal=Journal for the Study of Judaism |volume=48 |issue=3 |pages=363–385|doi=10.1163/15700631-12340149}}
* {{Cite book |last=Tuval |first=Michael |url=https://www.mohrsiebeck.com/en/book/from-jerusalem-priest-to-roman-jew-9783161523861/ |title=From Jerusalem Priest to Roman Jew: On Josephus and the Paradigms of Ancient Judaism |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |year=2013 |isbn=978-3-16-152386-1 |series= |volume= |pages=1–345 |chapter=From Jerusalem Priest to Roman Jew}}
* {{Cite book | last=Zissu | first=Boaz | editor-first=Joshua J. | editor-last=Schwartz | editor2-first=Peter J. | editor2-last=Tomson | title=Jews and Christians in the First and Second Centuries: The Interbellum 70‒132 CE | series=Compendia Rerum Iudaicarum ad Novum Testamentum | volume=15 | chapter=Interbellum Judea 70–132 ce: An Archaeological Perspective | chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004352971_003 | year=2017 | pages=19–49 | isbn=978-90-04-35297-1 | publisher=Brill | doi=10.1163/9789004352971_011}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Wikisource|The War of the Jews}}
{{Commons category|First Jewish-Roman War}}
* [https://thinktorah.org/destruction-of-2nd-temple-and-jewish-roman-wars/ In Depth Lecture on the First Roman-Jewish War and Destruction of the 2nd Tempe] Thinktorah.org

{{First Jewish–Roman War|state=expanded}}
{{Towns depopulated during the First Jewish–Roman War|state=collapsed}}
{{Jewish history}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:First Jewish-Roman War}}
[[Category:First Jewish–Roman War| ]]
[[Category:1st-century Judaism]]
[[Category:1st-century rebellions]]
[[Category:60s conflicts]]
[[Category:60s in the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:66]]
[[Category:70s conflicts]]
[[Category:70s in the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:73]]
[[Category:Flavian military campaigns]]
[[Category:Jewish nationalism]]
[[Category:Judea (Roman province)]]
[[Category:Rebellions in Asia]]
[[Category:Religion-based wars]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Wars of independence]]
[[Category:Year of the Four Emperors]]