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{{Short description|Plant-based food made to resemble meat}}
{{redirect|Vegetarian meat|cultured meat|cultured meat|the rock band|Vegetarian Meat (band)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2022}}
[[File:Tempe Burger.jpg|thumb|A [[tempeh]] burger]]
[[File:BuddhistcuisineTofuMeat.jpg|thumb|right|Chinese style [[tofu]] from [[Buddhist cuisine]] is prepared as an alternative to meat.]]
[[File:Veggie "bacon" breakfast (cropped).jpg|thumb|Two slices of [[vegetarian bacon]]]]
A '''meat alternative''' or '''meat substitute''' (also called '''plant-based meat''', '''mock meat''', or '''alternative protein'''),<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lurie-Luke |first1=Elena |title=Alternative protein sources: science powered startups to fuel food innovation |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |date=2024 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=4425 |doi=10.1038/s41467-024-47091-0 |doi-access=free|pmid=38806477 |pmc=11133469 |bibcode=2024NatCo..15.4425L }}</ref> is a food product made from [[Vegetarianism|vegetarian]] or [[Veganism|vegan]] ingredients, eaten as a replacement for meat. Meat alternatives typically approximate qualities of specific types of meat, such as [[mouthfeel]], flavor, appearance, or chemical characteristics.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van der Weele |first1=Cor |last2=Feindt |first2=Peter |last3=Jan van der Goot |first3=Atze |last4=van Mierlo |first4=Barbara |last5=van Boekel |first5=Martinus |title=Meat alternatives: an integrative comparison |journal=[[Trends in Food Science and Technology]] |date=2019 |volume=88 |pages=505–512 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2019.04.018 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nezlek |first1=John B |last2=Forestell |first2=Catherine A |title=Meat substitutes: current status, potential benefits, and remaining challenges |journal=[[Current Opinion In Food Science]] |date=2022 |volume=47 |pages=100890 |doi=10.1016/j.cofs.2022.100890 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Takefuji |first1=Yoshiyasu |title=Sustainable protein alternatives |journal=[[Trends in Food Science and Technology]] |date=2021 |volume=107 |pages=429–431 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2020.11.012 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Zahari |first1=Izalin |last2=Östbring |first2=Karolina |last3=Purhagen |first3=Jeanette K. |last4=Rayner |first4=Marilyn |title=Plant-Based Meat Analogues from Alternative Protein: A Systematic Literature Review |journal=[[Foods (journal)|Foods]] |date=2022 |volume=11 |issue=18 |pages=2870 |doi=10.3390/foods11182870 |pmid=36140998 |doi-access=free |pmc=9498552}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lima |first1=Miguel |last2=Costa |first2=Rui |last3=Rodrigues |first3=Ivo |last4=Lameiras |first4=Jorge |last5=Botelho |first5=Goreti |title=A Narrative Review of Alternative Protein Sources: Highlights on Meat, Fish, Egg and Dairy Analogues |journal=[[Foods (journal)|Foods]] |date=2022 |volume=11 |issue=14 |pages=2053 |doi=10.3390/foods11142053 |pmid=35885293 |doi-access=free |pmc=9316106}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Quintieri |first1=Laura |last2=Nitride |first2=Chiara |last3=De Angelis |first3=Elisabetta |last4=Lamonaca |first4=Antonella |last5=Pilolli |first5=Rosa |last6=Russo |first6=Francesco |last7=Monaci |first7=Linda |title=Alternative Protein Sources and Novel Foods: Benefits, Food Applications and Safety Issues |journal=[[Nutrients (journal)|Nutrients]] |date=2023 |volume=15 |issue=6 |pages=1509 |doi=10.3390/nu15061509 |doi-access=free|pmid=36986239 |pmc=10054669 }}</ref> Plant- and fungus-based substitutes are frequently made with [[soy]] (e.g. [[tofu]], [[tempeh]], and [[textured vegetable protein]]), but may also be made from [[gluten#Imitation meats|wheat gluten]] as in [[seitan]], [[pea protein]] as in the [[Beyond Burger]], or [[mycoprotein]] as in [[Quorn]].<ref name="Holmes"/> Alternative protein foods can also be made by [[precision fermentation]], where single cell organisms such as yeast produce specific proteins using a carbon source; as well as cultivated or laboratory grown, based on [[tissue engineering]] techniques.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/nov/06/all-sizzle-no-steak-how-singapore-became-the-centre-of-the-plant-based-meat-industry |title=All sizzle, no steak: how Singapore became the centre of the plant-based meat industry |work=The Guardian |date=5 November 2022}}</ref> The ingredients of meat alternative include 50–80% water, 10–25% textured vegetable proteins, 4–20% non-textured proteins, 0–15% fat and oil, 3-10% flavors/spices, 1–5% binding agents and 0–0.5% coloring agents.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pang |first1=Shinsiong |last2=Chen |first2=Mu-Chen |date=April 2024 |title=Investigating the impact of consumer environmental consciousness on food supply chain: The case of plant-based meat alternatives |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2023.123190 |journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change |volume=201 |pages=123190 |doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2023.123190 |issn=0040-1625|url-access=subscription }}</ref>  

Meatless tissue engineering involves the cultivation of stem cells on natural or synthetic scaffolds to create meat-like products.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ahmad |first1=Khurshid |last2=Lim |first2=Jeong-Ho |last3=Lee |first3=Eun-Ju |last4=Chun |first4=Hee-Jin |last5=Ali |first5=Shahid |last6=Ahmad |first6=Syed Sayeed |last7=Shaikh |first7=Sibhghatulla |last8=Choi |first8=Inho |date=2021-12-15 |title=Extracellular Matrix and the Production of Cultured Meat |journal=Foods |language=en |volume=10 |issue=12 |pages=3116 |doi=10.3390/foods10123116 |doi-access=free |issn=2304-8158 |pmc=8700801 |pmid=34945667}}</ref> Scaffolds can be made from various materials, including plant-derived [[biomaterial]]s, synthetic polymers, animal-based proteins, and self-assembling polypeptides.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rodrigues |first1=André L. |last2=Rodrigues |first2=Carlos A. V. |last3=Gomes |first3=Ana R. |last4=Vieira |first4=Sara F. |last5=Badenes |first5=Sara M. |last6=Diogo |first6=Maria M. |last7=Cabral |first7=Joaquim M.S. |date=October 15, 2018 |title=Dissolvable Microcarriers Allow Scalable Expansion And Harvesting Of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Under Xeno-Free Conditions |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/biot.201800461 |journal=Biotechnology Journal |language=en |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=e1800461 |doi=10.1002/biot.201800461 |pmid=30320457 |issn=1860-6768|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It is these 3D scaffold-based methods provide a specialized structural environment for cellular growth.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Moroni |first1=Lorenzo |last2=Burdick |first2=Jason A. |last3=Highley |first3=Christopher |last4=Lee |first4=Sang Jin |last5=Morimoto |first5=Yuya |last6=Takeuchi |first6=Shoji |last7=Yoo |first7=James J. |date=2018-04-26 |title=Biofabrication strategies for 3D in vitro models and regenerative medicine |journal=Nature Reviews Materials |language=en |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=21–37 |doi=10.1038/s41578-018-0006-y |issn=2058-8437 |pmc=6586020 |pmid=31223488|bibcode=2018NatRM...3...21M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Daly |first1=Andrew C. |last2=Kelly |first2=Daniel J. |date=January 8, 2019 |title=Biofabrication of spatially organised tissues by directing the growth of cellular spheroids within 3D printed polymeric microchambers |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0142961218308639 |journal=Biomaterials |language=en |volume=197 |pages=194–206 |doi=10.1016/j.biomaterials.2018.12.028|pmid=30660995 |hdl=2262/91315 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Alternatively, scaffold-free methods promote cell aggregation, allowing cells to self-organize into tissue-like structures.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alblawi |first1=Adel |last2=Ranjani |first2=Achalla Sri |last3=Yasmin |first3=Humaira |last4=Gupta |first4=Sharda |last5=Bit |first5=Arindam |last6=Rahimi-Gorji |first6=Mohammad |date=October 20, 2019 |title=Scaffold-free: A developing technique in field of tissue engineering |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0169260719316979 |journal=Computer Methods and Programs in Biomedicine |language=en |volume=185 |pages=105148 |doi=10.1016/j.cmpb.2019.105148|pmid=31678793 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Meat alternatives are typically consumed as a source of [[Protein (nutrient)|dietary protein]] by vegetarians, vegans, and people following religious and cultural [[dietary laws]]. However, global demand for [[sustainable diet]]s has also increased their popularity among non-vegetarians and [[flexitarian]]s seeking to reduce the [[environmental impact of animal agriculture]].

