View source for Ejective consonant

{{Short description|Consonantal sound}}
{{More citations needed|date=January 2010}}
{{IPA non-pulmonic consonants|clicks=no|implosives=no|audio=yes|class=floatright}}
{{IPA notice}}
In [[phonetics]], '''ejective consonants''' are usually [[voiceless]] [[consonants]] that are pronounced with a [[Airstream mechanism#Glottalic initiation|glottalic egressive airstream]]. In the phonology of a particular language, ejectives may contrast with [[Aspirated consonant|aspirated]], voiced and [[tenuis consonant]]s. Some languages have glottalized [[sonorants]] with [[creaky voice]] that pattern with ejectives phonologically, and other languages have ejectives that pattern with [[Implosive consonant|implosives]], which has led to phonologists positing a phonological class of [[glottalic consonant]]s, which includes ejectives.

==Description==
In producing an ejective, the [[stylohyoid muscle]] and [[digastric muscle]] contract, causing the [[hyoid bone]] and the connected glottis to rise, and the forward articulation (at the velum in the case of {{IPA|[kʼ]}}) is held, raising air pressure greatly in the mouth so when the oral articulators separate, there is a dramatic burst of air.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|2005|pp=147–148}}</ref> The [[Adam's apple]] may be seen moving when the sound is pronounced. In the languages in which they are more obvious, ejectives are often described as sounding like "spat" consonants, but ejectives are often quite weak. In some contexts and in some languages, they are easy to mistake for tenuis or even voiced stops.<ref name=Fallon>Fallon, 2002. ''The synchronic and diachronic phonology of ejectives''</ref> These weakly ejective articulations are sometimes called ''intermediates'' in older American linguistic literature and are notated with different phonetic symbols: {{angbr IPA|C!}} = strongly ejective, {{angbr IPA|Cʼ}} = weakly ejective. Strong and weak ejectives have not been found to be [[Phonemic contrast|contrastive]] in any natural language.

In strict, technical terms, ejectives are [[Airstream mechanism#Glottalic initiation|glottalic egressive]] consonants. The most common ejective is {{IPA|[kʼ]}} even if it is more difficult to produce than other ejectives like {{IPA|[tʼ]}} or {{IPA|[pʼ]}} because the auditory distinction between {{IPA|[kʼ]}} and {{IPA|[k]}} is greater than with other ejectives and voiceless consonants of the same [[place of articulation]].<ref name="ReferenceA">{{Harvcoltxt|Ladefoged|2005|p=148}}</ref> In proportion to the frequency of [[uvular consonant]]s, {{IPA|[qʼ]}} is even more common, as would be expected from the very small oral cavity used to pronounce a [[voiceless uvular stop]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} {{IPA|[pʼ]}}, on the other hand, is quite rare. That is the opposite pattern to what is found in the [[implosive consonant]]s, in which the bilabial is common and the velar is rare.<ref>{{Harvcoltxt|Greenberg|1970|p=?}}</ref>

Ejective fricatives are rare for presumably the same reason: with the air escaping from the mouth while the pressure is being raised, like inflating a leaky bicycle tire, it is harder to distinguish the resulting sound as salient as a {{IPA|[kʼ]}}.

==Occurrence==
Ejectives occur in about 20% of the world's languages.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> Ejectives that phonemically contrast with pulmonic consonants occur in about 15% of languages around the world. The occurrence of ejectives often correlates to languages in mountainous regions such as the [[Caucasus]] which forms an island of ejective languages. They are also found frequently in the [[East African Rift]] and the South African Plateau (see [[Geography of Africa]]). In the Americas, they are extremely common in the [[North American Cordillera]]. They also frequently occur throughout the [[Andes]] and [[Maya Mountains]]. Elsewhere, they are rare.

