View source for 1 Maccabees

{{Short description|Biblical text about the Maccabean Revolt}}
{{Tanakh OT |deutero}}
'''1 Maccabees''',<ref group="note">{{langx|grc|Μακκαβαίων Αʹ|translit=Makkabaíōn 1}}</ref> also known as the '''First Book of Maccabees''', '''First Maccabees''', and abbreviated as '''1 Macc.''', is a [[deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical book]] which details the history of the [[Maccabean Revolt]] against the [[Seleucid Empire]] as well as the founding and earliest history of the independent [[Hasmonean kingdom]].  It describes the promulgation of decrees forbidding traditional Jewish practices by King [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] and the formation of a rebellion against him by [[Mattathias]] of the Hasmonean family and his five sons.  Mattathias's son [[Judas Maccabeus]] (Judah Maccabee) takes over the revolt and the rebels as a group are called the [[Maccabees]]; the book chronicles in detail the successes and setbacks of the rebellion.  While Judas is eventually killed in battle, the Maccabees eventually achieve autonomy and then independence for Judea under the leadership of the Hasmonean family.  Judas's brother [[Simon Thassi]] is declared High Priest by will of the Jewish people.  The time period described is from around 170 BC to 134 BC.

The author is anonymous, but he probably wrote in the newly independent Hasmonean kingdom after the success of the Maccabean Revolt in the late [[2nd century BC]].  1 Maccabees was probably written in [[Hebrew]] originally.  However, this original Hebrew has been lost, and the work only survives in translation in [[Koine Greek]] contained in the [[Septuagint]], the Greek version of the Jewish scriptures.  The Septuagint was preserved by [[early Christianity|early Christians]] as the basis for the Christian [[Old Testament]].  It became part of the deuterocanon in early Christianity.  The book is held as [[Biblical canon|canonical]] scripture today in the [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], and [[Oriental Orthodox]] churches (except for the [[Orthodox Tewahedo]]).  The book is not part of the [[Hebrew Bible]] (Tanakh) and is not considered canonical by [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations nor in any of the [[Jewish religious movements|major branches of Judaism]].  Some Protestants include the book as [[biblical apocrypha]], material useful for background and edification but that is not canonical.  [[Rabbinic Judaism]] generally disapproved of the rule of the Hasmonean dynasty, but the book is openly pro-Hasmonean, one of several factors for a lack of enthusiasm for the book within later Judaism.

1 Maccabees is best known for its account of the recapture of [[Jerusalem]] in the year 164 BC and rededication of the [[Second Temple]]: the origin behind the Jewish holiday of [[Hanukkah]].<ref>Gilad, E., [https://www.haaretz.com/jewish/the-revolt-of-the-maccabees-the-true-story-behind-hanukkah-1.5343197 The Revolt of the Maccabees: The True Story Behind Hanukkah], published 27 December 2019, accessed 9 December 2020</ref>

==Authorship and date==
The author of 1 Maccabees is anonymous and unknown.  He wrote in the post-independence Hasmonean kingdom, probably during the reign of High Priest [[John Hyrcanus]] (reigned ~134&ndash;104 BC), with a few scholars suggesting that early in the reign of [[Alexander Jannaeus]] (reigned 103&ndash;76 BC) is also a possibility.{{refn|group=note|Scholarly estimates for the date of authorship include:{{ubl|[[Seth Schwartz]] and [[Arnaldo Momigliano]] argue for "early" dates prior to 129 BC.  Reasons include a reference to the [[Kingdom of Pergamon]] being promised vast territory by Rome that would be obviously false in retrospect after Rome's annexation of Pergamon in 129, as well as insular attitudes suggesting a smaller kingdom with fewer Gentiles than later in Hyrcanus's reign.<ref>{{cite book |last=Momigliano |first=Arnaldo |author-link=Arnaldo Momigliano |date=1976 |title=L'Italie préromaine et la Rome républicaine. I. Mélanges offerts à Jacques Heurgon |publisher=[[École française de Rome]] |pages=657–661 |chapter=The date of the first Book of Maccabees |chapter-url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/efr_00000000_1976_ant_27_1_1828 |isbn=2-7283-0438-6 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Schwartz |first1=Seth |date=1991 |title=Israel and the Nations Roundabout: 1 Maccabees and the Hasmonean Expansion |journal=[[Journal of Jewish Studies]] |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=16–38 |doi=10.18647/1577/JJS-1991 |access-date=}}</ref>|
[[Bezalel Bar-Kochva]] also argues for an early date, and suggests before 125 BC, given the first-hand knowledge he sees of the Revolt in the work.{{sfn|Bar-Kochva|1989|pp=162-164}}|
[[Uriel Rappaport]] and [[Daniel R. Schwartz]] argue for the later years of Hyrcanus's rule.{{sfn|Rappaport|2001|loc=Author, Date, and Title}} Schwartz notes that the author condemns the "taking of crowns", suggesting the book was written before [[Aristobulus I]] declared himself king in 104&ndash;103 BC.{{sfn|Schwartz|2022|loc=Authorship and Date of Composition}}|
John R. Bartlett argues for somewhere between 110&ndash;90 BCE.{{sfn|Bartlett|1998|p=34}}|
[[Jonathan A. Goldstein]] believes 1 Maccabees was published during Alexander Jannaeus's reign (103–76 BC), but argues that the first half of it was heavily based on a lost "Common Source" that was written in the 150s BC while the Revolt was fresh in memory and [[Jonathan Apphus]] was the leader of the Maccabees.{{sfn|Goldstein|1976|pp=62-63}}<ref>{{cite book |last=Goldstein |first=Jonathan A. |author-link=Jonathan A. Goldstein |date=1983 |title=II Maccabees  |location=Garden City, NY |publisher=Doubleday |series=The Anchor Bible Series |isbn=0-385-04864-5 |volume=41A |pages=37–41; 48}}</ref>}}}}  All agree that the book was written before 63 BC, as the author shows great admiration toward Rome and does not know of the Roman general [[Pompey]] [[Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC)|conquering Jerusalem]] and reducing the Hasmonean kingdom to a client state of the Roman Republic in that year.{{sfn|Goldstein|1976|pp=62-63}}{{sfn|Rappaport|2001|loc=Author, Date, and Title}}  He was likely a [[court historian]] or equivalent.{{sfn|Rappaport|2001|loc=The Author's Views}}{{sfn|Schwartz|2022|loc=Title, Major Theme, and Structure}}  The author appears to be very familiar with Judea and its geography, but appears less well-informed about the wider Hellenistic world.{{sfn|Schwartz|2022|loc=Authorship and Date of Composition}}  The entire work is generally considered to be a unity composed by a single author on both [[philology|philological]] and thematic grounds, although there are occasional short passages sometimes contested as potentially being added at a later date.<ref>{{harvnb|Schwartz|2022|loc=Sources and Chronology}}.  Schwartz is citing Ettelson, Harry W. (1925).  ''The Integrity Of I Maccabees'', p. 257-260.</ref>{{sfn|Mendels|2021|loc=The Unity of 1 Maccabees}}