Meat substitution has a long history. Tofu was invented in China as early as 200 BCE,<ref name=soy /> and in the [[Middle Ages]], chopped nuts and grapes were used as a substitute for [[mincemeat]] during [[Lent]].<ref name=med /> Since the 2010s, startup companies such as [[Impossible Foods]] and [[Beyond Meat]] have popularized pre-made plant-based substitutes for [[ground beef]], burger [[Patty|patties]], and [[Chicken nugget#Vegan nuggets|chicken nuggets]] as commercial products.

== History ==
[[File:Nut and Lentil Roast.png|thumb|A nut and lentil roast from the ''[[Good Health (journal)|Good Health]]'' journal, in 1902]]
[[File:Protose advert 1900.png|thumb|Advert for John Harvey Kellogg's Protose meat substitute, 1900]]
[[File:Beyond Meat.jpg|thumb|The vegan Beyond Burger from [[Beyond Meat]]]]
[[File:Impossible Burger - Gott's Roadside- 2018 - Stierch.jpg|alt=|thumb|Cheeseburger made with a vegan patty from [[Impossible Foods|Impossible Burger]] ]]

[[Tofu]], a meat alternative made from soybeans, was invented in China during the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BC–220 CE).<ref name=soy /> Drawings of tofu production have been discovered in a Han dynasty tomb.<ref name=soy>{{cite book|last1=DuBois|first1=Christine|last2=Tan|first2=Chee-Beng|last3=Mintz|first3=Sidney|title=The World of Soy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tW6fjds6YwkC&pg=PA101|year=2008|publisher=National University of Singapore Press|isbn=978-9971-69-413-5|pages=101–102}}</ref><ref name="ShurtleffAoyagi2014">{{cite book|author1=[[William Shurtleff]]|author2=[[Akiko Aoyagi]]|title=History of Meat Alternatives (965 CE to 2014): Extensively Annotated Bibliography and Sourcebook|url=https://www.soyinfocenter.com/pdf/179/MAL.pdf|date=18 December 2014|publisher=Soyinfo Center|isbn=978-1-928914-71-6}}</ref> Its use as a meat alternative is recorded in a document written by Tao Gu ({{zh|s=陶谷|t=陶穀|p=Táo Gǔ}}, 903–970). Tao describes how tofu was popularly known as "small [[mutton]]" ({{zh|t=小宰羊|p=xiǎo zǎiyáng}}), which shows that the Chinese valued tofu as an imitation meat.<ref name=soy /> Tofu was widely consumed during the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907), and likely spread to Japan during the later Tang or early [[Song dynasty]].<ref name=soy />

In the third century CE, [[Athenaeus]] describes a preparation of mock [[anchovy]] in his work ''[[Deipnosophistae]]'':<ref>{{Cite book|last=Athenaeus|url=https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/36921|title=Deipnosophistae|location=[[Project Gutenberg]]|pages=11}}</ref>
{{poemquote|He took a female turnip, shred it fine
Into the figure of the delicate fish;
Then did he pour on oil and savoury salt
With careful hand in due proportion.
On that he strew'd twelve grains of poppy seed,
Food which the Scythians love; then boil'd it all.
And when the turnip touch'd the royal lips,
Thus spake the king to the admiring guests:
"A cook is quite as useful as a poet,
And quite as wise, and these anchovies show it."}}

[[Wheat gluten (food)|Wheat gluten]] has been documented in China since the sixth century.<ref name="sah">{{cite book | last1=Shurtleff| first1=William| last2=Aoyagi| first2=Akiko| last3=Huang| first3=H.T.| title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in China and Taiwan, and in Chinese Cookbooks, Restaurants, and Chinese Work with Soyfoods Outside China (1024 BCE to 2014)| year=2014| publisher=Soyinfo Center| isbn=978-1-928914-68-6|pages=2478–2479}}</ref> The oldest reference to wheat gluten appears in the ''[[Qimin Yaoshu]]'', a Chinese agricultural encyclopedia written by Jia Sixie ({{lang-zh|c=賈思勰|p=Jiǎsīxié}}) in 535.<ref name=soy /> The encyclopedia mentions noodles prepared from wheat gluten called ''bo duo''.<ref name="sah"/> Wheat gluten was known as ''mian jin'' ({{lang-zh|c=麵筋|p=Miànjīn}}) by the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279).

Before the arrival of [[Buddhism]], northern China was predominantly a meat-consuming culture. The vegetarian dietary laws of Buddhism led to development of meat substitutes as a replacement for the meat-based dishes that the Chinese were no longer able to consume as Buddhists. Meat alternatives such as tofu and wheat gluten are still associated with [[Buddhist cuisine]] in China and other parts of East Asia.<ref name=ftp>{{cite book|last=Anderson|first=E.N.|title=Food in Time and Place|year=2014|publisher=University of California Press|chapter=China|isbn=978-0-520-95934-7|page=44}}</ref> Meat alternatives were also popular in [[medieval Europe]] during [[Lent]], which prohibited the consumption of warm-blooded animals, eggs, and dairy products. Chopped almonds and grapes were used as a substitute for mincemeat. Diced bread was made into imitation [[Pork rind|cracklings]] and [[Rendering (animal products)|greaves]].<ref name=med>{{cite book|last=Adamson|first=Melitta Weiss|title=Food in Medieval Times|year=2004|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-32147-4|page=72}}</ref>

[[John Harvey Kellogg]] developed meat replacements variously from nuts, grains, and soy, starting around 1877, to feed patients in his vegetarian [[Battle Creek Sanitarium]].<ref name="Soyinfocenter">{{cite web|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/HSS/john_kellogg_and_battle_creek_foods.php|title=Dr. John Harvey Kellogg and Battle Creek Foods|website=www.soyinfocenter.com}}</ref> Kellogg's Sanitas Nut Food Company sold his meat substitute Protose, made from peanuts and wheat gluten. It became Kellogg's most popular product as several thousand tons had been consumed by 1930.<ref name="Soyinfocenter"/>