Language families that distinguish ejective consonants include:
* [[Afroasiatic languages]], especially in the [[Cushitic]] and [[Omotic]] branches, and in some languages of the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] ([[Ethiopian Semitic languages|Ethio-Semitic]] and [[Modern South Arabian languages|Modern South Arabian]]) and [[Chadic]] branches (e.g. [[Hausa language|Hausa]])
* All three families of the Caucasus: the [[Northwest Caucasian languages]] ([[Circassian languages|Circassian]], [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]] and [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]]); the [[Northeast Caucasian languages]] such as [[Chechen language|Chechen]] and [[Avar language|Avar]]; and the [[Kartvelian languages]] such as [[Georgian language|Georgian]]
* the [[Athabaskan languages|Athabaskan]], [[Siouan languages|Siouan]] and [[Salishan languages|Salishan]] families of North America along with the many diverse families of the Pacific Northwest from central [[California]] to [[British Columbia]]
*[[Mayan languages|Mayan family]], as well as neighboring [[Lencan languages]] and [[Xincan languages]]
*[[Aymaran languages|Aymaran family]]
* the southern varieties of [[Quechua languages|Quechua]] ([[Qusqu-Qullaw]])
* [[Puelche language|Puelche]] and [[Tehuelche language|Tehuelche]] of the [[Chonan languages]]
*[[Alacalufan languages|Alacalufan family]]
* [[Gumuz language|Gumuz]], [[Meʼen language|Meʼen]], [[Tʼwampa language|Tʼwampa]] and possibly other [[Nilo-Saharan languages]]
* [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]], [[Hadza language|Hadza]], and the [[Khoisan languages|Khoisan]] families of southern Africa
* [[Itelmen language|Itelmen]] of the [[Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages]]
* [[Yapese language|Yapese]] and [[Waima'a language|Waima'a]] of the [[Austronesian languages|Austronesian family]]
* [[Kunigami language|Kunigami]] and several [[Northern Ryukyuan languages|Northern Ryukyuan]] and [[Yaeyama language|Yaeyama]] varieties of the [[Japonic languages|Japonic-Ryukyuan family]]
According to the [[glottalic theory]], the [[Proto-Indo-European language]] had a series of ejectives (or, in some versions, [[Implosive consonant|implosives]]), but no extant Indo-European language has retained them.{{efn|The [[Western Indic languages|western]] and [[Northwestern Indic languages]] like [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] have [[implosive consonant|implosives]].}} Ejectives are found today in [[Ossetian language|Ossetian]] and some [[Armenian language|Armenian]] dialects only because of influence of the nearby [[Northeast Caucasian languages|Northeast Caucasian]] and/or [[Kartvelian languages|Kartvelian language]] families.

It had once been predicted that ejectives and implosives would not be found in the same language{{citation needed|date=August 2012}} but both have been found phonemically at several points of articulation in [[Nilo-Saharan languages]] ([[Gumuz language|Gumuz]], [[Me'en language|Me'en]], and [[T'wampa language|T'wampa]]), [[Mayan language]] ([[Yucatec language|Yucatec]]), [[Salishan]] ([[Lushootseed language|Lushootseed]]), and the [[Oto-Manguean]] [[Mazahua language|Mazahua]]. [[Nguni languages]], such as [[Zulu language|Zulu]] have an implosive ''b'' alongside a series of allophonically ejective stops. [[Dahalo language|Dahalo]] of [[Kenya]], has ejectives, implosives, and [[click consonants]].

Non-contrastively, ejectives are found in many varieties of [[British English]], usually replacing word-final fortis plosives in utterance-final or emphatic contexts.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Wells |first1=J.C. |last2=Colson |first2=G. |title=Practical Phonetics |date=1971 |publisher=Pitman |isbn=9780273016816 |page=3}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Wells |first1=John Christopher |title=Accents of English (vol. 1) |date=1982 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0521297192 |page=261}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Cruttenden |first1=Alan |title=Gimson's Pronunciation of English |date=2008 |publisher=Hodder Education |isbn=978-0340958773 |page=167 |edition=7th}}</ref>

==Types==
Almost all ejective consonants in the world's languages are [[Stop consonant|stop]]s or [[affricate]]s, and all ejective consonants are [[obstruent]]s. {{IPA|[kʼ]}} is the most common ejective, and {{IPA|[qʼ]}} is common among languages with [[uvular consonant|uvulars]], {{IPA|[tʼ]}} less so, and {{IPA|[pʼ]}} is uncommon. Among affricates, {{IPA|[tsʼ], [tʃʼ], [tɬʼ]}} are all quite common, and {{IPA|[kxʼ]}} and {{IPA|[ʈʂʼ]}} are not unusual ({{IPA|[kxʼ]}} is particularly common among the [[Khoisan languages]], where it is the ejective equivalent of {{IPA|/k/}}).

