View source for Durum wheat

{{Short description|Species of wheat used for food}}
{{About|the cultivar of wheat|the Turkish döner wrap|dürüm}}
{{Distinguish|Durham (disambiguation)}}
{{Speciesbox
|name = Durum
|image = Triticum durum.jpg
|image_caption = Durum wheat
|genus = Triticum
|species = durum
|authority = [[René Louiche Desfontaines|Desf.]]
|synonyms =
  {{Collapsible list |
    {{Plainlist | style=margin-left: 1em; text-indent: -1em; |
* ''Triticum accessorium'' <small>Flaksb.</small> [[Validly published name|nom. inval.]]
* ''Triticum alatum'' <small>Peterm.</small>
* ''Triticum algeriense'' <small>Desf. ex Mert. & W.D.J.Koch</small> nom. inval.
* ''Triticum bauhinii'' <small>Lag.</small>
* ''Triticum brachystachyum'' <small>Lag. ex Schult. & Schult.f.</small> nom. inval.
* ''Triticum candissimum'' <small>Bayle-Bar.</small>
* ''Triticum caucasicum'' <small>Flaksb.</small> nom. inval.
* ''Triticum cevallos'' <small>Lag.</small>
* ''Triticum cochleare'' <small>Lag.</small>
* ''Triticum densiusculum'' <small>Flaksb.</small> nom. inval.
* ''Triticum fastuosum'' <small>Lag.</small>
* ''Triticum hordeiforme'' <small>Host</small>
* ''Triticum laxiusculum'' <small>Flaksb.</small> nom. inval.
* ''Triticum longisemineum'' <small>Flaksb.</small> nom. inval.
* ''Triticum maurorum'' <small>Sennen</small> nom. inval.
* ''Triticum molle'' <small>Roem. & Schult.</small> nom. inval.
* ''Triticum orientale'' <small>Flaksb.</small> nom. inval.
* ''Triticum platystachyum'' <small>Lag.</small>
* ''Triticum pruinosum'' <small>Hornem.</small>
* ''Triticum pyramidale'' <small>Percival</small>
* ''Triticum rarum'' <small>Flaksb.</small> nom. inval.
* ''Triticum rimpaui'' <small>Mackey</small>
* ''Triticum siculum'' <small>Roem. & Schult.</small>
* ''Triticum tanaiticum'' <small>Flaksb.</small> nom. inval.
* ''Triticum tiflisiense'' <small>Flaksb.</small> nom. inval.
* ''Triticum tomentosum'' <small>Bayle-Bar.</small>
* ''Triticum transcaucasicum'' <small>Flaksb.</small> nom. inval.
* ''Triticum trevisium'' <small>Desv.</small> nom. inval.
* ''Triticum venulosum'' <small>Ser.</small>
* ''Triticum villosum'' <small>Host</small>
}}
  }}
|synonyms_ref = <ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.theplantlist.org/tpl1.1/record/kew-448630
|title=The Plant List: A Working List of All Plant Species
|access-date=28 August 2014}}</ref>
}}