There was an increased interest in meat substitutes during the late 19th century and first half of the 20th century.<ref name="Perren 2017">Perren, Richard. (2017). ''Taste, Trade and Technology: The Development of the International Meat Industry Since 1840''. Routledge. pp. 188–190. {{ISBN|978-0-7546-3648-9}}</ref> Prior to 1950, interest in plant-based meat substitutes came from vegetarians searching for alternatives to meat protein for ethical reasons, and regular meat-eaters who were confronted with food shortages during [[World War I]] and [[World War II]].<ref name="Perren 2017"/>

Lentils were used at the turn of the century. In 1897, ''[[Food, Home and Garden]]'' published a positive review of London's [[List of vegetarian restaurants|vegetarian restaurants]], claiming, "For fivepence one could get a lentil cutlet, which was very appetizing, and looked like a meat [[croquette]]".<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8JlXAAAAMAAJ&q=looked%20like%20a%20meat%20cro |title=Food, Home and Garden |date=1897 |language=en}}</ref>

[[Henrietta Latham Dwight]] authored a vegetarian cookbook, ''The Golden Age Cook-Book'', in 1898 that included meat substitute recipes such as a "mock chicken" recipe made from breadcrumbs, eggs, lemon juice and walnuts and a "mock clam soup" made from marrowfat beans and cream.<ref name="Shprintzen 2013">Shprintzen, Adam D. (2013). ''The Vegetarian Crusade: The Rise of an American Reform Movement, 1817-1921''. University of North Carolina Press. pp. 137–138. {{ISBN|978-1-4696-0891-4}}</ref> Dietitian [[Sarah Tyson Rorer]] authored the cookbook ''Mrs. Rorer's Vegetable Cookery and Meat Substitutes'' in 1909.<ref name="Shprintzen 2013"/> The book includes a mock veal roast recipe made from lentils, breadcrumbs and peanuts.<ref name="Shprintzen 2013"/> In 1943, Kellogg made his first soy-based meat analog, called Soy Protose, which contained 32% soy.<ref name="Soyinfocenter"/> In 1945, [[Mildred Lager]] commented that [[soybean]]s "are the best meat substitute from the vegetable kingdom, they will always be used to a great extent by the vegetarian in place of meat."<ref>Lager, Mildred M. (1945). ''The Useful Soybean: A Plus Factor in Modern Living''. McGraw-Hill Book Company. p. 95</ref>

In July 2016, [[Impossible Foods]] launched the Impossible Burger, a beef substitute which claims to offer appearance, taste and cooking properties similar to meat.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Reilly|first=Michael|date=22 June 2016|title=Fake meat companies might finally cure our addiction to animal flesh|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/601756/if-the-world-gives-up-meat-we-can-still-have-burgers|access-date=2016-07-28|publisher=[[Technology Review]]}}</ref> In April 2019, [[Burger King]] partnered with Impossible Foods to launch the plant-based [[Impossible Whopper]], which was released nationwide later that year,<ref>{{Cite news|last=Popper|first=Nathaniel|date=1 April 2019|title=Behold the Beefless 'Impossible Whopper'|website=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/04/01/technology/burger-king-impossible-whopper.html|access-date=2019-04-03}}</ref> becoming one of the most successful product launches in Burger King's history.<ref>{{cite web|last=Chiorando|first=Marie|date=17 November 2019|title=Impossible Whopper Is 'One Of Burger King's Most Successful Launches In History'|url=https://www.plantbasednews.org/lifestyle/impossible-whopper-burger-kings-most-successful-launches|access-date=7 February 2020|website=www.plantbasednews.org}}</ref> By October 2019, restaurants, such as [[Carl's Jr.]], [[Hardee's]], [[A&W Restaurants|A&W]], [[Dunkin' Donuts]], and [[KFC]] were selling plant-based meat products.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rivera|first=Dane|date=22 October 2019|title=All The Major Fast Food Chains And Markets Selling Beyond Meat and Impossible Foods|url=https://uproxx.com/life/chains-serving-impossible-burger-beyond-meat/|access-date=10 January 2020|work=Uproxx}}</ref> [[Nestlé]] entered the plant-based burger market in 2019 with the introduction of the "Awesome Burger".<ref>{{cite news|last=Wiener-Bronner|first=Danielle|date=24 September 2019|title=The Awesome Burger is Nestlé's answer to the plant-based meat craze|work=CNN Business|publisher=Cable News Network|url=https://www.cnn.com/2019/09/24/business/nestle-awesome-burger-plant-based-meat/index.html|access-date=7 February 2020}}</ref> Kellogg's [[Morningstar Farms]] brand tested its Incogmeato line of plant-based protein products in early September 2019, with plans for a US-wide rollout in early 2020.<ref>{{cite news|last=Chung|first=Heidi|date=12 February 2020|title=Food giant Kellogg's unveils 'Incogmeato' plant-based products|work=Yahoo! Finance|url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/kelloggs-incogmeato-plantbased-meat-products-look-to-challenge-beyond-meat-201241228.html}}</ref>

== Types ==
{{see also|List of meat substitutes|Milk substitute|Egg substitute}}
[[File:Vegan Meat Pie 01 Pengo.jpg|thumb|A [[vegan]] faux-[[meat pie]], containing [[soy protein]] and mushrooms, from an Australian bakery]]
Some vegetarian meat alternatives are based on centuries-old recipes for [[seitan]] (wheat [[gluten]]), rice, [[Edible mushroom|mushrooms]], [[legume]]s, [[tempeh]], [[Yam (vegetable)|yam flour]] or pressed-[[tofu]], with flavoring added to make the finished product taste like chicken, beef, lamb, ham, sausage, seafood, etc. Other alternatives use modified defatted [[peanut flour]], [[tofu skin|yuba]] and [[textured vegetable protein]] (TVP); yuba and TVP are both soy-based meat alternatives, the former made by layering the thin skin which forms on top of boiled [[soy milk]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Patterson |first=Daniel |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/06/magazine/06food.html |title=The Way We Eat: I Can't Believe It's Tofu |work=The New York Times |date=6 August 2006 |access-date=2009-02-26}}</ref> and the latter being a dry [[bulk purchasing|bulk]] commodity derived from soy and [[Soy protein#Concentrates|soy protein concentrate]]. Some meat alternatives include [[mycoprotein]], such as [[Quorn]] which usually uses [[egg white]] as a binder. Another type of [[Single-cell protein|single cell protein]]-based meat alternative (which does not use fungi however but rather bacteria<ref>EOS, April 2019, page 52</ref>) is [[Calysta]].

== Production and composition ==
[[File:Tender employee demonstrating texture of plant-based pulled pork (04528).jpg|thumb|A plant-based [[pulled pork]] vendor demonstrating its texture]]
To produce meat alternatives with a meat-like texture, two approaches can be followed: bottom-up and top-down.<ref name="Structuring processes for meat analogues">{{cite journal |last1=Dekkers |first1=Brigit |title=Structuring processes for meat analogues |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |date=November 2018 |volume=81 |pages=25–36 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2018.08.011 |doi-access=free}}</ref> With bottom-up structuring, individual fibers are made separately and then assembled into larger products. An example of a meat alternative made using a bottom-up strategy is [[cultured meat]]. The top-down approach, on the other hand, induces a fibrous structure by deforming the material, resulting in fibrousness on a larger length scale. An example of a top-down technique is [[food extrusion]].