==Title==
[[File:Schnorr von Carolsfeld Bibel in Bildern 1860 155.png|thumb|Martyrs refusing to sacrifice to the Greek idol from ''[[commons:Die Bibel in Bildern|Die Bibel in Bildern]]'']]
The title "1 Maccabees" is not the original title of the work.  Rather, it comes from the [[Septuagint]], which gave it that title to distinguish it from the other [[books of the Maccabees]].  In the book itself, "Maccabee" is used solely as a personal title for Judah Maccabee (Latinized as [[Judas Maccabeus]]).   Judas's ''Maccabee'' title is generally tied to the [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] word ''maqqaba'' ("makebet" in modern [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]), "hammer" or "sledgehammer".  It is unknown how he got this [[epithet]]; most presume it was in recognition of his prowess in battle.<ref>{{harvnb|Tedesche|Zeitlin|1950|pp=250–251}}.  Zeitlin suggests it could also have been a physical characteristic, i.e. "Judah the Hammer-Headed."</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=MACCABEES, THE |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10236-maccabees-the|access-date=2020-11-19|website=Jewish Encyclopedia}}</ref>  The word "Maccabees" in plural, however, does not appear to have been used until centuries after the Maccabean Revolt. At first, it was used to describe the martyrs described in [[2 Maccabees]]. It later became a title given to the rebels as a whole around the 3rd–5th century AD, hence the Septuagint naming the works as books of the Maccabees.  This usage of "Maccabees" as a group-term may have originated in Greek, as no usage of it in Hebrew to refer to the rebels survives from any era earlier than the 19th century.{{sfn|Schwartz|2022|loc=Title, Major Theme, and Structure}}

[[Eusebius]], in his book ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Church History]]'', quotes [[Origen of Alexandria]] who says the title of the work was {{transliteration|grc|Sarbēth Sabanaiel}},<ref group="note">{{langx|grc|Σαρβηθσαβαναιελ|translit=Sarbēthsabanaiel}}.  Variants include {{lang|grc|Σαρβηθ Σα[ρ]βαναι ελ}}, {{transliteration|grc|Sarbēth Sa[r]banai El}}, and {{lang|grc|Σαρβηθ Σα[ρ]βανέελ}}, {{transliteration|grc|Sarbēth Sa[r]baneel}}</ref> an enigmatic Greek transliteration from a putative Hebrew original title.<ref>{{cite book |last=Eusebius |author-link=Eusebius |translator-last=Deferrari |translator-first=Roy J. |date=1955 |orig-date=4th century |title=[[Church History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]] |chapter=Book 6, Chapter 25 |series=The Fathers of the Church |volume=29 |location=New York |publisher=Fathers of the Church, Inc. |page=48 |isbn= |quote=And besides these [books] there are the Maccabees, which are entitled {{transliteration|grc|Sarbēth Sabanaiel}}.}}</ref><ref>See: Darshan, Guy, [https://www.academia.edu/40447785/The_Original_Language_of_1_Maccabees_A_Reexamination_BN_NF_182_2019_91_110 "The Original Language of 1 Maccabees: A Reexamination,"] Biblische Notizen (Neue Folge) 182 (2019), 91–110, esp. 92–94.</ref> It is thought that the most likely parts are the Aramaic ''səpar'' ("book"), [[Bet (letter)|bêt]] ("house" or "dynasty"), and [[El (deity)|'ēl]] ("God").{{sfn|Schwartz|2022|loc=Title, Major Theme, and Structure}}  Various reconstructions have been proposed for the overall phrase:

*''Book of the Prince of the House of Israel'', from the Hebrew {{lang|he|שַׂר בֵּית יִשְׂרָאֵל}}, {{transliteration|he|Sar Beit-Yisra'el}}, or "Book of the Prince of the House of God" {{lang|he|שַׂר בֵּית אֵל}}, {{transliteration|he|Sar Beit-El}}.
*''Book of the House of the Princes of God'',<ref>''The Interpreter's dictionary of the Bible'', by William H. Brownlee (New York: Abingdon Press, 1962), III, 203.</ref>
*''The Book of the Dynasty of God's Resisters'' (in the sense of "those who resist on God's behalf"),{{sfn|Goldstein|1976|pp=414-415}} perhaps from {{lang|he|סֵפֶר בֵּית סָרְבָנֵי אֵל}}, {{transliteration|he|Sefer Beit Sarevanei El}} ("Book of the House who strive for God").
* ''The Book of the House of the Hasmoneans'' (or simply ''The Book of the Hasmoneans'')<ref>[[Gustaf Dalman]], [https://archive.org/details/grammatikdesjd00dalmuoft ''Grammatik des Jüdisch-Palästinischen Aramäisch''], section 6</ref>{{sfn|Tedesche|Zeitlin|1950|pp=48-49}}
<!-- *''History of the House of the Warriors'',<ref>''Eusebius, Bishop of Caesarea: The Ecclesiastical History and The Martyrs of Palestine'', translated by J. E. L. Oulton and  H. J. Lawlor (London: SPCK, 1927–1928); II, 74f.</ref> -->

==Language and style==
The book was probably originally written in Hebrew. Both [[Origen of Alexandria|Origen]] and [[Jerome]] claim to have seen a Hebrew text of 1 Maccabees. The surviving Greek script has Hebraisms and Hebrew idioms. It also seems to have been written in Judea where knowledge of Hebrew was more widespread.  If it really was originally written in Greek, then the author was intentionally imitating Hebrew style in Greek.{{sfn|Mendels|2021|loc=Introduction}}  The book is not written in colloquial "common" [[Koine Greek]] of the 2nd century BC, but rather a more archaic style of Greek consciously imitative of the style of older scriptures. It frequently imitates biblical phraseology and directly cites biblical precedents.{{sfn|Bartlett|1998|p=19}}{{sfn|Rappaport|2001|loc=Historiography}}{{sfn|Tedesche|Zeitlin|1950|pp=33-34}} The English equivalent would be writing new books in the style of the [[King James Version]] of the Bible. It also uses anachronistic terms at times to make explicit parallels between the exploits of the Hasmoneans and earlier Jewish heroes; for example, it refers to the coastal region of Palestine as the land of the [[Philistines]], although the Philistines were no longer a relevant cultural grouping in the era.{{sfn|Rappaport|2001|loc=Historiography}}

The book is generally classed as a [[historical books|historical book]] of the Bible. While the main focus is a recounting of history, some consider the book to have merit as literary art as well.{{sfn|Williams|1999|p=137}} The narrative is primarily [[prose]] text, but is interrupted by seven poetic sections, which imitate classical Hebrew poetry. These include four laments and three hymns of praise.<ref>{{Cite web |title=1 Maccabees, the first book of Maccabees |url=https://bible.usccb.org/bible/1maccabees/0 |access-date=2022-11-02 |website=bible.usccb.org |language=en}}</ref> Various historical documents are included as well, notably of negotiations and letters with the [[Roman Republic]] and [[History of Sparta#Roman Sparta|Hellenistic Sparta]].{{sfn|Mendels|2021|loc=Introduction}}

==Contents==
===Structure===
The vast majority of scholars and bible translations divide the book into four or five sections by the leader of the rebellion:<ref>{{harvnb|Williams|1999|pp=3–4; 128}}  Williams himself suggests a different structure, but he acknowledges that sectioning by the leader of the Maccabees is the consensus view.</ref>
#Chapters 1–2: Introduction{{refn|group=note|The Introduction is sometimes split into Chapter 1, Introduction, and Chapter 2, Mattathias.<ref>Jerusalem Bible (1966), ''The First Book of Maccabees''</ref>{{sfn|Schwartz|2022|loc=Title, Major Theme, and Structure}}}}
#3:1 to 9:22: The leadership of Judas Maccabeus
#9:23 to 12:53: The leadership of Jonathan Apphus
#Chapters 13–16: The leadership of Simon Thassi

===Synopsis===
{{see also|Maccabean Revolt}}
The setting of the book is about a century and a half after the conquest of [[Judea]] by the Greeks under [[Alexander the Great]], after Alexander's empire had been divided so that Judea had become part of the Greek [[Seleucid Empire]]. It tells how the Greek ruler [[Antiochus IV Epiphanes]] attempted to suppress the practice of basic [[Halakha|Jewish law]], resulting in the Maccabean Revolt. The book covers the whole of the revolt, from 175 to 134 BC, highlighting how the salvation of the Jewish people in this crisis came through Mattathias' family, particularly his sons, Judas Maccabeus, [[Jonathan Apphus]], and [[Simon Thassi]], and Simon's son, [[John Hyrcanus]]. The doctrine expressed in the book reflects traditional Jewish teaching, without later doctrines found, for example, in [[2 Maccabees]]. The First Book of Maccabees also gives a list of Jewish colonies scattered elsewhere through the [[Mediterranean]] at the time.<ref>[[Paul Johnson (writer)|Johnson, P.]], ''A History of the Jews'', pp. 170–71.</ref>

In the first chapter, Alexander the Great conquers the territory of Judea, and is later succeeded by the Seleucid Antiochus IV Epiphanes. After successfully invading the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] of Egypt, Antiochus IV captures [[Jerusalem]] and removes the sacred objects from the [[Temple in Jerusalem]], slaughtering many Jews. He then imposes a tax and establishes a fortress in Jerusalem.

Antiochus then tries to suppress public observance of Jewish laws, in an attempt to secure control over the Jews. In 168 BC, he desecrates the [[Second Temple|Temple]] by setting up an "[[abomination of desolation]]" (establishing rites of [[Paganism|pagan]] observance in the Temple, or sacrificing an unclean animal on the altar in the [[Holy of Holies]]). Antiochus forbids both [[Circumcision in the Bible|circumcision]] and possession of Jewish scriptures on pain of death. He forbids observance of the [[Shabbat|sabbath]] and the offering of sacrifices at the Temple. He also requires Jewish leaders to sacrifice to idols. While enforcement may be targeting only Jewish leaders, ordinary Jews were also killed as a warning to others.

