View source for Yoruba language

{{short description|Language spoken in West Africa}}
{{Infobox Language
| name             = Yoruba
| nativename       = {{lang|yo|Èdè Yorùbá}}
| pronunciation    = {{IPA|yo|jōrùbá|}}
| states           = [[Benin]]{{·}}[[Nigeria]]{{·}}[[Togo]]
| region           = [[Yorubaland]]
| ethnicity        = [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]]
| speakers         = [[first language|L1]]: {{sigfig|47.858670|2}} million
| speakers2        = [[Second language|L2]]: {{sigfig|2.024600|2}} million (no date)<ref name=e28-yor/><br/>Total: {{sigfig|49.883270|2}} million (2023)<ref name=e28-yor/>
| speakers_label   = Speakers
| date             = 2023
| ref              = <ref name=e28-yor/>
| familycolor      = Niger-Congo
| fam2             = [[Atlantic–Congo languages|Atlantic–Congo]]
| fam3             = [[Volta-Congo]]
| fam4             = [[Volta–Niger languages|Volta–Niger]]
| fam5             = [[Yoruboid languages|Yoruboid]]
| fam6             = [[Edekiri languages|Edekiri]]
| ancestor         = [[Proto-Yoruboid language|Proto-Yoruboid]]
| script           = [[Latin script|Latin]] ([[Yoruba alphabet|Nigerian Yoruba alphabet, Beninese Yoruba alphabet]])<br />[[Yoruba Braille]]<br />[[Arabic script]] ([[Anjemi]])<br />[[Oduduwa script]]
| minority         = {{flag|Benin}}<br />{{flag|Togo}}
| iso1             = yo
| iso2             = yor
| iso3             = yor
| lingua           = 98-AAA-a
| notice           = IPA
| glotto           = yoru1245
| glottorefname    = Yoruba
| dia1             = [[Lucumí language|Lucumí]]
}}
{{Infobox ethnonym|people=[[Yoruba people|Ọmọ Yorùbá]]|language='''Èdè Yorùbá'''|country=[[Yorubaland|Ilẹ̀ Yorùbá]]}}

'''Yoruba''' ({{IPAc-en|US|ˈ|j|{{notatypo|ɔr}}|ə|b|ə}},<ref>{{Cite web |url= http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Yoruba | access-date=2 April 2024 | title= Yoruba| website= Merriam-Webster}}</ref> {{IPAc-en|UK|ˈ|j|ɒr|ʊ|b|ə}};<ref>Laurie Bauer, 2007, ''The Linguistics Student's Handbook'', Edinburgh</ref> <small>Yor.</small> {{lang|yo|Èdè Yorùbá}} {{IPA|yo|jōrùbá|}}) is a [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger-Congo language]] that is spoken in [[West Africa]], primarily in [[South West (Nigeria)|Southwestern]] and [[Middle Belt|Central]] Nigeria, Benin, and parts of Togo. It is spoken by the [[Yoruba people]]. Yoruba speakers number roughly 50 million,<ref name=e28-hau>{{e28|hau}}</ref> including around 2 million second-language or L2 speakers.<ref name=e28-yor>{{e28|yor}}</ref> As a [[pluricentric language]], it is primarily spoken in a dialectal area spanning [[Nigeria]], [[Benin]], and [[Togo]] with smaller migrated communities in [[Côte d'Ivoire]], [[Sierra Leone]] and [[The Gambia]].

Yoruba vocabulary is also used in [[African diaspora religions]] such as the Afro-Brazilian religion of [[Candomblé]], the Caribbean religion of [[Santería]] in the form of the liturgical [[Lucumí language]], and various Afro-American religions of [[North America]]. Most modern practitioners of these religions in the Americas are not fluent in the Yoruba language, yet they still use Yoruba words and phrases for songs or chants—rooted in cultural traditions.  For such practitioners, the Yoruba [[lexicon]] is especially common for ritual purposes, and these modern manifestations have taken new forms that do not depend on vernacular fluency.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Valdés|first=Vanessa K.|date=2015-03-04|title=Yoruba Traditions and African American Religious Nationalism by Tracey E. Hucks (review)|url=https://muse.jhu.edu/article/576211|journal=Callaloo|language=en|volume=38|issue=1|pages=234–237|doi=10.1353/cal.2015.0025|s2cid=143058809|issn=1080-6512|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Warner|first=Maureen|date=1971|title=Trinidad Yoruba — Notes on Survivals|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40653205|journal=Caribbean Quarterly|volume=17|issue=2|pages=40–49|doi=10.1080/00086495.1971.11829073|jstor=40653205|issn=0008-6495|url-access=subscription}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=History of Oyotunji|url=http://www.oyotunji.org/oyotunji-history.html|access-date=2020-10-13|website=Oyotunji|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Nigeria|first=Know|date=2017-04-13|title=The Oyotunji Village: a Mini Yoruba Empire in the USA|url=https://inspireafrika.com/en/the-oyotunji-village-a-mini-yoruba-empire-in-the-usa/|access-date=2020-10-13|website=Inspire Afrika|language=en-US}}</ref>

As the principal [[Yoruboid languages|Yoruboid language]], Yoruba is most closely related to these languages [[Itsekiri language|Itsekiri]] (spoken in the [[Niger Delta]]) and [[Igala language|Igala]] (spoken in central Nigeria).

== History ==
{{further|Volta–Niger languages|Benue–Congo languages}}
Yoruba is classified among the [[Edekiri languages]], which together with [[Itsekiri language|Itsekiri]] and the isolate [[Igala language|Igala]] form the [[Yoruboid languages|Yoruboid]] group of languages within the [[Volta–Niger languages|Volta–Niger]] branch of the [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] family. 
The linguistic unity of the Niger–Congo family dates to deep pre-history, with estimates ranging around 11,000 years ago (the end of the [[Upper Paleolithic]]).<ref>{{cite book| last1=Heine|first1=Bernd|author-link1=Bernd Heine|last2=Nurse| first2=Derek|author-link2=Derek Nurse|title=African Languages: An Introduction |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=C7XhcYoFxaQC&pg=PA294|year=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-66629-9|page=294}}</ref> In present-day [[Nigeria]], it is estimated that there are around 50 million Yoruba primary and secondary language speakers, as well as several other millions of speakers outside Nigeria, making it the most widely spoken African language outside of the continent. There is a substantial body of literature in the Yoruba language, including books, newspapers, and pamphlets.<ref name="britannica.com">{{Cite web |title=Yoruba language {{!}} West African, Nigeria, Benin {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Yoruba-language |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Yoruba is used in radio and television broadcasting and is taught at primary, secondary, and tertiary levels.<ref name="britannica.com"/>

== Varieties ==
The Yoruba [[dialect continuum]] consists of several dialects. The various Yoruba dialects in [[Yorubaland]] can be classified into five major dialect areas: Northwest, Northeast, Central, Southwest, and Southeast.<ref>This widely followed classification is based on Adetugbọ's (1982) dialectological study; this classification originated in his 1967 Ph.D. thesis ''The Yoruba Language in Western Nigeria: Its Major Dialect Areas'', {{ProQuest|288034744}}. See also Adetugbọ 1973:183-193.</ref> Clear boundaries cannot be drawn, but peripheral areas of dialectal regions often have some similarities to adjoining dialects.