{|class=wikitable
|+Attested ejective consonants<ref>Bickford & Floyd (2006) ''Articulatory Phonetics'', Table 25.1, augmented by sources at the articles on individual consonants</ref><br><small>(excluding [[ejective click (disambiguation)|ejective click]]s and secondary articulations)</small>
|- align=center
!
! [[Bilabial consonant|Bilabial]]
! [[Labiodental consonant|Labio-<br>dental]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Labial-alveolar consonant|Labial-<br>alveolar]]
! [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-<br>alveolar]]
! [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]]
! [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo-<br>palatal]]
! [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
! [[Uvular consonant|Uvular]]
! [[Pharyngeal consonant|Epi-<br>glottal]]
|- align=center
! [[Stop consonant|Stop]]<br><small>(voiced)</small>
| {{IPA link|pʼ}}
|
|{{IPA link|t̪ʼ}}
|{{IPA link|tʼ}}
|{{IPA link|t͡pʼ}}{{efn|In [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]]; in free variation with {{IPA|[tʷʼ]}}; also found in Abkhaz in free variation with {{IPA|[tʷʼ]}}.}}
|
|{{IPA link|ʈʼ}}
|
|{{IPA link|cʼ}}
|{{IPA|{{IPAplink|kʼ}} <br>{{nowrap|ɡ͡kʼ}}}}
|{{IPA|{{IPAplink|qʼ}} <br>{{nowrap|ɢ͡qʼ}}}}
|{{IPA link|ʡʼ}}
|- align=center
! [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]<br><small>(voiced)</small>
|
|{{IPA link|p̪fʼ}}
|{{IPA link|t̪θʼ}}
|{{IPA|{{IPAplink|tsʼ}} <br>{{nowrap|d͡tsʼ}}}}
|
|{{IPA|{{IPAplink|tʃʼ}} <br>{{nowrap|d͡tʃʼ}}}}
|{{IPA link|ʈʂʼ}}
|{{IPA link|tɕʼ}}
|
|{{IPA|{{IPAplink|kxʼ}} <br>{{nowrap|ɡ͡kxʼ}}}}
|{{IPA|{{IPAplink|qχʼ}} <br>{{nowrap|ɢ͡qχʼ}}}}
|
|- align=center
![[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]
|{{IPA link|ɸʼ}}
|{{IPA link|fʼ}}
|{{IPA link|θʼ}}
|{{IPA link|sʼ}}
|
|{{IPA link|ʃʼ}}
|{{IPA link|ʂʼ}}
|{{IPA link|ɕʼ}}
|
|{{IPA link|xʼ}}
|{{IPA link|χʼ}}
|
|-align=center
![[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]&nbsp;[[affricate]]
|style="background:#ccc" colspan="2" rowspan="2"|
|
|{{IPA link|tɬʼ}}
|style="background:#ccc" rowspan="2"|
|
|
|
|{{IPA link|c𝼆ʼ}} ({{IPA|cʎ̝̊ʼ}})
|{{IPA link|k𝼄ʼ}} ({{IPA|kʟ̝̊ʼ}})
|
|style="background:#ccc" rowspan="2"|
|-align=center
![[Lateral consonant|Lateral]]&nbsp;[[Fricative consonant|fricative]]
|
|{{IPA link|ɬʼ}}
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-align=center
![[Trill consonant|Trill]]
| colspan="9" | (theoretical)
|style="background:#ccc"|
| colspan="2" |
|- align=center
! [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| colspan="11" | (theoretical)
|style="background:#ccc" |
|}

A few languages have ejective fricatives. In some dialects of [[Hausa language|Hausa]], the standard affricate {{IPA|[tsʼ]}} is a fricative {{IPA|[sʼ]}}; [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] (Northwest Caucasian, now extinct) had an ejective lateral fricative {{IPA|[ɬʼ]}}; and the related [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]] also has ejective labiodental and alveolopalatal fricatives, {{IPA|[fʼ], [ʃʼ], and [ɬʼ]}}. [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]] is an extreme case, with ejective alveolar, lateral, velar, and uvular fricatives, {{IPA|[sʼ], [ɬʼ], [xʼ], [xʷʼ], [χʼ], [χʷʼ]}}; it may be the only language with the last type. [[Totonacan languages|Upper Necaxa Totonac]] is unusual and perhaps unique in that it has ejective fricatives (alveolar, lateral, and postalveolar {{IPA|[sʼ], [ʃʼ], [ɬʼ]}}) but lacks any ejective stop or affricate (Beck 2006). Other languages with ejective fricatives are [[Yuchi language|Yuchi]], which some sources analyze as having {{IPA|[ɸʼ], [sʼ], [ʃʼ], and [ɬʼ]}} (but not the analysis of the Wikipedia article), [[Keresan languages|Keres dialects]], with {{IPA|[sʼ], [ʂʼ] and [ɕʼ]}}, {{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} and [[Lakota language|Lakota]], with {{IPA|[sʼ], [ʃʼ], and [xʼ]}} .{{citation needed|date=November 2011}} [[Amharic]] is interpreted by many as having an ejective fricative {{IPA|[sʼ]}}, at least historically, but it has been also analyzed as now being a sociolinguistic variant (Takkele Taddese 1992).