Both bottom-up and top-down processing can be used alone or in combination to offer various benefits. As discussed later, different meat alternative products have varying nutritional values.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van Vliet |first1=Stephan |last2=Bain |first2=James R. |last3=Muehlbauer |first3=Michael J. |last4=Provenza |first4=Frederick D. |last5=Kronberg |first5=Scott L. |last6=Pieper |first6=Carl F. |last7=Huffman |first7=Kim M. |date=2021-07-05 |title=A metabolomics comparison of plant-based meat and grass-fed meat indicates large nutritional differences despite comparable Nutrition Facts panels |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=13828 |doi=10.1038/s41598-021-93100-3 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=8257669 |pmid=34226581|bibcode=2021NatSR..1113828V }}</ref>  A notable advantage of the bottom-up approach is its ability to provide precise control over the composition and characteristics of the end product, allowing for optimized [[nutrition]]al profiles. On the other hand, meat alternatives produced by top-down approaches may have limited malleability but are more scalable and can utilize available [[Agriculture|agricultural resources]] and infrastructure effectively.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nichol |first1=Jason W. |last2=Khademhosseini |first2=Ali |date=2009 |title=Modular tissue engineering: engineering biological tissues from the bottom up |journal=Soft Matter |language=en |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=1312–1319 |doi=10.1039/b814285h |issn=1744-683X |pmc=2826124 |pmid=20179781|bibcode=2009SMat....5.1312N }}</ref> According to a study by Wageningen University & Research titled "''Structuring Processes for Meat Analogues,''" Techniques that follow the bottom-up strategy have the potential to resemble the structure of meat most closely.".<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dekkers |first1=Birgit L. |last2=Boom |first2=Remko M. |last3=van der Goot |first3=Atze Jan |date=November 2018 |title=Structuring processes for meat analogues |journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology |language=en |volume=81 |pages=25–36 |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2018.08.011|doi-access=free }}</ref> A cross-national survey conducted among meat-eaters with varying degrees of meat alternative consumption showed that those who consumed higher quantities of meat were more willing to switch to meat alternatives if they resembled authentic meat more accurately. Which can be accomplished through bottom-up approaches. The study concludes that sensory experience plays a crucial role in utilizing plant-based alternatives for heavy meat eaters.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hoek |first1=Annet C. |last2=Luning |first2=Pieternel A. |last3=Weijzen |first3=Pascalle |last4=Engels |first4=Wim |last5=Kok |first5=Frans J. |last6=de Graaf |first6=Cees |date=June 2011 |title=Replacement of meat by meat substitutes. A survey on person- and product-related factors in consumer acceptance |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0195666311000523 |journal=Appetite |language=en |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=662–673 |doi=10.1016/j.appet.2011.02.001|pmid=21315123 |url-access=subscription }}</ref>

The types of ingredients that can be used to create meat substitutes is expanding, from companies like Plentify, which are using high-protein bacteria found in the human microbiome,<ref>{{Cite web|last=Watson|first=Elaine|date=20 June 2020|title='Plentify' novel single cell protein 'ludicrously efficient' to produce vs animal protein, claims startup|url=https://www.foodnavigator-usa.com/Article/2020/06/20/Plentify-novel-single-cell-protein-ludicrously-efficient-to-produce-vs-animal-protein-claims-startup|access-date=2020-06-26|language=en-GB}}</ref> to companies like Meati Foods, that are cultivating the mycelium of fungi—in this case, [[Neurospora crassa]]—to form steaks, chicken breasts, or fish.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Peters|first=Adele|date=29 October 2019|title=If it looks like a steak and tastes like a steak, in this case, it's a mushroom|url=https://www.fastcompany.com/90421889/if-it-looks-like-a-steak-and-tastes-like-a-steak-in-this-case-its-a-mushroom|access-date=2020-06-26|work=Fast Company|language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=What is the most technical and scientific way to understand what Meati is made from and how we are branding it?|url=https://meati.com/mushroom-root?card=what-is-the-most|access-date=2023-10-18}}</ref>

[[Soy protein#Isolates|Soy protein isolates]] or soybean flour and gluten are usually used as foundation for most meat substitutes that are available on the market. Soy protein isolate is a highly pure form of soy protein with a minimum protein content of 90%. The process of extracting the protein from the soybeans starts with the dehulling, or decortication, of the seeds. The seeds are then treated with solvents such as [[hexane]] to extract the oil from them. The oil-free soybean meal is then suspended in water and treated with alkali to dissolve the protein while leaving behind the carbohydrates. The alkaline solution is then treated with acidic substances to precipitate the protein, before being washed and dried. The removal of fats and carbohydrates results in a product that has a relatively neutral flavor.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.foodandnutrition.org/July-August-2013/Meat-Analogs/|title=Meat Analogs|last=Sedgwick|first=Tali|date=28 June 2013|website=Food and Nutrition|publisher=Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics|access-date=10 December 2016}}</ref> Soy protein is also considered a "complete protein" as it contains all of the essential amino acids that are crucial for proper human growth and development.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US2682466 |title=US patent US2682466A High protein food product and process for its preparation, published 29 June 1954 |author=Robert A. Boyer |via=patents.google.com}}, {{Cite web |url=https://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US5285709 |title=US patent 5285709, "Meat Analog Compositions.", issued 29 June 1954 |author=Robert A. Boyer |via=worldwide.espacenet.com}}</ref>

After the textured base material is obtained, a number of [[flavoring]]s can be used to give a meaty flavor to the product. The recipe for a basic vegan chicken flavor is known since 1972, exploiting the [[Maillard reaction]] to produce aromas from simple chemicals.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Perret |first1=Marcel Andre |title=Chicken flavor and process for preparing the same |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US3689289A/en |date=5 September 1972}}</ref> Later understanding of the source of aroma in cooked meat also found [[lipid oxidation]] and [[thiamine]] breakdown to be important processes. By using more complex starting materials such as [[yeast extract]] (considered a natural flavoring in the EU), [[hydrolyzed vegetable protein]], various [[Fermentation|fermented]] foods, and spices, these reactions are also replicated during cooking to produce richer and more convincing meat flavors.<ref name=vegmeat>{{cite journal |last1=Kale |first1=Prajyoti |last2=Mishra |first2=Anusha |last3=Annapure |first3=Uday S. |title=Development of vegan meat flavour: A review on sources and techniques |journal=Future Foods |date=June 2022 |volume=5 |pages=100149 |doi=10.1016/j.fufo.2022.100149|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Xuejie |last2=Li |first2=Jian |title=The Flavor of Plant-Based Meat Analogues |journal=Cereal Foods World |date=2020 |volume=65 |issue=4 |doi=10.1094/CFW-65-4-0040}}</ref>