* '''North-West Yoruba''' (NWY)
** [[Egba people|Egba]], [[Ibadan]], [[Oyo, Oyo|Ọyọ]], [[Lagos|Lagos (Eko)]], [[Onko]], [[Ibarapa people|Ibarapa]]
{|
| [[File:A short oral history of Egba in Egba Language by its native speaker.webm|thumb|Egba dialect]]
| [[File:Short Oral history of Okeho in Onko language by a native speaker (non-subtitled).webm|thumb|[[Onko]] dialect, [[Okeho]]]]
| [[File:Short Oral history of Saki in Saki language by a native speaker (non-subtitled).webm|thumb|[[Shaki, Oyo|Shaki]] dialect]]
| [[File:Short oral history of Iwo in Iwo language by a native speaker (non-subtitled).webm|thumb| Oyo dialect from [[Iwo, Osun|Iwo]]]]
|}

* '''North-East Yoruba''' (NEY)
**[[Yagba West|Yagba]], [[Kabba|Owe]], Ikiri, [[Ijumu]], [[Oworo dialect|Oworo]], Gbede, [[Kabba/Bunu|Abunu]], [[Okun people|Okun]].
* '''Central Yoruba''' (CY)
** [[Igbomina]], [[Ilesa|Ijesha]], [[Ifẹ]], [[Ekiti people|Ekiti]] (including [[Akure|Akurẹ]]), [[Efon|Ẹfọn]], Western [[Akoko]].
{|
| [[File:Short oral history of Ijan Ekiti in Ijan Ekiti Language by a native speaker (non-subtitled).webm|thumb|[[Ekiti people|Ekiti]]  dialect]]
| [[File:Short oral history of Ile Ife in Ile-Ife language by a native speaker.webm|thumb|[[Ifẹ]] dialect]]
| [[File:Short oral history of Ilesha in Ijesha language by a native speaker (non-subtitled).webm|thumb|[[Ijesha]] dialect]]
| [[File:A short oral history of Irun in Irun Akoko dialect by native speaker.webm|thumb|[[Ekiti people|Ekiti]] from Irun Akoko]]
|}

* '''South-West Yoruba''' (SWY)
** [[Ketu (Benin)|Ketu]], [[Awori tribe|Awori]], [[Sakété]], [[Ifè language|Ifè (Togo)]], [[Dassa-Zoumé|Idasha]], [[Ipokia|Anago]].
* '''South-East Yoruba''' (SEY)
** [[Ondo City|Ondo]], [[Owo|Ọwọ]], [[Sagamu|Remo]], [[Ijebu Kingdom|Ijẹbu]], [[Okitipupa|Ikale]], Eastern [[Akoko|Akoko (Akoko, Ào)]], [[Ilaje]], [[Usen people|Usẹn]].
{|
| [[File:Short oral history of Owo in Owo language by a native speaker.webm|thumb|[[Owo]] dialect]]
| [[File:Short oral history of Idanre in Idanre language by a native speaker (non-subtitled).webm|thumb|[[Idanre]] dialect]]
| [[File:Short oral history of Ijebu in Ijebu language by a native speaker.webm|thumb|[[Ijebu Kingdom|Ijebu dialect]]]]
| [[File:Short oral history of Ikale in Ikale language by a native speaker (non-subtitled).webm|thumb|[[Okitipupa|Ikale]] dialect]]
| [[File:A short oral history of Isua in Ifira dialect by a native speaker.webm|thumb|Ao dialect, [[Akoko South-East|
Ifira]]]]
|}

North-West Yoruba was historically spoken in the [[Oyo Empire|Ọyọ Empire]]. In NWY dialects, Proto-Yoruba velar fricative {{IPA|/ɣ/}} and labialized voiced velar /gʷ/ have merged into /w/; the upper vowels /ɪ/ and /ʊ/ were raised and merged with /i/ and /u/, just as their nasal counterparts, resulting in a vowel system with seven oral and three nasal vowels.

South-East Yoruba was most likely associated with the expansion of the [[Benin Empire]] after {{Circa|1450}}.<ref>Adetugbọ 1973:185.</ref> In contrast to NWY, lineage, and descent are largely [[lineal descendant|multilineal]] and [[cognatic]], and the division of titles into war and civil is unknown. Linguistically, SEY has retained the /ɣ/ and /gw/ contrast, while it has lowered the nasal vowels /ĩ/ and /ʊ̃/ to /ɛ̃/ and /ɔ̃/, respectively. SEY has collapsed the second and third-person plural pronominal forms; thus, ''àn án wá'' can mean either 'you (pl.) came' or 'they came' in SEY dialects, whereas NWY for example has ''ẹ wá'' 'you (pl.) came' and ''wọ́n wá'' 'they came', respectively. The emergence of a plural of respect may have prevented the coalescence of the two in NWY dialects.

Central Yoruba forms a transitional area in that the lexicon has much in common with NWY and shares many ethnographical features with SEY. Its vowel system is the most traditional of the three dialect groups, retaining nine oral-vowel contrasts, six or seven nasal vowels, and an extensive vowel harmony system. Peculiar to Central and Eastern (NEY, SEY) Yoruba also is the ability to begin words with the vowel [ʊ:], which in Western Yoruba has been changed to [ɪ:]

== Literary Yoruba ==
[[File:WIKITONGUES- Olaniyan speaking Yoruba.webm|thumb|A Yoruba speaker, recorded in [[South Africa]]]]
Literary Yoruba, also known as ''Standard Yoruba'', ''Yoruba koiné'', and ''common Yoruba'', is a separate member of the dialect cluster. It is the written form of the language, the standard variety learned at school, and that is spoken by newsreaders on the radio. Standard Yoruba has its origin in the 1850s, when [[Samuel A. Crowther]], the first native African Anglican bishop, published a Yoruba grammar and started his translation of the Bible. Though for a large part based on the [[Oyo Empire|Ọyọ]] and [[Ibadan]] dialects, Standard Yoruba incorporates several features from other dialects.<ref>Cf. for example the following remark by Adetugbọ (1967, as cited in Fagborun 1994:25): "While the orthography agreed upon by the missionaries represented to a very large degree the phonemes of the Abẹokuta dialect, the morpho-syntax reflected the Ọyọ-Ibadan dialects".</ref> It also has some features peculiar to itself, for example, the simplified [[vowel harmony]] system, as well as foreign structures, such as [[calque]]s from English that originated in early translations of religious works.

Because the use of Standard Yoruba did not result from some deliberate linguistic policy, much controversy exists as to what constitutes 'genuine Yoruba', with some writers holding the opinion that the Ọyọ dialect is the "pure" form, and others stating that there is no such thing as genuine Yoruba at all. {{Citation needed|date=May 2020}} Standard Yoruba, the variety learned at school and used in the media, has nonetheless been a decisive consolidating factor in the emergence of a common Yoruba identity.