An ejective retroflex stop {{IPA|[ʈʼ]}} is rare. It has been reported from [[Yawelmani language|Yawelmani]] and other [[Yokutsan languages|Yokuts languages]], [[Tolowa language|Tolowa]], and [[Gwich'in language|Gwich'in]].

{{anchor|Voiced ejective}}Because the complete closing of the glottis required to form an ejective makes voicing impossible, the allophonic voicing of ejective phonemes causes them to lose their glottalization; this occurs in [[Blin language|Blin]] (modal voice) and [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]] (creaky voice). A similar historical sound change also occurred in [[Veinakh languages|Veinakh]] and [[Lezgic languages|Lezgic]] in the Caucasus, and it has been postulated by the [[glottalic theory]] for Indo-European.<ref name=Fallon/> Some [[Khoisan languages]] have voiced ejective stops and [[ejective-contour click|voiced ejective clicks]]; however, they actually contain [[contour (linguistics)|mixed voicing]], and the ejective release is voiceless.

{{vanchor|Ejective trill}}s aren't attested in any language, even allophonically. An ejective {{IPA|[rʼ]}} would necessarily be voiceless,<ref>John Esling (2010) "Phonetic Notation", in Hardcastle, Laver & Gibbon (eds) ''The Handbook of Phonetic Sciences'', 2nd ed., p 700.</ref> but the vibration of the trill, combined with a lack of the intense voiceless airflow of {{IPA|[r̥]}}, gives an impression like that of voicing. Similarly, ejective nasals such as {{IPA|[mʼ, nʼ, ŋʼ]}} (also necessarily voiceless) are possible.<ref>Barker, M. A. R. (1963a).</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=March 2024}}<ref>Heselwood (2013: 148)</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=March 2024}} (An apostrophe is commonly seen with ''r'', ''l'' and nasals, but that is [[Americanist phonetic notation]] for a [[glottalized consonant]] and does not indicate an ejective.<!--Laver (1994) ''Principles of Phonetics'' (p. 241) was tricked by the notation into thinking Salishan languages have ejective trills, and described the Columbian <r'> as an "ejective trilled stop".-->)

Other ejective [[sonorant]]s are not known to occur. When sonorants are transcribed with an apostrophe in the literature as if they were ejective, they actually involve a different airstream mechanism: they are [[glottalic consonant|glottalized]] consonants and vowels whose glottalization partially or fully interrupts an otherwise normal voiced pulmonic airstream, somewhat like English ''uh-uh'' (either vocalic or nasal) pronounced as a single sound. Often the constriction of the larynx causes it to rise in the vocal tract, but this is individual variation and not the initiator of the airflow. Such sounds generally remain voiced.<ref>Esling, John H.; Moisik, Scott R.; Benner, Allison; Crevier-Buchman, Lise (2019). Voice Quality: The Laryngeal Articulator Model. Cambridge University Press.</ref>

[[Yeyi language|Yeyi]] has a set of prenasalized ejectives like /ⁿtʼ, ᵑkʼ, ⁿtsʼ/.

==Orthography==
In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], ejectives are indicated with a "modifier letter apostrophe" {{angbr|'''ʼ'''}}, as in this article. A reversed apostrophe is sometimes used to represent light aspiration, as in [[Armenian language|Armenian]] linguistics {{angbr IPA|pʻ tʻ kʻ}}; this usage is obsolete in the IPA. In other transcription traditions (such as many [[Romanization of Russian|romanisations of Russian]], where it is transliterating the [[soft sign]]), the apostrophe represents [[Palatalization (phonetics)|palatalization]]: {{angbr IPA|pʼ}} = IPA {{angbr IPA|pʲ}}. In some [[Americanist phonetic notation|Americanist traditions]], an apostrophe indicates weak ejection and an exclamation mark strong ejection: {{angbr IPA|k̓ , k!}}. In the IPA, the distinction might be written {{angbr IPA|kʼ, kʼʼ}}, but it seems that no language distinguishes degrees of ejection. Transcriptions of the Caucasian languages often utilize combining dots above or below a letter to indicate an ejective.