==Commerce==
{{image frame
|content={{Graph:Chart
 | width=280
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 | xAxisAngle = -40
 | yAxisTitle=Percent
 | yAxisMin=0
 |showValues = offset:4
 | type=rect
 | y1=,33.3,5.9,0.4,1.5,2.6,4.5,3.3
 | y2=10.9
 | x=World,Asia Pacific,Australasia,E. Europe,Latin America,M. East & Africa,N. America,W. Europe
 | colors=#2ca02c,#98df8a
}}
|width=345
|caption=In 2020, the world retail value of meat substitutes was 10.9% of the combined meat and substitutes market. The remaining 89.1% was meat.<ref name=RBC>{{Cite web|date=21 May 2021|title=Uprooting tradition: What plant-based alternatives mean for the future of protein|url=https://ca.rbcwealthmanagement.com/documents/634020/2734902/Uprooting+Tradition+What+Plant-based+alternatives+mean+for+the+future+of+protien.pdf/377e518f-0dc7-49d6-8c00-85a1a033441a|url-status=live|access-date=2022-01-30|website=[[Royal Bank of Canada]]|pages=13–14|archive-url=https://archive.today/20220130134912/https://ca.rbcwealthmanagement.com/documents/634020/2734902/Uprooting+Tradition+What+Plant-based+alternatives+mean+for+the+future+of+protien.pdf/377e518f-0dc7-49d6-8c00-85a1a033441a|archive-date=2022-01-30}} Formula: (Retail value meat substitutes) / (Retail value meat + retail value meat substitutes).</ref>
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{{image frame
|content={{Graph:Chart
 | width=280
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 | xAxisTitle=Year
 | yAxisTitle=US dollars per unit
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 | x=13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26
 | y1=20.38,19.24,16.91,15.99,15.48,15.02,14.15,14.19,13.74
 | y2=,,,,,,,,13.74,12.97,12.34,11.49,10.04,9.87
 | colors=#1f77b4,#aec7e8
}}
|width=345
|caption=Average price of meat substitutes worldwide from 2013 to 2021 with projections to 2026. Includes vegetarian and vegan meat substitutes.<ref name=statista>{{Cite web|date=November 2021|title=Global: meat substitute price per unit 2013–2026|url=https://www.statista.com/forecasts/1276529/worldwide-meat-substitute-price-per-unit|access-date=2022-01-29|website=Statista|language=en|quote=all types of meat-like products that approximate certain aesthetic qualities (primarily texture, flavor, and appearance) or chemical characteristics of a specific meat. (...) includes plant-based meat and vegetarian meat [which] contains non-vegan ingredients}}</ref> Projection made in October 2021. Prices were converted to USD using average exchange rates of the first year.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Meat Substitutes – Worldwide {{!}} Statista Market Forecast|url=https://www.statista.com/outlook/cmo/food/meat/meat-substitutes/worldwide|access-date=2022-01-29|website=Statista|language=en}}</ref>{{clarify|reason=What is the unit mentioned on the Y-axis?|date=September 2022}}
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}}

Meat substitutes represent around 11% of the world's meat and substitutes market {{As of|2020|alt=in 2020}}. As shown in the graph, this market share is different from region to region.<ref name=RBC /> From 2013 to 2021, the world average price of meat substitutes fell continuously, by an overall 33%. The only exception was a 0.3% increase in 2020, compared to 2019. The price will continue to decrease, according to projections by [[Statista]] (see average price graph).<ref name=statista /> Meat substitutes are often priced higher than comparable meat products, but the price can vary depending on product characteristics such as credence attributes or main ingredients.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Petersen |first1=Thies |last2=Tatic |first2=Milan |last3=Hartmann |first3=Monika |last4=Hirsch |first4=Stefan |date=2023 |orig-date=2023 |title=Meat and meat substitutes—A hedonic-pricing model for the German market |journal=Journal of the Agricultural and Applied Economics Association |language=en |publication-date=2023 |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=668–685 |doi=10.1002/jaa2.84 |issn=2769-2485 |doi-access=free}}</ref> 

The motivation for seeking out meat substitutes varies among consumers.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Siddiqui |first1=Shahida Anusha |last2=Alvi |first2=Tayyaba |last3=Sameen |first3=Aysha |last4=Khan |first4=Sipper |last5=Blinov |first5=Andrey Vladimirovich |last6=Nagdalian |first6=Andrey Ashotovich |last7=Mehdizadeh |first7=Mohammad |last8=Adli |first8=Danung Nur |last9=Onwezen |first9=Marleen |title=Consumer Acceptance of Alternative Proteins: A Systematic Review of Current Alternative Protein Sources and Interventions Adapted to Increase Their Acceptability |journal=[[Sustainability (journal)|Sustainability]] |date=January 2022 |volume=14 |issue=22 |pages=15370 |doi=10.3390/su142215370 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2022Sust...1415370S }}</ref> The market for meat alternatives is highly dependent on "[[Flexitarian|meat-reducers]]", who are primarily motivated by health consciousness and weight management. Consumers who identify as [[vegan]], vegetarian or [[pescetarian]] are more likely to endorse concerns regarding [[animal welfare]] and environmentalism as primary motivators.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|date=July 2018|title=CONSUMER INSIGHTS|url=https://media.ahdb.org.uk/media/Default/Consumer%20and%20Retail%20Insight%20Images/PDF%20articles/ConsumerInsights%20WEB_1653_180725.pdf|access-date=2 September 2020|website=AHDB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Penny|first1=J. C.|last2=Swift|first2=J. A.|last3=Salter|first3=A. M.|date=2015|title='Meat reducers': meat reduction strategies and attitudes towards meat alternatives in an emerging group|journal=Proceedings of the Nutrition Society|language=en|volume=74|issue=OCE5|doi=10.1017/S0029665115003602|issn=0029-6651|doi-access=free}}</ref> Additionally, some cultural beliefs and religions place [[food and drink prohibitions|prohibitions on consuming some or all animal products]], including [[Diet in Hinduism|Hinduism]], [[Kashrut|Judaism]], [[Halal|Islam]], [[Christian vegetarianism|Christianity]], [[Jain vegetarianism|Jainism]], and [[Buddhist cuisine|Buddhism]].

Vegan meats are consumed in restaurants, grocery stores, bakeries, [[vegan school meal]]s, and in homes. The sector for plant-based meats grew by 37% in North America over 2017–18.<ref name="ola">{{cite web |first=Julia B. |last=Olayanju |author-link=Julia B. Olayanju|title=Plant-based Meat Alternatives: Perspectives On Consumer Demands And Future Directions |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/juliabolayanju/2019/07/30/plant-based-meat-alternatives-perspectives-on-consumer-demands-and-future-directions/ |work=Forbes |access-date=10 January 2020 |date=30 July 2019}}</ref> In 2018–19, sales of plant-based meats in the United States were $895&nbsp;million,<ref name="cheng">{{cite web |first=Andria |last=Cheng |title=Beyond Meat Q2 Sales Quadruple, But Replacing Meat? That's A Different Story |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/andriacheng/2019/07/29/beyond-meat-q2-sales-quadruples-but-replacing-meat-thats-a-different-story/ |work=Forbes |access-date=10 January 2020 |date=29 July 2019}}</ref> with the global market for meat alternatives forecast to be $140&nbsp;billion by 2029.<ref name="franck">{{cite news |first=Thomas |last=Franck |title=Alternative meat to become $140 billion industry in a decade, Barclays predicts |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/05/23/alternative-meat-to-become-140-billion-industry-barclays-says.html |work=CNBC |access-date=10 January 2020 |date=23 May 2019}}</ref> Seeking a healthy alternative to meat, curiosity, and trends toward [[veganism]] were drivers for the meat alternative market in 2019.<ref name="panos">{{cite web |first=Panos |last=Mourdoukoutas |title=Veganism And Vegetarianism Are Changing Fast Food |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/panosmourdoukoutas/2019/08/31/veganism-and-vegetarianism-are-changing-fast-food/ |work=Forbes |access-date=10 January 2020 |date=31 August 2019}}</ref> Sales of plant-based meats increased during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].<ref name="The Washington Post" /> The book ''[[The End of Animal Farming]]'' by [[Jacy Reese Anthis]] argues that plant-based food and [[cultured meat]] will completely replace animal-based food by 2100.<ref>{{cite book |last=Reese |first=Jacy |author-link=Jacy Reese Anthis |date=6 November 2018 |title=The End of Animal Farming: How Scientists, Entrepreneurs, and Activists are Building an Animal-Free Food System |url=https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/567165/the-end-of-animal-farming-by-jacy-reese/ |location=Boston |publisher=[[Beacon Press]] |isbn=9780807039878}}</ref>