== Writing systems ==
{{Main|Yoruba alphabet|Oduduwa script}}
{{see also|Nigerian braille#Yoruba Braille}}
[[File:Church of the Visitation 12.jpg|thumb|Yoruba hymn, [[Church of the Visitation]], Jerusalem]]
The earliest evidence of the presence of Islam and literacy goes back to the 14th century. The earliest documented history of the people, traced to the latter part of the 17th century, was in the Yoruba but in the Arabic script called [[Ajami script|Ajami]]. This makes Yoruba one of the oldest African languages with an attested history of Ajami (Cf. Mumin & Versteegh 2014; Hofheinz 2018). However, the oldest extant Yoruba Ajami exemplar is a 19th-century Islamic verse (waka) by Badamasi Agbaji (d. 1895- Hunwick 1995). There are several items of Yoruba Ajami in poetry, personal notes, and esoteric knowledge (Cf. Bang 2019). Nevertheless, Yoruba Ajami remained idiosyncratic and not socially diffused, as no standardized orthography existed. The plethora of dialects and the absence of a central promotional institution, among others, are responsible.

In the 17th century, Yoruba was written in the [[Ajami script]], a form of [[Arabic script]].<ref>"Yoruba...written in a version of the Arabic script known as Ajami (or Ajamiyya)."[https://www.loc.gov/rr/amed/afs/NigerianSurveyTour2007/NigerianSurveyTour.html]</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jep3DAAAQBAJ&q=yoruba+ajami&pg=PA194|title=Encyclopedia of the Yoruba|last1=FALOLA|first1=TOYIN|last2=AKINYEMI|first2=AKINTUNDE|date=2016-06-20|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=9780253021564|pages=194|language=en}}</ref> It is still written in the Ajami writing script in some Islamic circles. Standard Yoruba [[orthography]] originated in the early work of [[Church Mission Society]] missionaries working among the ''Aku'' (Yoruba) of [[Freetown]]. One of their [[informant (linguistics)|informants]] was Crowther, who later would proceed to work on his native language himself. In early grammar primers and translations of portions of the English Bible, Crowther used the [[Latin alphabet]] largely without tone markings. The only diacritic used was a dot below certain vowels to signify their [[open vowel|open]] variants {{IPA|[ɛ]}} and {{IPA|[ɔ]}}, viz. {{angbr|ẹ}} and {{angbr|ọ}}. Over the years, the orthography was revised to represent tone, among other things. In 1875, the [[Church Missionary Society]] (CMS) organized a conference on Yoruba Orthography; the standard devised there was the basis for the orthography of the steady flow of religious and educational literature over the next seventy years.

The current orthography of Yoruba derives from a 1966 report of the Yoruba Orthography Committee, along with Ayọ Bamgboṣe's 1965 ''Yoruba Orthography'', a study of the earlier orthographies and an attempt to bring Yoruba orthography in line with actual speech as much as possible. Still similar to the older orthography, it employs the [[Latin alphabet]] modified by the use of the [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] {{angbr|gb}} and certain [[diacritic]]s, including the [[underdot]]s under the letters {{angbr|ẹ}}, {{angbr|ọ}}, and {{angbr|ṣ}}. Previously, the vertical line had been used to avoid the mark being fully covered by an [[underline]], as in ⟨e̩⟩, ⟨o̩⟩, ⟨s̩⟩; however, that usage is no longer common.

{| cellpadding="3"
|A||B||D||E||Ẹ||F||G||Gb||H||I||J||K||L||M||N||O||Ọ||P||R||S||Ṣ||T||U||W||Y
|-
|a||b||d||e||ẹ||f||g||gb||h|| I ||j||k||l||m||n||o||ọ||p||r||s||ṣ||t||u||w||y
|}

The Latin letters {{angbr|c}}, {{angbr|q}}, {{angbr|v}}, {{angbr|x}}, {{angbr|z}} are not used as part of the official orthography of Standard Yoruba and only occur in loan words from English. However, {{angbr|z}} is used in certain Yoruba dialects, like the Ao dialect.

The pronunciation of the letters without diacritics corresponds more or less to their [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] equivalents, except for the [[labial–velar consonant]] {{IPA|[k͡p]}} (written {{angbr|p}}) and {{IPA|[ɡ͡b]}} (written {{angbr|gb}}), in which both consonants are pronounced simultaneously rather than sequentially. The [[diacritic]] underneath vowels indicates an [[open vowel]], pronounced with the [[advanced and retracted tongue root|root of the tongue retracted]] (so {{angbr|ẹ}} is pronounced {{IPA|[ɛ̙]}} and {{angbr|ọ}} is {{IPA|[ɔ̙]}}). {{angbr|ṣ}} represents a [[postalveolar consonant]] {{IPA|[ʃ]}} like the English {{angbr|sh}}, {{angbr|y}} represents a [[palatal approximant]] like English {{angbr|y}}, and {{angbr|j}} a [[voiced palatal stop]] {{IPA|[ɟ]}}, as is common in many African orthographies.

In addition to the underdots, three further diacritics are used on vowels and syllabic [[nasal consonant]]s to indicate the language's tones: an [[acute accent]] {{angbr|'''´'''}} for the high tone, a [[grave accent]] {{angbr|'''`'''}} for the low tone, and an optional [[Macron (diacritic)|macron]] {{angbr|'''¯'''}} for the middle tone. These are used in addition to the underdots in {{angbr|ẹ}} and {{angbr|ọ}}. When more than one tone is used in one syllable, the vowel can either be written once for each tone (for example, *{{angbr|òó}} for a vowel {{IPA|[o]}} with tone rising from low to high) or, more rarely in current usage, combined into a single accent. In this case, a [[caron]] {{angbr|ˇ}} is used for the rising tone (so the previous example would be written {{angbr|ǒ}}), and a [[circumflex]] {{angbr|ˆ}} for the falling tone. <!-- However, this is not a part of the standard orthography. -->

{| cellpadding="3"
|Á||À||Ā||É||È||Ē||Ẹ||Ẹ́||Ẹ̀||Ẹ̄||Í||Ì||Ī
|Ń
|Ǹ
|N̄
|Ḿ
|M̀
|M̄
|Ó||Ò||Ō||Ọ||Ọ́||Ọ̀||Ọ̄||Ú||Ù||Ū||Ṣ
|-
|á||à||ā||é||è||ē||ẹ||ẹ́||ẹ̀||ẹ̄||í||ì||ī
|ń
|ǹ
|n̄
|ḿ
|m̀
|m̄
|ó||ò||ō||ọ||ọ́||ọ̀||ọ̄||ú||ù||ū||ṣ
|}

In [[Benin]], Yoruba uses a different orthography. The Yoruba alphabet was standardized along with other Benin languages in the [[National Languages Alphabet (Benin)|National Languages Alphabet]] by the [[National Language Commission]] in 1975, and revised in 1990 and 2008 by the [[National Center for Applied Linguistics]].
 