In alphabets using the Latin script, an IPA-like apostrophe for ejective consonants is common. However, there are other conventions. In [[Hausa language|Hausa]], the hooked letter [[ƙ]] is used for {{IPA|/kʼ/}}. In [[Zulu language|Zulu]] and [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]], whose ejection is variable between speakers, plain consonant letters are used: ''p t k ts tsh kr'' for {{IPA|/pʼ tʼ kʼ tsʼ tʃʼ kxʼ/}}. In some conventions for [[Haida language|Haida]] and [[Hadza language|Hadza]], double letters are used: ''tt kk qq ttl tts'' for {{IPA|/tʼ kʼ qʼ tɬʼ tsʼ/}} (Haida) and ''zz jj dl gg'' for {{IPA|1=/tsʼ tʃʼ c𝼆ʼ kxʼ/}} (Hadza).

==List==
===Stops===
*[[bilabial ejective stop]] {{audio-IPA|bilabial ejective plosive.ogg|[pʼ]|help=no}} (in [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]], [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]], [[Amharic language|Amharic]], [[Archi language|Archi]], [[Chechen language|Chechen]], [[Ingush language|Ingush]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]], [[Laz language|Laz]], [[Svan language|Svan]], [[Hadza language|Hadza]], [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]], [[Lezgian language|Lezgian]], [[Lakota language|Lakota]], [[Nez Perce language|Nez Perce]], [[Quechua languages|Quechua]], [[Tigrinya language|Tigrinya]], [[Zulu language|Zulu]])
**labialized bilabial ejective stop {{audio-IPA|labialized bilabial ejective.ogg|[pʷʼ]|help=no}} (in Adyghe)
**pharyngealized bilabial ejective stop {{IPA|[pˤʼ]}} (in Ubykh)
*[[dental ejective stop]] {{IPA|[t̪ʼ]}} (in [[Dahalo language|Dahalo]], Lakota,{{citation needed|date=June 2015}} Tigrinya){{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
*[[alveolar ejective stop]] {{audio-IPA|alveolar ejective plosive.ogg|[tʼ]|help=no}} (in Abkhaz, [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]], Amharic, Archi, [[Avar language|Avar]], Bats, [[Chechen language|Chechen]], [[Ingush language|Ingush]], [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]], [[Laz language|Laz]], [[Svan language|Svan]], [[Gwich’in language|Gwich’in]], Nez Perce, Quechua, [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], Zulu)
**labialized alveolar ejective stop {{audio-IPA|labialized alveolar ejective.ogg|[tʷʼ]|help=no}} (in Abkhaz, Adyghe, [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]])
**labial–velar ejective stop {{audio-IPA|labialized alveolar ejective.ogg|[tpʼ]|help=no}} (in Abkhaz, Ubykh)
*[[retroflex ejective stop]] {{IPA|[ʈʼ]}} (in Gwich’in)
*[[palatal ejective stop]] {{audio-IPA|palatal ejective.ogg|[cʼ]|help=no}} (in Bats, [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Gǀui dialect|Giwi]], Nez Perce)
*[[velar ejective stop]] {{audio-IPA|velar ejective plosive.ogg|[kʼ]|help=no}} (in Abaza, Abkhaz, [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]], Amharic, Archi, Avar, [[Bats language|Bats]], [[Chechen language|Chechen]], [[Ingush language|Ingush]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]], [[Laz language|Laz]], [[Svan language|Svan]], [[Gǀui dialect|Giwi]], Gwich’in, Hausa, Kabardian, Lakota, Nez Perce, Quechua, [[Sandawe language|Sandawe]], Tigrinya, [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], Zulu)
**palatalized velar ejective stop {{audio-IPA|palatalized velar ejective.ogg|[kʲʼ]|help=no}} (in Abaza, Abkhaz, [[Shapsug Adyghe dialect|Shapsug]], Ubykh)
**labialized velar ejective stop {{audio-IPA|labialized velar ejective.ogg|[kʷʼ]|help=no}} (in [[Abaza language|Abaza]], Abkhaz, [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]], Archi, [[Kabardian language|Kabardian]], [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], Ubykh)
*[[uvular ejective stop]] {{audio-IPA|uvular ejective stop.ogg|[qʼ]|help=no}} (in Abaza, Abkhaz, Archi, Bats, Chechen, Ingush, [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]], [[Laz language|Laz]], [[Svan language|Svan]], [[Hakuchi Adyghe dialect|Hakuchi]], Nez Perce, Quechua, [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]])
**palatalized uvular ejective stop {{IPA|[qʲʼ]}} (in Abaza, Abkhaz, Ubykh)
**labialized uvular ejective stop {{audio-IPA|labialized uvular ejective.ogg|[qʷʼ]|help=no}} (in Abaza, Abkhaz, Archi, [[Hakuchi Adyghe dialect|Hakuchi]], [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], Ubykh)
**pharyngealized uvular ejective stop {{IPA|[qˤʼ]}} (in Archi, Ubykh)
**labialized pharyngealized uvular ejective stop {{IPA|[qˤʷʼ]}} (in [[Archi language|Archi]], [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]])
*[[epiglottal ejective]] {{audio-IPA|epiglottal ejective.ogg|[ʡʼ]|help=no}} (in [[Dargwa language|Dargwa]])