'''Durum wheat'''<ref>{{PLANTS|id=TRDU3|taxon=Triticum durum|access-date=3 February 2016}}</ref> ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|dj|ʊər|ə|m}}), also called '''pasta wheat'''<ref name=BSBI07>{{BSBI 2007 |access-date=2014-10-17 }}</ref> or '''macaroni wheat''' (''Triticum durum'' or ''Triticum turgidum'' subsp. ''durum''),<ref>{{GRIN | access-date = 11 December 2017}}</ref> is a [[tetraploid]] species of [[wheat]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/PlantsAndBotany/wheat.htm |title=Wheat |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140330193439/http://autocww.colorado.edu/~blackmon/E64ContentFiles/PlantsAndBotany/wheat.htm |archive-date=2014-03-30 }}</ref> It is the second most cultivated species of wheat after [[common wheat]], although it represents only 5% to 8% of global wheat production.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.world-grain.com/articles/news_home/World_Grain_News/2017/10/Global_durum_wheat_use_trendin.aspx?ID=%7B04F7D478-8010-49E7-A30E-60F63024D10D%7D&cck=1|title=Global durum wheat use trending upward|website=world-grain.com|access-date=21 March 2018}}</ref> It was developed by [[artificial selection]] of the domesticated [[emmer]] wheat strains formerly grown in Central Europe and the [[Near East]] around 7000 BC, which developed a naked, [[Wheat#Hulled versus free-threshing species|free-threshing]] form.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.biodiversityexplorer.org/plants/poaceae/triticum.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010083956/http://www.biodiversityexplorer.org/plants/poaceae/triticum.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=2008-10-10 |work=Biodiversity explorer |title=Triticum (genus) }}</ref> Like emmer, durum wheat is [[Awn (botany)|awned]] (with bristles). It is the predominant wheat that grows in the Middle East.

''Durum'' in [[Latin]] means 'hard', and the species is the hardest of all wheats. This refers to the resistance of the grain to milling, in particular of the [[starch]]y [[endosperm]], causing [[dough]] made from its [[flour]] to be weak or "soft". This makes durum favorable for [[semolina]] and [[pasta]] and less practical for flour, which requires more work than with [[hexaploid]] wheats such as [[common wheat|common bread wheats]]. Despite its high [[protein]] content, durum is not a strong wheat in the sense of giving strength to dough through the formation of a [[gluten]] network. Durum contains 27% extractable wet gluten, about 3% higher than common wheat (''T. aestivum'' L.).<ref name=zilic/>

==Taxonomy==
Some authorities synonymize "durum" and ''[[Triticum turgidum]]''.<ref name="Tt-CABI"> {{ Cite web | year=2022 | s2cid=253668411 | doi=10.1079/cabicompendium.55212|url=https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/10.1079/cabicompendium.55212| title=''Triticum turgidum'' (Durum wheat)|publisher=CABI|accessdate=1 September 2023 }} </ref> Some reserve "durum" for ''Triticum turgidum'' subsp. ''durum''.<ref name="Ttd-CABI"> {{ Cite web | year=2022 | s2cid=253906833 | doi=10.1079/cabicompendium.109369 |url=https://www.cabidigitallibrary.org/doi/abs/10.1079/cabicompendium.109369| title=''Triticum turgidum'' subsp. Durum|publisher=CABI|accessdate=1 September 2023 }} </ref> The [[Wheat grain classes|grain classification]] for durum is typically based on the [[Hard Vitreous Kernel]] (HVK) count.{{sfn|Shahin|Symons|2008|p=16}}{{sfn|Fu|Wang|Dupuis|Taylor|2018|p=210}}

==Genetics==
Durum wheat is a [[tetraploid]] wheat, having four sets of [[chromosome]]s for a total of 28, unlike [[Winter wheat|hard red winter]] and [[Wheat#Major cultivated species of wheat|hard red spring wheats]], which are [[hexaploid]] (six sets of chromosomes) for a total of 42.{{Sfn | Wishart | 2004 | p=56 | loc=Wheat}}