{| cellpadding="3"
|+ Benin alphabet	
|-	
|A||B||D||E||Ɛ||F||G||Gb||H||I||J||K||Kp||L||M||N||O||Ɔ||P||R||S||Sh||T||U||W||Y	
|-	
|a||b||d||e||ɛ||f||g||gb||h|| I ||j||k||kp||l||m||n||o||ɔ||p||r||s||sh||t||u||w||y
|}

In 2011, a Beninese priest-chief by the name of Tolúlàṣẹ Ògúntósìn devised a new script for Yoruba, based on a vision received in his sleep which he believed to have been granted by [[Oduduwa]]. This [[Oduduwa script]] has also received support from other prominent chiefs in the [[Yorubaland]] region of both countries.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Adéṣínà Ọmọ Yoòbá |title=This chief hopes Yorùbá speakers adopt his newly invented 'talking alphabet' |url=https://globalvoices.org/2020/03/10/this-chief-hopes-yoruba-speakers-adopt-his-newly-invented-talking-alphabet/ |access-date=4 April 2021 |work=Global Voices |date=10 March 2020 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Yoruba Monarchs Commends New Oduduwa Alphabets, Hail Aregbesola |url=http://www.osundefender.com/yoruba-monarchs-commends-new-oduduwa-alphabets-hail-aregbesola/ |work=OsunDefender |date=1 November 2017}}</ref>

== Phonology ==
The syllable structure of Yoruba is (C)V(N). Syllabic nasals are also possible. Every syllable bears one of the three tones: high {{angle bracket|◌́}}, mid {{angle bracket|◌̄}} (generally left unmarked), and low {{angle bracket|◌̀}}. The sentence {{lang|yo|n̄ ò lọ}} (''I didn't go'') provides examples of three syllable types:
*{{lang|yo|n̄}} — {{IPA|[ŋ̄]}} &mdash; ''I''
*{{lang|yo|ò}} &mdash; {{IPA|[ò]}} — ''not'' (negation)
*{{lang|yo|lọ}} &mdash; {{IPA|[lɔ̄]}} — ''to go''

=== Vowels ===
Standard Yoruba has seven oral and five nasal vowels. There are no [[diphthong]]s in Yoruba; sequences of vowels are pronounced as separate syllables. [[Dialect]]s differ in the number of vowels they have; see [[#Varieties|above]].

[[File:Yoruba vowel chart.svg|thumb|Yoruba [[vowel#Articulation|vowel]] diagram, adopted from Bamgboṣe (1969:166). Black dots mark oral vowels, while the colored regions indicate the ranges in possible quality of the nasal vowels.]]

{|class="wikitable"
! rowspan=2 | &nbsp;
! colspan=2 | Oral vowels
! colspan=2 | [[Nasal vowel]]s
|-
! [[Front vowel|Front]]
! [[Back vowel|Back]]
! Front
! Back
|-
! [[Close vowel|Close]]
| align=center | {{IPA link|i}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|u}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|ĩ}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|ũ}}
|-
! [[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
| align=center | {{IPA link|e}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|o}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|-
! [[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
| align=center | {{IPA link|ɛ}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|ɒ|ɔ}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|ɛ̃}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|ɔ̃}}
|-
! [[Open vowel|Open]]
| align=center colspan=2 | {{IPA link|ä|a}}
| align=center colspan=2 | ({{IPA link|ã}})
|}

* In some cases, the phonetic realization of these vowels is noticeably different from what the symbol suggests:
** The oral {{IPA|/i/}} is close front {{IPAblink|i}}, and the nasal {{IPA|/ĩ/}} varies between close front {{IPAblink|i|ĩ}} and near-close front {{IPAblink|ɪ|ĩ̞}}.<ref name="bam166">Bamgboṣe (1969:166)</ref>
** The oral {{IPA|/u/}} is close back {{IPAblink|u}}, and the nasal {{IPA|/ũ/}} varies between close near-back {{IPAblink|u|ũ̟}}, close back {{IPAblink|u|ũ}}, near-close near-back {{IPAblink|ʊ|ũ̟˕}} and near-close back {{IPAblink|ʊ|ũ̞}}.<ref name="bam166"/>
** The oral {{IPA|/e, o/}} are close-mid {{IPA|[{{IPAplink|e}}, {{IPAplink|o}}]}}, and do not have nasal counterparts.<ref name="bam166"/>
** The oral {{IPA|/ɛ/}} is open-mid {{IPAblink|ɛ}}, and the nasal {{IPA|/ɛ̃/}} varies between mid {{IPAblink|ɛ̝|ɛ̝̃}} and open-mid {{IPAblink|ɛ|ɛ̃}}.<ref name="bam166"/>
** The oral {{IPA|/ɔ/}} is near-open {{IPAblink|ɒ|ɔ̞}}, and the nasal {{IPA|/ɔ̃/}} varies between open-mid {{IPAblink|ɔ|ɔ̃}} and near-open {{IPAblink|ɒ|ɒ̃}}.<ref name="bam166"/>
** The oral {{IPA|/a/}} is central {{IPAblink|ä}}.<ref name="bam166"/>

Nasal vowels are by default written as a vowel letter followed by {{angle bracket|n}}, thus: {{angle bracket|in}}, {{angle bracket|un}}, {{angle bracket|ẹn}}, {{angle bracket|ọn}}, {{angbr|an}}. These do not occur word-initially. 
In the standard language, {{IPA|/ɛ̃/}} occurs only in the single word ''ìyẹn'' ~ ''yẹn'' 'that'. The status of the vowel {{IPA|[ã]}} is controversial. Several authors have argued it is not phonemically contrastive.<ref>Notably, Ayọ Bamgboṣe (1966:8).</ref> Often, it is in free variation with {{IPA|[ɔ̃]}}. [[Orthography|Orthographically]], {{angbr|ọn}} is used after labial and labial-velar consonants, as in ''ìbọn'' 'gun', and {{angbr|an}} is used after non-labial consonants, as in ''dán'' 'to shine'. All vowels are nasalized after the consonant {{IPA|/m/}}, and thus there is no additional ''n'' in writing (''mi, mu, mọ''). In addition, the consonant {{IPA|/l/}} has a nasal allophone {{IPA|[n]}} before a nasal vowel (see [[#Consonants|below]]), and this is reflected in writing: ''inú'' 'inside, belly' ({{IPA|/īlṹ/}} → {{IPA|[īnṹ]}}).<ref>Abraham, in his ''Dictionary of Modern Yoruba'', deviates from this by explicitly indicating the nasality of the vowel; thus, ''inú'' is found under ''inún'', etc.</ref><ref>Sachnine Michka (1997) ''Dictionnaire usuel yorùbá&ndash;français''. Paris &ndash; Ibadan.</ref>
<!-- vowel harmony should be treated -->

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable"
!rowspan=2| &nbsp;
!rowspan=2|[[Labial consonant|Labial]]
!rowspan=2|[[alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
!rowspan=2|[[postalveolar consonant|Post-alv.]]/<br/>[[palatal consonant|Palatal]]
!colspan=2|[[velar consonant|Velar]]
!rowspan=2|[[glottal consonant|Glottal]]
|-
!<small>plain</small>
!<small>labial</small>
|-
![[stop consonant|Stop]]
| align=center | {{IPA link|b}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|t}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA link|d}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|ɟ}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|k}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA link|ɡ}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|k͡p}}&nbsp;&nbsp;{{IPA link|ɡ͡b}}
| &nbsp;
|-
![[fricative consonant|Fricative]]
| align=center | {{IPA link|f}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|s}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|ʃ}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA link|h}}
|-
![[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]/[[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| align=center | {{IPA link|m}}
| align=center| {{IPA link|l}} ~ {{IPA link|n}}
| align=center| {{IPA link|j}}
| align=center | {{IPA link|ŋ}} ~ {{IPA link|ŋ̍}}
| align=center| {{IPA link|w}}
| &nbsp;
|-
![[Rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
| &nbsp;
| align=center | {{IPA link|ɾ}}
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
|}