===Affricates===
*[[labiodental ejective affricate]] {{IPA|[p̪fʼ]}} (in [[Venda language|Venda]])
*[[dental ejective affricate]] {{IPA|[tθʼ]}} (in Chipewyan, Gwich’in)
*[[alveolar ejective affricate]] {{audio-IPA|alveolar ejective affricate.ogg|[tsʼ]|help=no}} (in Abaza, Abkhaz, Adyghe, Amharic, Archi, Avar, [[Chechen language|Chechen]], [[Ingush language|Ingush]], [[Bats language|Bats]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]], [[Laz language|Laz]], [[Svan language|Svan]], [[Gǀui dialect|Giwi]], Gwich’in, Hadza, Hausa, Kabardian, Sandawe, Tigrinya, [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], Ubykh)
**labialized alveolar ejective affricate {{IPA|[t͡sʷʼ]}} (in Archi)
*[[palato-alveolar ejective affricate]] {{audio-IPA|palato-alveolar ejective affricate.ogg|[tʃʼ]|help=no}} (in Abaza, Abkhaz, Adyghe, Amharic, Archi, Avar, Chechen, Ingush, Bats, Chipewyan, [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Mingrelian language|Mingrelian]], [[Laz language|Laz]], [[Svan language|Svan]], Gwich’in, Hadza, Hausa, Kabardian, Lakota, Quechua, Tigrinya, [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], Ubykh, Zulu)
**labialized palato-alveolar ejective affricate {{IPA|[t͡ʃʷʼ]}} (in Abaza, Archi)
*[[retroflex ejective affricate]] {{audio-IPA|retroflex ejective affricate.ogg|[ʈ͡ʂʼ]|help=no}} (in Abkhaz, Adyghe, Ubykh)
*[[alveolo-palatal ejective affricate]] {{IPA|[t͡ɕʼ]}} (in Abaza, Abkhaz, Ubykh)
**labialized alveolo-palatal ejective affricate {{IPA|[t͡ɕʷʼ]}} (in Abkhaz, Ubykh)
*[[palatal ejective affricate]] {{audio-IPA|palatal ejective affricate.ogg|[cçʼ]|help=no}}
*[[velar ejective affricate]] {{audio-IPA|velar ejective affricate.ogg|[kxʼ]|help=no}} (in Hadza, Zulu)
*[[uvular ejective affricate]] {{audio-IPA|uvular ejective affricate.ogg|[qχʼ]|help=no}} (in Avar, [[Gǀui dialect|Giwi]], Lillooet)
*[[alveolar lateral ejective affricate]] {{audio-IPA|alveolar lateral ejective affricate.ogg|[tɬʼ]|help=no}} (in [[Besleney#Language|Baslaney]], Chipewyan, Dahalo, Gwich’in, Haida, Lillooet, Nez Perce, Sandawe, [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], Tsez)
*[[palatal lateral ejective affricate]] {{IPA|[c͡𝼆ʼ]}} (in Dahalo, Hadza)
*[[velar lateral ejective affricate]] {{audio-IPA|velar lateral ejective affricate.ogg|[k͡𝼄ʼ]|help=no}} (in Archi, Gǀui)
**labialized velar lateral ejective affricate {{IPA|[k͡𝼄ʷʼ]}} (in Archi)
*[[uvular lateral ejective affricate]] {{IPA|[q𝼄̠ʼ]}} (in Gǀui, ǂʼAmkoe)