[[Hellenization]] included the construction of [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasia]] in Jerusalem. Among other effects, this discouraged the [[Brit milah|Jewish rite of circumcision]] even further, which had already been officially forbidden; a man's state could not be concealed in the gymnasium, where men trained and socialized in the nude. However, 1 Maccabees also insists that there were many Jews who sought out or welcomed the introduction of [[Culture of Greece|Greek culture]]. According to the text, some Jewish men even engaged in [[foreskin restoration]] in order to pass as fully Greek.

The narrative reports that news of the desolation reaches Mattathias and his five sons, a [[Kohen|priestly]] family who live in [[Modi'in-Maccabim-Re'ut#Antiquity|Modein]].<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Maccabees|2:1-6|NABRE}}</ref> Mattathias calls upon people loyal to the traditions of Israel to oppose the invaders and the Jewish Hellenizers, and his sons begin a military campaign against them. There is one complete loss of a thousand Jews (men, women, and children) to Antiochus when the Jewish defenders refuse to fight on the [[Shabbat|Sabbath]]. The other Jews then reason that, when attacked, they must fight even on the holy day. In 165 BC the Temple is freed and reconsecrated, so that ritual sacrifices may begin again. The festival of [[Hanukkah]] is instituted by Judas Maccabeus and his brothers to celebrate this event (1 Maccabees 4:59).

More wars involving Judas and his brothers Simon and Jonathan are reported in chapters 5, 6 and 7. Chapter 6 reports the last days of Antiochus Epiphanes and the accession of his young son [[Antiochus V Eupator]] to the throne.{{sfn|Rappaport|2001|loc=More Wars of Judas (chs. 6–7)}}

In chapter 8, Judas seeks an alliance with the [[Roman Republic]], aiming to remove the Greeks.<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Maccabees|8:17-18|NRSV}}</ref> Verses 23–32 record an [[Defense pact|agreement]] between Rome and the nation of the Jews, whereby each party would act as a willing ally of the other and refuse to supply their enemies in time of war, specific warning being given to [[Demetrius I Soter]] that this pact would be activated against him if requested by the Jews.<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Maccabees|8:23-32|NRSV}}</ref> Jewish historian [[Uriel Rappaport]] asserts that "the majority of scholars today accept the authenticity of this document".{{sfn|Rappaport|2001|loc=Rome and the Treaty between Rome and the Jews (ch. 8)}}

After the death of Judas and a period of lawlessness,<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Maccabees|9:23-27|NRSV}}</ref> he is succeeded by his brother [[Jonathan Apphus]], whose battles with the Greek general [[Bacchides (general)|Bacchides]] are recounted in chapter 9. Jonathan becomes high priest (1 Maccabees 10:20). Demetrius' death is reported in 1 Maccabees 10:50, and [[Ptolemy VI Philometor]] and [[Alexander Balas]], claimant to the Seleucid throne, enter into an agreement under which Alexander marries [[Cleopatra Thea]], Ptolemy's daughter (1 Maccabees 10:58). The relationship between Jonathan and Demetrius' son and successor, [[Demetrius II Nicator]], is covered in chapter 11: Jonathan provides military support to Demetrius at the latter's request (verse 44), and a successful engagement against a popular revolt at [[Antioch]] enables the Jews to "gain glory in the sight of the king" (verse 51). Maccabees does not mention the involvement of the [[mercenaries]] who are mentioned in other accounts, whereas other accounts do not mention the Jewish involvement.{{sfn|Rappaport|2001|loc=Jonathan, High Priest and Ruler of Judea (10:18–12:53)}} Ultimately the relationship between Jonathan and Demetrius breaks down: Maccabees' opinion is that Demetrius "broke his word about all that he had promised; he became estranged from Jonathan and did not repay the favors that Jonathan had done him, but treated him very harshly".<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Maccabees|11:53|NRVS}}</ref>

Proposed alliances with Rome and with [[Areus I|Areus]] of [[Sparta]] are covered in 1 Maccabees 12:1–23. Jonathan's capture in 143 BC, having been [[Double cross (betrayal)|double-crossed]] by Diodotus Tryphon, is recorded in 1 Maccabees 12:48. Simon follows Jonathan as the next Jewish leader "in place of Judas and your brother Jonathan",<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Maccabees|13:8|NRSV}}</ref> taking on civil, military and liturgical roles: "great high priest, governor, and leader of the Jews".<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Maccabees|13:42|NABRE}}: NABRE</ref> Simon fortifies Jerusalem (1 Maccabees 13:10) and secures the reoccupation of [[Jaffa|Joppa]] (1 Maccabees 13:11), leading the people in peace and prosperity until he is murdered by agents of [[Ptolemy son of Abubus|Ptolemy]], son of [[Abubus]], who had been named governor of the region by the Macedonian Greeks. The period of peace and prosperity is celebrated in a biblical-style poetic passage, the "Eulogy of Simon",<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Maccabees|14:4-15|NRSV}}</ref> which Rappaport considers to be "one of the most important poetic passages in 1 Maccabees".{{sfn|Rappaport|2001|loc=Simon's Rule (13:1–16:24)}}

Simon is succeeded by his son, John, referred to by [[Josephus]] as [[John Hyrcanus]].