The voiceless plosives {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/k/}} are slightly aspirated; in some Yoruba varieties, {{IPA|/t/}} and {{IPA|/d/}} are more dental. The [[rhotic consonant]] is realized as a flap {{IPA|[ɾ]}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=George L. |url=https://archive.org/details/concisecompendiu0000camp/page/588/mode/2up |title=Concise compendium of the world's languages |last2=Campbell |first2=George L. |date=1995 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-11392-2 |location=London; New York |pages=588}}</ref> or, in some varieties (notably Lagos Yoruba), as the [[alveolar and postalveolar approximants|alveolar approximant]] {{IPA|[ɹ]}} due to English influence. This is particularly common with Yoruba–English bilinguals.

Like many other languages of the region, Yoruba has the [[voiceless labial–velar stop|voiceless]] and [[voiced labial–velar stop]]s {{IPA|/k͡p/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ͡b/}}: {{lang|yo|pápá}} {{IPA|[k͡pák͡pá]}} 'field', ''{{lang|yo|gbogbo}}'' {{IPA|[ɡ͡bōɡ͡bō]}} 'all'.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}} Notably, in Nigeria it lacks a [[voiceless bilabial stop]] {{IPA|/p/}}, apart from [[phonaesthesia]], such as [pĩpĩ] for vehicle horn sounds, and [[Marginal phonemes|marginal segments]] found in recent loanwords, such as <nowiki><pẹ́ńsù></nowiki> [k͡pɛ́ńsù~pɛ́ńsù] for "pencil".<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Ufomata |first=Titilayo |date=March 1991 |title=Englishization of Yoruba phonology |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-971X.1991.tb00135.x |journal=World Englishes |language=en |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=33–51 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-971X.1991.tb00135.x |issn=0883-2919|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

Yoruba also lacks a [[phoneme]] {{IPA|/n/}}; the letter {{angle bracket|n}} is used for the sound in the orthography, but strictly speaking, it refers to an [[allophone]] of {{IPA|/l/}} immediately preceding a nasal vowel.

There is also a [[syllabic consonant|syllabic nasal]], which forms a [[syllable#Nucleus|syllable nucleus]] by itself. When it precedes a vowel, it is a velar nasal {{IPA|[ŋ]}}: {{lang|yo|n ò lọ}} {{IPA|[ŋ ò lɔ̄]}} 'I didn't go'. In other cases, its place of articulation is [[homorganic consonants|homorganic]] with the following consonant: {{lang|yo|ó ń lọ}} {{IPA|[ó ń lɔ̄]}} 'he is going', {{lang|yo|ó ń fò}} {{IPA|[ó ḿ fò]}} 'he is jumping'.

C, Q, V, X and Z only appear in words borrowed from English or French.

=== Tone ===
Yoruba is a [[tone (linguistics)|tonal language]] with three-level tones and two or three contour tones. Every syllable must have at least one tone; a syllable containing a long vowel can have two tones<!-- this, of course, is just a more layman-friendly way of saying that the mora is the tone-bearing unit -->. Tones are marked by use of the acute accent for high tone ({{angle bracket|á}}, {{angle bracket|ń}}) and the grave accent for low tone ({{angle bracket|à}}, {{angle bracket|ǹ}}); mid is unmarked, except on syllabic nasals where it is indicated using a macron ({{angle bracket|a}}, {{angle bracket|n̄}}). Examples:
* H: ó bẹ́ [ó bɛ́] 'he jumped'; síbí [síbí]  'spoon'
* M: ó bẹ [ó bɛ̄] 'he is forward'; ara [āɾā] 'body'
* L: ó bẹ̀ [ó bɛ̀] 'he asks for pardon'; ọ̀kọ̀  [ɔ̀kɔ̀] 'spear'.
When teaching Yoruba literacy, [[solfège]] names of musical notes are used to name the tones: low is ''do'', mid is ''re'', and high is ''mi''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carter-Ényì|first=Aaron|date=May 2018|title=Hooked on Sol-Fa: the do-re-mi heuristic for Yorùbá speech tones|journal=Africa|language=en|volume=88|issue=2|pages=267–290|doi=10.1017/S0001972017000912|s2cid=149643136|issn=0001-9720|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Whistled Yoruba ===
{{Listen |filename=Yoruba-whistle-language-fast.ogg|left|title=A greeting in whistled Yoruba|description={{lang|yo|ará iwájú, ɛ kú iʃɛ́ o}} "people who arrived for me, greetings at work"}}
Apart from tone's lexical and grammatical use, it is also used in other contexts such as whistling and drumming. Whistled Yoruba is used to communicate over long distances. The language is transformed as speakers talk and whistle simultaneously: consonants are devoiced or turned to [h], and all vowels are changed to [u]. However, all tones are retained without any alteration. The retention of tones enables speakers to understand the meaning of the whistled language. The Yoruba [[talking drum]], the ''dùndún'' or ''iya ilu'', which accompanies singing during festivals and important ceremonies, also uses tone.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Orie|first1=Ọlanikẹ Ọla|chapter=Yoruba and Yoruboid languages|title=Encyclopedia of Linguistics|location=Hoboken|publisher=Taylor and Francis|year=2013|pages=1200–1204|oclc=1109207232|isbn=9786610156009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Orie |first1=Ọlanikẹ Ọla|date=2012|title=Acquisition reversal : the effects of postlingual deafness in Yoruba|location=Berlin, Boston |publisher=De Gruyter |page=43 |oclc=836821267}}</ref>

=== Tonality effects and computer-coded documents ===
Written Yoruba includes [[diacritic|diacritical marks]] not available on conventional computer keyboards, requiring some adaptations. In particular, the use of the sub dots and tone marks are not represented, so many Yoruba documents simply omit them. Asubiaro Toluwase, in his 2014 paper,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Asubiaro |first=Toluwase V. |year=2014 |title=Effects of Diacritics on Web Search Engines' Performance for Retrieval of Yoruba Documents |journal=Journal of Library and Information Studies |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=1–19 |doi=10.6182/jlis.2014.12(1).001 }}</ref> points out that the use of these diacritics can affect the retrieval of Yoruba documents by popular search engines. Therefore, their omission can have a significant impact on online research.