== Impact ==

===Environmental===

Besides ethical and health motivations, developing better meat alternatives has the potential to reduce the environmental impact of meat production, an important concern given that the global demand for meat products is predicted to increase by 15 percent by 2031.  Research on meats and no-meat substitutes suggests that no-meat products can offer substantial benefits over the production of beef, and to a lesser extent pork and chicken, in terms of greenhouse gas production, water and land use.<ref name="Holmes">{{cite journal |last1=Holmes |first1=Bob |title=How sustainable are fake meats? |journal=Knowable Magazine |date=20 July 2022 |doi=10.1146/knowable-071922-1|doi-access=free |url=https://knowablemagazine.org/article/food-environment/2022/how-sustainable-are-fake-meats |access-date=1 August 2022 |language=en}}</ref> 
A 2022 report from the Boston Consulting Group found that investment in improving and scaling up the production of meat and dairy alternatives leads to big greenhouse gas reductions compared with other investments.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Carrington |first=Damian |date=2022-07-07 |title=Plant-based meat by far the best climate investment, report finds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jul/07/plant-based-meat-by-far-the-best-climate-investment-report-finds |access-date=2022-07-10 |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref>

According to [[The Good Food Institute]], improving efficiency of the [[Western pattern diet|Western diet]] is crucial for achieving sustainability.<ref name="Institute">{{cite web |last1=The Good Food Institute |title=Plant-based meat for a growing world |url=https://gfi.org/resource/environmental-impact-of-meat-vs-plant-based-meat/ |website=gfi.org |access-date=29 November 2022}}</ref> As the global population grows, the way land is used will be reconsidered. 33% of the habitable land on Earth is used to support animals. Of all the land used for agriculture, 77% is used on animal agriculture even though this sector only supplies 17% of the total food supply. Plant-based meat can use a potential 47–99% less land than conventional meat does, freeing up more opportunities for production. Of the total water used in global agriculture, 33% goes to animal agriculture while it could be used for drinking water or other growing purposes under a different strategy. Plant-based meat uses 72–99% less water than conventional meat production.<ref name="Institute"/>

Pollution is the next largest contribution to wasted water. Pesticides used in animal feed production as well as waste runoff into reservoirs can cause ecological damage and even human illness as well as taking water directly out of the usable supply. Animal agriculture is the main contributor to the food sector greenhouse gas emissions. Production of plant-based meat alternatives emits 30–90% less than conventional meat production.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Malila |first1=Yuwares |last2=Owolabi |first2=Iyiola O. |last3=Chotanaphuti |first3=Tanai |last4=Sakdibhornssup |first4=Napat |last5=Elliott |first5=Christopher T. |last6=Visessanguan |first6=Wonnop |last7=Karoonuthaisiri |first7=Nitsara |last8=Petchkongkaew |first8=Awanwee |title=Current challenges of alternative proteins as future foods |journal=[[npj Science of Food]] |date=2024 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=53 |doi=10.1038/s41538-024-00291-w |doi-access=free|pmid=39147771 |pmc=11327365 }}</ref> While also contributing less to this total pollution, much of the land being used for animal feed could be used to mitigate the negative effects we've already had on the planet through carbon recycling, soil conservation, and renewable energy production.<ref name="Institute"/> In addition to the ecological harm caused by the current industry, excess antibiotics given to animals cause resistant microbes that may render some of the life-saving drugs used in human medicine useless. Plant-based meat requires no antibiotics and would greatly reduce microbe antibiotic resistance.<ref name="Institute"/>

A 2023 study published in ''[[Nature Communications]]'' found that replacing just half of the beef, chicken, dairy and pork products consumed by the global population with plant-based alternatives could reduce the amount of land used by agriculture by almost a third, bring [[deforestation]] for agriculture nearly to a halt, help restore biodiversity through rewilding the land and reduce GHG emissions from agriculture by 31% in 2050, paving a clearer path to achieving both climate and biodiversity goals.<ref>{{cite news |last=Marashli|first=Imran |date=September 16, 2023 |title=Meat, milk alternatives could slash food system emissions a third: study|url=https://phys.org/news/2023-09-meat-alternatives-slash-food-emissions.html|work=[[Phys.org]]|location= |access-date=October 19, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kozicka|first1=Marta |last2=Havlík|first2=Petr|last3=Valin|first3=Hugo |display-authors=etal.|date=2023 |title=Feeding climate and biodiversity goals with novel plant-based meat and milk alternatives|url= |journal=Nature Communications|volume=14 |issue=5316 |page=5316 |doi=10.1038/s41467-023-40899-2|access-date=|doi-access=free|pmid=37699877 |pmc=10497520|bibcode=2023NatCo..14.5316K }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Graham |first=Max |date=September 14, 2023 |title=New Study Shows Impacts of Cutting Meat and Dairy Consumption in Half|url=https://www.motherjones.com/environment/2023/09/meat-dairy-consumption-farming-livestock-climate-emissions/|work=[[Mother Jones (magazine)|Mother Jones]] |location= |access-date=October 25, 2023}}</ref> The switch to plant-based protein is reported to deliver the biggest [[greenhouse gas emissions|climate-heating emission]] cuts per investment dollar of all industrial sectors.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/jul/07/plant-based-meat-by-far-the-best-climate-investment-report-finds |title=Plant-based meat by far the best climate investment, report finds |date=7 July 2022 |work=The Guardian}}</ref>

===Health===

Meat alternatives have lower amounts of [[saturated fat]], [[Vitamin B12|vitamin B<sub>12</sub>]] and zinc than meat products but higher amounts of carbohydrates, [[dietary fibre]], sodium, iron and calcium.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Lindberg, Leona |author2=McCann, Rachel Reid |author3=Smyth, Beatrice |author4=Woodside, Jayne V. |author5=Nugent, Anne P.|year=2024|title=The environmental impact, ingredient composition, nutritional and health impact of meat alternatives: a systematic review|journal=Trends in Food Science & Technology|volume=149|issue=|pages=104483|doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2024.104483|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Surya Ulhas |first1=Rutwick |last2=Ravindran |first2=Rajeev |last3=Malaviya |first3=Alok |last4=Priyadarshini |first4=Anushree |last5=Tiwari |first5=Brijesh K. |last6=Rajauria |first6=Gaurav |title=A review of alternative proteins for vegan diets: Sources, physico-chemical properties, nutritional equivalency, and consumer acceptance |journal=[[Food Research International]] |date=2023 |volume=173 |issue=Pt 2 |pages=113479 |doi=10.1016/j.foodres.2023.113479 |doi-access=free|pmid=37803803 }}</ref> Meat alternatives are rated as [[ultra-processed food]]s under the [[Nova classification]], but when the UK nutritional profiling system is used, not all products classified as ultra-processed are rated as unhealthy.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Petersen T, Hirsch S.|year=2023|title=Comparing meat and meat alternatives: an analysis of nutrient quality in five European countries|journal=Public Health Nutrition|volume=26|issue=12|pages=3349–3358|doi=10.1017/S1368980023001945|pmid=37800339|pmc=10755401}}</ref>