==As dynastic history==
The author propagates "Hasmonean propaganda" in the sense of upholding the righteousness of the Hasmoneans and their just claim to rule the Hasmonean kingdom. The Hasmoneans were not an obvious choice to be rulers; they did not descend from the priestly line of [[Zadok]] that had taken the office of High Priest for generations at the point of the Maccabean Revolt. The author seeks to promote the view that the Hasmoneans were indeed God's new chosen and would-be rulers in line with heroes of the [[Hebrew Bible]].{{sfn|Harrington|2012|loc=The First Book of Maccabees: First Maccabees}} Various passages call back to Biblical passages such as [[Joshua's conquests]] or the [[David and Goliath|battle of David and Goliath]] and equate the Hasmoneans' deeds with the earlier stories. Antipathy toward the Seleucid-friendly Hellenizing Jews is unsurprising, as they were enemies in war, but 1 Maccabees extends criticism to internal Jewish opponents of the Hasmoneans as well. In 1 Maccabees, those dissatisfied with the Hasmoneans "hated their nation"<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Maccabees|11:21}}</ref> as a whole; the Hasmoneans were equated with Judea itself.<ref name="bickerman" >{{cite book |last=Bickerman |first=Elias |author-link=Elias Joseph Bickerman |translator-last1=Moehring |translator-first1=Horst R. |date=1979 |orig-date=1937 |title=The God of the Maccabees: Studies on the Meaning and Origin of the Maccabean Revolt |location=Leiden |publisher=E. J. Brill |page=16&ndash;21 |isbn=90-04-05947-4}}</ref> Jews who complain about Judas's activities "bring to the king an accusation against the people".<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Maccabees|7:6}}</ref> The book dismisses a defeat suffered by other commanders named Joseph and Azariah as because "they did not listen to Judas and his brothers. But they did not belong to the family of those men through whom deliverance was given to Israel."<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Maccabees|5:60-5:62}}</ref>{{sfn|Harrington|2009|pp=36-56}}{{sfn|Williams|1999|p=102}} All of this makes clear that God has specifically chosen a new dynasty to rule Judea, the Hasmoneans.{{sfn|Harrington|2009|pp=36-56}}

While the book holds all the Hasmoneans in high regard, it praises [[Simon Thassi]] in particular, the person who would pass the High Priesthood to his sons and establish the dynasty.  In Chapter 2, there is a line from a dying Mattathias who tells his sons to always listen to Simon and that "he shall be your father", seemingly praising him even over Judas.  Chapter 14 also features a long [[panegyric]] praising Simon as a worthy leader.{{sfn|Schwartz|2022|loc=Title, Major Theme, and Structure}}

==Theology==
The school of philosophy seen in 1 Maccabees is often thought to be a predecessor to the philosophy of the [[Sadducees]] in later eras.{{sfn|Bartlett|1998|pp=31–33}}<ref name="dentan" /> Notably, the author makes no reference to the idea of a bodily [[resurrection]], which the Sadducees opposed.{{sfn|Bartlett|1998|pp=31–33}} That said, our knowledge of the Sadducees is scant, so it is difficult to know for sure. The book also comes across as dismissive of [[martyrdom]] and passive approaches to resistance, seeing such gestures as futile and pointless.{{sfn|Bartlett|1998|pp=31–33}}  Some scholars go even farther than dismissive; Jonathan Goldstein writes that the author has "considerable contempt for martyrs".{{sfn|Goldstein|1976|p=226}}  For the author, bold military action while living is the proper response to oppression.{{sfn|Schwartz|2022|loc=The Rebels Overcome Religious Restraints (2:29-41)}}

The author sees the revolt as divinely ordained, but downplays direct divine intervention such as miracles.{{sfn|Harrington|2009|pp=36-56}} Rather, the author interprets events as God using the military genius of Judas Maccabeus and his brothers as the instrument to achieve the liberation of Judea.  One of the most notable and unusual aspects of the book of 1 Maccabees by absence is the lack of any direct mention of God.  Rather, the book refers to "heaven" (''[[:wikt:Οὐρανός|ouranós]]'') instead, such as Judas saying in a speech that "It is not on the size of the army that victory in battle depends, but strength comes from Heaven."<ref>{{bibleverse|1|Maccabees|3:18|NRSV}}</ref>{{sfn|Bartlett|1998|p=30}}  Even if "heaven" is merely shorthand for "God in heaven", 1 Maccabees is remarkably secular in its depiction of the conflict.{{sfn|Mendels|2021|loc=The Perception of God}}  No angels or miracles come to save the Jews; rather, it is the divinely-approved firm leadership of the Hasmoneans that leads to victory.{{sfn|Rappaport|2001|loc=The Author's Views}}

The book [[2 Maccabees]], preserved right next to 1 Maccabees in the Septuagint, provides a striking contrast in theology, and the works are often compared.<ref name="dentan">{{cite book |last=Dentan |first=Robert C. |author-link= |date=1954 |title=The Apocrypha, Bridge of the Testaments |url=http://www.coptics.info/Books/Robert_C._Dentan_The_Apocrypha,_Bridge_of_the_Testaments.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240113191459/http://www.coptics.info/Books/Robert_C._Dentan_The_Apocrypha,_Bridge_of_the_Testaments.PDF |url-status=usurped |archive-date=January 13, 2024 |location= |publisher= |pages=28–32 |oclc=1043967734}}</ref>  2 Maccabees interprets the misfortunes of the Jews as God's punishment for their own sins; the author of 1 Maccabees depicts the problems as due to the external evil of Antiochus IV and his generals, not as a cleansing ordeal that was in some sense divine will.