==== Assimilation and elision ====
When a word precedes another word beginning with a vowel, assimilation, or deletion ('[[elision]]') of one of the vowels often takes place.<ref>See Bamgboṣe 1965a for more details. See also Ward 1952:123–133 ('Chapter XI: Abbreviations and Elisions').</ref> Since syllables in Yoruba normally end in a vowel, and most nouns start with one, it is a widespread phenomenon, and it is absent only in slow, unnatural speech. The orthography here follows speech in that word divisions are normally not indicated in words that are contracted due to assimilation or elision: ''ra ẹja'' → ''rẹja'' 'buy fish'. Sometimes, however, authors may choose to use an inverted comma to indicate an elided vowel as in ''ní ilé'' → ''n'ílé'' 'in the house'.

Long vowels within words usually signal that a consonant has been elided word-internally. In such cases, the tone of the elided vowel is retained: ''àdìrò'' → ''ààrò'' 'hearth'; ''koríko'' → ''koóko'' 'grass'; ''òtító'' → ''òótó'' 'truth'.

== Vocabulary ==

===Roots===
Most [[wikt:verbal|verbal]] [[root]]s are [[monosyllabic]] of the [[phonological]] shape CV(N), for example: ''dá'' 'to create', ''dán'' 'to polish', ''pọ́n'' 'to be red'. Verbal roots that do not seem to follow this pattern are mostly former compounds in which a [[syllable]] has been elided. For example: ''nlá'' 'to be large', originally a compound of ''ní'' 'to have' + ''lá'' 'to be big' and ''súfèé'' 'to whistle', originally a compound of ''sú'' 'to eject wind' + ''òfé or ìfé'' 'a blowing'. Vowels serve as nominalizing prefixes that turn a verb into a noun form. 
 
[[Nominal (linguistics)|Nominal]] roots are mostly [[disyllabic]], for example: ''abà'' 'crib, barn', ''ara'' 'body', ''ibà'' 'fever'. [[Monosyllabic]] and even [[trisyllabic]] roots do occur but they are less common.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v3pEAAAAcAAJ | title=Grammar and Dictionary of the Yoruba Language: With an Introductory Description of the Country and People of Yoruba | last1=Bowen | first1=Thomas Jefferson | year=1858 | publisher=Smithsonian Institution | isbn=978-0-598-42696-3 }}</ref>

== Grammar ==
{{Expand section|date=June 2008}}

Yoruba is a highly [[isolating language]].<ref>Karlsson, F. ''Yleinen kielitiede.'' ("General linguistics") Helsinki: Helsinki University Press, 1998.</ref> Its basic constituent order is [[subject–verb–object]],<ref name="RowlandsEvan">Rowlands, Evan Colyn. (1969). Teach Yourself Yoruba. English Universities Press: London.</ref> as in ''ó nà Adé'' 'he beat Adé'. The bare verb stem denotes a completed action, often called perfect; tense and aspect are marked by preverbal particles such as ''ń'' 'imperfect/present continuous', ''ti'' 'past'. Negation is expressed by a preverbal particle ''kò''. [[Serial verb construction]]s are common, as in many other languages of [[West Africa]].

Although Yoruba has no [[grammatical gender]],<ref>Ogunbowale, P. O. (1970). The Essentials of the Yoruba Language. University of London Press: London.</ref> it has a distinction between human and non-human nouns when it comes to [[interrogative]] particles: ''ta ni'' for human nouns ('who?') and ''kí ni'' for non-human nouns ('what?'). The associative construction (covering [[possessive]]/genitive and related notions) consists of juxtaposing nouns in the order modified-modifier as in ''inú àpótí'' {inside box} 'the inside of the box', ''fìlà Àkàndé'' 'Akande's cap' or ''àpótí aṣọ'' 'box for clothes'.<ref>(Bamgboṣe 1966:110, Rowlands 1969:45-6)</ref> More than two nouns can be juxtaposed: ''rélùweè abẹ́ ilẹ̀'' (railway underground) 'underground railway',<ref>(Adetugbọ 1973:185</ref> ''inú àpótí aṣọ'' 'the inside of the clothes box'. Disambiguation is left to context in the rare case that it results in two possible readings.  Plural nouns are indicated by a plural word.{{clarify|reason=Plural particle or what?|date=September 2024}}<ref name="RowlandsEvan" />

There are two 'prepositions': ''ní'' 'on, at, in' and ''sí'' 'onto, towards'. The former indicates location and absence of movement, and the latter encodes location/direction with movement.<ref>(Sachnine 1997:19)</ref> Position and direction are expressed by the prepositions in combination with spatial relational nouns like ''orí'' 'top', ''apá'' 'side', ''inú'' 'inside', ''etí'' 'edge', ''abẹ́'' 'under', ''ilẹ̀'' 'down', etc. Many of the spatial relational terms are historically related to body-part terms.

==Numerals==
{{Incomplete list|date=September 2022}}
{{Main|Yoruba numerals}}
Yoruba uses a [[vigesimal]] (base-20) numbering system.

* Ogún, 20, is a basic numeric block.
* Ogójì, 40, (Ogún-méjì) = 20 multiplied by 2 (èjì).
* Ọgọ́ta, 60, (Ogún-mẹ́ta) = 20 multiplied by 3 (ẹ̀ta).
* Ọgọ́rin, 80, (Ogún-mẹ́rin) = 20 multiplied by 4 (ẹ̀rin).
* Ọgọ́rùn-ún, 100, (Ogún-márùn-ún) = 20 multiplied by 5 (àrún).
* - 16 (Ẹẹ́rìndínlógún) = 4 less than 20.
* - 17 (Ẹẹ́tàdínlógún) = 3 less than 20.
* - 18 (Eéjìdínlógún) = 2 less than 20.
* - 19 (Oókàndínlógún) = 1 less than 20.
* - 21 (Oókànlélógún) = 1 increment on 20.
* - 22 (Eéjìlélógún) = 2 increment on 20.
* - 23 (Ẹẹ́tàlélógún) = 3 increment on 20.
* - 24 (Ẹẹ́rìnlélógún) = 4 increment on 20.
* - 25 (Aárùnlélógún) = 5 increment on 20.
* - 30 ( Ogbòn) = 10 increment on 20
* -50 (Aadota) = 10 less than 60

==Arabic influence==

The wide adoption of imported religions and civilizations such as Islam and Christianity has had an impact both on written and spoken Yoruba. In his ''Arabic-English Encyclopedic Dictionary of the Quran and Sunnah'', Yoruba Muslim scholar [[Abu-Abdullah Adelabu]] argued Islam has enriched African languages by providing them with technical and cultural augmentations with [[Swahili language|Swahili]] and [[Somali language|Somali]] in [[East Africa]] and [[Hausa language|Turanci Hausa]] and [[Wolof language|Wolof]] in West Africa being the primary beneficiaries. [[Sheikh Adelabu|Adelabu]], a Ph&nbsp;D graduate from [[Damascus]] cited—among many other common usages—the following words to be Yoruba's derivatives of Arabic vocabularies:<ref>''DELAB International Newsmagazine'', November 2005 {{ISSN link|1465-4814}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=June 2020|reason=No evidence that this magazine actually exists.}}