Durum wheat originated through [[hybrid (biology)|intergeneric hybridization]] and [[polyploid]]ization involving two [[diploid]] (having two sets of chromosomes) grass species: ''[[Triticum urartu|T. urartu]]'' (2n=2x=14, AA genome){{Clarification|reason=Please explain what this notation means|date=January 2025}} and a B-genome diploid related to ''[[Aegilops speltoides]]'' (2n=2x=14, SS genome){{Clarification needed|reason=Please explain what this notation means|date=January 2025}}<ref name="Sorting">{{cite journal|issue=1|year=2007|volume=15|first5=Catherine|first4=Jan|first3=Etienne|first2=Marie|first1=Jaroslav|last5=Feuillet|last4=Bartos|last3=Paux|last2=Kubalkov|last1=Dolezel|journal=Chromosome Research|issn=0967-3849|pages=51–66|doi=10.1007/s10577-006-1106-x|title=Chromosome-based genomics in the cereals|pmid=17295126 |s2cid=12195353 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|issue=2|year=2005|display-authors=3|last1=Kubalakova|first1=Marie|last2=Kovarova|first2=Pavlina|last3=Suchankova|first3=Pavla|last4=Cihalikova|first4=Jarmila|last5=Bartos|first5=Jan|last6=Lucretti|first6=Sergio|last7=Watanabe|first7=Nobuyoshi|last8=Kianian|first8=Shahryar|last9=Dolezel|first9=Jaroslav|volume=170|pages=823–829|journal=Genetics|issn=1943-2631|s2cid=1126021|doi=10.1534/genetics.104.039180|title=Chromosome Sorting in Tetraploid Wheat and Its Potential for Genome Analysis |pmid=15802508 |pmc=1450420 }}
</ref> and is thus an [[Polyploidy#Allopolyploidy|allotetraploid]] (having four sets of chromosomes, from unlike parents) species.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Durum—and indeed all [[tetraploid wheat|tetraploids]]—lack ''{{Vanchor|Fhb1}}'' [[allele]]s. The only exception is found by Buerstmayr ''et al.'', 2012 on the {{Vanchor|3B chromosome}}.<ref name="Mapping">{{cite journal|year=2019|issue=3|publisher=Wiley-VCH GmbH|first3=Hermann|first2=Barbara|first1=Maria|last3=Buerstmayr|last2=Steiner|last1=Buerstmayr|volume=139|pages=429–454|doi=10.1111/pbr.12797|journal=Plant Breeding|issn=0179-9541|s2cid=213137176|title=Breeding for Fusarium head blight resistance in wheat—Progress and challenges|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|year=2020|display-authors=3|issue=5|last1=Ma|first1=Zhengqiang|last2=Xie|first2=Quan|last3=Li|first3=Guoqiang|last4=Jia|first4=Haiyan|last5=Zhou|first5=Jiyang|last6=Kong|first6=Zhongxin|last7=Li|first7=Na|last8=Yuan|first8=Yang|pages=1541–1568|volume=133|journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics|issn=0040-5752|s2cid=209748277|pmid=31900498|doi=10.1007/s00122-019-03525-8|title=Germplasms, genetics and genomics for better control of disastrous wheat Fusarium head blight|id=ZM ORCID: [http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4950-5387 0000-0003-4950-5387]}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|year=2012|issue=8|first6=Hermann|first5=James|first4=Barbara|first3=Johannes|first2=Karin|first1=Maria|last6=Buerstmayr|last5=Nelson|last4=Steiner|last3=Heckmann|last2=Huber|last1=Buerstmayr|pages=1751–1765|journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics|issn=0040-5752|volume=125|s2cid=14873106|doi=10.1007/s00122-012-1951-2|title=Mapping of QTL for Fusarium head blight resistance and morphological and developmental traits in three backcross populations derived from ''Triticum dicoccum'' × ''Triticum durum''|pmid=22926291|pmc=3493669}}
</ref>