The book draws a sharp contrast between Jews and Gentiles, similar to the books of [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]] and [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]].  The persecution of Antiochus IV presumably radicalized the Jews. That said, the author is still proud of forging alliances with others, citing negotiations with the Roman Republic and Sparta.  Uriel Rappaport calls it emblematic of Hasmonean politics in general: that the Hasmonean state was an explicitly Jewish one that sought to separate itself from polytheism, yet was pragmatic and sought allies where they could be found.{{sfn|Rappaport|2001|loc=The Author's Views}}

==Reliability as history==
1 Maccabees is the most extensive source of information on events in Judea from 175 to 135 BC.  It has traditionally been considered highly trustworthy, although it is to some extent the "official" version of history according to the Hasmoneans and from the Maccabean point of view.{{sfn|Grabbe|2020|pp=80–83}}  [[Bezalel Bar-Kochva]] praises it as among the better military historiography of the period.{{sfn|Bar-Kochva|1989|p=153}}  He argues that the author was likely an eyewitness to at least some of the battles described given his great accuracy and plausibility in describing terrain and troop movements, and was able to obtain firsthand accounts from others in interviews.{{sfn|Bar-Kochva|1989|pp=158–162}}  He also cites the fact that it makes various "admissions against interest" such as openly describing rebel military defeats, unlike 2 Maccabees which obscures or omits such matters.<!-- For example, the author cites ZZ as the location of the [[Battle of ZZZ]], despite being an unimportant hamlet, rather than the nearby [[Gibeon]], a location mentioned in Hebrew Scriptures as the site of XYZ.

Although Seth Schwartz has argued against Bar-Kochva on this point.
Grabbe 315
https://www.jjs-online.net/archives/article/1577 
-->

[[Jonathan A. Goldstein]] argues that the book was imitative of older scriptures not merely in linguistic style, but also in content; that is, the author adjusted or invented events to make them fit Biblical parallels better.{{sfn|Goldstein|1976|pp=6–8, 73, 268}}

== Canonicity ==
[[Pope Damasus I]]'s [[Council of Rome]] in 382, if the [[Gelasian Decree]] is correctly associated with it, issued a biblical canon identical with the list given at Trent including the two books of Maccabees. [[Origen of Alexandria]] (253),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Eusebius|first1=of Caesarea|title=Ecclesiastical History Book 6 Chapter 25:1–2|publisher=newadvent|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250106.htm|access-date=12 October 2016}}</ref> [[Augustine of Hippo]] ({{circa|397&nbsp;AD}}),<ref>{{cite book|author=Augustine of Hippo |title=On Christian Doctrine Book II Chapter 8:2|publisher=newadvent|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/12022.htm|access-date=12 October 2016}}</ref> [[Pope Innocent I]] (405),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Westcott|first1=Brooke Foss|title=A general survey of the history of the canon of the New Testament |date=2005|publisher=Wipf & Stock|page=570|location=Eugene, OR|isbn=1597522392|edition=6th}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Letter from Innocent I to Exsuperius, bishop of Toulouse. |url=http://www.bible-researcher.com/innocent.html}}</ref> [[Synod of Hippo]] (393),<ref>{{citation |chapter-url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.xv.iv.iv.xxv.html |chapter=Canon XXIV. (Greek xxvii.) |publisher=Christian Classics Ethereal Library |title=The Canons of the 217 Blessed Fathers who assembled at Carthage}}</ref> the [[Councils of Carthage|Council of Carthage (397)]],<ref>B. F. Westcott, ''A General Survey of the History of the Canon of the New Testament'' (5th ed. Edinburgh, 1881), pp. 440, 541–542.</ref> the Council of Carthage (419),<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3816.htm Council of Carthage (419) Canon 24]</ref> the [[Apostolic Canons]],<ref>{{cite book|last1=in Trullo|first1=Council|title=The Apostolic Canons. Canon 85|publisher=newadvent|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3820.htm|access-date=12 October 2016}}</ref> [[the Council of Florence]] (1442)<ref>Council of Florence, [https://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/FLORENCE.HTM Session 11–4 February 1442] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220115924/https://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/FLORENCE.HTM |date=20 February 2016 }}</ref> and the [[Council of Trent]] (1546)<ref>Council of Trent, [http://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/TRENT4.htm Session IV Celebrated on the eighth day of April, 1546 under Pope Paul III] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150323195835/http://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/TRENT4.htm |date=2015-03-23 }}</ref> listed the first two books of Maccabees as canonical.

During the [[Protestant Reformation]], the book (along with other books in the Catholic deuterocanon) was classed as [[biblical apocrypha]] in Protestantism, material useful for background but not canonical.  The 1643 [[Westminster Confession of Faith|Westminster Confession]] says that the books "are of no authority in the Church of God, not to be any otherwise approved", for example.{{sfn|Bartlett|1998|p=14}}

The book was never included in the [[Hebrew Bible]] or Tanakh and is not canonical in Judaism.  Later Jewish leaders thought poorly of the rule of the Hasmonean dynasty for several reasons, and a document so openly celebratory of them was problematic.  Even in stories set during the Maccabean period, references to Judas by name were explicitly removed to avoid hero-worship of the Hasmonean line.<ref>{{cite book |last=Noam |first=Vered |author-link=Vered Noam |translator-last1=Ordan |translator-first1=Dena |date=2018 |title=Shifting Images of the Hasmoneans: Second Temple Legends and Their Reception in Josephus and Rabbinic literature |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=219&ndash;221 |isbn=978-0-19-881138-1}}</ref>

==Influence==
[[File:Initial A with the Battle of the Maccabees MET DP164982.jpg|thumb|right|An illustration from a 14th-century Italian worship book depicting the Maccabees as mail-clad medieval knights.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/32832 |title=Initial A with the Battle of the Maccabees |author=<!--Not stated--> |date= |website= |publisher=Metropolitan Museum of Art |access-date=March 5, 2023}}.  See audio for details.</ref>]]
The Jewish historian [[Josephus]] of the 1st century AD almost certainly read 1 Maccabees in Greek.  He extensively uses the first thirteen chapters of it in Books 12 and 13 of his work ''[[Jewish Antiquities]]'', paraphrasing it directly in parts, although supplementing it with other Greek histories such as [[Nicolaus of Damascus]].  He may also have consulted it for Book 1 of ''[[The Jewish War]]''. It is not known whether Josephus's copy of 1 Maccabees was missing the final three chapters, or he simply found a better source for that era of history.{{sfn|Mendels|2021|loc=Introduction}}