===Some loanwords===
*''Sanma'': Heaven or sky, from {{lang|ar|السماء}} {{transliteration|ar|as-samāʔ}}
*''Alubarika'': blessing, from {{lang|ar|البركة}} {{transliteration|ar|al-baraka}}
*''Alumaani'': wealth, money, resources, from {{lang|ar|المال}} {{transliteration|ar|al-māl}}
*''[[Amen#Islam|Amin]]:'' Arabic form of the Hebrew religious term [[Amen]], from {{lang|ar|آمین}} {{transliteration|ar|ʔāmīn}}
Some common Arabic words used in Yoruba are names of the days such as ''Atalata'' ({{lang|ar|الثلاثاء}}) for Tuesday, ''Alaruba'' ({{lang|ar|الأربعاء}}) for Wednesday, ''Alamisi'' ({{lang|ar|الخميس}}) for Thursday, and ''Jimoh'' ({{lang|ar|الجمعة}}, [[Jumu'ah]]) for Friday. By far, ''Ọjọ́ Jimoh'' is the most favourably used. This is because ''eti'', the Yoruba word for Friday, means 'delay'. This is an unpleasant word for Friday, ''Ẹtì'', which also implies failure, laziness, or abandonment.<ref>A lecture by Abu-Abdullah Adelabu of AWQAF Africa, London titled: "The History Of Islam in 'The Black History'" ''DELAB International Newsmagazine'', April 2003 {{ISSN link|1465-4814}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=June 2020|reason=No evidence that this magazine exists.}} Ultimately, the standard words for the days of the week are Àìkú, Ajé, Ìṣẹ́gun, Ọjọ́rú, Ọjọ́bọ, Ẹtì, Àbámẹ́ta, for Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday respectively. Friday remains Eti in the Yoruba language.

== Literature ==
{{main|Yoruba literature}}

=== Spoken literature ===
•[[Odu Ifa]], •[[Oriki]], •[[Ewi]], •Esa, •Àlọ́, •Rara, •Iremoje, •[[Bolojo]], •Ijala, •Ajangbode, •Ijeke, Alámọ̀

=== Written literature ===
{{Expand section|date=August 2021}}
* [[Samuel Ajayi Crowther]]
* [[Wande Abimbola]]
* [[Samuel Johnson (Nigerian historian)|Reverend Samuel Johnson]]
* [[Yemi Elebuibon]]
* [[Daniel Olorunfemi Fagunwa]]
* [[Adebayo Faleti]]
* [[Akinwunmi Isola]]
* [[Obo Aba Hisanjani]]
* [[Duro Ladipo]]
* [[J.F. Odunjo]]
* [[Afolabi Olabimtan]]
* [[Wole Soyinka]]
* [[Amos Tutuola]]
* [[Láwuyì Ògúnníran|Lawuyi Ogunniran]]
* [[Kola Tubosun]]

As of 2024, the {{ill|Yoruba Wikipedia|yo|Wikipẹ́díà l'édè Yorùbá}} is the most visited website in Yoruba.<ref name="The Nation 17 February 2024">{{cite news |title=Yoruba Wikipedia hits 25 million views in 2023 |url=https://thenationonlineng.net/yoruba-wikipedia-hits-25-million-views-in-2023/ |access-date=18 February 2024 |work=[[The Nation (Nigeria)|The Nation]] |date=17 February 2024}}</ref>

==Music==
{{unsourced section|date=October 2024}}
* [[Ibeyi]], Cuban francophone sister duo, often sing in [[Lucumí language|Lucumí]], a liturgical variety of Yoruba used in [[Santería]].
* [[Sakara music|Sakara]], a Yoruba song originating from [[Abeokuta]], Ogun Nigeria. One of the first performers of this type of music was in Lagos in the 1930s.
* [[Apala]], Apala (or Akpala) is a percussion-based music genre originally developed by the Yoruba people of Nigeria during the country's history as a colony of the British Empire. It originated in the late 1970s.
* [[Fuji music|Fuji]], a popular, contemporary Yoruba musical genre.
* [[Jùjú music|Jùjú]], a style of Nigerian popular music derived from traditional Yoruba percussion.
* Àpíìrì, a popular music common among Ido and Igbole Ekiti environs of Ekiti State. The musical instruments usually consist of beaded Calabash gourds and gongs supported with harmonic lyrics
* [[Fela Kuti]], [[Afrobeat]] creator

==See also==
{{Portal|Languages|Africa|Nigeria}}
* [[Yoruba numerals]]

== Notes and references ==

=== Notes ===
{{reflist}}

=== References ===
*{{cite book | author=Adetugbọ, Abiọdun | year=1982  | chapter=Towards a Yoruba Dialectology | editor=Afọlayan | title=Yoruba Language and Literature | pages=207–224 }}
*{{cite book | editor=Afọlayan, Adebisi | year=1982 | title=Yoruba language and literature | publisher=University of Ifẹ Press / Ibadan University Press | location=Ifẹ / Ibadan }}
*{{cite journal | author=Ajayi, J.F. Ade | year=1960 | title=How Yoruba was Reduced to Writing | journal=Odu: A Journal of Yoruba, Ẹdo and Related Studies | issue=8 | pages=49–58 }}
*{{cite journal | author = Bamgboṣe, Ayọ | year=1965a | title=Assimilation and contraction in Yoruba | journal=Journal of West African Languages | issue=2 | pages=21–27 }}
*{{cite book | author = Bamgboṣe, Ayọ | year=1965b | title=Yoruba Orthography | publisher=Ibadan University Press | location=Ibadan }}
*{{cite book | author = Bamgboṣe, Ayọ | year = 1969 | title = Twelve Nigerian Languages | chapter = Yoruba | editor = Elizabeth Dunstan | pages = 166 | publisher = Africana Publishing Corp | location = New York | isbn = 0-8419-0031-0}}
*{{cite book | author= Fagborun, J. Gbenga | year=1994 | title= The Yoruba Koiné – ''Its History and Linguistic Innovations''  | others= LINCOM Linguistic Edition vol. 6. | publisher= LINCOM Europe | location= München/Newcastle | isbn = 3-929075-47-4}}
*{{cite book | author=Fresco, Max | year=1970 | title=Topics in Yoruba Dialect Phonology | others=(Studies in African Linguistics Supplement Vol. 1) | publisher=University of California, Dept. of Linguistics/ASC | location=Los Angeles }}
*{{cite book | author=Ladipọ, Duro | year=1972 | title=Ọba kò so (The king did not hang) &mdash; Opera by Duro Ladipọ | others=(Transcribed and translated by R.G. Armstrong, Robert L. Awujọọla and Val Ọlayẹmi from a tape recording by R. Curt Wittig) | publisher=Institute of African Studies, University of Ibadan | location=Ibadan }}
*Oyètádé, B. Akíntúndé & Buba, Malami (2000) 'Hausa Loan Words in Yorùbá', in Wolff & Gensler (eds.) ''Proceedings of the 2nd WoCAL, Leipzig 1997'', Köln: Rüdiger Köppe, 241–260.
*{{cite book | author = Oyenuga, Soji www.YorubaForKidsAbroad.com | year = 2007 | title = Yoruba For Kids Abroad – Learn Yoruba In 27 Days| chapter = Yoruba | editor = Soji and Titi Oyenuga | pages = 27 days | publisher = Gaptel Innovative Solutions Inc | location = Saskatoon, Canada }}