One of the predominant production areas of durum—Italy—has domesticated varieties with lower [[genetic diversity]] than wild types, but ssp. ''turanicum'', ssp. ''polonicum'' and ssp. ''carthlicum'' have a level of diversity intermediate between those groups.<ref name="Estimate genetic diversity and population structure of wheats"/> There is evidence of an increase in the intensity of breeding after 1990.<ref name="Estimate genetic diversity and population structure of wheats">{{Cite book|year=2015|pages=21–76|s2cid=85642994|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-23494-6|title=Alien Introgression in Wheat |isbn=978-3-319-23493-9 |editor-last1=Molnár-Láng |editor-last2=Ceoloni |editor-last3=Doležel |editor-first1=Márta |editor-first2=Carla |editor-first3=Jaroslav }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|volume=5|year=2019|pages=471–524|s2cid=208564932|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-23108-8|title=Advances in Plant Breeding Strategies: Cereals |isbn=978-3-030-23107-1 |editor-last1=Al-Khayri |editor-last2=Jain |editor-last3=Johnson |editor-first1=Jameel M. |editor-first2=Shri Mohan |editor-first3=Dennis V. }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|year=2013|last1=Laidò|first1=Giovanni|last2=Mangini|first2=Giacomo|last3=Taranto|first3=Francesca|last4=Gadaleta|first4=Agata|last5=Blanco|first5=Antonio|last6=Cattivelli|first6=Luigi|last7=Marone|first7=Daniela|last8=Mastrangelo|first8=Anna M.|last9=Papa|first9=Roberto|last10=De Vita|first10=Pasquale|display-authors=3|page=e67280|s2cid=18581887|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0067280|title=Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of Tetraploid Wheats (''Triticum turgidum'' L.) Estimated by SSR, DArT and Pedigree Data |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=8 |issue=6 |pmid=23826256 |pmc=3694930 |bibcode=2013PLoSO...867280L |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Uses==
Commercially produced dry [[pasta]], or {{lang|it|pasta secca}}, is made almost exclusively from durum [[semolina]].<ref name="pasta2015">{{Cite journal |title =From raw material to dish: pasta quality step by step|author1=Sicignano, A. |author2=Di Monaco, R. |author3=Masi, P. |author4=Cavella, S. |journal=[[Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture]]|year =2015|volume =95|issue =13|pages =2579–2587|pmid =25783568|doi =10.1002/jsfa.7176|bibcode=2015JSFA...95.2579S }}</ref>  Most home-made [[Pasta#Fresh|fresh pasta]]s also use durum wheat or a combination of soft and hard wheats.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

Husked but unground, or coarsely ground, it is used to produce the [[semolina]] in the [[couscous]] of North Africa and the [[Levant]]. It is also used for Levantine dishes such as ''[[tabbouleh]]'', ''[[kashk]]'', ''[[kibbeh]]'', ''bitfun'' and the ''[[bulgur]]'' for [[pilaf]]s. In [[North African cuisine]] and [[Levantine cuisine]], it forms the basis of many [[soup]]s, gruels, stuffings, [[pudding]]s and [[Pastry|pastries]].{{Sfn | Watson | 2008 | pp=20–3}} When ground as fine as flour, it is used for making [[bread]]. In the [[Middle East]], it is used for [[Flatbread|flat round breads]], and in Europe and elsewhere, it can be used for [[pizza]] or ''torte''.<ref name="notpasta">{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/24/health/23recipehealth.html |title=Couscous: Just Don't Call It Pasta |newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=23 February 2009b|last=Shulman |first=Martha Rose |access-date=11 December 2017}}</ref>

The use of wheat to produce pasta was described as early as the 10th century by [[Ibn Wahshiyya|Ibn Wahshīya]] of [[Cairo]]. The North Africans called the product ''itrīya'', from which Italian sources derived the term ''tria'' (or ''aletría'' in the case of Spanish sources) during the 15th century.{{Sfn | Watson | 2008 | pp=20–3}}

==Production==
[[File:Treccioni bulk.jpg|thumb|Dry ''treccioni'' pasta]]
''Durum wheat'' (''Triticum turgidum'' ssp. ''durum'') is the 10th most cultivated cereal worldwide, with a total production of about 38 million tons.<ref name="Xynias2020">{{cite journal |last1=Xynias |first1=I.N. |last2=Mylonas |first2=I. |last3=Korpetis |first3=E.G. |last4=Ninou |first4=E. |last5=Tsaballa |first5=A. |last6=Avdikos |first6=I.D. |title=Durum wheat breeding in the Mediterranean region: Current status and future prospects. |journal=Agronomy |date=2020 |volume=10 |issue=3 |page=432 |doi=10.3390/agronomy10030432|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Most of the durum grown today is [[amber durum]], the grains of which are amber-colored due to the extra carotenoid pigments and are larger than those of other types of wheat. Durum has a yellow [[endosperm]], which gives pasta its color. When durum is [[Mill (grinding)|milled]], the endosperm is ground into a granular product called [[semolina]]. Semolina made from durum is used for premium [[pasta]]s and [[bread]]s. Notably semolina is also one of the only flours that is purposely oxidized for flavor and color. There is also a red durum, used mostly for [[fodder|livestock feed]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