1 Maccabees is only very rarely quoted or referenced by the [[Church Fathers]] in the era of [[early Christianity]]. When Christians of the Roman Empire discussed the Maccabees, it was usually in reference to the "[[Woman with seven sons|Maccabean martyrs]]" described in [[2 Maccabees 6]] and [[2 Maccabees 7]], as they were seen as models and precursors to [[Christian martyr]]s. As 1 Maccabees has very little to say about the martyrs, it correspondingly was not cited or read.{{sfn|Schwartz|2022|loc=First Maccabees and the Bible}}

During the [[Crusades]], [[Pope Urban II]] and other church leaders used 1 Maccabees to justify the concept of [[holy war]] against the Muslim kingdoms controlling the holy city of [[Jerusalem]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Naimark |first=Norman M. |date=2017 |title=Genocide: A World History |publication-place=New York, NY |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=21 |isbn=978-0-19-063771-2|oclc=960210099}}</ref> Admired crusaders such as [[Baldwin I of Jerusalem|Baldwin I]] and [[Godfrey of Bouillon]] were explicitly compared to Judas Maccabeus, and material from 1 Maccabees was quoted in regards to their deeds.{{sfn|Schwartz|2022|loc=First Maccabees and the Bible}}  1 Maccabees was also cited during the 11th&ndash;12th century [[Investiture Controversy]] concerning whether monarchs had the authority to appoint bishops, or only the Pope. 1 Maccabees includes passages describing the appointment of Jonathan and Simon by Seleucid authorities, so it was generally cited by the side of those who favored royal appointment of bishops.{{sfn|Schwartz|2022|loc=First Maccabees and the Bible}}

==Liturgical usage==
The Roman Catholic [[Lectionary]] makes use of texts from 1 Maccabees 1 to 6, along with texts from [[2 Maccabees]] 6 and 7, in the weekday readings for the 33rd week in [[Ordinary Time]], in year 1 of the two-year cycle of readings, always in November, and as one of the options available for readings for the [[Dedication (ritual)|dedication of an altar]] and as one of the suggested readings at a [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] celebrated to honour [[persecuted Christians]].<ref>Roman Missal, Lectionary, Revised Edition approved for use in the dioceses of England and Wales, Scotland, Ireland, published by Collins, Geoffrey Chapman and Veritas, 1981, 1982, volumes 2 and 3</ref>

1 Maccabees is part of the intertestamental Apocrypha section of the Bible used in the [[Lutheranism|Lutheran Churches]] and the [[Anglican Communion]].<ref name="LutherFüssel">{{cite book |last1=Luther |first1=Martin |last2=Füssel |first2=Stephan |title=Bible de Luther de 1534, Réimpression Intégral |date=1534 |publisher=Taschen |isbn=978-3-8228-2470-2 |language=en|page=41}}</ref> [[Lection|Scripture readings]] from the Apocrypha are included in the [[lectionary|lectionaries]] of the Lutheran Churches.<ref>{{cite book|title=Readings from the Apocrypha|year=1981|publisher=Forward Movement Publications|page=5}}</ref> With regard to Anglicanism, in the [[Church of England]]'s [[lectionary]] of 1922 in the ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'', 1st Maccabees is appointed annually to be read in late summer/early autumn.

The texts regarding the martyrdoms under Antiochus IV in 1 Maccabees and [[2 Maccabees]] are read by [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist Christians]], who faced persecution in their history.<ref name="deSilva2018">{{cite book |author-last1=deSilva |author-first1=David A. |title=Introducing the Apocrypha: Message, Context, and Significance |date=20 February 2018 |publisher=Baker Books |isbn=978-1-4934-1307-2 |language=English}}</ref>

==Manuscripts and publication history==
As noted above, if ancient manuscripts of the hypothesized original Hebrew version existed, they have been lost.  The Greek text is extant in two of the three oldest codices of the Greek [[Septuagint]]: the [[Codex Sinaiticus]] and [[Codex Alexandrinus]].  It is not in the [[Codex Vaticanus]].  Pre-modern translations of the work were made in [[Latin]], [[Syriac language|Syriac]], and [[Armenian language|Armenian]]. The Latin translation is sometimes useful to identify certain changes made by [[Lucian of Antioch]] to the Greek text.{{sfn|Bartlett|1998|pp=15-16}}<ref name="kappler" />

With the advent of the [[printing press]] that obviated the need for scribes to manually and repeatedly copy such works, 1 Maccabees became more widely available.  It was included in standard printed Christian Bibles in the deuterocanon section.  A Greek version of the text was printed for the first time in 1514–1517 in the [[Complutensian Polyglot Bible]].  {{ill|Werner Kappler|de}} published a [[critical edition]] of the Greek text in 1936, an eclectic compilation of the various surviving manuscripts and the best construction of the original text.<ref name="kappler">{{cite book |last1=Kappler |first1=Werner |author-link=Werner Kappler |date=1936 |title=Septuaginta: Vetus Testamentum Graecum. Maccabaeorum liber I |volume=9, fasc. 1 |location=Goettingen |publisher=Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht |pages= |language=de}}</ref>