===Fricatives===
*[[bilabial ejective fricative]] {{IPA|[ɸʼ]}}
*[[labiodental ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|labiodental ejective fricative.ogg|[fʼ]|help=no}} (in Abaza, Kabardian)
*[[dental ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|dental ejective fricative.ogg|[θʼ]|help=no}} (in [[Chiwere language|Chiwere]])
*[[alveolar ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|alveolar ejective fricative.ogg|[sʼ]|help=no}} (in Chiwere, Lakota, [[Shapsug Adyghe dialect|Shapsug]], [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]])
*[[alveolar lateral ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|alveolar lateral ejective fricative.ogg|[ɬʼ]|help=no}} (in Abaza, Adyghe, Kabardian, [[Tlingit language|Tlingit]], Ubykh)
*[[palato-alveolar ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|palato-alveolar ejective fricative.ogg|[ʃʼ]|help=no}} (in Adyghe, Lakota)
**labialized palato-alveolar ejective fricative {{audio-IPA|labialized palato-alveolar ejective fricative.ogg|[ʃʷʼ]|help=no}} (in Adyghe)
*[[retroflex ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|retroflex ejective fricative.ogg|[ʂʼ]|help=no}} (in [[Keres language|Keres]])
*[[alveolo-palatal ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|alveolo-palatal ejective fricative.ogg|[ɕʼ]|help=no}} (in Kabardian)
*[[palatal ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|palatal ejective fricative.ogg|[çʼ]|help=no}}
*[[velar ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|velar ejective fricative.ogg|[xʼ]|help=no}} (in Tlingit)
**labialized velar ejective fricative {{IPA|[xʷʼ]}} (in Tlingit)
*[[uvular ejective fricative]] {{audio-IPA|uvular ejective fricative.ogg|[χʼ]|help=no}} (in Tlingit)
**labialized uvular ejective fricative {{IPA|[χʷʼ]}} (in Tlingit)

===Clicks===
*[[Glottalized click#Ejective clicks|Simple ejective clicks]] {{IPA|[kʘʼ], [kǀʼ], [kǁʼ], [kǃʼ], [kǂʼ]}} (all five in [[ǂ’Amkoe language|ǂ’Amkoe]])
*[[Ejective-contour click]]s
::{{IPA|[ʘqʼ ǀqʼ ǁqʼ ǃqʼ ǂqʼ]}}
::{{IPA|[ʘ̬qʼ ǀ̬qʼ ǁ̬qʼ ǃ̬qʼ ǂ̬qʼ]}}
::{{IPA|[ʘqχʼ ǀqχʼ ǁqχʼ ǃqχʼ ǂqχʼ}} ~ {{IPA|ʘkxʼ ǀkxʼ ǁkxʼ ǃkxʼ ǂkxʼ}} ~ {{IPA|ʘk𝼄ʼ ǀk𝼄ʼ ǁk𝼄ʼ ǃk𝼄ʼ ǂk𝼄ʼ}}
::{{IPA|[ʘ̬qχʼ ǀ̬qχʼ ǁ̬qχʼ ǃ̬qχʼ ǂ̬qχʼ}} ~ {{IPA|ʘ̬kxʼ ǀ̬kxʼ ǁ̬kxʼ ǃ̬kxʼ ǂ̬kxʼ}} ~ {{IPA|ʘ̬k𝼄ʼ ǀ̬k𝼄ʼ ǁ̬k𝼄ʼ ǃ̬k𝼄ʼ ǂ̬k𝼄ʼ}}

==The Mountain Hypothesis==
A pattern can be observed wherein ejectives correlate geographically with mountainous regions. {{Harvcoltxt|Everett|2013}} argues that the geographic correlation between languages with ejectives and mountainous terrains is because of decreased air pressure making ejectives easier to produce, as well as the way ejectives help to reduce water vapor loss. The argument has been criticized as being based on a [[spurious correlation]].{{sfnp|Liberman|2013}}{{sfnp|Lewis|Pereltsvaig|2013}}{{sfnp|Wier|2013}}

==See also==
*[[Glottalic consonant]]
*[[List of phonetics topics]]
*[[Beatboxing]]