The cultivation of durum generates greater yield than other wheats in areas of low precipitation. Good yields can be obtained by [[irrigation]], but this is rarely done. In the first half of the 20th century, the crop was widely grown in [[Russia]].{{Sfn | Bushuk | Rasper | 1994 | p=170}} Durum is one of the most important food crops in [[West Asia]]. Although the variety of the wheat there is diverse, it is not extensively grown there, and thus must be imported.{{Sfn | Brown | Marshall | Frankel | Williams | 1989 | p=95}} West amber durum produced in [[Canada]] is used mostly as semolina/pasta, but some is also exported to [[Italy]] for bread production.{{Sfn | Bushuk | Rasper | 1994 | p=34}}

In the Middle East and North Africa, local bread-making accounts for half the consumption of durum. Some flour is even imported. On the other hand, many countries in Europe produce durum in commercially significant quantities.{{Sfn | Matz | 1999 | pp=23–5}}

In India durum accounts for roughly 5% of total wheat production in the country, and is used to make products such as [[Bombay rava|rava]] and sooji.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.financialexpress.com/archive/indias-durum-production-a-poor-cousin-in-wheat-basket/155931/ |title=Indias durum production a poor cousin in wheat basket |work=[[The Financial Express (India)|Financial Express]]|location= Delhi |date=31 October 2005}}</ref>

===Processing and protein content===
Durum wheat is subject to four processes: cleaning, tempering, milling and purifying. First, durum wheat is cleaned to remove foreign material and shrunken and broken kernels. Then it is tempered to a moisture content, toughening the seed coat for efficient separation of bran and endosperm. Durum milling is a complex procedure involving repetitive [[grinding (abrasive cutting)|grinding]] and [[Sieve|sieving]]. Proper purifying results in maximum semolina yield and the least amount of [[wheat bran|bran powder]].{{Sfn | Donnelly | Ponte | 2000 | p=650}}

To produce bread, durum wheat is ground into flour. The flour is mixed with water to produce dough. The quantities mixed vary, depending on the acidity of the mixture. To produce fluffy bread, the dough is mixed with [[yeast]] and lukewarm water, heavily kneaded to form a gas-retaining gluten network, and then [[Fermentation (food)|fermented]] for hours, producing {{CO2}} bubbles.{{Citation needed|date=June 2021}}

The quality of the bread produced depends on the [[Viscoelasticity|viscoelastic]] properties of gluten, the [[protein]] content and protein composition.<ref name="zilic">{{cite journal |journal=[[Int J Mol Sci]]|year=2011 |volume=12 |issue=9 |pages=5878–94 |doi=10.3390/ijms12095878|title=Characterization of proteins from grain of different bread and durum wheat genotypes |vauthors=Zilić S, Barać M, Pešić M, Dodig D, Ignjatović-Micić D |pmid=22016634 |pmc=3189758|doi-access=free }}</ref>{{Sfn | Matz | 1999 | pp=23–5}} Containing about 12% total protein in [[defatted]] flour compared to 11% in common wheat, durum wheat yields 27% extractable, wet gluten compared to 24% in common wheat.<ref name=zilic/>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Sources ==
* {{cite journal |last=Fu |first=Bin Xiao |last2=Wang |first2=Kun |last3=Dupuis |first3=Brigitte |last4=Taylor |first4=Dale |last5=Nam |first5=Shin |title=Kernel vitreousness and protein content: Relationship, interaction and synergistic effects on durum wheat quality |journal=Journal of Cereal Science |volume=79 |date=2018 |doi=10.1016/j.jcs.2017.09.003 |pages=210–217}}
* {{cite journal |last=Shahin |first=Muhammad A. |last2=Symons |first2=Stephen J. |title=Detection of Hard Vitreous and Starchy Kernels in Amber Durum Wheat Samples Using Hyperspectral Imaging (GRL Number M306) |journal=NIR news |volume=19 |issue=5 |date=2008 |issn=0960-3360 |doi=10.1255/nirn.1086 |pages=16–18 | url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/250964940_Detection_of_Hard_Vitreous_and_Starchy_Kernels_in_Amber_Durum_Wheat_Samples_Using_Hyperspectral_Imaging_GRL_Number_M306}}