More recent English language versions of the Bible which contain 1 Maccabees include the [[New Revised Standard Version]] (NRSV), [[Good News Translation]] (GNT), [[New American Bible, Revised Edition]] (NABRE),<ref>{{Cite web |title=1 Maccabees 1:1 – Bible Gateway |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/verse/en/1%20Maccabees%201%3A1 |access-date=2022-11-02 |website=[[BibleGateway.com]] |language=en}}</ref> and the [[Knox Bible]].<ref>Catholic Bible Online, [http://catholicbible.online/side_by_side/OT/1_Mac The First Book of Machabees — Liber I Machabæorum], [[Baronius Press]], published 2016, accessed 26 December 2020</ref>

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |last=Bar-Kochva |first=Bezalel |author-link=Bezalel Bar-Kochva |date=1989 |title=Judas Maccabaeus: The Jewish Struggle Against the Seleucids |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0521323525 }}
* {{cite book |last=Bartlett |first=John R. |date=1998 |title=1 Maccabees |publisher=Sheffield Academic Press |location=Sheffield, UK |isbn=}}
* {{cite book |last=Goldstein |first=Jonathan A. |author-link=Jonathan A. Goldstein |date=1976 |title=I Maccabees: A New Translation, with Introduction and Commentary |location=Garden City, NY |publisher=Doubleday |series=[[The Anchor Bible Series]] |volume=41 |isbn=0-385-08533-8 }}
* {{cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L.  |authorlink=Lester L. Grabbe |date=2020 |title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: The Maccabean Revolt, Hasmonaean Rule, and Herod the Great (174&ndash;4 BCE) |location= |publisher=T&T Clark |volume=95 |series=Library of Second Temple Studies |isbn=978-0-5676-9294-8}}
* {{cite book |last=Harrington |first=Daniel J. |author-link=Daniel J. Harrington |date=2009 |orig-date=1988 |title=The Maccabean Revolt: Anatomy of a Biblical Revolution |location=Eugene, Oregon |publisher=Wipf and Stock |isbn=978-1-60899-113-6}}
* {{cite book  |last=Harrington |first=Daniel J. |author-link=Daniel J. Harrington |date=2012 |title=First and Second Maccabees  |location=Collegeville, Minnesota |publisher=Liturgical Press |page= |isbn=978-0-8146-2846-1}}
* {{cite book |last=Mendels  |first=Doron |author-link=Doron Mendels |date=2021 |editor-last=Oegema |editor-first=Gerbern S. |title=The Oxford Handbook of the Apocrypha |chapter=1 Maccabees |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=150–168|isbn=9780190689667 |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190689643.013.9 |chapter-url=https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/33426/chapter/290245320}}
* {{cite book|last=Rappaport | first=Uriel |author-link = Uriel Rappaport | chapter = 1 Maccabees | title=The Oxford Bible Commentary | editor-first1=John| editor-last1=Barton |editor-link=John Barton (theologian) | editor-first2=John| editor-last2= Muddiman |editor2-link=John Muddiman | publisher = Oxford University Press |edition=Online | date = 2001 | pages = | isbn = 9780191979897 | chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780198755005.001.0001/acref-9780198755005-chapter-51 }}
* {{cite book |last=Schwartz |first=Daniel R.  |author-link=Daniel R. Schwartz  |date=2022 |title=1 Maccabees: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary  |location=New Haven & London |publisher=Yale University Press |series=The [[Anchor Bible Series|Anchor Yale Bible]] |volume=41B |isbn=978-0-300-15993-6 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv2t5xh30}}
* {{cite book |last1=Tedesche |first1=Sidney |first2=Solomon |last2=Zeitlin |author2-link=Solomon Zeitlin |date=1950 |title=The First Book of Maccabees |location=New York |publisher=Harper & Brothers |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=wu.89070989181  }}
* {{cite book |last=Williams |first=David S. |title=The Structure of 1 Maccabees |date=1999 |publisher=Catholic Biblical Association of America |location=Washington, DC |series=The Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series 31 |isbn=0-915170-30-2}}
<!--
*Borchardt, Francis. 2014. ''The Torah in 1 Maccabees: A Literary Critical Approach to the Text.'' Boston: Walter de Gruyter.
*Lanzinger, Daniel. 2015. "Alcimus' Last Command: History and Propaganda in 1 Maccabees 9:54." ''Journal for the Study of Judaism'' 46, no. 1: 86–102.  -->

==External links==
{{Wikisource|1 Maccabees}}
{{wikiquote}}
* NRSV text of 1 Maccabees: {{bibleverse|1|Maccabees|1:1-6:63|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse|1|Maccabees|7:1-12:53|NRSV}}, {{bibleverse|1|Maccabees|13:1-16:24|NRSV}}
* [http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/1maccabees.html Links & information on 1 Maccabees] at Early Jewish Writings
* {{librivox book | title=1 Maccabees}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou | [[Deuterocanonical books|Deuterocanon]] / [[Biblical apocrypha|Apocrypha]]|||}}
{{S-bef | before = [[Book of Esther|Esther]] | rows= 2}}
{{S-ttl | title  = [[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] Old Testament }}
{{S-aft | after  = [[2 Maccabees]] | rows = 2 }}
{{S-ttl | title  = [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] Old Testament}}
{{s-end}}
{{Jewish Apocrypha}}{{Books of the Bible}}
{{Hanukkah Footer}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Maccabees, 1}}
[[Category:2nd-century BC books]]
[[Category:Ancient Hebrew texts]]
[[Category:Texts in Koine Greek]]
[[Category:Books of the Maccabees|1]]
[[Category:Deuterocanonical books]]
[[Category:Hanukkah]]
[[Category:Hasmonean dynasty]]
[[Category:Maccabees]]
[[Category:Jewish apocrypha]]