In 2021, the [[American Heart Association]] stated that there is "limited evidence on the short- and long-term health effects" of plant-based meat alternatives.<ref name=aha>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lichtenstein AH, Appel LJ, Vadiveloo M, Hu FB, Kris-Etherton PM, Rebholz CM, Sacks FM, Thorndike AN, Van Horn L, Wylie-Rosett J |title=2021 Dietary Guidance to Improve Cardiovascular Health: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association |journal=Circulation | volume=144 |issue=23 |pages=e472–e487 |date=December 2021 |pmid=34724806 |doi=10.1161/CIR.0000000000001031 |s2cid=240422142 |type=Review|display-authors=5|doi-access=free }}</ref> The same year, the [[World Health Organization]] stated that there are "significant knowledge gaps in the nutritional composition" of meat alternatives and more research is needed to investigate their health impacts.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/349086/WHO-EURO-2021-4007-43766-61591-eng.pdf |title="Plant-based diets and their impact on health, sustainability and the environment: A review of the evidence" |work=WHO European Office for the Prevention and Control of Noncommunicable Diseases |via=apps.who.int}}</ref> 

A 2023 review concluded that replacing red and highly-processed meat with a variety of meat alternatives improved [[quality-adjusted life year]]s, led to significant health system savings and reduced [[greenhouse gas]] emissions; replacement of meat with minimally-processed vegetarian alternatives, such as legumes had the greatest effect.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Reynolds |first1=Andrew N. |last2=Mhurchu |first2=Cliona Ni |last3=Kok |first3=Zi-Yi |last4=Cleghorn |first4=Christine |date=2023-02-01 |title=The neglected potential of red and processed meat replacement with alternative protein sources: simulation modelling and systematic review |journal=eClinicalMedicine |volume=56 |pages=101774 |doi=10.1016/j.eclinm.2022.101774 |issn=2589-5370|pmid=36567793|doi-access=free |pmc=9772543 }}</ref> Another review found that meat alternatives are likely to be healthier than meat products and more environmentally friendly but are more expensive.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Coffey AA |author2=Lillywhite R. |author3=Oyebode O.|year=2023|title=Meat versus meat alternatives: which is better for the environment and health? A nutritional and environmental analysis of animal-based products compared with their plant-based alternatives|journal=Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics|volume=36|issue=6|pages=2147–2156|doi=10.1111/jhn.13219|pmid=37534713}}</ref>

A 2024 review found that plant-based meat alternatives have the potential to be healthier than [[animal source foods]] and have smaller environmental footprints.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Nájera Espinosa S. |author2=Hadida G. |author3=Jelmar Sietsma A. |author4=Alae-Carew C. |author5=Turner G. |author6=Green R. |author7=Pastorino S. |author8=Picetti R. |author9=Scheelbeek P.|year=2024|title=Mapping the evidence of novel plant-based foods: a systematic review of nutritional, health, and environmental impacts in high-income countries|journal=Nutrition Reviews|url=https://academic.oup.com/nutritionreviews/advance-article/doi/10.1093/nutrit/nuae031/7656938|volume=|issue=|pages=nuae031|doi=10.1093/nutrit/nuae031|pmid=38657969|doi-access=free}}</ref>

A comprehensive study published in the journal [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] in 2024 shows that processed plant-based substitutes such as veggie burgers improve nutrition compared to animal products, but less than unprocessed plant-based foods; they offer significant health benefits over meat, but are not as nutritious and balanced as unprocessed alternatives.<ref>M. Springmann, A multicriteria analysis of meat and milk alternatives from nutritional, health, environmental, and cost perspectives, Proc. Natl. Acad. 121 (50) e2319010121, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2319010121 (2024).</ref>

== Criticism ==

[[Dietitian]]s have claimed they are not necessarily healthier than meat due to their highly processed nature and [[sodium]] content.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lucas|first=Amelia|date=4 July 2019|title=Are Beyond Meat's plant-based burgers healthier than red meat? Dietitians say no.|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/07/03/are-beyond-meats-burgers-healthier-than-red-meat-dietitians-say-no.html|access-date=2020-09-02|website=CNBC|language=en}}</ref><ref>Drayer, Lisa (2019). [https://archive.today/20200902011257/https://edition.cnn.com/2019/08/09/health/plant-fake-meat-burgers-good-for-you-or-not/index.html "They might be better for the planet, but are plant-based burgers good for you?"]. ''CNN Health''. Retrieved 2 September 2020.</ref> However, among [[ultra-processed foods]], consumption of the "plant-based alternatives" subcategory is associated with decreased risks of cardiometabolic diseases.<ref name=Cordova>{{cite journal |last1=Cordova |first1=Reynalda |last2=Viallon |first2=Vivian |last3=Fontvieille |first3=Emma |last4=Peruchet-Noray |first4=Laia |last5=Jansana |first5=Anna |last6=Wagner |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Kyrø |first7=Cecilie |last8=Tjønneland |first8=Anne |last9=Katzke |first9=Verena |last10=Bajracharya |first10=Rashmita |last11=Schulze |first11=Matthias B. |last12=Masala |first12=Giovanna |last13=Sieri |first13=Sabina |last14=Panico |first14=Salvatore |last15=Ricceri |first15=Fulvio |last16=Tumino |first16=Rosario |last17=Boer |first17=Jolanda M.A. |last18=Verschuren |first18=W.M.Monique |last19=van der Schouw |first19=Yvonne T. |last20=Jakszyn |first20=Paula |last21=Redondo-Sánchez |first21=Daniel |last22=Amiano |first22=Pilar |last23=Huerta |first23=José María |last24=Guevara |first24=Marcela |last25=Borné |first25=Yan |last26=Sonestedt |first26=Emily |last27=Tsilidis |first27=Konstantinos K. |last28=Millett |first28=Christopher |last29=Heath |first29=Alicia K. |last30=Aglago |first30=Elom K. |last31=Aune |first31=Dagfinn |last32=Gunter |first32=Marc J. |last33=Ferrari |first33=Pietro |last34=Huybrechts |first34=Inge |last35=Freisling |first35=Heinz |title=Consumption of ultra-processed foods and risk of multimorbidity of cancer and cardiometabolic diseases: a multinational cohort study |journal=The Lancet Regional Health - Europe |date=December 2023 |volume=35 |pages=100771 |doi=10.1016/j.lanepe.2023.100771|pmid=38115963 |pmc=10730313 |hdl=10362/167122 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