==Further reading==
* {{Citation | editor1-first=AHD | editor1-last=Brown | editor3-first=OH | editor3-last=Frankel | editor2-first=DR | editor2-last=Marshall | editor4-first=JT | editor4-last=Williams | editor5=International Board for Plant Genetic Resources | title=The Use of Plant Genetic Resources | place=Cambridge, UK | publisher=Cambridge University Press| year=1989 | isbn=0-521-34584-7}}
* {{Citation | last1=Bushuk | first1=W | last2=Rasper | first2=Vladimir F | title=Wheat: Production, Properties and Quality | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC|date=Aug 1994 | isbn=978-0-7514-0181-3}}
* {{Citation | last1=Donnelly | first1=Brendan J | last2=Ponte | first2=Joseph G Jr | contribution=Pasta: raw materials & processing | editor1-last=Kulp | editor1-first=Karel | editor2-last=Ponte | editor2-first=Joseph G Jr | title=Handbook of Cereal Science and Technology | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gtqEWcA73BEC | series=Food Science & Technology | volume=99 | edition=2nd, rev & exp | place=New York | publisher= Marcel Dekker| year=2000 | isbn=978-0-8247-8294-8}}
* {{Citation | last=Matz | first=Samuel A | title=Bakery technology and engineering | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rU1wQotD3jIC | edition=3rd ill | publisher=[[Springer Science and Business Media LLC]]| year=1999 | orig-year=1972 | isbn=978-0-442-30855-1}}
* {{Citation | last=Watson | first=Andrew |date=October 2008 | orig-year=1983 | title=Agricultural innovation in the early Islamic world: The Diffusion of Crops and Farming Techniques, 700–1100 | series=Studies in Islamic Civilization | place=Cambridge, UK| publisher=Cambridge University Press | isbn=978-0-521-06883-3}}
* {{Citation| last=Wishart | first=David J | title=Encyclopedia of the Great Plains | publisher=University of Nebraska Press | year=2004}}
* {{cite book | last=Cohen | first=Daniel | title=Globalization and its enemies | url=https://archive.org/details/globalizationits00cohe | url-access=registration | publisher=MIT Press| year=2006| isbn=9780262033503 }}.
* {{cite book | last1=Griggs | first1=C Wilfred | last2=Amitai-Preiss | first2=Reuven | last3=Morgan | first3=David | title=The Mongol Empire and Its Legacy | publisher=Brill Publishers | year=2000}}.
* {{cite book | last=Taylor | first=Julie | title=Muslims in Medieval Italy: The Colony at Lucera | publisher=[[Lexington Books]] | year=2005}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Triticum turgidum subsp. durum}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130603020656/http://www.grainscanada.gc.ca/cgc-ccg/grl-lrg/durum-bledur-eng.htm Durum Wheat Research, Grain Research Laboratory, Canadian Grain Commission]

{{Wheat}}
{{Cereals}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q618324}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Middle Eastern cuisine]]
[[Category:Taxa named by René Louiche Desfontaines]]
[[Category:Wheat]]
[[Category:Wheat cultivars]]