==== History ====
*{{cite book |first=Abiọdun |last=Adetugbọ |chapter=The Yoruba Language in Yoruba History |title=Sources of Yoruba History |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/sourcesofyorubah0000biob |chapter-url-access=registration |editor-first=Saburi O. |editor-last=Biobaku |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1973 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sourcesofyorubah0000biob/page/176 176–204] |isbn=0-19-821669-6 }}
*{{cite book | author=Hair, P.E.H. | year=1967 | title=The Early Study of Nigerian Languages | chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/earlystudyofnige0000hair | chapter-url-access=registration | chapter=The Early Study of Yoruba, 1825{{ndash}}1850 | publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | location=Cambridge }}
*{{cite book | author=Law, R.C.C. | year=1973a | chapter=Contemporary Written Sources | editor=Biobaku, S.O. | title=Sources of Yoruba History | url=https://archive.org/details/sourcesofyorubah0000biob | url-access=registration | pages=[https://archive.org/details/sourcesofyorubah0000biob/page/9 9]–24 | publisher=Oxford, Clarendon Press | isbn=978-0-19-821669-8 }}
*{{cite book | author=Law, R.C.C. | year=1973b | chapter= Traditional History | editor=Biobaku, S.O. | title=Sources of Yoruba History | url=https://archive.org/details/sourcesofyorubah0000biob | url-access=registration | pages=[https://archive.org/details/sourcesofyorubah0000biob/page/25 25]–40 | publisher=Oxford, Clarendon Press | isbn=978-0-19-821669-8 }}

==== Dictionaries ====
*{{cite book | author=Abraham, Roy Clive | year=1958 | title=Dictionary of Modern Yoruba | publisher=University of London Press | location=London }}
*{{cite book | author=CMS (Canon C.W. Wakeman, ed.) | year=1950 |orig-year=1937 | title=A Dictionary of the Yoruba language | publisher=University Press | location=Ibadan }}
*{{cite book | author=Delanọ, Oloye Isaac | year=1958 | title=Atúmọ̀ ede Yoruba [short dictionary and grammar of the Yoruba language] | publisher=Oxford University Press | location=London }}
*{{cite book | author=Sachnine, Michka | year=1997 | title=Dictionnaire yorùbá-français, suivi d'un index français-yorùbâ | publisher=Karthala | location=Paris }}

==== Grammars and sketches ====
* [https://afranaphproject.afranaphdatabase.com/images/stories/downloads/casefiles/YorubaGS.pdf Adesola, Oluseye (2005). ''Yoruba: A Grammar Sketch. Version 1.0.'' The Afranaph Project.]
*{{cite book | author=Adéwọlé, L.O. | year=2000 | title=Beginning Yorùbá (Part I) | others=Monograph Series no. 9 | publisher=CASAS | location=Cape Town }}
*{{cite book | author=Adéwọlé, L.O. | year=2001 | title=Beginning Yorùbá (Part II) | others=Monograph Series no. 10 | publisher=CASAS | location=Cape Town }}
*{{cite book | author= Bamgboṣe, Ayọ | year=1966 | title=A Grammar of Yoruba | others=[West African Languages Survey / Institute of African Studies] | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location= Cambridge }}
*{{cite book |last1=Barber |first1=Karin |author-link= Karin Barber |title=Yorùbá Dùn ún So: a beginners' course in Yorùbá |date=1985 |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven |isbn=978-0300029581 |edition=1st}}
*{{cite book | author=Bowen, Thomas Jefferson | title="Grammar and Dictionary of the Yoruba Language: With an Introductory Description of the Country and People of Yoruba" | year = 1858 }} [https://archive.org/details/grammardictionar00bowerich Available at the Internet Archive.]
*{{cite book | author=Crowther, Samuel Ajayi | title=Yoruba Grammar | publisher=London | year=1852 }} The first grammar of Yoruba. [https://archive.org/details/agrammaryorubal00crowgoog Available at the Internet Archive.]
*{{cite book | author=Rowlands, E.C. | year=1969 | title=Teach Yourself Yoruba | publisher=The English Universities Press | location=London }}
*{{cite book | author=Ward, Ida | author-link=Ida Ward | year=1952 | title=An introduction to the Yoruba language | publisher=W. Heffer & Sons | location=Cambridge }}
*{{cite book |author1=Yetunde, Antonia  |author2=Schleicher, Folarin  |name-list-style=amp | year=2006 | title=Colloquial Yoruba | publisher=Taylor & Francis Ltd (Routledge) | location=London }}

== External links ==
{{commons category}}
{{Wikibooks|Yoruba}}
{{Wikivoyage|Yoruba phrasebook|Yoruba|a phrasebook}}
* [https://yo.wikipedia.org/ Yoruba Wikipedia]
* [https://www.omniglot.com/writing/yoruba.htm Omniglot: Yoruba orthography]
* [https://www.yorubadictionary.com/ Yoruba dictionary]
* [http://www.woaka.com/all/yo kasahorow Yoruba Dictionary]
* [http://oroede.sourceforge.net/ Ọrọ èdè Yorùbá] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402182521/http://oroede.sourceforge.net/ |date=2012-04-02 }}
* [http://yoruba.xLingua.net/yo/ lingua: Yoruba-Online-Dictionary English-Yoruba / Yoruba-English] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190108095755/http://yoruba.xlingua.net/yo/ |date=2019-01-08 }}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070712050138/http://media.revver.com/broadcast/28158/video.mov Sabere d'owo Yoruba video drama series]. Radio Abeokuta (2006).
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080402092742/http://www.panafril10n.org/wikidoc/pmwiki.php/PanAfrLoc/Yoruba Pan-African Localization] page for Yoruba
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120302065000/http://www.journalofwestafricanlanguages.org/Yoruba.aspx Journal of West African Languages: Yoruba]
* {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20130405214634/http://www.theyorubablog.com/ Yoruba blog (features bilingual texts in Yoruba and English, including folklore)]}}
* [http://www.abibitumikasa.com/forums/forumdisplay.php/907-Yoruba-Language-Resources Abibitumi Kasa Yorùbá Language Resources] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011125046/https://www.abibitumikasa.com/forums/forumdisplay.php/907-Yoruba-Language-Resources |date=2017-10-11 }}
* [https://coerll.utexas.edu/yemi/ Yorùbá Yé Mi – A Beginning Yorùbá Textbook]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=oXxBAAAAYAAJ A Vocabulary of the Yoruba Language]

{{Yoruba topics}}
{{Languages of Nigeria}}
{{Languages of Benin}}
{{Volta-Niger languages}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Yoruba language| ]]
[[Category:Analytic languages]]
[[Category:Isolating languages]]
[[Category:Languages of Benin]]
[[Category:Languages of Nigeria]]
[[Category:Subject–verb–object languages]]
[[Category:Whistled languages]]
[[Category:Yoruba culture|Language]]
[[Category:History of the Yoruba people|Language]]
[[Category:Yoruboid languages]]
[[Category:Languages of the Caribbean]]
[[Category:Languages of Trinidad and Tobago]]
[[Category:Languages of Jamaica]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]