[[John Mackey (businessman)|John Mackey]], co-founder and CEO of [[Whole Foods Market|Whole Foods]], and Brian Niccol, CEO of [[Chipotle Mexican Grill]], have criticized meat alternatives as [[ultra-processed foods]]. Chipotle has claimed it will not carry these products at their restaurants due to their highly processed nature. ''[[CNBC]]'' wrote in 2019 of Chipotle joining "the likes of [[Taco Bell]] ... and [[Arby's]] in committing to excluding meatless meats on its menu."<ref name="Amelia 2019">{{Cite web|last=Lucas|first=Amelia|date=24 July 2019|title=Beyond Meat CEO invites Chipotle for a tour after its fake meats are called too processed|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/07/24/beyond-meat-ceo-invites-chipotle-for-a-tour-after-its-fake-meats-are-called-too-processed.html|access-date=2020-09-02|website=CNBC|language=en}}</ref> In response, [[Beyond Meat]] invited Niccol to visit its manufacturing site to see the production process.<ref name="Amelia 2019"/> Chipotle later developed its own "plant-based [[chorizo]]".<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lucas|first=Amelia|date=19 August 2021|title=Chipotle is testing a meatless chorizo alternative in two markets|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/08/19/chipotle-is-testing-a-meatless-chorizo-alternative-in-two-markets.html|access-date=2020-08-25|website=CNBC}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Lucas|first=Amelia|date=3 January 2022|title=Chipotle adds meatless chorizo to its menu for limited time|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/01/03/chipotle-adds-meatless-chorizo-to-its-menu-for-limited-time.html|access-date=2022-01-03|website=CNBC}}</ref> In September 2022, Taco Bell also began adding plant-based meat alternatives to its menu.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Martin |first=Brittany |date=2022-09-21 |title=Taco Bell Is Putting Beyond Meat on the Menu – And We Tasted It |url=https://www.vegetariantimes.com/news/taco-bell-beyond-meat-steak/ |access-date=2023-04-22 |website=Vegetarian Times |language=en}}</ref>

Some consulting firms and analysts demand more transparency in terms of the environmental impact of plant-based meat.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Creswell|first=Julie|date=15 October 2021|title=Plant-Based Food Companies Face Critics: Environmental Advocates|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/10/15/business/beyond-meat-impossible-emissions.html|access-date=2021-11-08|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Through a survey, analysts from Deloitte discovered that some consumers negatively linked meat alternatives to being "woke" and politically-left leaning.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Plant based meat sales slowing |url=https://www2.deloitte.com/us/en/insights/industry/retail-distribution/future-of-fresh-food-sales/plant-based-meat-sales.html |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=Deloitte Insights |language=en-us}}</ref>  These ideas emerged in response to [[Cracker Barrel]]'s introduction of Impossible Sausages in their restaurants in August, 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Valinsky |first=Jordan |date=2022-08-04 |title=Cracker Barrel sparks uproar for plant-based sausage critics say is 'woke' {{!}} CNN Business |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/04/business-food/cracker-barrel-impossible-meat-controversy/index.html |access-date=2023-12-05 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> In 2021, 68% of consumers who purchased plant based meats believed it was healthier than animal meat. The number dropping to 60% in 2022, demonstrating a decline in consumers beliefs in the healthiness of these meats.<ref name=":0" />

Some states have instituted legislation stating that meat alternatives are not allowed to label themselves as "meat". In Louisiana, the so-called, "Truth in Labeling of Food Products Act" was challenged by [[Tofurky]], complaining of free speech violations<ref>{{Cite web|title=Pickin' on Veggies: Louisiana's "Truth in Labeling of Food Products Act"|url=https://lawreview.law.lsu.edu/2020/01/22/pickin-on-veggies-louisianas-truth-in-labeling-of-food-products-act/#:~:text=Louisiana's%20Truth%20in%20Labeling%20of%20Food%20Products%20Act%20is%20supposedly,a%20likely%20target%20for%20litigation |website=lawreview.law.lsu.edu |date=January 22, 2020}}</ref> and was successful on those grounds.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Veggie 'Meat' Maker Tofurky Wins Free Speech Challenge to Food-Labeling Law |url=https://reason.com/2022/03/31/veggie-meat-maker-tofurky-wins-free-speech-challenge-to-food-labeling-law/ |website=reason.com |date=March 31, 2022}}</ref>

Alternative meats  companies Beyond Meat and Impossible Foods have attempted to appeal to meat eaters. University of Oregon marketing professor Steffen Jahn thinks that this has run afoul of human psychology, saying "the mimicking of real meat introduces that comparison of authenticity."<ref name="The Washington Post">{{cite news |last=Osaka |first=Shannon |date=2023-01-23 |title=The big problem with plant-based meat: The 'meat' part |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-solutions/2023/01/19/plant-based-meat-failing/ |access-date=2023-12-05 |issn=0190-8286 |url-access=registration |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230121222443/https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-solutions/2023/01/19/plant-based-meat-failing/ |archive-date=2023-01-21 |url-status=live}}</ref> Jahn argues that marketing plant-based meats with traditional meats leads to an artificiality that many consumers do not love. Consumer psychologists split foods into categories of "virtue" and "vice" foods, which ultimately guide how products are marketed and sold. Virtue foods are those that less gratifying appealing in the short term, and typically healthier, whereas vice foods are the opposite, having more long term consequences.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van Doorn |first1=Jenny |last2=Verhoef |first2=Peter C. |date=September 2011 |title=Willingness to pay for organic products: Differences between virtue and vice foods |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijresmar.2011.02.005 |journal=International Journal of Research in Marketing |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=167–180 |doi=10.1016/j.ijresmar.2011.02.005 |issn=0167-8116|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Many ready-made meat alternatives combine these categories with their long list of ingredients. Consumers who are likely to want to be "virtuous" by avoiding damage to the environment or animals are also likely to want "virtuous" food in the form of simple ingredients.<ref name="The Washington Post" />

== See also ==
{{portal|Food}}
* [[Vegetarian bacon]]
* [[Vegetarian hot dog]]s
* [[Vegetarian sausage]]
* [[Meat-free sausage roll]]
* {{Annotated link|Soy curls}}
* {{Annotated link|Cultured meat}}
* {{Annotated link|Egg substitutes}}
* {{Annotated link|Insects as food}}
* {{Annotated link|List of bacon substitutes}}
* {{Annotated link|List of meat substitutes}}
* {{Annotated link|List of vegetarian and vegan companies}}
* [[Leghemoglobin]]: alters flavor of [[Impossible Foods|certain meat alternatives]] to make them taste even more similar to meat ("simulates" animal blood in these meat alternatives but made from plant-based sources)
* {{Annotated link|Milk substitute}}
* [[Single-cell protein]], meat alternatives containing protein extract from pure or mixed cultures of algae, yeasts, fungi, or bacteria or [[Solar Foods|made from air]]
* {{Annotated link|Timeline of cellular agriculture}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
{{Commons category|Meat substitutes}}
* [https://www.vox.com/22787178/beyond-impossible-plant-based-vegetarian-meat-climate-environmental-impact-sustainability Yes, plant-based meat is better for the planet]. ''[[Vox (website)|Vox]]''. 18 November 2021.
* [https://apnews.com/article/future-of-food-0000018c2574dd90a58cef76167c0000 Plant-based meat is a simple solution to climate woes – if more people would eat it]. [[Associated Press]]. 1 December 2023.

{{Vegetarianism}}
{{Food Substitutes}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Meat substitutes| ]]
[[Category:American inventions]]
[[Category:Buddhist cuisine]]
[[Category:Chinese inventions]]
[[Category:Imitation foods]]
[[Category:Lent]]
[[Category:Vegetarian cuisine]]