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*{{cite journal | last1 = Beck | first1 = David | year = 2006 | title = The emergence of ejective fricatives in Upper Necaxa Totonac | url = | journal = University of Alberta Working Papers in Linguistics | volume = 1 | issue = | pages = 1–18 }}
*Campbell, Lyle. 1973. On Glottalic Consonants. ''International Journal of American Linguistics'' 39, 44–46. {{JSTOR|1264659}}
*Chirikba, V.A. Aspects of Phonological Typology. Moscow, 1991 (in Russian).
*{{Citation
|last=Everett
|first=Caleb
|year=2013
|title=Evidence for Direct Geographic Influences on Linguistic Sounds: The Case of Ejectives
|journal=[[PLOS One]]
|volume=8
|issue=6
|pages=e65275
|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0065275
|pmid=23776463
|pmc=3680446
|bibcode=2013PLoSO...865275E
|doi-access=free
}}
*Fallon, Paul. 2002. ''The Synchronic and Diachronic Phonology of Ejectives''. Routledge. {{ISBN|0-415-93800-7}}, {{ISBN|978-0-415-93800-6}}.
*{{cite journal | last=Hogan | first=John T. | title=An Analysis of the Temporal Features of Ejective Consonants | journal=Phonetica | publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH | volume=33 | issue=4 | date=1976-07-01 | issn=1423-0321 | doi=10.1159/000259776 | pages=275–284| s2cid=144724070 }}
*{{Citation
|last=Greenberg
|first=Joseph H.
|authorlink=Joseph Greenberg
|year=1970
|title=Some generalizations concerning glottalic consonants, especially implosives.
|journal=International Journal of American Linguistics
|volume=36
|issue=2
|pages=123–145
|doi=10.1086/465105
|s2cid=143225017
}}
*{{Citation
|last=Ladefoged
|first=Peter
|authorlink=Peter Ladefoged
|year=2005
|title=Vowels and Consonants
|edition=Second
|publisher=Blackwell
|isbn=0-631-21411-9
}}
*{{SOWL}}
*{{cite web
|last1=Lewis
|first1=Martin W.
|last2=Pereltsvaig
|first2=Asya
|authorlink2 = Asya Pereltsvaig
|date=17 June 2013
|url=http://geocurrents.info/cultural-geography/linguistic-geography/ejectives-high-altitudes-and-grandiose-linguistic-hypotheses
|title=Ejectives, High Altitudes, and Grandiose Linguistic Hypotheses
|work=GeoCurrents
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140417030330/http://geocurrents.info/cultural-geography/linguistic-geography/ejectives-high-altitudes-and-grandiose-linguistic-hypotheses
|archive-date=17 April 2014
|url-status=dead
}}
*{{cite web
|last=Liberman
|first=Mark
|date=14 June 2013
|url=https://languagelog.ldc.upenn.edu/nll/?p=4685
|title=High-altitude ejectives
|work=[[Language Log]]
}}
*{{cite journal | last=Lindau | first=Mona | title=Phonetic differences in glottalic consonants | journal=Journal of Phonetics | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=12 | issue=2 | year=1984 | issn=0095-4470 | doi=10.1016/s0095-4470(19)30861-7 | pages=147–155| doi-access= }}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Lindsey | first1 = Geoffrey | last2 = Hayward | first2 = Katrina | last3 = Haruna | first3 = Andrew | year = 1992 | title = Hausa Glottalic Consonants: A Laryngographic Study | url = | journal = Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies | volume = 55 | issue = 3| pages = 511–527 | doi = 10.1017/S0041977X00003682 | s2cid = 143934037 }}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Taddese | first1 = Takkele | year = 1992 | title = Are sʼ and tʼ variants of an Amharic variable? A sociolinguistic analysis | url = | journal = Journal of Ethiopian Languages and Literature | volume = 2 | issue = | pages = 104–21 }}
*{{cite news
|last=Wier
|first=Thomas
|date=19 June 2013
|url=https://dlc.hypotheses.org/507
|title=Ejectives, Altitude, and the Caucasus as a Linguistic Area
|work=Diversity Linguistics Comment
}}
*{{cite journal | last1 = Wright | first1 = Richard | last2 = Hargus | first2 = Sharon | last3 = Davis | first3 = Katharine | year = 2002 | title = On the categorization of ejectives: data from Witsuwit'en. | url = | journal = Journal of the International Phonetic Association | volume = 32 | issue = | pages = 43–77 | doi = 10.1017/S0025100302000142 | s2cid = 145579984 }}

==External links==
*[http://www.paulmeier.com/nonpulmonics/ Listen to Ejective Consonant]
*[http://wals.info/feature/7?tg_format=map&v1=cfff&v2=c00d&v3=cd00&v4=dff0&v5=c909&v6=d00d&v7=dd00&v8=d909 WALS map] of languages with ejectives (blue and purple)

{{IPA navigation}}
{{Articulation navbox}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ejectives| ]]